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Significant Figures For students and parents/guardians Table of Contents In the Elements Handbook, you’ll find use- ful information about the properties of the Elements Handbook . 901 main group elements from the periodic table. Hydrogen. 904 You’ll also learn about real-world applications Group 1: Alkali Metals. 906 for many of the elements. Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals . 910 The Math Handbook helps you review and Groups 3–12: Transition Elements . 916 sharpen your math skills so you get the most Group 13: Boron Group . 922 out of understanding how to solve math prob- Group 14: Carbon Group . .926 lems involving chemistry. Reviewing the rules Group 15: Nitrogen Group . 932 Group 16: Oxygen Group . .936 for mathematical operations such as scientific Group 17: Halogen Group . 940 notation, fractions, and logarithms can also Group 18: Noble Gases . .944 help you boost your test scores. The reference tables are another tool that Math Handbook . .946 will assist you. The practice problems and Scientific Notation . .946 solutions are resources that will help increase Operations with Scientific Notation . 948 your comprehension. Square and Cube Roots . 949 Significant Figures . .949 Solving Algebraic Equations. 954 Dimensional Analysis . 956 Unit Conversion . 957 Drawing Line Graphs. 959 Using Line Graphs . .961 Ratios, Fractions, and Percents. 964 Operations Involving Fractions . .965 Logarithms and Antilogarithms. 966 Reference Tables. 968 R-1 Color Key. 968 R-2 Symbols and Abbreviations. 968 R-3 Solubility Product Constants . 969 R-4 Physical Constants . .969 R-5 Names and Charges of Polyatomic Ions . 970 R-6 Ionization Constants . .970 R-7 Properties of Elements. 971 R-8 Solubility Guidelines . .974 R-9 Specific Heat Values. 975 R-10 Molal Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation Constants. 975 R-11 Heat of Formation Values . 975 Supplemental Practice Problems . .976 Solutions to Selected Practice Problems. .992 Glossary/Glosario . .1005 Index . .1031 Credits . .1051 900 Student Resources Elements Handbook Elements in Earth’s Atmosphere Argon Other 0.93% 0.04% Oxygen 20.95% Nitrogen 78.08% Elements in Earth’s Crust Iron Calcium 5.63% 4.15% Other 7.69% Aluminum 8.23% Oxygen 46.10% Silicon 28.20% Elements Dissolved in Earth’s Oceans Other Sulfur 1.50% 2.70% Calcium Magnesium 1.20% 3.90% Sodium Chlorine 32.40% 58.30% Elements Handbook 901 CORBIS Elements Handbook Table of Contents How This Handbook Is Organized The Elements Handbook is divided into 10 sections: hydrogen and groups 1, 2, 3–12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18. You will discover physical and atomic properties, common reactions, analytical tests, and real-world applications of the elements in each section. Questions at the end of each section will assess your understanding of the elements. Hydrogen . .904 Group 14: Carbon Group . .926 Group 1: Alkali Metals . .906 Group 15: Nitrogen Group . .932 Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals . .910 Group 16: Oxygen Group . .936 Groups 3–12: Transition Elements . .916 Group 17: Halogen Group . .940 Group 13: Boron Group . .922 Group 18: Noble Gases . .944 How to Use Element Boxes Each element box on the periodic table contains useful information. In the Elements Handbook, each element box has an element name, symbol, atomic number, and electron configuration. At the beginning of each section, each element box also identifies the state of matter at 25°C and 1 atm. A typical box from the handbook is shown below. Strontium Element Atomic number 38 State of matter Symbol Sr 2 [Kr]5s Electron configuration Color Key States of Matter Key Gas Metal Liquid Metalloid Solid Nonmetal Synthetic Interactive Figure To see animations of the elements, visit glencoe.com. To find links to information on the elements, visit glencoe.com. 902 Elements Handbook How to Use the Elements Handbook When you read the Elements Handbook, you need to read for information. Here are some tools that the Elements Handbook has to help you find that information. See how a group fits in Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals Element Facts the Periodic Table. Beryllium Physical Properties Atomic Properties Atomic Ionic 4 • Most of the alkaline earth metals have a silvery-white, metallic • Each element in group 2 has two valence electrons and an electron radius radius (pm) (pm) Be appearance. When exposed to oxygen, a thin oxide coating forms configuration ending with n s 2 . 2 [He]2s + on the surface. • Alkaline earth metals often lose their two valence electrons to form Be Be2 112 31 Magnesium • The alkaline earth metals are harder, denser, and stronger than many ions with a 2+ charge. + 12 of the group 1 elements, but are still relatively soft compared to other • Atomic radii and ionic radii increase moving down the group but are Mg Mg2 160 72 Mg metals. smaller than the corresponding alkali metal. 2 [Ne]3s + • Most alkaline earth metals have higher melting points and boiling • Ionization energies and electronegativities generally decrease moving Ca Ca2 points than alkali metals. 197 100 Calcium down the group but are larger than the corresponding alkali metal. Discover the Physical 20 • Moving down the group, densities generally increase. 2+ Ca Sr Sr Melting Points and Boiling Points Densities First Ionization Energies Electronegativities 215 118 [Ar]4s2 1287 900 Be Be Be Be 1.57 + Properties and Atomic 2469 1.848 Ba Ba2 Strontium 222 135 38 650 Mg Mg 1.738 Mg 738 Mg 1.31 Sr 1090 MP 2 842 BP [Kr]5s Ca Ca 1.550 Ca 590 Ca 1.00 Ra Properties of the 1484 220 777 Barium Sr Sr 2.630 Sr 550 Sr 0.95 1382 56 727 elements in a group. Ba Ba Ba 3.510 Ba 503 Ba 0.89 1870 [Xe]6s2 Ra 700 Ra 5.000 Ra 509 Ra 0.90 1737 Radium 0 0 200 400 600 800 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 88 1000 2000 3000 0 1 2 3 4 5 Ra Temperature (ºC) g/mL kJ/mol Pauling units [Rn]7s2 Common Reactions • Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with oxygen to Analytical Tests form oxides, such as magnesium oxide. • Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with Three of the alkaline earth metals can be Summarize Common halogens to form salts, such as Example: 2Mg(s) + O 2 ( g ) → 2MgO(s) identified by flame tests. Calcium produces a magnesium chloride, and • Sr and Ba react with oxygen to form scarlet color, while strontium produces a crimson hydrogen gas. peroxides, such as strontium peroxide. color. Barium, which if present in a sample can mask the colors of both calcium and strontium, Example: Mg(s) + 2 H C l ( g ) → Example: Sr(s) + O 2 ( g ) → S r O 2 ( s ) Reactions for the produces a yellow-green color. MgC l2 (s) + H2 (g) • Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with water to form • Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with bases, such as barium hydroxide, and elements within a group. hydrogen to form hydrides, hydrogen gas. such as barium hydride. Example: Ba(s) + 2 H 2 O(l) → Example: Ba(s) + H 2 ( g ) → Ba(OH )2 (aq) + H2 (g) Ba H2 (s) • Be, Mg, Sr, and Ca react with nitrogen to form nitrides, such as magnesium nitride. Example: 3Mg(s) + N 2 ( g ) → M g3 N2 (s) A ribbon of magnesium reacts with HCl in an Barium reacts with water to Calcium Strontium Barium Identify elements by aqueous solution to produce M g 2+ ions, C l - form B a 2+ ions, O H - ions, ions, and hydrogen gas. and hydrogen gas. Analytical Tests. 910 Elements Handbook Elements Handbook 911 Source: Elements Handbook, p. 910–911 Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals Real-World Applications Learn how elements are Gypsum Calcium Radium used every day in Real- 20 Drywall is made from gypsum, which is a soft 88 Ca mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate Ra [Ar]4s2 (CaS O ·2 H O). Drywall boards are used in build- [Rn]7s2 A layer of plaster of paris protects 4 2 World Applications. fossils during shipment. ing construction because the gypsum provides fire protection. Gypsum contains large amounts of water in its crystal form, which vaporizes when The Discovery of Radioactivity heated. The boards remain at 100°C until all of the Marie Curie’s discovery of the atomic property she called water evaporates, protecting the wood frame of the radioactivity paved the way for present-day advancements building. Gypsum that has had most of its water in science and medicine. Curie and her husband, Pierre, removed is known as plaster of paris. Most unveiled the characteristics and capabilities of radiation, minerals form pastes when mixed with water. revolutionizing scientific thinking and laying the ground- When plaster of paris is mixed with water, it forms work for present-day cancer treatments, genetics, and a rigid crystal structure, so it is often used for casts nuclear energy. Today, many cancers are treated with to set broken bones and for molds. radiation therapy. Marie Curie died at the age of 67 from aplastic anemia, probably caused by her exposure to massive amounts of radiation. Today, the effects of radiation on health Crystals formed from strontium chloride Toothpaste containing are well known, and suitable safety precautions are Strontium and saliva fill in pores in the root of a strontium chloride Vent pipe taken when using radioactive materials. 38 tooth and block access to the nerve. Sr Crystals Fan Nerve [Kr]5s2 Pore to root canal and nerves Radon Gas Sensitive Teeth Dentine Decay of radium-226 in soil and rock produces radon gas. Almost 40 million people in the United States Root canal The radioactive radon gas can seep through cracks in a home’s have teeth that are hypersensitive to touch and Root foundation or can be dissolved in water pumped into the house temperature.
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