Kata Bohus History 2013

CEU eTD Collection

in Partial Fulfilmentin Partial oftheRequirements Doctor DegreePhilosophy for the of THE HUNGARIAN Presented ofthe University totheFaculties Central European CO Dissertation Supervisor: Dr. KovácsAndrás MPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE (1956 JEWS, ISRAELITES,JEWS, ZIONISTS

STATE’S POLICIES STATE’S A DISSERTATION Budapest, Hungary Kata Bohus History 2013. in

JEWISH ISSUES JEWISH

- 1968

)

IN A

CEU eTD Collection by another person unless otherwiseby unlessnoted. person another published and/or written previously materials no and institutions other any in degrees ac materials no contains dissertation this that declare hereby I theAuthor.the written permission of without made be not may instructions such with accordance in made copies Further obtained Library. University European Central the in lodged and Author the by given instructions the with accordance in only made be may part, or full in either Copy ri ght rm h lbain T librarian. the from

in the text of this dissertation rests with the Author. Copies by any process, any by Copies Author. the with rests dissertation this of text the in i pg ms fr a at f n sc cpe made. copies such any of part a form must page his

cepted for any other other any for cepted

D tis a b may etails e CEU eTD Collection powerfullyafter the1989. resurfaced systemic change in which of both identity, Jewish Hungarian distinct a also but antisemitism, of survival or time one at considered, were who those of discrimination systematic not but repeated, the in resulted situation state. Party the by set framework political the through filtered non and es Jewish the between before Hungarians existed had that tensions various consequence, personal the understan matters, religious of realm the in affairs Jewish liberalization. to orthodoxy from trajectory Kádárregi d policies Jewish that argues dissertation The Israel.state of community, are that areas topical main The emerged. Question’ ‘Jewish the context what in and why explains and state decision political of loci main the on focuses dissertation The way oftotalitarianauthoritarian characteristics. or political post the of examination Israel of state the and origin Jewish of individuals (1968). Czechoslovakia and 1968) (1956, Poland (1956), Hungary in crises national of wake wave emigration Jewish large mark that dates countries socialist European issues Jewish regarding policies investigates dissertation The Abstract

community, Jewish Hungarian the to relating policies of topic complex The oes f omns, hc am o describe to aim which communism, of models

ding of Jewishness of ding me

various forms and manifestations of antisemitism, and antisemitism, of manifestations and forms various ’s first decade ’s

n group and - icse ae oiis eaig o h Hnain Jewish Hungarian the to relating policies are discussed work. at state Party Stalinist tablishmen interests , which another, Jewish. Jewish. another, .

early through an institutional power structure power institutional an through t olw sae polici state follows It uig cmaaie rmwr o ohr Eastern other of framework comparative a using ,

has been described inacademichas described literature been as

Kádárism in Hungary, from the p the from Hungary, in Kádárism f h pltcl lt ta oeae it operated that elite political the of o a omns rgm i 1948 in regime communist a of t 5

In the long the In id not follow the general direction of the of direction general the follow not id s from communist Eastern Europe in the the in Europe Eastern communist from s

ááim wie fiily relegating officially while Kádárism,

aiiae te aiuain of manipulation the facilitated s between es aiiae te multidimensional the facilitates It also facilitates the testing of testing the facilitates also It

run, this situation led to led situation this run, ra socialist” “real

At the same time, this time, same the At - 1956 aig n h Party the in making

relatio

oint of view of of view of oint n 1968 and that

regimes by by regimes ns with the with ns

repeatedly yielded to yielded . -

Jewish a clear clear a s a As two ,

the the the the

CEU eTD Collection are child together. raising our Jonathan Especially and father my mother, my them, to work continuous of source a been be to seemed parts next the when tocome about.impossible writing of stages difficult the all through get me to extremely His writing. and research thinking, academic more been has He studies. PhD and MA my throughout Kovács András Professor advisor, academic my from received have I and during sourcesinformation research my stay of advisors incredible were Avineri Shlomo and Laron Guy Professors Similarly, there. research my during guidance generous the and patient his that for Archives Society sure Open the not am I application. PhD successful been my have would proposal of versions initial the on remarks her University European Central at Studies Nationalism of Department the of Head topic to forever attention my locked classes Klein Wróbel attheUniversityof Toronto were helpful all incredibly their with input. Rebecca Professor Michigan, Univers Purdue of at University Peishova the at Gitelman Zvi Professor thesis. the on times and present o Department and the at Zimmermann past Susan and Karády my Viktor Professors Stráner. Katalin to and Laczó extended be should European thanks Central at colleagues Special conferences. at and private in thesis the of parts various about me to talk to time the took who professors Budapest particularly helpful,what required. frequently were beyond wouldhave been Hungarian the at Ar SocietyOpen the atTariLehel ÖrsParnicaand Robert Archives;National Simon István and Józsa, Ildikó support. continuous their for years Visegrád the and Iand patient him teacher, been without wouldnothave able tous Europe, Foundation Rothschild the Foundation. University, European wholehearted my express to like would I gratitude tosome.however, ofare Anythesis, flaws this mine and nottheirs. However, impossible. be would name Acknowledgments Last but not least, my indebtedness to my family and friends is friends and family my to indebtedness my least, not but Last that encouragement and support help, of extent the to justice do not do lines few A Miller M. Michael thank to like also would I and colleagues my of several of leads and thoughts remarks, the for owe I the throughout at worked I archives the of employees the thank to like would I inspiring an been has Budapest in Institute Cultural Israeli the at Rubinovich Roy gener the through possible made was dissertation This in help their for many so owe I

f History at CEU helped me a lot with their remarks at various points various at remarks their with lot a me helped CEU at History f

— we barely knew each other when I started my PhD, but no but PhD, my started I when other each knew barely we László

t, a Sgl t lr University, Clark at Segal Raz ity,

support

University Csősz of the Hungarian Holocaust Memorial Centre, Centre, Memorial Holocaust Hungarian the of Csősz writing this thesis that mentioning everybody by everybody mentioning that thesis this writing

without and encouragement. Therefore, I dedicate this this dedicate I Therefore, encouragement. and 6 my patient, inspiring companion, Jonathan. companion, inspiring patient, my , first and f and first , instrumental

o Jws Suis Mra . Kovács, M. Mária Studies; Jewish of s

those. I am indebted to András Mink at Mink András to indebted am I those.

in Jerusalem.

hs thought whose oremost to Maria Falina, Ferenc Falina, Maria to oremost

than anybody in forming my my forming in anybody than - the ous support of Central Central of support ous - point remarks helped helped remarks point

e Hebrew sources.Hebrew e and

- huge. They have have They huge. provoking M.A. M.A. provoking Professor Piotr Piotr Professor

chives in chives

w we we w ,

for for -

CEU eTD Collection 5. 4. 3. (1956 2. 1. Contents of Table

5.2. 5.1. 4.4. 4.3. 4.2. 4.1. 3.3. 3.2. 3.1. 2.4. 2.3. 2.2. 2.1. 1.3. 1.2. 1.1. -

1960)

4.1.2. 4.1.1. 3.2.2. 3.2.1. 3.1.2. 3.1.2 3.1.1. 2.4.2. 2.4.1. 2.3.2. 2.3.1. 2.2.2. 2.2.1. 1.2.4. 1.2.3. 1.2.2. 1.2.1 5.2.1. 5.1.2. 5.1.1. 4.3.2. 4.3.1. 4.2. 4.2.1. Ove ResearchQuestions Introduction Reactions theSix to The Six warSummer inthe East Middle The inconsistent sixties IsraelRelations with Artificially “Zionists”created enemies: De FriendsEnemies and(1960 Hungarianand policies, propagandacase theEichmann Hungarian press The executionof thepolicies andtheEichmann propaganda trialinthe line: Hungarian and bloc political decisions The Eichmann trial inforeign issues IsraelJewish policies: relations with Re Selective theintelligentsia retributions against Interpretation of theOctoberand events antisemitism The Kádár issues towards establishmentregime oftheJewish and policies Structure limitations of the dissertation, 2. - -

building control: Partyand bureaucracy

...... Stalinization and cadre consolidation: Stalinization changes

rview of literaturemethodologyrview and of ofthe dissertation

Accusations of Antisemitism: The Marosán/SzurdiAccusations case ofAntisemitism: Accusations ofAntisemitism: Failures: Zionism and theHolocaust Successes:Israel Germany West ascollaborator and attitudes during WWII Hungarian of problem the citizens”: Hungarian killed Eichmann “...that Anti DealingIsraeli withthecourt: consultationsinthe criminal bloc Bargaining Alliance IsraelitesThe ofHungarian National (NRHI) Representation Cadres Verbal the‘populists’ against attacks Incarceratingreform The under Communism State ofthe Art: Jews Interpretations ofthe Kádár regime Interpretations ofEastern European Communism Interpretations ofSoviet communism Reactions theParty in Behind thebloc the scenes:policy within diplomatic coordination diplomacyCommunist theUN regarding at the Diplomatic relations Tradeand economicrelations Foreign “Zionists” Domestic “Zionists” - Day EastMiddle efforts diplomatic andcommunist inthe War

- Zionism: a

......

– ...... -

Day inHungary War regime’s and the answers

...... the politics ofamnestypolitics the amnesia? and personal theme?

......

- ...... communists -

...... 1967)

......

...... 7

......

...... The Dögeicase ...... -

level considerations ......

......

Middle East Crisis Middle ......

......

152 151 144 137 136 135 134 128 126 125 120 117 116 112 109 107 106 104

99 95 94 90 87 85 83 77 71 66 66 59 56 56 52 4 47 41 40 37 31 26 21 14 13 11 10 9

CEU eTD Collection 8. Bibliography 7. Conclusion Spring,6. Polish Czechoslovak Fall 7.2. 7.1. 6.3. 6.2. crisis6.1. The of1968and effects Polish its Hungarian in politics 5.3.

6.2.2. 6.2.1. 6.1.2. 6.1.1. 5.3.2. 5.3.1. 5.2.3. 5.2.2. Consequences Six ofthe Local towards and Jews antisemitism ofpolicies determinants antisemitism Systemic policies towards and Jews determinants of The curiousa missing of case anti The blocreactions movement of Czechoslovak 1968and reform

Hungarian silence propaganda’s anti onPolish

...... Anti and EastPolish concerns Germanabout Czechoslovak reform Actively theusageworkinganti against of Foreign contactscommunity ofthe Hungarian Jewish IsraelRelations with Reactions public of the Hungarian Reactions community theJewish in

...... - Zionism the after invasion - Day inforeign War relations ......

...... –

Two Crises 8 - Zionist propaganda

......

...... - Zionism - Zionism

......

211 207 203 203 201 195 189 188 184 180 179 177 174 170 170 165 159

CEU eTD Collection forints) Table 4.4: Hungary’s foreignHungarianand 1966(in tradebetween million 1957 Table 3.3: CoverageEichmann(Holocaust) trial ofthe inHungarian media Table 3.2: CoverageEichmann trial ofthe in Table 3.1: CoverageEichmann(no. of trial ofthe articles) inHungarian media Tables of List ......

...... 12 9

Hungarian media (issues)Hungarian media ...... 96 ...... 100 ...... 94 7

CEU eTD Collection theory. socialist of versions implemented and societies, and regimes socialist differ highlight the well to as term use I the societies. socialist of contradictions and tendencies thenature, describe the termto expropriated language academic Brezhnevera 3 War. Cold theduring system political and government of with type communist a countries referringEuropean to 2 9). No. 1 alike. pecul national accentuate to helps which bloc the of countries other with aspect comparative asymmetrical an includes also study The 1960s. long the during Hungary communist in antisemitism and Jews towards socialism livingJews under and issues Jewish message The a firm stanceHungarian Jewry’srelationship on in socialistHungarygroup’s The strictlysupervised regime. demanded by the message ( a in appeal public a

Magyar Izraeliták Országos Képviselete Országos Izraeliták Magyar The term ‘real socialism’ originated in twentieth originated term‘real socialism’ The geograp notstrictly in a Europe” “Eastern term use I the Inthe dissertation, összkiadás Beszélő In 1984, the oppositional (and thus illegal) ‘SHALOM’ peace organization issued organization peace ‘SHALOM’ illegal) thus (and oppositional the 1984, In above the how and why explores dissertation The outside HungaryIsrael. theState of and with a fighting ofstrategy the with people; Jewish the of survival the of problem the with traditions; Jewish with history; Hungarian hundred last the with progress; country’s] [the sta totalitarian the with

’ . 3

in order to differentiate them from the abstract, theoretical concept of socialism. Later, Later, socialism. of concept theoretical abstract, from the to them differentiate order in

The purpose of the research is to researchis the ofpurpose The touched upon every area in which the communist regime related to to related regime communist the which in area every upon touched [Beszélő unabridged] (Budapest: AB (Budapest: unabridged] [Beszélő communist control Easterncommunist in Europe infe th signified

samizdat e n is oit arn wt Hnain epe and people Hungarian with patron; Soviet its and te

at these fundamental problems remained unsolved for for unsolved remained problems fundamental these at to the National Representation of Hungarian Hungarian of Representation National the to 1.

Introduction ), the official mouthpiece of Jewish interests Jewish of mouthpiece official the ), - 10 century socialist societies and popularized during the popularized and societies socialist century

exploredeterminantsthe -

i 1 Beszélő Kiadó, 1992), Vol. 1, 571 (Beszélő (Beszélő Vol. 1, 571 1992), Kiadó, Beszélő rte ad omn oiy patt policy common and arities

ences existing between theoretical theoretical between encesexisting

ntisemitism; with Jews living living Jews with ntisemitism; - hundred and fifty years of of years fifty and hundred 2

after the Holocaust. sus remained issues hical but political sense, sense, political hicalbut

of statepoliciesof

during

Israelites

‘real ‘real erns erns CEU eTD Collection either that suggest all antisemitism political and popular of manifestations of variety great the as well as time, over turns and changes dramatic their antisemitism, and policies towards issues? Jewish approach. u study any for problems poses diversity This its varymightcountry oneany and countries, socialist various in simultaneously applied be could area specific a towards policies of variety a Nonetheless, levels. practical and ideological both on policies of implementation Moscow. of influence present contemporaryethnicsocio and understand to today relevant is knowledge This Communism. by shaped were and survived, ethnicity and nation about ideas how traces dissertation The alike. policies t influenced principles, basic Communism’s with incompatible ones including ideas, and allegiances political categories, economic socio historic that reveals problem specific this of examination The gap. research issues Jewish to regards state Party the influenced that factors social and ideological political, structural, determining the all dissect to documents state Party of post in consi a produced has Studies Jewish of field the theory communist about both history 1.1. There exists a wide range of literature in the disciplines of political science an science political of disciplines the in literature of range wide a exists There The differences between th between differences The socialisms existing ‘Real - Holocaust Eastern Europe. However, Europe. Eastern Holocaust Research Questions How complete was Moscow’ was complete How is still incomplete. still is ’

- in Easte in economic tensions in economic tensions e policies of Eastern European regimes towards Jews towards regimes European Eastern of policies e

The

and the socialisms of Eastern Europe. Similarly, Europe. Eastern of socialisms the and oit Union Soviet rn Europe existed and evolved under evolved and existed Europe rn s influence over E over influence s 11 he communist institutional framework institutionaland communist he

My dissertation attends to this particular this to attends dissertation My research that makes use of the v the of use makes that research ig the sing derable s decision ’s

HungaryEurope. and Eastern

eemnd h frain and formation the determined policies substantially over time. time. substantiallyover policies

body of work on work of body

‘ n (Soviet) one astern European communist European astern - aig process making

oe ft all’ fits model antisemitism

the ever the ast array ast with

d - -

CEU eTD Collection official the than implications broader much had they therefore such, as identify not did who those even affected frequently Jews towards policies communist Moreover, that ideology iden ruling Jewish a imagined despite identity distinct a maintained and survived Jews research This area. the of cultures majority the into dissolve not did how state ofthese policies affector elimination and survival beliefs practices. the and minorities, ethnic and religious cultural, towards prejudice and discrimination policies of study the Second, retain. to able are states satellite sovereignty much how and function, influence of spheres political how of question fundamental the address i with the First, Shoah? the after EasternEurope in left were that Jews of handful a with deal we should why So Israel. and States United and birth low of result a as since ever decreased have numbers their and Holocaust, havemore studies indirect than previous the of were constraints influencesand binding and policies period Soviet investigation, under the throughout antisemitism, and Jews towards policies influencing factor areas. all to extend applie were instructions Moscow’s Despite certa Despite the during killed was Jewry European Eastern of percent 70 Approximately mass emigration. Today, the global centres of Jewish life and culture are the the are culture and life Jewish of centres global the Today, emigration. mass sgt no h ise o Sve hgmn wti Esen uoe Ti helps This Europe. Eastern within hegemony Soviet of issues the into nsight Hungarian policy Hungarian

under C under o te ugra leadership. Hungarian the for ommunism helps shed light on how non how on light shed helps ommunism in predictions, Jews did not completely assimilate and Jewish culture Jewish and assimilate completely not did Jews predictions, in

Th is dissertation argues that argues dissertation is iy wehr eiiu o ntoa) ol wte away. wither would national) or religious (whether tity - forming elites. Con elites. forming mediated mediated slciey o ta Sve ifune i not did influence Soviet that or selectively, d

principles were neither all neither were principles oe precisely, More suggested through the through 12 ir case provides historians of C of historians caseprovides ir sequently, Moscow’s influence was much much was influence Moscow’s sequently,

while .

perceptions,

Soviet hegemony was always a a always was hegemony Soviet

- democratic systems relate to to relate systems democratic so hw vn systemic even how show I

beliefs - encompassing helps

and interests and ommunism

show how how show Jewish -

, nor nor , rates

CEU eTD Collection 1999). Books, Berghahn Oxford: and (ed.), Jarausch Extraordinary SheilaFitzpatrick, 2000); Press, University Princeton WarWorld the Second to 1917 from Women Russian of LifeStories Revolution: 5 4 accounts ofthe s to historiography of presentation the narrow then socialism’, ‘real of study historical (explanatory) one. (presc normative earlier the Thus, born. were like, the and rituals infrastructure, roles, gender peasantry, the as such issuesconcentratingon socialism, experiencesunder and classes differentsocialareas, foc historical the recently, more Even period. the of documentation actual the to imposed was power communist which in ways the of examination theoretical the from shifted analysis of focus the so opened, t As 1989. after sociologists and scientists political from Communism of topic the and Europe, Eastern of territory the history 1.2. still can it contrary, the On did. population Jewish country's the than more any disappear su would citizens Jewish of number

A few examples of this trend are: Sheila Fi are: trend this of fewAexamples in: ofHistory?’ End ‘The Francis Fukuyama, The following paragraphs introduce the general trends in the social scientific and and scientific social the in trends general the introduce paragraphs following The by frightened Maybe be experienced thereona daily basis. 4

Overview of literatureOverview of following the collapse of Communism, Communism, of collapse the following Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s the in Russia Soviet Times: Dictatorship as Experience. Toward a Socio a Toward Experience. as Dictatorship ocialist states’ relationship to local Jewish populations. populations. states’ relationship Jewish local ocialist to

rni Fkym’ pooneet bu te n of end the about pronouncement Fukuyama’s Francis

and methodology theand dissertation of e rhvs f omr oils cutis gradually countries socialist former of archives he itv) prah a rpae b a descriptive a by replaced was approach riptive) tzpatrick and Yuri Slezkine (eds.), (eds.), Slezkine Yuri and tzpatrick gs. hr, nieiim n ugr dd not did Hungary in antisemitism Third, ggest. The National Interest National The s a icesnl nroe ad itre of histories and narrowed increasingly has us

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999); Konrad Konrad 1999); Press, University Oxford (Oxford:

Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Lifein Ordinary Stalinism: Everyday historians - Cultural History of the GDR the of History Cultural , No. 16 (Summer 1989), 3 (Summer1989), 16 No. ,

seriously started to reclaim to started seriously In the the of Shadow In . (Princeton, NJ.: NJ.: (Princeton, .

(New York - 18.

CEU eTD Collection 1956). Press, University MA.: Harvard 9 8 1995). Press, Gleason, Abbott see: lite fictional in as described Fascism, 7 omitted. also are approaches society’ the‘industrial ‘m the Thus, development. not economic and withpolitical, most concerned am I because analysis theoftheir centre in factors economic thatplace approaches not discuss do I Rizzi. Bruno and Cliff suchas Tony theorists capitalism’ Marxist ‘state or Tro Leon by originallyelaborated was which argument workers’state’ ‘degenerate the discussing am I Hence, not less discarded. or more havethey been because or my thesis, for not relevant are 6 of economy. monopoly centrally a a and combat, armed control), of means all police of monopoly a terroristic information, (i.e. terror institutional dictator, a fo the at by led Party mass single a conquest, pointing world at aiming ideology official comprehensive by totalitarian was Stalin under system C Soviet to it applied originally and totalitarianism of theories from one’s life and through propaganda terror. of aspect every control and dominate to seek Arendt, to according states, Totalitarian industrialism. modern to answer an as evolved had which government of form new ground Arendt’s Hannah C sociali national the between comparison the when WWII, following lively very became inquiry of area This functioning. Communism’s maj sciences. social in government, of type a as here understood system, communist 1.2.1

I am not going to discuss in detail the concepts of totalitarianism developed and applied in relation to into relation applied and developed totalitarianism of the concepts in detail discuss am notto goingI debate few a other omitted consciously I Carl J. Friedrich and Zbigniew Brzezinski, Zbigniew and Brzezinski, Friedrich J. Carl Arendt, Hannah muim f tlns Sovi Stalin’s of ommunism h dvlpn dsiln ta cm t b c be to came that discipline developing The the to regards with discussions academic of array wide a been has There r eae vle aon te cetfc ehdlgcl ecito of description methodological scientific the around evolved debate or

ommunism. Carl Friedrich and Zbigniev Brzezinki held that the Soviet Soviet the that held Brzezinki Zbigniev and Friedrich Carl ommunism. 9

Interpretations of SovietInterpretations of communism In a later edition of this book, the authors added two furthercharacteristics:two added authors book, the this of Inedition later a The Origins of Totalitarianism of Origins The Totalitarianism: The Inner History of the Cold War Cold the of History Inner The Totalitarianism:

- raig study breaking

t no rie te neet f ay oil scientists. social many of interest the raised Union et rature or by liberal thinkers. For a thorough presentation of these ofthese presentation thorough a For bythinkers. or liberal rature

positions from this analysis, largely because their arguments their because analysis,largely this frompositions Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy and Dictatorship Totalitarian odernization approach’, as advanced by John Kautsky or or Kautsky John by as advanced approach’, odernization

(New York: Harcourt (NewYork: 8

eie bt rgms as regimes both defined

alled Sovietology drew extensively extensively drew Sovietology alled

sm of Hitler’s Germany and the the and Germany Hitler’s of sm - Brace, Brace,

(Oxford: Oxford University University Oxford (Oxford: h Saiit eid of period Stalinist the 1951). lwn faue: a features: llowing totalitarianism

(Cambridge, (Cambridge,

controlled controlled tsky, 6 a :

A 7

CEU eTD Collection 558 (July, No. 4. 1964), 16, 14 in: Totalitarianism’ ofSoviet Face New ‘The Ulam, 13 The (ed.), Siegel AchimRule’ in: 12 11 1965). Press, University MA.: Harvard 10 post the to needed during regime Soviet the of were reality political the capture and paradigms conceptualize adequately new that suggested Left) political the on (especially anymore. all an by expropriated being information of control with totalitarian remained state the though in society’ ‘administered an of speak to preferred instance for Kassof Allen account. into realities social take would which model totalitarian the of interpretation static less a for called they socialism’, ‘real in occurring modifications systemic at Point unchangeabilityparadigm. the accept not did ‘totalitarianism’, term the using totalitarian. thus Stalinist, political essentially remained structure the deregimentation, Khrushchev’s despite that argued Ulam Adam and (and continuingFain Merle regime. Soviet the the of nature totalitarian upon unchangeable) fundamentally insisted theorists some measures, Stalinist with odds FriedrichBrzezinski representedofempirical and the approach compar future. the in reached be to all an meant thus which chiliastic at the aspect, pointing on thefirst emphasisplacedspecial justice. of control administrative the and expansionism

Allen Kassof, ‘The Administered Society: Totalitarianism without Terror’ in: Terror’ without Society: Totalitarianism Administered ‘The AllenKassof, Fainsod, Merle Totalitarianism of Concept ‘The vonBeyme, Klaus 9 Ibid, Zbigniew and Brzezinski, Friedrich J. Carl oretical Reassesment oretical I at were that policies introduced and power to came Khrushchev Nikita after Even te ae f oiia cags n h Sve Uin sm sca scient social some Union, Soviet the in changes political of face the n - - 10. Stalin period. Many argued that because Sovietology was mostly professed in professed mostly was Sovietologybecause that Manyargued period. Stalin 14 -

oefl uig lt i te ae f dooy tro ws o applied not was terror ideology, of name the in elite ruling powerful

How Russia is Ruled is Russia How

(Amsterdam, Atlanta, GA.: Rodopi Press, 1998), 39 1998), Press, Rodopi Atlanta,GA.: (Amsterdam, - 575. The Totalitarian Paradigm after the End of Communism. Towards a Communism. of End the after Paradigm Totalitarian The - encompassing subordination to a positively formulated goal formulated positively a to subordination encompassing

As opposed to Arendt’s normative political philosophy, political normative Arendt’s to opposed As

(Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press, 1963) and Adam 1963) Press, University (Cambridge, Harvard MA.: Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy and Dictatorship Totalitarian 15 World Politics World

–

A Reassesment after the End of Communist Communist theof End after AReassesment , Vol. 12, No. (Ap No. 3 12, Vol. , 13 10

Other authors, though still though authors, Other rerc ad Brzezinski and Friedrich - 54. 54. WorldPolitics nature of ideology ofideology nature

ative politics. ative

(Cambridge, (Cambridge, ril, 1960), 400. 1960), ril, , Vol. Vol. ,

which, sod sod ists ing 12

CEU eTD Collection Century our in 19 States. Party in: Politics’ Communist 18 (June,xxxvii. 1966), 3 Part to Preface 17 Systems 16 1917 15 life. public in pluralism limited tolerance the including practice, in repression of level lower a but theory, in ‘post called he what towards totalitarianism beyond moved Stalin after Union Soviet the Löwenthal, arrangements. political of element integral an represent not do autonomies such tolerated, be may units social of autonomy the while and positions; organizational of manipulation the but mainly involves normative politics and restraints; natural institutional to subjects only are leaders purpose; higher a of name the in exercised arbitration entails process political the obeyed; be should who “agents” or “leaders” are holders office constructs, political authoritarian In category. under Khrushchev to Lenin from leaderships Soviet all put Janos C. Andrew fact, reign.Stalin’s America term.” the of sense strict the in totalitarian Totalitarianism of communist of reality pol the capture to oriented institutionally and static too model anti of narrative hegemonic the by influenced heavily was debate the States, United the

Richard Löwenthal, ‘Beyond Totalitarianism’ in: Irwing Howe (ed.), Howe(ed.), Irwing in: Totalitarianism’ ‘Beyond Löwenthal, Richard of Study Comparative the in Change theof and Theory Models ‘Systemic C.Janos, Andrew Arendt, Hannah ofDe ’Varieties Azrael, R. Jeremy Cohen, F. Stephen example:for See itics. oe rtc cniee te oit eie fe Sai’ death Stalin’s after regime Soviet the considered critics Some -

Soviet struggle and served political purposes. political served and struggle Soviet (O

xford: Oxford University Press, 1985), esp. esp. 8 1985), University Press, xford: Oxford (Stanford, CA.: Stanford University Press, 1970), 138. 1970), University Press, CA.: Stanford (Stanford, 16 n Sovietology was born which sought to limit the usage of ‘totalitarianism’ to ‘totalitarianism’ ofusage the limit to sought which born was Sovietology n

Even Hannah Arendt stated, in the preface to a new edition of ‘ of edition new a to preface the in stated, Arendt Hannah Even

(Berkeley, CA.: Institute of International Studies University of California, 1976), 6 1976), California, of University Studies InstituteofInternational CA.: (Berkeley,

(New H York:

- The totalitarian authoritarianism’ characterized by a still omnipotent state state omnipotent still a by characterized authoritarianism’ totalitarian ta te oit no i te 90 “ol n lne b called be longer no “could 1960s the in Union Soviet the that ’

Origins of Totalitaria of Origins Authoritarian Politics in Communist Europe. Uniform Europe. Communist in Politics Authoritarian

arper and Row, 1983) and ‘The Ruling Party in a Mature Society’ in: in: Society’ ‘TheMature and a RulingParty in Row, and 1983) arper

- Stalinization’ in: Chalmers Johnson (ed.), Johnson(ed.), Chalmers in: Stalinization’

Rethinking the Soviet Experience: Politics and History Since Since History and Politics the Experience: Soviet Rethinking 19

nism ere rsae’ epeso, ‘welfare expression, Breslauer’s George

(New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1973). 1973). Jovanovich, Brace, Harcourt, (NewYork: 16 -

14. 17

h so The 15

Others considered the totalitarian the considered Others - ald eiins sho in school revisionist called 1984 Revisited: Totalitarianism Revisited: 1984 18

According to Ric to According ity and Diversity in One Diversityin and ity Change in Communist Change authoritarian The Origins The

of some some of - 7. - state

hard

In . this this not - CEU eTD Collection Century our in 23 206 22 17. 21 3 1978), Press, (ed.), Ryavec 20 81 1974), Press, University JohnsHopkins The MD: (ed.), Field G. Mark been had they that realized people common even when thinking” of way ideological into moved speech secret 1956 Khrushchev’s after Union Soviet the that argued Linz J. conviction. not conformism, of sign a is zeal ideological where totalitarianism’ organisations. Oth intricate through life social over management rational enforce to endeavour an essence in was rule communist that suggested Meyer bureaucracy. giant a of that to functioning and structure political USSR’s the likened he when model poli ‘bureaucratic the called be can what developed Meyer Alfred types. ideal post the of distinctiveness the emphasize or agents arbitrariness of the by harassed be might power the of they representatives while and privacy” of niches their mobilization. permanent Peo or terror of regime a require not does rule authoritarian that arguing totalitarianism, former’s the from authoritarian as latter the distinguished system. the w conformity latter’s the for exchange in consumption rising promised former The ruled. and rulers between contract” “social implicit the at pointed authoritarianism’

Michael Walzer, ‘On Failed Totalitarianism’ in: Irwing Howe (ed.), Howe(ed.), Irwing in: Totalitarianism’ ‘OnFailed Michael Walzer, 1965), House, Random York: (New AnInterpretation system: SovietPolitical The Meyer, G. Alfred RalfDahrendorf, SovietWelfare the Adaptability of ‘On the Breslauer, W. George

- te tere ue cnet ohr hn oaiains o atoiains to authoritarianism or totalitarianism than other concepts used theories Other ers focused on the ideological aspect. Michael Walzer preferred to speak of ‘failed of speak to preferred Walzer Michael aspect. ideological the on focused ers to “withdraw can Dahrendorf, to according regimes, authoritarian in living ple 225.

h pae f ‘post of phase the

Soviet Society and the Communist Party Communist the and Society Soviet 20

- (New York: Harper and Row, 1983), 103 Row, and 1983), (New Harper York: 25.

ap Dhedr’ cmaio bten tlns ad Brezhnevism and Stalinism between comparison Dahrendorf’s Ralph

total rule.” Reflections on the on Reflections The Social Consequences of Modernization in Communist Societies Communist in Modernization of Social Consequences The

- 21 oaiains’ eas i eprecd a rss n the in crisis “a experienced it because totalitarianism’

- centre, “they will not be persecuted with the systematic the with persecuted be not will “they centre,

Revolution in Europe Revolution

17 - Stalinist Soviet regime from both of these these of both from regime Soviet Stalinist - 120.

(Amherst, MASS.: University of Massachusetts Massachusetts of University (Amherst,MASS.: - 121.

(London: Chatto and Windus, 1990), 16 1990), Windus, and (London:Chatto

- State Authoritarianism’ in: Karl W. W. Karl in: Authoritarianism’ State 1984 Revisited: Revisited: 1984

Totalitarianism

(Baltimore, (Baltimore, 23

Juan tics’ -

ith ith 22

CEU eTD Collection 435 in: Communist Politics’ and ‘Interest and Groups 1971) (eds.), Griffiths Franklyn 28 1977). Press, 27 107. 1989), Press, 26 42 1996), Press, University Post and America South Europe, 25 21. book, ofthe edition revised the new, to Introduction 2000). 24 of ability the and grouorganized multiplicity, institutional to referred sense, this in Pluralism, administration. the of actors various the among mentality bargaining of spread the and who tookpolitical de specialists of rationality reasonable the system, Soviet the in groups interest major Skilling Gordon and formulated were policies which in politicalimplemented systems. incommunist mode the to attention much devoted of post of feature distinguishing element main main the as control resistance cultural emphasized cultural totalitarianism, saw who Goldfarb, Jeffrey factors. multi a on position any occupying totalitaria and authoritarian culture”. “parallel or culture” “second a often and pluralism, social of degrees varying state, the within pluralism dy a as totalitarianism’ lie” a “living

H. Gordon Skilling, ‘Interest Groups and Soviet Politics: An Introduction’ in: H. G H. in: AnIntroduction’ SovietPolitics: and Groups ‘InterestSkilling, Gordon H. Jerry JeffreyGoldfarb, Alf Linz JuanJ. and Linz, JuanJ. - Limited 445. 445. F. Hough, Hough, F.

plural Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes Authoritarian and Totalitarian

ps to influence political decisions through institutional channels created channels created institutional influence political decisions through ps to The Soviet Union and Social Science Theory Science Social and Union Soviet The 24 28 Beyond Glasnost. The Post The Glasnost. Beyond I aohr ulcto, iz n Sea ietfe ‘post identified Stepan and Linz publication, another In . , attempted to fill that gap and emphasized the relative autonomy of autonomy relative the emphasized and gap that fill to attempted , ism red Stepan, Stepan, red

cisions, the frequent of discussion policy alternatives thepress, in Interest Groups in Soviet Politics Soviet in Groups Interest

theories - 51. ai rgm tp wt dfeet ere o institutional of degrees different with type regime namic

- Communist Europe. Communist rgms bt ecie te ye s li ad possibly and fluid as type the described but regimes, n Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation. Southern Southern Consolidation. and Transition Democratic of Problems

, as advanced for example by Jerry F. Hough F. Jerry by example for advanced as , 25

hy ifrnitd post differentiated They - totalitarianism. - dimensional continuum defined by the above above the by defined continuum dimensional - Totalitarian M Totalitarian 18

(Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins Johns The London: (Baltimoreand

(Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Publishers, CO: LynneRienner (Boulder, World Politics World and the formation of subcultures as the the as subcultures of formation the and

(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, Press, PrincetonUniversity N.J.: (Princeton, 26 ind

(Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University University Harvard MA.: (Cambridge,

However, none of these authors these of none However,

(Chicago, IL.: University Of Chicago Chicago Of IL.: University (Chicago, , Vol. 18, No.3 (April, 1961), (April, No.3 1961), 18, Vol. , - oaiains bt from both totalitarianism ordon Skilling and Skillingand ordon 27

and H. and - CEU eTD Collection 1994). Press, University 34 33 180 1999), Press, Chicago of University (Chicago: 32 Totalitarismes Tota l’Est’[The de vu Totalitarisme 31 Postscript A Communism. Soviet of 30 61 (ed.), Solomon SusanGross 29 politics. of hierarchy structural the of top on group small or individual the to belonged decisions important all that sho totalitarianism that arguing period, creativity. human and society civil enemies, imagined or real liquidate to efforts unparalleled soc uncompromising communism’s state. and Party ideological an of power total the to individuals subjecting and society), atomizing t bourgeoisie, the of hatred their in similarities striking had Nazism Hitler’s and communism Stalin’s that argued neo by as in Europe Eastern liberalizing forces opposition by partly appropriated was which school totalitarian a exists there too, field In this discussions. the increasinglyjoined historians graduallyopened, power the against power bargaining significant had Party the of levels lower where period, “proto a of existence the at pointed Fukuyama organizations. autonomous of access free of kind any to not and state the by

Walter Laqueur, Walter Pipes Richard example:for See Furet, François See: ‘Le Rupnik see: Jacques after1968 Europe Eastern in totalitarianism theoryof ofthe usage Onthe Gvosde K. in: Nikolas Imperative’ Modernizing ‘The Francis Fukuyama, ‘Pl Brown, Archie - 107. After the regime changes b changes regime the After -

- centre,and indoctrination failed. ideological conservative historians in the West from the early 1990s. These latter authors authors latter These 1990s. early the from West the in historians conservative 33

(Paris: Economica, 1984), 43 1984), Economica, (Paris: Walter Laqueur defended the usage of the term for the entire communist entire the for term the of usage the defended Laqueur Walter The Dream that Failed: Reflections on theUnion on Soviet Reflections Failed: that Dream The 32 uralism, Power and the Soviet Political System: A Comparative Perspective’ in: in: Perspective’ Comparative A System: Political Soviet the and Power uralism,

The Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century Twentieth the in of Idea Communism The Illusion: an of Passing The

doae o te oaiain ruet ruh eape of examples brought argument totalitarian the of Advocates Pluralism in the Soviet Union Soviet the in Pluralism heir systematic deprivation of citizens of political ties (thus ties political of citizens of deprivation systematic heir : Communism: a History a Communism: : litarianism view of the East] in: Guy Hermet et al. (eds.), (eds.), al. et Hermet in: East] Guy ofthe litarianismview (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2008), 9 2008), Publishers, Transaction N.J.: (NewBrunswick,

early as the late 1960s late the as early etween 1989 and 1991, as Eastern European archives European Eastern as 1991, and 1989 etween 34

ih h bnft f idih, auu argued Laqueur hindsight, of benefit the With ial engineering through criminal practices; and and practices; criminal through engineering ial - 71.

l nt e nesod ieal, u meaning but literally, understood be not uld 19 - 181. 181.

(New York, NY: St. Martins Press, 1983), 1983), Press, Martins St. (NewNY: York, (New York, Modern Library, 2001). Library, Modern York, (New - civil society” during the Brezhnev Brezhnev the during society” civil 30

, 31

but it has also been endorsed been also has it but

(New York: Oxford (New Oxford York: v (ed.), v(ed.), The Strange Death Death Strange The - 29 20.

Francis

in CEU eTD Collection 1999). Press, University Cambridge Melbourne: 40 2003). története Szovjetunió the to 39 289. 1945 under Ulbricht Germany East in Society 38 37 28. Theory Science Social 300 (1990), 36 88. 1994), Press, University 35 were implementedmaintain thefunctionality inorder to of theSovi reforms partial change, fundamentally not did structure Stalinist the though “C of emergence the as simultaneously. aspects cultural and social uniform of surface’ ‘icy the political, the examining by regimesthe of nature peculiar the uncover and dictatorship beneath go to need the emphasized Communism over the population. domination state of result a as society civil of lack the in totalitarianism of essence analysi his in Westoby, Adam th of functioning and logic restricted the override party a under culture and economy politics, of subordination “institutional the in but terror, open and society of soc revolutionary of intention” “totalitarian the more and radical” deeper been had place taken had that changes political and “social that 1994

Peter Kenez, Kenez, Peter it applied historians some waybutthis Czechoslovakia developmentsin depict to isveryIt common (eds.), JonathanOsmond and Major Patrick AdamWestoby, in: Mausoleum’ the Stalin ‘To “Z”), the pseudonym (under MartinMalia Laqueur, Walter

n otat toe itras who historians those contrast, In

Soviet Union as well. See: Mihail Heller and Alekszandr Nyekrics Alekszandr and MihailHeller well.See: as SovietUnion

that the difficulty with which the tr the which with difficulty the that 35

- than they would have been from an authoritarian system. Martin Malia saw Malia Martin system. authoritarian an from been have would they than 301. Paraphrased in: Klaus Müller, in:Müller, Klaus 301. Paraphrased The History of the Soviet Union from the Be the from Union Soviet the of History The The Evolution of Communism of Evolution The The Dream that Failed: Refl Failed: that Dream The

[Russian History. The History of the Soviet Union], Vol. II. (Budapest: Osiris, (Budapest: Osiris, II. Vol. Union], Soviet Historyofthe The History. [Russian . Trent University International Political Economy Centre Working Paper 03/7, Paper Working Centre Economy Political International University . Trent 37

muim ih hmn face” human a with ommunism - state

o C of s . ” 36

codn t Mla n rfr atmt could attempt reform no Malia, to According -

The 1971 ommunism as a world movement, found the the found movement, world a as ommunism ections on theUnion on Soviet ections dee t mr puaitc iw o Soviet of views pluralistic more to adhered

East European Studies, Neo Studies, European East

(Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989), esp. 2, esp. 2, 7 1989), Polity Press, (Cambridge:

20 ansition to de to ansition Workers’ and Peasants’ State. Communism and and Communism State. Peasants’ Workers’and

38 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002), 2002), Press, University Manchester (Manchester:

Some Some ialism not so much in the domination domination the in much so not ialism ginning to the Endto the ginning e “iron e depicted the long ninetee long the depicted mocracy took place took mocracy - 39 cage” institutional structure. institutional cage” ;

, Orosz történelem. A A Orosz történelem. , hl ohr age that argued others while et regime

Deadalus (New York: Oxford (New Oxford York: - Totalitar

(Cambridge, New (Cambridge,York, , Vol. 119, No.1 No.1 119, Vol. , . ianism and and ianism 40

- 8. suggested n

- sixties CEU eTD Collection 236. 1996), Press, University Post and America South Europe, 42 186 inc,1971), Post Stalinismand Mind. Political Soviet Systems Communist Commu ‘Comparing ChalmersJohnson, States. Party in: Politics’ Communist Comp the in Change theof and Theory Models ‘Systemic C.Janos, Andrew 41 that declared Gleason Abbott concept, totalitarian the of history the of study detailed his In historians. Western as well as dissenters, and intellectuals academics, native relations ofeachwas country played down pre the of heterogeneity significant the that ‘satellites’ as status shared region’s the on focus exclusive an such with “began noted, pre to regards with true particularly is This variations. little with model Soviet the of applications local considered large and by were they all, at analyses the in appearance an made rule communist under countries 1.2.2. to used be can considerations characterize regimes,communist other importantlyEastern most thoseof Europe. theoretical these whether is arises that question The regime. the describing when considered be should elements ideological and themes. rec curtain are there opinions, of variety great the in accept, we communism of history the to approach whichever But concept. the addressing avoid can period that examining study no Therefore, War. Cold the about debate a essence in

Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Stepan, Alfred Linz JuanJ. and Holmes, Leslie example:for See The totalitarian paradigm has been applied to Eastern European countries by by countries European Eastern to applied been has paradigm totalitarian The t their applied primarily debates above The became suggests, literature presented above the as totalitarianism, on debate The

Interpretat Stalin’s and later periods are to be distinguished, and that both institutional both that and distinguished, be to are periods later and Stalin’s

(Berkeley, CA.: Institute of International Studies University of California, 1976), 23 1976), California, of University Studies InstituteofInternational CA.: (Berkeley, .

(Stanford, CA.: Stanford University Press, 1970), 8 1970), Press, University CA.: Stanford (Stanford, ions of Eastern Communism European of ions Authoritarian Politics in Communist Europe. Uniformity and Diversity in One Diversityin and Uniformity Europe. Communist in Politics Authoritarian

- Communist Europe. Communist Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation. Southern Southern Consolidation. and Transition Democratic of Problems Politics in the Communist World Communist the in Politics

nist Nations’ in: Chalmers Johnson (ed.), (ed.), ChalmersJohnson in: Nations’ nist - Stalin Change Stalin 21 .” - - 1989 literature which, as Linz and Stepan and Linz as which, literature 1989 42

Communist and Communist state Communist and Communist (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins Johns The London: (Baltimoreand

(New York, NY.: W.W. Norton & Company & Norton (New W.W. NY.: York, heories to the Soviet Union. If other other If Union. Soviet the to heories

(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987); 1987); Press, Clarendon (Oxford: - 9; Robert C. Tucker, Tucker, C. Robert 9;

arative Study of Study arative Change in Change The The - society Soviet Soviet urrent -

25; 25; next next 41 -

CEU eTD Collection Regimes Totalitarian 46 1945 45 118. 1998), 44 8. 1995), Press, 43 i phase ideological “militantly a were years those as inasmuch Stalinism during Poland to applicable absolutely was model totalitarian i state without operate to free are that “groups as understood society, civil autonomous genuine, a of lack the and policies” terroristic of “maintenance the at pointed Killingsworth regimes. totalitarian all were Republic Democratic German the and Poland Czechoslovakia, de Stalinization.” of forms various by since ever followed appropriation, Stalinist of moment spasmodic one as understood be can 1945 after history European a In affairs. foreign in so less and Sino the with developed which uncertainties the on and Stalin, of authority personal unchallenged i less on “capitalised Pact socialism to roads They Stalinism’. and Communism. of Geoffrey period mature the during especially reality, that of truth the in believe not did people many if even ideology, through reality” totalitarian “alternative regimes rel the to regards with experienced Europeans Eastern that reality the describe to term th

Matt Killingsworth, Killingsworth, Matt Stokes (ed.), Gale Eastern Swain, Nigel and Swain Geoffrey Gleason, Abbott ough the totalitarian model had flaws, it was still more suggestive than any other any than suggestive more still was it flaws, had model totalitarian the ough ationship between Party and and Party between ationship

(New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 3. 1996), University Press, Oxford Oxford: (NewYork,

hud e osdrd oaiain eas te atmtd o sals an establish to attempted they because totalitarian considered be should

Soviet split to win a degree of autonomy for themselves” for autonomy of degree a win to split Soviet 45 ie San hrceie Esen uoe n h 16s s ‘neo as 1960s the in Europe Eastern characterized Swain Nigel Totalitarianism: T Totalitarianism:

From Stalinism to Pluralism. A Documentary History Documentary A Pluralism. to Stalinism From

(Colchester: ECPR Press, 2012), esp. esp. 5,7 2012), Press, ECPR (Colchester: rud ht ept apaacs tee ee o vros ‘ various not were there appearances, despite that argued ’ at ilnsot’ frt major first Killingsworth’s Matt Civil Society on Communist Eastern Europe. Opposition and Dissent Dissent in and Opposition Europe. Eastern Communist on Society Civil

however, they did acknowledge that the countries of the Warsaw Warsaw the of countries the that acknowledge did they however,

elgcl om o cnrl o te bec o the of absence the on control, of forms deological

he Inner History of the Cold War Cold the of History Inner he tt, tt ad oit. e rud ht communist that argued He society. and state state, Europe since 1945 since Europe

iia vi, ae tks pnd ht “East that opined Stokes Gale vein, similar ntrusion.” 22

46 n the development o development the n

Andrzej Walicki asserted that the that asserted Walicki Andrzej -

(New York, NY.: St. Martin’s Press, Press, Martin’s St. (New NY.: York, 30.

(Oxford: Oxford University University Oxford (Oxford: ulcto age that argued publication

of Eastern Europe Since Since Europe Eastern of - tlnzto ad re and Stalinization or organisations organisations or f communism.” f 44

in domestic, in national 43 - -

CEU eTD Collection Communism 49 6. 1988), 48 Politics 47 b differences number ofother, non a with albeit category, first the to belong would states communist where regimes, ‘adaptation’ and ‘mobilised’ between distinguish to preferred Kautsky used. they have not did communist states that argued Kautsky value. practical or analytical political little of communist was a system of notion very the that other the and state communist one w Kautsky inexorably developments... imposed.” first mores and model Soviet the Europeanized, East or modified, “these added, Brown result, a As these. of as examples development” legal and cultural social, economic, political, of aspects various affected or have changes...that ‘domesticism’” “quiet as “recurring well as upheavals of considered He terms spontaneity. in considered be can 1948 after history European Eastern that claimed Brown J.F. phenomenon, this Addressing apparent. regi European Eastern various the between differences unnoticed, go to liberty. d be should model totalitarian the that think not did still Walicki Nevertheless, Poland. proj which process disintegrating post the termed He iscarded because of its usefulness to describe different political regimes’ relationship regimes’ political different describe to usefulness its of because iscarded

John H. Kautsky, ‘C Kautsky, H. John Brown, J.F. Wali Andrzej h mr dfiut ak a nvrhls t fn epaain fr h ad how and why for explanations find to nevertheless was task difficult more The not did death Stalin’s after Union Soviet the in practicepolitical in changes as Just , Vol. 58, No. 3 (Summer, 1996), 505 1996), (Summer, No. 3 58, Vol. ,

47 , Vol. 6, No. 1 No. 6, Vol. , ent as far as to suggest that so considerable were the differences between differences the were considerable so that suggest to as far as ent

Eastern Europe and Communist Rule Rule Communist and Europe Eastern cki, ‘Totalitarianism and Detotalitarization: The case of Poland’ in: in: ofPoland’ case The Detotalitarization: cki,‘Totalitarianismand etween various countries under C under countries various etween omparative communism versus comparative politics’ in: in: politics’ versuscomparative communism omparative

any particular distinguishing features, apart from the symbolism the from apart features, distinguishing particular any

- commun - 2 (Spring/Summer, 1973), 135 1973), (Spring/Summer, 2 - tlns pro ta floe “eoaiaiain o a or “detotalitarization” followed that period Stalinist

ist countries.ist ce te vnul onal f C of downfall eventual the ected - 529.

23 49 (Durham and London: Duke University Press, Press, University Duke London: and (Durham

ommunism appeared. The plethora of of plethora The appeared. ommunism - 170.

Studies in Comparative Comparative in Studies mes also became became also mes The Review of of Review The muim in ommunism 48

John H. John

CEU eTD Collection 95. 1996), University Press, Cambridge York: New (Cambridge, 52 Systems Communist 51 1986). Macmillan, China (London:and Europe Eastern Union, Soviet the in Succession and Leadership (eds.), Carter States Communist 50 case single on theories their applied but socialism’ ‘real of logic working inherent the some other countries region” ofthe in reforms liberal of spread the foster helped indirectly and bloc Soviet united a of (Romania, Berend, erosion Albania).Thisprocess argued “contributed tothe however, de Soviet “resisted and roads” national “independent to turned countries Some changes. the behind reasons systemic saw he Johnson, to opposed As Stalin. of death the after control Soviet for of loosening reason the i saw bloc hand the other within the differentiation on Berend T. Iván factors. (national) circumstantial local to differences attributed and origin, systemic of be to similarities style”) political and characteristics religious and ethnic of combination (“a culture political of type variables’ ‘operative collectivizatio and nationalization agricultural building, organization power, to coming after Party dive com ruling universals’ for ‘communist were account to perspective comparative real differences. a applying not thus separately, co each described frequently region a as Europe Eastern with dealt that literature

Iván T. Berend, IvánT. (ed Johnson Chalmers in: Nations’ Communist ‘Comparing ChalmersJohnson, (eds.), Gray Jack and Brown Archie example see: For Other authors attributed the increasingly prevalent differences to imperfections in imperfections to differences prevalent increasingly the attributed authors Other rsity among communist regimes. ‘Communist universals’ ‘Communist regimes. communist among rsity uit P munist 50

n, the structuring of political life, life, political of structuring the n, Chalmers Johnson is a notable exception. He exception. notable a is Johnson Chalmers

Central and Eastern Europe, 1944 Europe, and Eastern Central Yo (New ad h md o cmn t power. to coming of mode the and ,

(Stanford, CA.: Stanford University Press, 1970), 27 1970), Press, University CA.: Stanford (Stanford,

ris ohr country other arties, identified by Johnson were the level of economic development, economic of level the were Johnson by identified rk: Holmes and Meyer Publishers, 1979); Martin McCauley and Stephen Martinand McCauley 1979); Publishers, Meyer Holmes and rk: ie wy o dig oiis ht ee omn o all to common were that politics doing of ways i.e. ,

- Stalinizat n the various ways each regime reacted to the the to reacted regime each ways various the n 52

(Cze ion” by preserving their orthodox Stalinism orthodox their preserving by ion” 24 choslovakia, Hungary,choslovakia, - specific ‘operative variables’ resulted in in resulted variables’ ‘operative specific -

1993: detour from the periphery to the periphery to periphery the from detour 1993: Political Culture and Political Change in in Change Political and Culture Political

target 51

- setting and purges. The The purges. and setting hs Jhsn identified Johnson Thus, - argued that though there though that argued 28.

included reorienting the the reorienting included

and .), .),

Poland). Change in in Change

untry untry

CEU eTD Collection Republic. Czechoslovak the First and values ofMasaryk destroy theto unable was regime Communist 172 1977), (eds.), Gray Jack 56 55 255 1996), Press, Post and America South Society:Poland’ Political 54 53. 2010), England, ofNew Press University 53 implementation ofa totalitarian political communist culture. successful the prevented that people the of hearts and minds the in values tradition’s regards with claimed resistance.” of sources of reservoir deep a provided and hegemon Soviet the against antagonism nationalist of source a “was fer and Roman the Polish, overwhelmingly was WWII after which, country’spopulation of constitution the uniqueness: Poland’s for account to developments historic claim. their underline to styles” leadership changing P to unique developments post or totalitarianism to than period communist its during type regime authoritarian the to closer was Poland that the limited society of that control and own steering dictatorial their of logic a “developed politics, dictatorial of products though action, of modes and relations informal out, pointed author the Moreover, unintended and aims toclear a counteracted measures political of contradicting consequences limits certain practice were everyday there “in that because claimed dictatorship Kocka point. in case a is Republic social innovative Kocka’s Jürgen only. studies

Archie Brown and Gordon Wightman, ‘Czechoslovakia: Revival and Retreat’ in: Archie Brown and Brownand Archie in: Retreat’ and Revival ‘Czechoslovakia: Wightman, Gordon Brownand Archie 259. Ibid, Ambivalent and EthicalCivil Society, Communism, ‘Authoritarian Stepan, Alfred Linz JuanJ. and Jürg en Kocka, enKocka, ety uprig h nto. oih saees, iz n Sea concluded, Stepan and Linz “stateness”, Polish nation. the supporting vently - 173. A similar argument was put forward by ZdenĕkMlyn byforward putAwas similar argument 173.

Civil Society and Dictatorship in Modern German HistoryGerman Modern in Dictatorship and Civil Society - Political Culture and Political Change in States in Communist Change Political and Culture Political 292.

- Communist Europe. Communist

in: in: to Czechoslovakia that it was the survival of the Czech pluralist Czech the of survival the was it that Czechoslovakia to Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation. Southern Europe, Europe, Southern Consolidation. and Transition Democratic of Problems olish C olish

ommunism and the pattern of “policy alternation and alternation “policy of pattern the and ommunism - oaiains. hy dniid eti systemic certain identified They totalitarianism.

(Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University University JohnsHopkins London: The and (Baltimore 25 . ” 55 53

rhe rw ad odn Wightman Gordon and Brown Archie Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan Alfred and Linz J. Juan itr o te emn Democratic German the of history 54

However, they also pointed at pointed also they However, - cut dominatio cut ář, who claimed that the that whoclaimed ář, 56

(Hanover and London: London: and (Hanover

(London: MacMillan, MacMillan, (London: n from above.” from n - Catholic Catholic

argued

CEU eTD Collection 1996). Press, CambdrigeUniversity 1957 Succession, Political and Change, Reform,Social Economic Revolution: (1972 (1956 hostage” as“thereluctant labels 296 Post and in: Bulgaria’ 59 “normalhistory”. from “deviation” extreme as an modernization theoffor Soviet presentation 93 1993, 58 Post in Studies Historical (eds.), Apor Péter Trencsényi and Balázs Antohi, Sorin in: inthe 1990s’ 57 1980). Mlynář, Zdenĕk See: revolution, 1956 the following control regained having after that maintains position this of version extreme most the the defined establishments, setbacks afterwards (1956 revolution (1953 uprising popular a to led that reform of years (1948 period Stalinist totalitarian a underwent Hungary periodization, conventional this Accordingto periods. distinct few a in socialism’ ‘real experienceof as communism ahistoricalSoviet abe t as considered be can approach latter element. mismatching alien, an as it consider worldview, political conservative to road an the on others, as while history modernization, period Hungarian of communist part the integral yet view dictatorial, who unnecessarily some are There history. Hungarian 1.2.3.

Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, ‘Varieties ofPost ‘Varieties Stepan, Alfred Linz JuanJ. and See Péter Trencsényi and Balázs - Many country’s the describe to tends literature mainstream Hungarian and Western Both The 301. Rudolf L.Toke Rudolf 301. -

for example: Robert Conquest, ‘Academe and the Soviet Myth’ in: Soviet the and ‘Academe Conquest, Robert example:for 1980), and the “enfeebled autarch”(1981 the and “enfeebled 1980),

- Interpretations of theInterpretations Kádár of regime e xs to itntapoce t post to approaches distinct two exist re Communist Europe. Communist

authors, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation. Southern Europe, South America America South Europe, Southern Consolidation. and Transition Democratic of Problems - 1960/ Night

(1961/1963 just just

- s identified the periods of Kádár’s rule similarly, but with rather graphic with rather but rulesimilarly, ofKádár’s the periods sidentified Communist Eastern Europe Eastern Communist - frost in Prague. The End of Humane Socialism End Humane The of Prague. in frost 1962), and a prolonged detotali prolonged a and 1962),

(Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 1996), Press, University JohnsHopkins London: and The (Baltimore like in the case of other Eastern European communist communist European Eastern other of case the in like Apor, ’Fine Apor, Kádár

any mn toe h ahr t a oe national more a to adhere who those among mainly - - 1989) 1962), the “risk 1962), áá bgn o lbrlz Hnay. [n] quietly [and] Hungary... “liberalize to began Kádár regime as a variation of the Soviet model. Perhaps model. Soviet the of variation a as regime - Tuning the Polyphonic Past: Hungarian Historical Writing Historical Hungarian Past: Polyphonic the Tuning rration. . 59 he parallel of Western concepts Western of parallel he - 1988). See: Rudolf L. Tokes, See: L.RudolfTokes, 1988).

26 - Totali

(Budapest: CEU Press, 2007), 50 2007), Press, CEU (Budapest:

- taking reformer” (1963 takingreformer”

- tarian Regimes: Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Regimes: tarian 97 o, n oe ae, post cases, some in (or, 1947 t - arization or reform with some with reform or arization 96, cmuit counter communist a 1956), Narratives Unbound. Narratives Unbound. The National Interest National The

(

London: C. Hurst & Co., Hurst London: C. - H - 1990 1971), the “good king” the king” “good 1971), ungary’s Negotiated Negotiated ungary’s

(Cambridge:

- which treated which - 1953) 55.

a few a , , Spring Spring , 57 - 1945)

This

- -

CEU eTD Collection 430. 1999), House, 65 17 2011), L’Harmattan, 64 7 2007), Gondolat, an Hungary Revolution. [Evolutionand 63 113. 2003), 62 1986). Press, Charles Gati, 1971); Praeger, York: Fejtő, Ferenc 1979); Press, 61 60 principles. political his or himself Kádár with do to little had policies liberal more Hungary’s that opined dogmas fundamental with meddling from refraining leadership of amount afterwards certain tolerance a with Hungary treated and revolt the from conclusions drew leadership Soviet the as inasmuch policies Kremlin’s the affected 1956 of revolution aspirations Hungarian in foreignas policies canbe earlyas detected themid affairs.” foreign th to “adherence was withdrawal this of price The cultivated.” be could society open and liberal of perception “the thus and lives” daily people’s from party the of nature obtrusive the and politics removing by rule... his legitimized foreign respect in every in Union policies Soviet the followed Kádár policies, domestic reformist assure to that stated Gáti, Charles and Fejtő Ferenc Kovrig, Benneth as such communism numb a Moscow, from dependence of degree the of evaluation the and formation policy model Soviet the from away further and further Hungary moved

László Kontler, LászlóKontler, Rainer M., János (ed.), Békés Csaba Falk, J. Barbara BennetKovrig, LeslieHolmes, oee, e However, er of authors who made early made who authors of er

a ta h “eand oe reo o mvmn a te xes of expense the at movement of freedom some “retained he that was Politics in the Communist World Communist the in Politics Comm Millenium in Central Europe. Europe. Central in Millenium e avcts f oit eemns pitd u ta te Hung the that out pointed determinism Soviet of advocates ven Dilemmas of Dissidence in East in Dissidence of Dilemmas -

62 30. Bevezetés a Kádárizmusba a Bevezetés Evolúció és Revolúció. Magyarország és a nemzetközi politika 1956 politika nemzetközi és a Magyarország és Revolúció. Evolúció

- sb Bks n h ohr ad rud ht eti independent certain that argued hand other the on Békés Csaba 18. Sh unism in Hungary. From Kun to Kádár. to Kun From Hungary. in unism

. 64 A History of the People's Democracies: Eastern Europe Since Stalin Since Europe Eastern Democracies: APeople's the of History

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Hungary and the Soviet the bloc Soviet and Hungary d International Politics in 1956] (Budapest: 1956 (Budapest: in1956] Politics International d contribution

[Introduction to Kádárism] (Budapest: 1956 (Budapest: Kádárism] to [Introduction A History of Hungary of History A 27 -

(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), 296. 1986), Press, Clarendon (Oxford: Central Europe Central

l mrvmns ht aa [sic!] Kadar that improvements ll s to the field of study of Hungarian of study of field the to s . ”

(Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Institution CA: Hoover (Stanford, (Durham N.C.: Duke Un Duke (DurhamN.C.: 65

(New York, N.Y.: CEU Press, Press, CEU N.Y.: (NewYork, William Shawcross however, Shawcross William

(Budapest: Atlantisz Publishing Publishing Atlantisz (Budapest: k ttd ht “Kádár that stated lk . ” Mso ln in line Moscow e 60

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CEU eTD Collection 73 2003), Intézet, os on Rainer, M. János See: point. post ofthe end the considering years, following Ra János 222. 1992), Press, University Columbia (ed.), Held Joseph 68 Koss (Budapest: Kádár A története. 1987); Études Internationales, Hautes de Institut Universitaire (Paris: Communism.] ofHungarian Years Kádár. János 1956 intézményesülése (eds.), Szabó János Huszárand in: Tibor 1960] 1956 ofcorrection; chance the ofrepression, the domination structure, power rebuilding ofthe The ’A Huszár, Tibor 1944 politics [Hungarian 67 Revolution 66 1948 between Kádár and Rákosi of totalitarianism the between difference no was Rákosi old the of members mostly with Party the of rebuilding the and power orthod of hierarchy the of cultural establishment society, and economy Hungarian of nationalization time.” Rákosi’s in those than vicious and brutal less no were murders judicial and “atrocities whose terror counterrevolutionary authoritarian system. reformed economically) least (at a to establishment dictatorial a from trajectory clear a as largely historiography in described been has aftermath, immediate its and 1968 of invasion the until 1956 in regime Kádár the of establishment the ( era Kádár the of points end and starting exact the though historiography, in fact settled mostly never intheKremlin.” despite hiscomrades Hungary, in made

Péter Hanák and Joseph Held, ’Hungary on a Fixed Course: An Outline of Hungarian History’ in: in: History’ ofHungarian AnOutline Course: Fixed ’Hungarya on Held, Hanák Joseph and Péter Bihari, example:for Mihály See WilliamShawcross, the top. The few happy years of János Kádár.] In: János M. Rainer, M. In: János Kádár.] yearsofJános few happy The thetop. T Hungar of phase distinct a is reign Kádár’s János of period the That e is fw er floig h revoluti the following years few first he

(New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. Inc, 1974), 274. 1974), &Inc, Co. Dutton (New E.P. York: Kádár Soixante uth Kiadó, 2010). uthKiadó,

hatalmi gépezet újjáépítése, a represszió túlsúlya, a kiigazítás esélye; 1956 esélye; túlsúlya, kiigazítás represszió a a újjáépítése, gépezet hatalmi - The Columbia History of Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century Twentieth the in Europe Eastern of History Columbia The korszak 1956 korszak - 91. - korszak - - Crime and Compromise. Janos Kadar and the Politics of Hungary Since Since Hungary the of Politics Kadar and Janos Compromise. and Crime ehs aesol,cuiul, ahtm ih oit approval, Soviet with time each cautiously, slowly, made has he dix ans de Communisme Hongrois. Communisme ans de dix 1962.

- 67

2004. Political and Power structures] (Budapest: Osiris, 2005), 237 Osiris,2005), (Budapest: Power structures] and Political 2004.

‘”Helyezkedés” a csúcson. Kádár János néhány boldog éve.’ [“Jockeying” [“Jockeying” éve.’ néhány János boldog Kádár csúcson. a ‘”Helyezkedés”

(Budapest: Zrínyi Kiadó, 1999), 67 1999), Zrínyi Kiadó, (Budapest: ) are debated. The period covered by the dissertation, from dissertation, the by covered period The debated. are ) - - 1989.

elite. András Bozóki and Eszter Simon argued that there that argued Simon Eszter and Bozóki András elite. Magyar politika 1944 politika Magyar

[The History of Hungary. The Kádár era 1956 era Kádár The HistoryofHungary. [The Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques Politiques Sciences des Nationale Fondation la de Presses - Restauráció vagy kiiga vagy Restauráció revolutionary executions as the most important turning turning most important as the executions revolutionary iner distinguishes the period 1956 period the inerdistinguishes 28 68 66

In general, they were defined by the re the by defined were they general, In

- 2004. Politikai és hatalmi viszonyok. hatalmi és Politikai 2004.

[From Béla Kun to János Kádár. Seventy Kádár. János to Kun [FromBéla János M. Rainer, M. János - 146. Miklós Molnár, MiklósMolnár, 146. n ee oiae by dominated were on zítás. A kádári represszió kádári A zítás. Ötvenhat után Ötvenhat Magyarország Magyarország Czechoslovakia in in Czechoslovakia - 1959 from 1959 the

. (New York: . (Budapest: 1956 (Budapest: - ian history is a a is history ian 1989.] 1989.] De Béla Kun a a Kun Béla De x, h re the oxy, - - 1960’ [ [ 1960’ 244. 244.

- and and - - - CEU eTD Collection viszonyok. 5 1989), September, inpost our approaches 73 Succession. 72 2000.) Kiadása, 1957 évek 71 25. 1996), soci reform, Economic 350 1979.), Institution Press, Hoover 70 1989 since Politics European Southeast 69 a of architect the as accepted gradually was “Kádár and born, was the camp” socialist in barrack “happiest the that then was It press. the for permitted was officials prosper economic 1968 period.the next new regime technical of end conflicts and between thepeople theregime”. overt of absence “the by characterized stability, political perceived of era the as years permanent.” collectivization by formed structures class the considering society, change to campaigns the up given finally have and socialism’, of foundations the ‘laying finished have they consolidation, of end the to 1974. and 1962 between powers of police thesecret and terror. arbitrary the propaganda, totalitarian by characterized was totalitarianism This 1962.

Iván T. Berend, ’Problémák és megközelítések felszabadulás utáni történelmünkben’ [Problems and and [Problems utáni történelmünkben’ felszabadulás megközelítések ’Problémák Berend, és IvánT. L.Tőkés, Rudolf Révész in: (ed.), Sándor (1962).] Year [Essay ofthe ‘Évesszé(1962)’ Tyekvicska, Árpád Kovrig, example:for Bennet See Ramet (ed.) P. Sabrina in: 1989’ ’HungarySince Simon, Eszter and Bozóki András Economic historian Iván T. Berend identified a main historical turning point at the at point turning historical main a identified Berend T. Iván historian Economic sub next The

technology, new economic structure and new employment patterns characterized patterns employment new and structure economic new technology, ,

thus it introduced economic reforms which brought about a much needed needed much a about brought which reforms economic introduced it thus the 1960s the -

1968. Kádár A 1968. [Hungarian politics 1944 [Hungarianpolitics

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 11. 1996), University Press, Cambridge (Cambridge:

73 - - Hungary’s Negotiated Revolution. Economic Reform, Social Change and Political Political and Change Social Reform, Economic Revolution. Negotiated Hungary’s . He argued that the economic basis for this transformation was the the was transformation this for basis economic the that argued He .

12. Also: Mihály12. Bihari, change which finally emerged as a structural crisis in the 1970s. A 1970s. the in crisis structural a as emerged finally which change - Joseph Held arguedJoseph thegrew regime legitimacy for that desperate by ity and easing of state control. Some criticism of lower party party lower of criticism Some control. state of easing and ity period of the Kádár regime in historiography is usually placed placed usually is historiography in regime Kádár the of period - al change and political succession. political and change al liberation history] in: history] liberation

- korszaktörténete. 70

As Árpád Tyekvicska pu Tyekvicska Árpád As Communism in Hungary. From Kun to Kádár. to Kun From Hungary. in Communism

- 2004. Political and Power relations] (Budapest: Osiris, 2005), 300. 2005), Osiris, (Budapest: relations] Power and Political 2004. - 357. 357.

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Prss, 2010), 207. 2010), Prss, University Cambridge (Cambridge: Rudolf L. Tőkés, RudolfL. Tőkés,

(Budapest: A Beszélő politik A Beszélő (Budapest: Társadalmi Szemle Társadalmi 69

Magyar politika 1944 politika Magyar

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Press, University Cambridge (Cambridge: 71 Hungary’s negotiated revolution. revolution. negotiated Hungary’s

t it, “Kádárist policies have come have policies “Kádárist it, t Ru , Vol. XLIV, No. 8 XLIV,No. Vol. ,

dolf L. Tőkés described these described Tőkés L. dolf - 2 004. Politikai és hatalmi hatalmi és Politikai 004. ai és kulturális folyóirat folyóirat kulturális és ai

(Stanford, CA: (Stanford, - 9 (August 9 Central and and Central Beszélő Beszélő

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CEU eTD Collection 229 2002), Tanszéke, MagyarTörténelmi értékelések. Valuch (eds.), Tibor Püski and 75 223. 1992), Press, University Columbia (ed.), Held Joseph 74 socio local to adaptability its way, totalizing a in societies European Eastern other and Hungarian on imposed originally was structure political soc of and principles organizing operational competing of coexistence the conceptualizes and recognizes that trajectory inte ‘upward’ the both treats dissertation the Therefore, influence. and population size, in smaller much countries fit would superpower a describing model historical or political socio decision and model Soviet the on dependent completely as regimes communist European Eastern describe that consu bloc of intensity and frequency the given underestimated be cannot factors such But Union). Soviet the in even sometimes (and bloc the of countries other in developments on periodizations socialism’ became indisputable. for hopes ‘real of reform to impossibility the view, of economicpoint an from upwardtrajectory the all Czechoslovakia, of crushed. were democratization invasion military Hungarian the with that, in claiming participation 1968 in point turning different very a identified life.”better

György Földes, ’A Kádár Földes, György in: History’ ofHungarian AnOutline Course: Fixed ’Hungarya on Held, Hanák Joseph and Péter n dqae oil cetfc oe t dsrb plc frain hud e one be should formation policy describe to model scientific social adequate An such with problem The critically. concepts above the approaches dissertation The - economic (Debrecen: 1956 (Debrecen: 74

ltations on internal and external issues alike. On the other hand, theories hand, other the On alike. issues external and internal on ltations The reformThe rpretation of the 1960s rpretation of

is that they consider Kádárist policies in isolation, and reflect too little too reflect and isolation, in policies Kádárist consider they that is The Columbi The euirte. utemr, t s ihy usinbe hte any whether questionable highly is it Furthermore, peculiarities.

- korszak jellegzetességei’ [Characteristics of the Kádár ofthe [Characteristics korszakjellegzetességei’ - os Intézet os years continued until 1972. György Földes on the other hand other the on GyörgyFöldes 1972. until yearscontinued Mérlegen a XX. századi XX. a Mérlegen a History of Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century Twentieth the in Europe Eastern of History a - making neglect significant local historic, ideological and and ideological historic, local significant neglect making

75 ooiia raiy Tog te ope ideological complex the Though reality. iopolitical

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- Debreceni Egyetem Történelmi Intézet Új Intézet Történelmi Egyetem Debreceni 244. 244. , as Soviet well as the

30 e country continued to be perceived on an on perceived be to continued country e

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economic circumstances, as as circumstances, economic parallel critically. –

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. (New York: . és Legújabbkori Legújabbkori és

- CEU eTD Collection Left the Jewsand 1959); 57; 1970), Press, University 76 f population Jewish the viewedas theproblemsomethingthancomplex more a flaw inideology. of existence the for thought. argue Marxist to in inherent example antisemitism an as served frequently has piece This often 1.2.4. approach.this examines dissertation The peculiarities. national determine to zone influence Soviet the of countries other with basis comparative a on but and isolation, in examined be statically not should country given be cannot period given any countries other to applied deterministically in Union Soviet the in occurred decisions political Therefore, di features systemic with balance to country various these of effects different the of result a as occurred regimes communist European Eastern between erodet to bound were economictrends nation of undercurrents the however, run, long the In methods. coercive by overcome be could contradictions and fallacies these term, internatio and domestic as well

See for example:for See A lot of resear of lot A the and Communism between relationship the examine scholars When

cited starting point is Karl Marx’s early essay entitled ‘On the Jewish the ‘On entitled essayearly Marx’s Karl is point starting cited Edmund Silberner: ‘Was Marx an anti Marx ‘Was Edmund Silberner: The State of the Art: Jews under StateThe the Communism Art: of Jews

(New York: New York University NewUniversity York (New York: Emil Ludwig Fackenheim, Fackenheim, Ludwig Emil ch that examined the relationship between communist regimes and regimes communist between relationship the examined that ch

the D.D.Runes,

specific area of area specific csd on ocused

and - a pltcl eeomns ws iie. n h short the In limited. was developments, political nal specific attributes, which the leaderships always tried tried always leaderships the which attributes, specific

A World Without Jews World A bureaucratic, ideological or structural changes that changes structural or ideological bureaucratic, ctated (or perceived to be dictated) from Moscow. from dictated) be to perceived (or ctated - Semite?’ in: Ezra Mendelsohn (ed.), (ed.), Mendelsohn Ezra in: Semite?’ he system. I therefore argue Itherefore system. he God’s Presence in History in Presence God’s antisemitism. antisemitism. 31 76

policies Press, 1997), 361 1997), Press, of the bloc. Similarly, changes in any one one any in changes Similarly, bloc. the of

oee, ot tdns f h subject the of students most However,

related to Jewish issues, Jewish to related

(New York: York: (New - ila Kry tesd the stressed Korey William specific social, political and and political social, specific

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Jews applying , the , CEU eTD Collection Systems Communist 82 197 Norton & inc, Company W.W. 81 30 1980), Jerusalem, Consequences. and Roots Its Union. Soviet the in Semitism 80 157. 2006), Press, University 79 Lond Angeles, Los Chazan, Robert 2006); Press, University Day Present the to Times Ancient of from Antisemitism: Face Changing The Low, political everyday by 78 formed was 77 antisemitism to leaders party’s communist anti political anti of aspects pragmatic the thepopulation in within order toensure political control. (including cleavages religious or ethnic as such preexisting commitments” to social “defer to had regimes The control. totalitarian of limits the of sign controls.” of maze a in of resentment popular the divert to endeavoring of way regime’s “the was 1946 after USSR the in antisemitism official that argued Tucker C. Robert control. tool. political expa later was that doctrine Leninist of predisposition Zionist orpopulation. serveoftheJewish measuresJews, theinterests notfavour did communis “forced” that Jews with Communism repress. to unablewas Communism that centurynationalisms 19th of continuation direct awas Jews. a popular of persistence

Chalmers Johnson, ‘Comparing Communist Nations’ in: Chalmers Johnson (ed.), (ed.), Johnson Chalmers in: Nations’ Communist ‘Comparing ChalmersJohnson, Tucker, C. Robert ‘Anti Roth, StephenJ. Kenez, Peter Wistrich, S. Robert WilliamKorey, Works focusing on antisemitism during the communist period in Hungary stressed stressed Hungary in period communist the during antisemitism on focusing Works anti the in precisely explanation the found hand other the on Roth J. Stephen Soviet Jewry and Soviet Policy Soviet Jewryand Soviet 77

78 Authors such as Robert Robert as such Authors

ee Knz ugse ta i ws h atsmtc dniiain of identification antisemitic the was it that suggested Kenez Peter A History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to the End to the Beginning from Union the Soviet of History A eiim f h Rks pro, rud ht []e eainhp f the of relationship “[t]he that argued period, Rákosi the of semitism 80 The Soviet Cage. Anti Cage. Soviet The

on: University of California Press, 1997). Press, California of on: University

te atos huh o atsmts a a en o totalitarian of means a as antisemitism of thought authors Other (Stanford, CA.: Stanford University Press, 1970), 30. 1970), Press, University CA.: Stanford (Stanford, - The Soviet Political Mind. Stalinism and and Post Stalinism Mind. Political Soviet The 39. 39. Antisemitism: the longest hatred longest the Antisemitism: -

Zionism and anti and Zionism

Yet others opined that official antisemitism was preciselythe was antisemitism official that opined others Yet tsmtc rjdcs ht eie Sve policies Soviet defined that prejudices ntisemitic - 1), 188. 1), Jewish discrimination. Éva Standeisky, writing about the the about writingStandeisky, Éva discrimination. Jewish

(NewY Wistrich and Alfred D. Low argued that antisemitism that argued Low D. Alfred and Wistrich - Medieval Stereotypes and Modern Antisemitism Modern and Stereotypes Medieval semitism in Russia semitismin -

Semitism in the USSR’ in: Jacob M. Kelman M. (ed Jacob in: USSR’ the in Semitism ork: East European Monographs, 1990); Walter Laqueur, Walter 1990); Monographs, European East ork: 32

(London: Thames Methuen, 1991); Alfred D. 1991); (London: Methuen, Thames

(Jerusalem: The Hebrew University of University Hebrew (Jerusalem: The

(New York: The Viking Press, 1973). Viking Press, The (NewYork:

pltcas o rv ta their that prove to politicians t - Stalin Change Stalin 82

(New York: Cambridge (New Cambridge York: (Oxford: Oxford Oxford (Oxford: dd n ue a a as used and nded

(New York, NY.: NY.: (NewYork, Change in in Change antisemitism) antisemitism)

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- - CEU eTD Collection in: inHungary] 87 2012.] 2, December [Retrieved: http://www.valosagonline.hu/index.php?oldal=cikk&cazon=1044&lap=0 in: era] Kádár 86 85 in: historicproblem] a approach attempt to An Hungary. in [Antisemitism 84 (1945 ofcommunists antisemitism 83 similar a presented Wistrich Robert factors. political pragmatic and ideological the of complex whole unwritten an of philos Leninist for support The issues Jewish regarding position regime’s mann the In account. instigation. antisemitic encompass not did and ideas Zionist to opposition an meant only really Hungary in sense strict the in antisemitism political of accusation the from 1960s the in Kádárism acquitted unblemished.”is 1969 and 1956 between record Hungary’s f that“both claimed and Poland) (especially bloc the of countries other of that to attitude regime’s Hungarian the contrasted Lendvai Paul publications, earlier the of one In counter Communism. Jewish thestereotype of anti disproportionately, Jewry class middle “anti line, Zionist” i era, Rákosi the of discrimination interests.”

Ferenc Fehér, ‘Bibó István ‘Bibó Fehér, Ferenc the in communism [Jewsand korszakban’ Kádár a és kommunizmus ‘Zsidóság Győri Szabó, Róbert Lendvai, Paul megközelítésére’ kérdéskör egy történeti Kísérlet antiszemitizmus. magyarországi ‘A Karády, Viktor (1945 antiszemitizmusa politikai kommunisták ‘A ÉvaStandeisky, O pinions on political antisemitism during the Kádár era are less straightforward. straightforward. less are era Kádár the during antisemitism political on pinions rin bevr ad eih eiet are ht n hs epc Communist respect this in that agree residents Jewish and observers oreign 83 (

Valóság a Holmi nd compared to Poland and the Soviet Union Soviet the and Poland to compared nd Anti itr aáy dniid aiu ifune bhn anti behind influences various identified Karády Viktor ueu clausus numerus - semitism without Jews without semitism , June 1991, June1991, , , Vol. 51, no. 12 (December, 12 no. 51, , Vol. - orei” gtto wih i te rdmnnl ubn upper urban predominantly the hit which agitation bourgeois”

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(New York: Doubleday and Company Inc, 1971), 302. 302. 1971), Inc, Company and Doubleday York: (New cuig h ne t flo Mso’ “anti Moscow’s follow to need the ncluding Századvég

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- - CEU eTD Collection 1967 Poland, 93 2009). ProQuest, 92 Press; Center Wilson Woodrow D.C.: (Washington, 91 (eds.), Middle 90 Privilege of 89 88 archive comprehensive, Republic, Democratic German the anti as disguised (thinly antisemitism Zionism the emphasized Plocke Anat 1968, of campaigns antisemitic Polish Soviet to p have team research his and Ro’i Yaacov most studies of amount uneven an produced state and Party official and Party upset the the unity of fear leadership’s Kádárist non was that mean antisemitism not did surface the on matters Jewish of lack apparent the that arguing “balanced” were policies Kádárist ter the of instead though Fehér’s, as position until Collapse the War World Second ofthe End from the Politics Jewish ‘Hungarian Kovács, András Dariusz Stola, ’Anti DariuszStola, AnatPlocker, (eds.). Morozov Boris Ro’i Yaacov and Ro’i, Yaacov Wistrich, S. Robert Communism’ in: Ezra Mendelsohn (ed.), (ed.), Mendelsohn in: Ezra Communism’ The examination of the wide array of state policies towards Jewish issues Jewish towards policies state arraythe wide of of examination The Documents on Israeli Soviet Relations 1941 Relations Soviet Israeli on Documents well East, 1945 East,

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 124 2003), Press, University Oxford (Oxford:

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(New York, Toronto: John Wiley and Sons, 1974), Gabriel Gorodetsky al. Gabriel et Sons, 1974), and Wiley John (NewToronto: York,

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Éva Standeisky, ÉvaStandeisky, ÉvaStandeisky, in: ofBulgaria’ Case The Daythe War: and Six ’Eastern Europe Baev, Jordan Czechoslovakia Partyof theCommunist of politics internal and foreign inthe Crhová,‘Israel Marie A German Realpolitik: East ’Ideologyand AngelikaTimm, LotharMertens,

Tamás Szőnyei, Tamás Szőnyei, Tabajdi, Gábor and KrisztiánUngváry stá Ungváry’s isztián This dissertation continues dissertation This the in Kovács, András - 2005) (Budapest: CEU, 2005). CEU, (Budapest: 2005) - making regarding Jewish issues. issues. regardingJewish making Behandlung durch Partei und Staat 1945 Staat Partei und durch Behandlung Évkönyv VIII Évkönyv

Éva Standeisky Éva [Tied down. The cultural elite and the power centre] (Budapest: 1956os Intézet, 2005). Intézet, 1956os (Budapest: centre] the and power cultural elite down. [Tied The - a Wr ta ilsrt te opeiy f oiy omto duri formation policy of complexity the illustrate that War) Day - The Soviet Union and the June 1967 Six DayWar. Six 1967 the June and Union Soviet The os Intézet, 1996) Intézet, os Antiszemitizmusok 1956 hatalom és a írók Az SBZ/DDR der in Gemeinden jüdischen Die Zirkel. und Hammer unter Davidstern

Titkos írás. Titkos - structure. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, Press, University CA: Stanford Stanford, - 2000

, Vol. 25, No. 1 (March, 2006), 203 2006), No.1 (March, 25, Vol. , 100 94

and later, and (Budapest: 1956 (Budapest:

n Tms Szőny Tamás and Állambiztonsági szolgálat és irodalmi élet 1956 élet irodalmi és szolgálat Állambiztonsági , making good use of documents from the security archives, securitythe from documents of use good making ,

Jewish Studies at the Central European University University European Central the at Studies Jewish ;

‘Értelmiségi antiszemitizmus a Kádár korszakban’ [The [The korszakban’ Kádár a ‘Értelmiségi antiszemitizmus

this recent trend in historiography in trend recent this [ Antisemitisms] (Budapest: Argumentum, 2007), Argumentum, (Budapest: Antisemitisms] Angelika Timm has published has Timm Angelika Elhallgatott múlt. Elhallgatott – he regime’s policies connected to these to connected policies regime’s he - 1990 1963 - os Intézet, 2000), 26 2000), Intézet, os

Michael Miller (eds.), (eds.), Miller Michael – 35 - [The silenced past. The party state and the Ministry the and party state past. The silenced [The

1990. 1990] (Budapest: Noran, 2012). Noran, (Budapest: 1990] [The Writers and the Regime 1956 the Writersand Regime [The

e i’s

[The Star of David under Hammer and Sickle. and Hammer under [TheofDavid Star

101 A A pártállam - ttitudes towards Zionism and Israel’ in: Israel’in: Zionismand towards ttitudes 222.

2008). ouetr hsois f the of histories documentary

(Wa - - 39; 39; 1990] (Budapest: Corvina, 2008). (Budapest: 1990]

Jewish Studies at the CEU IV CEU at the Studies Jewish shington, D.C.: Woodrow D.C.: shington, Gúzsba Kötve. A kulturális A Kötve. Gúzsba

és a belügy. A politikai politikai A belügy. és a

on anti on - . 1990 Vol.I 1990 96 Yaacov Ro’i and Boris Ro’iBoris and Yaacov I base my findings findings my base I -

1990] (Olms: 1990]

n Bulgarian and - 1963]. 1963].

- Zionism. - 99 II.

1960s,

as well. as [Secret [Secret ng the the ng series, series, 95 elit

. A 98 97

CEU eTD Collection an radio and articles, newspaper as such materials media and publications Besides use I records, Archives. archival Zionist Central the at Congress Jewish World the of materials the collecti consult I sources, Israeli the Among Interior. the of Ministry the from reports agent various on draw I apparatus, the of logic working inner the into insight further respons was (which Affairs Church of Office the and Department, Cultural and Scientific the Propaganda, and Agitation of Department the Affairs, Foreign of Ministry the Ithe Central Furthermore,analyses, correspondence Committee. usethe and of reports an Politburo the such bodies state governing the of meetings the of records official mainly are consult I records archival The Archives. Zionist Central the and Archives Services, Security State the of Archives Historical the Archives, Society Open the Archives, National Hungarian the include former from The archives. records Israeli and archival Hungarian various are investigation the for bases main My sources. primary them.constituted main the decision of examining forums by sense, possible broadest the in understood issues Jewish attit regime’s Kádár the of formation the on concentrate I Rather, text. the in appearance frequent makestopicindeed that though antisemitism, of manifestations to asymmetrical. it substantiates also it that in research previous than further goes also study the However, materials. o civ a utdmninl eito o te oi, ue sever use I topic, the of depiction multidimensional a achieve To n o te iity f oeg Afis t h Ire Sae rhvs ad the and Archives, State Israel the at Affairs Foreign of Ministry the of ons ible for policies towards the Jewish religious community in Hungary). To get To Hungary). in community religious Jewish the towards policies for ible and d television program transcripts to assess propaganda techniques These techniques propaganda assess to transcripts program television d

I do not confine the examination of state policies towards Jewish issues Jewish towards policies state of examination the confine not do I h Isiue f oiia History Political of Institute the fnig by findings s

making and the group dynamics and individual contributions that contributions individual and dynamics group the and making

plig cmaaie esetv, howe perspective, comparative a applying 36

The latter include the Israel State State Israel the include latter The l rus of groups al ude to ude ver ver d

CEU eTD Collection Zionists. of category applied) arbitrarily (rather the including enemies, external and internal e the had East, Middle the in policies Arab pro Union’s Soviet the with combined West, the leader. to openness increased Furthermore, Party as position his reinforce to Kádár by manipulated was antisemitism to antisemitism ingrained for party the within space created control of relaxation This general. in population the and Party Workers Socialist Hungarian the both over grip its loosened state the when success Hungary. in the relativize to attempted much with realized not was propaganda goal this WWII, during victimhood Jewish of importance communist while that, shown be will reasons propaganda own their fo trial the use to tried states Communist Bloc. Eastern the by trial Eichmann Adolf ev the explain to narrative “counterrevolutionary” its establish to order in issues Jewish manipulated leadership Kádár’s that demonstrates It 1960. and 1956 between regime 1.3. to assess the effects policies onWestern both observers and ofstate populations. local direct the s ofeffect human of understanding our enrich help which of all works, literary even and correspondence memoirs, recollections, personal with substituted are records official ents of 1956, and reinstate partycountry.reinstate ents the of1956,andcontrol over hpe tre descri three Chapter 1961 the of coverage press and reception the examines chapter second The Kádár Hungary’s of establishment the reviews dissertation this of chapter firstThe

Structure limitations the dissertation, of

tate policies. Records of Radio Free Europe proved to be useful tools tools useful be to proved Europe Free Radio ofRecords policies. tate

e te áá rgm’ cnoiain eid (1960 period consolidation regime’s Kádár the bes resurface. The chapter demonstrates the ways this this ways the demonstrates chapter The resurface.

both as a bloc and on the level of individual states. It states. individual of level the on and bloc a as both 37 ffect of raising Hungarian concerns about about concerns Hungarian raising of ffect

- 1967) - 62 - r

CEU eTD Collection I least, not but Last permit. would study present the of scope the what than further gone have would so do to research, of subjects worthy certainly are d nor levels, perso local the investigate the on way, policies comprehensive of a execution the in of examine, mechanisms not did I apparatus. bureaucratic and researchconcentratedthe decision on Hungarian and possible antisemitism. issues highlight Jewish on to policies and Kádárist work, of implications the contemporary from conclusions broader draw to order preventreaching trend this fromHungary. to tried actively state Hungarian the why also but Union, Soviet the and Germany East Poland, in ones the to similar campaign antisemitic an launching against decided r Kádár the why only not explains chapter The issues. Jewish regarding policies state Hungarian impacted year that later Czechoslovakia of invasion Pact Warsaw campaignwarS likeand following the Poland the anti an launch to not opted state Hungarian the why explains also chapter The possible. ownbest whenever regime its prioritized interest theKádár as be will shown, to adhered closely Hungary surface, the On Israel. Middle the after and during take to steps which about unified from far were countries bloc the appearances, communist on influence Moscow’s and hr are There eve the together brings chapter final The the and Poland in protests student 1968 spring the how illustrates five Chapter intra investigate to used is War Day Six 1967 the four, Chapter In

iiain o te israin that dissertation the of limitations nal perceptions of the policies the of perceptions nal - at rss ih ead t rltos ih rb onre and countries Arab with relations to regards with crisis East - making process in the highest levels of the thehighest Party in levels making of process 38

nts covered throughout the dissertation in dissertation the throughout covered nts oeg plc frain Despite formation. policy foreign oviet Uniondid.

among those among

Moscow’s foreign policy line, but line, policy foreign Moscow’s hud e drse hr. The here. addressed be should

affected. While these While affected.

d thoroughly I id i nt always not did - bloc relations bloc - Zionist Zionist egime egime CEU eTD Collection warranted. or correct were definitions these whether on judgements pass not did I Therefore, affected those of experience personal the than rather notions, these of content the with prima was research the mentioned) (as because identities Jewish about regime the of indications and definitions the followed strictly I paper, the Throughout self presented actors the among who determine authoritatively

- dniid s Jewish. as identified rily concerned rily CEU eTD Collection 2 266 Press,1991), California of University Oxford: Angeles, the of dissolution 1 possible the and Pact Warsaw the from withdrawal Hungary’s Sov the and anti increasingly became revolution The bloodshed. and uprising popular a in ended Poznań in risen had who workers Polish the towards sympathy express to from regime Polish of politicalwithadrama ferment, but the save to October process similar a experienced Hungary intervention. military Soviet in or disintegration, out carried was leadership the change.” radical for need the “exposed and frustration continued public’s the expressed June in Poznań in workers industrial of riots violent the However, apparatus. security the of purge death. Stalin’s since fermen political the accelerated only Congress above the at was he while (PUWP), Party Workers United Polish the of Committee slow changes ofthecountries blocas inother well. the and years de as Stalin known system, Soviet the the in introduced of modifications nature the about revelations The Congress. 20 the at reign Stalin’s during personality of cult the on report his delivered Nikit (CPSU) Union Soviet the of Party Communist the of Secretary

Ibid, 267. Ibid, JaffSchatz, Events that started in Budapest on October 23, 1956 as a peaceful demonstration demonstration peaceful a as 1956 23, October on Budapest in started that Events Central the of General Secretary Polish Bierut, Bolesław of death sudden The First 25, February On bloc. Soviet the in year turbulent a be to out turned 1956 2.

The establishmentThe the of Kádárregime Jewish issues towards policies and

The Generation. The Rise and Fall of the Jewish Communists of Poland of Communists Jewish the Fall of and Rise The Generation. The e laesi eetal dcdd o s mltr fre o prevent to force military use to decided eventually leadership iet 2

Internal

large A

divisions paralysed the PUWP and eventually, a change in in change a eventually, and PUWP the paralysed divisions

- cl ansy n pi ws olwd y thorough a by followed was April in amnesty scale tically different outcome.tically different (1956 40

- tation that had been going on in Poland in on going been had that tation 1960) - 267.

tlnzto, trigg Stalinization,

(Berkeley, Lo (Berkeley, Khrushchev a - communist, th

Party ered ered s CEU eTD Collection prosecute and condemn resolutely to refused also it Second, leadership. Stalinist th adopt not did propaganda official First, tenure. Kádár’s of period initial the during appeared that 1956 of narrative the in elements noteworthy two are there antisemitism, to respect With purpose. servethis its and audiences international of administrati new The subjects. Hungarian eyes the in both legitimacy of resemblance 2.1. political control while appeasinga pop hostile firm gain to attempts ambiguous regime’s the to connected became issues Jewish how investigates chapter the background, this Considering intact. fundamentally ev practice, political in changes necessary some introduce to compelled was administration Kádár The untenable. was 1953, and 1948 between operated had regime the way the that proved upheaval communist the Though country. the in stationed troops Soviet the by maintained only was order and isolated, 1991. Armyuntil inHungary stayed int instated was government, Nagy the of member former a himself Kádár, János executed. and arrested were Nagy Imre Minister Prime including members its of some later but Embassy Yugoslav the at refuge temporary c reform mar troops Army Red 1956 4, November On bloc. Eastern

n o te is tss f h Kdr eie a t etbih t es some least at establish to was regime Kádár the of tasks first the of One At the outset, the Kádár government was both domestically and internationally internationally and domestically both was government Kádár the outset, the At Interpretation of theInterpretation October of antisemitism and events muit oenet ht h that government ommunist

political structure was restored with brutal force, the popular the force, brutal with restored was structure political n huh h Saiit power Stalinist the though en

e use of antisemitism to discredit the Hungarian the discredit to antisemitism of use e d to o te ie f h rvlto found revolution the of side the on stood ad on’s version of the October events sought to to sought events October the of version on’s 41

ulation. o power while the units of the Red the of units the while power o

ched into Budapest, the the Budapest, into ched

- tutr remained structure CEU eTD Collection 7. 1971), Poland, thePoland Jews from of Exodus Recent The Years. Thousand 5 65. 1997), Press, University Syracuse York: 4 3 segment, slogans. antisemitic legitimizing of triumph home the meant Secretary First as Gomułka Władisłav of appointment The home the that Communists memoir short a in described Melman Meier refugee, Jewish Polish A people. Polish the represent to fit not was lines, its among Muscovites and rival the that argument the used socialism.” to c road “Polish a discover to willing more minded, practical more be... to reputed “were and ‘patriots,’ and ‘fighters’ as identified group far of program a so introduce The Communism. reform to concepts two emerged there line, Stalinist the altering permanently was Moscow that clear became c a previous the Hungary, in like just There, leadership. intra revolution. anti popular of incidents

ommunists were in overwhelming majority among the the among majority overwhelming in were ommunists had who origin Jewish of ommunists Michael C. Steinlauf Michael C. Schatz, M opee oe. h ‘tes’ oee, ee las soitd with associated always were however, ‘others,’ of Communists The power. complete over took and Poland liberated and returned later and politics, played and wing Stalin’s under Moscow in sat others underground, fought they while that argued eier Melman, ’Why We Left Poland’ in: Itche Goldberg and Yuri Suhl (eds.), (eds.), Yuri Suhl and in: Goldberg Itche Poland’ Left ’WhyWe Melman, eier The first policy is most obvious w obvious most is policy first The - at tnin ld o rsrec o atsmtc tak aant h Stalinist the against attacks antisemitic of resurgence a to led tensions Party - bred Communists and the and Communists bred The Gerenation The

, Bondage to the Dead. Poland and the Memory of the Holocaust the the and of Memory Poland Dead. the to Bondage , Jewish origin.Jewish , 268. ,

- - omns atsmts ta hd curd uig the during occurred had that antisemitism communist reaching liberalization reaching

5 Natolin Puławy

hen contrasted with the Polish case. In Poland, Poland, In case. Polish the with contrasted hen

faction remained in the Party as a powerful a as Party the in remained faction faction, because of the prominence of Jews Jews of prominence the of because faction, 42 spent the war years in Moscow. When it it When Moscow. in years war the spent

- 3

called

(New York: Committee for Jews of for (New Committee York: while th while dministration was dominated by by dominated was dministration Natolinians Puławy e members of the the of members e ato suh to sought faction The End of a of End a The 4 , t ,

s home As hey repeatedly hey

(Syracuse, New (Syracuse,New Natolin - - bred bred b red red -

CEU eTD Collection memories 1956 Thoughts, fromSnagov. Notes 6 Hivatala ( Republic People’s Hungarian the of Ministers of Council the of Bureau Information the by published ( Book White The Jews. with Communism of association the reinforce anti and antisemitism between connections the minimize to tried regime Kádár the ignored, wholly not were and version his ofCommunism. reformed Nagy of prestige the bolstered inadvertently have could it arguments, similar made origins. Jewish their of because leaders Hungarian true become less much interests, national Hungarian represent not could they that arguing József and Rákosi Mátyás condemned harshly 1957, in captivity Romanian in written notes his in himself, Nagy October. in events the during and to prior both ideas policy liberal more their for basis the as nationalism Hungarian of language the used line political reformist His Nagy. Imre by advocated national Communism the to closer was origins Jewish functionaries’ communist leading the to mistakes leadership’s Rákosi the connected which association thought The Hungary. the among Jews of overrepresentation the to references no Kádár In regime made new origins. fact, the mistakes totheirJewish theirrefused toattribute entourage, his and Rákosi condemning publicly While upheaval). popular pres were whom of (both ‘dogmatists’ and ‘reformers’ Polish the along itself define not did which regime, Kádár the by suppressed were Communism

István Vida (ed.) (ed.) Vida István n ugr, oee, h representati the however, Hungary, In Although specific incidents of popular antisemitism during the events in October in events the during antisemitism popular of incidents specific Although ) was the synthesis of the Party’s 1956 narrative. It contained a chapter on chapter a contained It narrative. 1956 Party’s the of synthesis the was ) - style ‘national’ and ‘cosmopolitan’ divisions, but carved its place between between place its carved but divisions, ‘cosmopolitan’ and ‘national’ style Nagy Imre: Snagovi jegyzetek jegyzetek Imre: Snagovi Nagy

- ayr ékzássg iizetncáa Tájék Minisztertanácsának Népköztársaság Magyar omns fr er ht h re the that fear for Communism

- 1957]. (Budapest: Gondolat Kiadó, 2006), 93 2006), Kiadó, Gondolat (Budapest: 1957]. -

43 Gondola

e o a ugra ntoa ra to road national Hungarian a of ves tok, emlékezések 1956 tok,emlékezések ented as being at fault for the for fault at being as ented trto o ti ln would link this of iteration 6

a Kdrs propaganda Kádár’s Had

tlns laesi in leadership Stalinist - 1957 Fehér Könyv Fehér

[Imre Nagy: [Imre

lmns of elements - 94. oztatási

Révai, Révai,

), ), CEU eTD Collection 9 8 78. in Hungary],(Bud October 7 forcontext theexclamation made inTarcal. origin. Jewish an Farkas Mihály Gerő, Ernő Rákosi, (Mátyás politicians the which in leadership, Stalinist Hungarian the to arguably made was reference The Jews. and leaders communist between connection mental a your Jew!” every Hang blood. off feeding are who bloodsuckers these of rid “get to audience his on called who Tarcal, in speaker “counterrevolutionary” a quoted also publication The link. suggesting explicitly, this connection address not does however, text, party The attackers. communist his of of eyes suspect the in him membership made Jewishness his that believed victim the party.” any political of members been never have we Jews, religious both are we that out point to like would I Debrecen. in hospital county the to taken both were we that so up beaten teach Jewish One anti and antisemitism popular between link the incidents, latter the describing when However, communists. which with antisemitism Jews equated popular of examples also but Jews, religious against attacks twenty listed which counterrevolution’, anti and incidents ‘Antisemitic

Ellenforradalmi erők a magyar októberi eseményekben októberi magyar a erők Ellenforradalmi Ibid., 73. Ibid., Ibid.

, 75.

8 e, h tx o te Wie ok de nt rvd ti important this provide not does Book’ ‘White the of text the Yet,

er from Hajdúnánás was quoted saying, “[m]y wife was also brutally also was wife “[m]ysaying, quoted was Hajdúnánás from er The

statement makes little sense unless the reader understands that understands reader the unless sense little makes statement apest: Magyar Népköztársaság Tájékoztatási Hivatala, 1957), Vol. IV., 70 Vol. IV., 1957), Hivatala, Tájékoztatási Népköztársaság Magyar apest: 9

Such a demand d demand a Such

- eih toiis n h cus o te Hungarian the of course the in atrocities Jewish cncos eiin o iiie teto t this to attention minimize to decision conscious a - or uh occurrences. such four 44

uring an anti an uring

- Communism was not explicitly named. named. explicitly not was Communism

[Counter - revolutionary Forces in the Events of of Events the in Forces revolutionary - communist uprising displays uprising communist Jze Rvi wr of were Révai) József d

or ot powerful most four mn tee were these Among - CEU eTD Collection 1956. 23, November Committee, Executive theTemporary 13 29. 1998), Magvető, (Budapest: ofearlyKádárism] ideology 12 92 1999), House, Printing ofJyväskylä University 11 :Kossut (Budapest Day] Final [Their napjukutolsó counter the [Battling ellenforradalommal Sólyom József 1958); Kiadó, :Kossuth (Budapest Square] Sólyom, József 1957]; Kiadó, Zrínyi Honvéd (Budapest: whothe People] behind Híd [Those bújtak mögé nép a Akik Kokas, Sándor 1957); Kossuth, (Budapest: kérdése 3 (1957/1), counter October the and democracy people’s developmen ellenforradalom’[The októberi és az fejlődése ‘Népi demokráciánk Dezső, October between 1956 thePeriod about Data Important Koss (Budapest: Oszkár(ed.), Betlen in Hungary. era yearsofthe Kádár duringfirst the three worksappeared analytical following Vol.II. Bibliográfia Kézikönyve 1956 10 ‘small Cross Arrow way the evoked words of choice The antisemitism. and nationalism popular forgive to willing was regime the that suggested masses’ ‘confused the about narrative The smaller group of provocateurs. a to population the of actions the attributed but “counterrevolution” as events October Ques Current to regards with Party Workers’ Socialist Hungarian the of ‘Resolution 1957 February The “counterrevolution”. the of device the as enlisted was Antisemitism support. gain to order in used fascists chauvini clandestine “nationalist, the by tricked were re Horthy the from fascists Hungarian the and West the from elements fascist of infiltration 1959 and 1957 between

Hungarian National Archives (Henceforth: MOL) MOL, M MOL, MOL) (Henceforth: Archives National Hungarian Melinda, Kalmár Nyyssönen, Heino Hegedűs András(ed.), B. in as complied Hungarian revolution the1956 ofthe on bibliography Based chauvinist, nationalist, revisionist, antisemitic and other bourgeois bourgeois other and antisemitic revisionist, counterrevolutionary ideas. nationalist, with consciousness class masses’ chauvinist, working the confusing at aimed mistakes, party previous the by caused masses the of dissatisfaction the using codn t te artv o ofca pbiain ta apae i Hungary in appeared that publications official of narrative the to According

[A Few Questions of the History of the Hungarian Counter the Hungarian Historyof ofthe Questions [AFew - 31; Henrik Vass, HenrikVass, 31; Ellenforradalom Magyarországon, 1956. Magyarországon, Ellenforradalom uth Kiadó, 1958); 1958); uthKiadó, Ennivaló és hozomány. és hozomány. Ennivaló The Presence of the Past in Politics.’1956’ after 1956 in Hungary 1956 after Politics.’1956’ Past in the of Presence The

- r’ ee osdrd y h Hnain omns Party’s Communist Hungarian the by considered were fry’ A magyarországi 1956 októberi ellenforradalom történetének néhány néhány történetének októberi ellenforradalom 1956 magyarországi A 10 , the o the , Fontosabb adatok az 1956. október 1956. az adatok Fontosabb

13 12

[The Handbook o Handbook [The

utbreak of the “c the of utbreak This minorityelements ofinimical - revolution] (Budapest : Móra Kiadó, 1957); Imre Szenes, Az Szenes, Imre 1957); Kiadó, :Móra (Budapest revolution] - era and the Arrow Cross movement. Cross Arrow the and era A kora kádárizmus ideológiája kádárizmus Akora - revolution] in: in: revolution] - 45 95. h Kiadó, 1957). hKiadó,

f 1956.], (Budapest: 1956 (Budapest: f1956.], [Counter – t ad anti and st, Széna téribanditá Széna

December] (Budapest: KSH, 1957); Nemes 1957); KSH, (Budapest: December]

–

ounter Párttörténeti Közlemények Párttörténeti Ferenc Zele, Harcban az az Zele,Harcban Ferenc

- KS 288.5/4 Minutes of the meetingof Minutes ofthe KS 288.5/4 - revolution in Hungary, 1956.] 1956.] Hungary, in revolution tions and Tasks’ referred to the the to referred Tasks’ and tions

- revolution of 1956 October] October] of1956 revolution revolution” was linked to the to linked was revolution” - decemberi időszakról decemberi - Soviet” catchwords the the catchwords Soviet” -

mrec o domestic of emergence [Food and dowry.Th and [Food k

[The Bandits ofSzéna Bandits [The -

os Intézet, 1996), the 1996), Intézet, os

leadership’s leadership’s , Vol. 3, No.1 No.1 3, Vol. ,

11 t of our our t of (Jyväskylä:

The massesThe

[Some e CEU eTD Collection 101. 1979), Economics, of School London Thesis, PhD 1945 Communist Party, Hungarian the of Israel and Jews,Zionism, the towards Garai, George See: provocation”. “fascist a was incident that the claimed communists The killed. and wasofficer captured police Jewish a the prisoners, free attempt to the origin.During millmurder oftwo for up wholocked been had freethe and prisoners protest out to 14 Rákosi. Mátyás from himself differentiate to antisemitism using from machine propaganda himse differentiate ideology.goal Kádár’s to Furthermore, with communist views conflicting antisemitic harboured who those included that though even public, Hungarian the antagonize not to ambition regime’s the identify can one positions conflicting these anti and antisemitism (Stalinist) previous the leadership attack to antisemitism use not did propaganda regime’s Furthermor “criminals.” and fascists” “secret to perpetrators of group the limited they antisemitism, of expressions condemned explicitly publications official While upheaval. popular the during incidents antisemitic towards position holdonpowercommunist without criticizing thebroaderHungarianpopulation. anti the for need the and them against struggle continued the justified narrative and Jews between connection the of threat and presence the emphasizing By Communism. reinforcing risked have might and support public much Kádár gain helped have not would antisemitism for public the chastise explaini when 1957 in enemy same 1946, in pogrom a for provocation” “fascist blamed propaganda communist as just And masses.” “deceived the to forgiveness” during propaganda

On August 1, 1946, the steel workers of Miskol the workerssteel of 1946, August On 1, áá’ poaad aot h “onervlto” thus “counterrevolution” the about propaganda Kádár’s f rm h rfrit ainl omns o Ir Ng peetd his prevented Nagy Imre of Communism national reformist the from lf

— s a dn i Poland in done was as

h imdae post immediate the - omns drn “onervltoay icdns Behind incidents. “counterrevolutionary” during Communism

— g h euto o te cutreouin. To “counterrevolution”. the of eruption the ng t eetees onlyd h ln between link the downplayed nevertheless it c, a rural industrial town in Northeast Hungary, set Hungary, Northeast in town industrial rural a c, 46 - a yas wih doae “generous advocated which years, war 14

so did the Kádárist narrative point at theat point narrative Kádárist the did so

inimical agents, the Kádárist the agents, inimical exhibited an ambiguous ambiguous an exhibited e, while the Kádár Kádár the while e, - 1953 - owners ofJewish owners

The Policy Policy The (Unpublished - fascist

CEU eTD Collection 126 2005), Levéltára, Történeti Szolgálatok Állambiztonsági in: 1951] and 1949 between között’[Chain és 1951 1949 szovjetizálása 15 manifesto Their revolution. the of support in ground their holding in unity remarkable a displayed Union Writers’ the power, took Kádár after Even dictatorship. Stalinist commo the against front united a as emerged slowly intelligentsia Hungarian months, these During ferment. political the about bringing in role pivotal a played the beginning by disillusioned became regime Rákosi the served and supported actively beginning, the in had, who intellectuals communist these of many However, 1945. in arrived ou state upper urban the from intellectuals many also were there But policies. communist to status social elevated their owed they because workers, the or peasantry the among from came ( Union Writers’ the writers, the of organization formal the also and journals houses, publishing included nationalization The example. Soviet the to according institutions cultural Hungarian 2.2. political n the through only not

For a det a For This was so much so that before October 1956, many writers, poets and journalists journalists and poets writers, many 1956, October before that so much so was This securi After The Kádár regime’s ambiguous relationship to antisemitism can be demonstrated demonstrated be can antisemitism to relationship ambiguous regime’s Kádár The Selective retributions againstSelective the intelligentsia retributions t of conviction, or because they owed their lives to the Soviet troops that had that troops Soviet the to lives their owed they because or conviction, of t control ailed description of the process see: Éva Standeisky, ‘Lánc oftheStandeisky, see: Éva description process ailed - middle classes, among them many Jews, who supported the communist the supported who Jews, many them among classes, middle

of the 1950s. of the

g t pwr ak n 98 te party the 1948, in back power its ng of the opinion

Írószövetség arrative of 1956, but also through Kádár’s attempts to regain regain to attempts Kádár’s through also but 1956, of arrative Gúzsba kötve: A kulturális elit és a ha kulturálisa elit és A kötve: Gúzsba

- forming areaculture. elites of inthe ). 15 - reaction: the Sovietization of Hungarian Literary LifeLiterary ofHungarian Sovietization the reaction:

The Party could rely on those intellectual those on rely could Party The 47

- 144.

talom

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(Budapest: 1956 (Budapest:

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Kalmár, Kalmár, (eds.), al et dr. IbolyaHorváth, Ár (ed.), Korányi Tamás G. The former group consisted of writers, poets and other artists who were mostly mostly were who artists other and poets writers, of consisted group former The The resolution of Kádár’s Politburo from July 1957 with regards to the ‘fight ‘fight the to regards with 1957 July from Politburo Kádár’s of resolution The on Tamási, ‘Gond és hitvallás’ [Trouble and Creed] in: Creed] and [Trouble hitvallás’ ‘Gondés Tamási, on Ennivaló és Hozomány Ennivaló

(Budapest: Tudósítások, 1989), 147 1989), Tudósítások, (Budapest: 17

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Thus, it became a priority for the new leadership to leadership new the for priority a became it Thus, Gond és hitvallás és Gond 19 - 148.

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- - communists and Imre Nagy’s supporters first. However, the the However, first. supporters Nagy’s Imre and communists Gerő faction” and the activities of the “Imre Nagy circle”. Nagy “Imre the of activities the and faction” Gerő 22

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d be no be d h ough, ough, CEU eTD Collection party.] ofthe policies cultural life. The cultural and scientific ofour main questions [The kultúrpolitikája.’ 33 1954. 1951, 1949, 1948, 1947, 1945, Szikra, by later Budapest: republished 1943), Bartsch, (Budapest: Hungary] independent for struggle 32 basis.” antisemitic and nationalist a on measure the approved they [because] but substance, “socialist its with agreed they because not the accused He 1958. February nationalization supporting of writers ‘populist’ in secretaries Party local for organized course by urban Jews. led Party communist a of image public negative the reify to or support, public hes was the with establishment. Horthy the with both and 1956 state of “counterrevolutionaries” the of of critics associate indicator to an tool a as as and both tendencies nationalist used be potentially could antisemitism of Allegations antisemitism, with nationalism what ethnocentric Hungarian of association close the of because However, dilemma. this on reflect topic this on HSWP the within debates and force mobilizing the hand, (anti other of popularity the On condemned. be to had demands, revolutionary the of one and policies Nagy’s Imre of element an as nationalism, hand later system. the against turned nationalism situation, Hungarian that suggested events achieved been

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CEU eTD Collection 37 (eds.), al. korszak 36 Társaság Péter Veres (Budapest: yearbook] [Válasz 35 58. (June 1958), 6. No. In: the HSWP] of Committee Central the to next operating workshop theoretical ofthe cultural paper position The writers. “populist” [On állásfoglalása.’ munkaközösség 34 László fascism, withdrewa little, antisemitism ontheother Dezső Szabó from Németh Németh László and general in ‘populists’ against measures stricter for called member Party One regime. the of enemy ideological primary the be to deserved group, ‘populist’ the thus and nationalism, whether was dilemma of The definition currents. the ideological inimical was attention of focus the Party, the of program cultural future issue. the on united not our on cultural policies. influence decisive a has still group that seems It omitted. all were faction paper] position the repo agent simply nationalism. chauvinist of accusations rejected part, his for and Kállai Gyula r not was ‘populists.’” Hungarian the of majority the among thoughts the in role important an played indeed it and country, our in nationalism „népi” of issue 1958 June ( workshop theoretical cultural

Writer and essayist who was one of the leading representatives of the ‘populists’. ofthe representatives oftheone was leading who essayist and Writer Kádár korai a antiszemitizmus ‘Értelmiségi Standeisky by Quoted Éva 1958. from 27, August Report to letter Áron Tamási’s e kulturális működő mellett Bizottsága Központi AzMSZMP „népi”‘Aírókról. While Kállai’s tone was was tone Kállai’s While ban’ [Antisemitism among the intelligentsia in the early Kádár period]. In: Zsuzsanna Kőrösi et et In: ZsuzsannaKőrösi period]. earlyKádár in the the intelligentsia among [Antisemitism ban’

írókról 37 considered the evaluation unbalanced. According to a contemporary secret secret contemporary a to According unbalanced. evaluation the considered Évkönyv VIII. Évkönyv eceived by the ‘populists’ with great joy. Writer Áron Tamási sent a letter to letter a sent Tamási Áron Writer joy. great with ‘populists’ the by eceived

rt, one of the more right more the of one rt, i priua, n h gons ht drn te dacmn o German of advancement the “during that grounds the on particular, n ) claimed that “it is undeniable that antisemitism typically accompanies accompanies typically antisemitism that undeniable is “it that claimed ) ” 36

Társadalmi Szemle Társadalmi

(Budapest:1956

ht ol hv cnend h od bourgeois old the condemned have would that Gyula Kállai, June 17, 1958. In: Endre Medvigy (ed.), Medvigy In: (ed.), Endre 1958. June17, Kállai, Gyula During the departmental session that discussed a draft of the of draft a discussed that session departmental the During see

utrls léei munkaközösség elméleti kulturális mingly uncompromising, uncompromising, mingly - os Intézet, 2000), 35. 2000), Intézet, os - wing ‘populists’ observed that “those passages “those that observed ‘populists’ wing . The article entitled ‘On “populist” writers’ ( writers’ “populist” ‘On entitled article The . 54 –

Püski Kiadó, 1989), 253 1989), Kiadó, Püski

rdcal, h psto paper position the Predictably, Társadalmi Szemle Társadalmi the Party membership was membership Party the - 256. Válasz Évkönyv Válasz ) appeared in the the in appeared ) lméleti lméleti

- urban , Vol. XIII, XIII, Vol. , 35 -

Jewish Jewish Others

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Standeis voiced his antisemitism louder than Dezső Szabó.” Dezső than louder antisemitism his voiced used during a conference in 1943. In his speech, László Németh envisioned the revenge of the revenge envisioned Németh László Inhis speech, in 1943. conference a during used The final text of the program was a toned down version devoid of references to devoiddown version of toned a program was ofthe final text The e speaker referred to here was most probably the notorious Shylock metaphor that that metaphor Shylock notorious the mostwas probably to here referred speaker e b aohr at mme wo lie ta te rvos suggestion previous the that claimed who member Party another by d ky, ky, - 39 os Intézet, 1996), esp. esp. 275 1996), Intézet, os

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to the Soviet Soviet the to n the “cultural nprogram” the wd o uls t a eti extent certain a to publish to owed

ian nationalism should be condemned for its connection its for condemned be should nationalism ian tious in its assessments of the interwar intellectual intellectual interwar the of assessments its in tious - 40 Union (with Partyapproval). Union 287. -

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CEU eTD Collection 42 them. implement to cadres reliable needed leadership the articulated, slowlyprinciples 2.3.1. 2.3. antisemitism. nationalism. chauvinis with flirtation its for ideology their condemn party.” revolutionary communistits and classworkers’ the of rolerecognize…leading the not between way’ ‘third a of idea false the “articulated had peasantrythe but ofcorrectly underdevelopment the seentheyhad that was ‘populists’ ideas socialdemocratic to adhered fact t same the at and Jews, with equated they that and ideas validated thatthe antisemitic considered representatives positions ofa class ‘urbanists’ ‘urbanist’ of oversimplification gross a was which bourgeoisie”, petty “ of questions the in interested were who artists as ‘urbanists’ described document The class.” workers’ the of role historic the recognize protest weaknes the that out pointed but regime Horthy the during aspirations’ ‘democratic of existence the acknowledged HSWP the confirmed ( Party’ Workers’ Socialist Hungarian the of Policies Cultural the of ‘Principles the entitled

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[ … 42

A Magyar Szocialista Szocialista Magyar A - h tx dd o rfr o h atsmts o te populists the of antisemitism the to refer not did text The KS 288.4/18 Minutes of the meeting of the Central Committee, July 25, 1958. 25, July Committee, Central ofthe meeting Minutes ofthe KS 288.4/18 the softening the Cadres Re a ta] hy ol nt rnges hi cas udn ad i not did and burdens class their transgress not could they that] was

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o te ubns’ rtr’ “humanist writers’ ‘urbanist’ the of s ime, omitted that many ‘urbanists’ ‘urbanists’ many that omitted ime, urban existence and [the life of the] the] of life [the and existence urban

capitalism and socialism; did socialism; and capitalism /ait om o Hungarian of forms t/racist

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in - ) CEU eTD Collection 46 45 44 333. 1979), Press, Institution 43 had appearedwalls ofthe thelegation within as follows: that conflicts personal the 1957 August in described Várkonyi Péter phenomenon. this Sec anti of expression popular vulgar, more a existed also There origin. Jewish his mentioning of instead community, of worsen.” Ministry would Finance the of composition denominational “the because candidacy to agreedTímár’s not had deputy another that mentioned report The Finance. of Minister appoint the to regards with Finance of Minister leadership only. “de this However, Sándor Révész opinedthat the mainconsideration of thenew regime was that the bidforBenneth that offices. Kovrig Historian claimed in part a play did origin Jewish cadre’s a that argued already have historians Several

Éva Standeisky, ÉvaStandeisky, MOL,M Révész, Sándor BennettKovrig, at least keep then should they that became it important more the period, Nagy Imre differentiatethe from itself could it which with features positive less the and regime; Rákosi the les design, by apparently would, Kádár maintain a certain ‘de subsequently but guard old Muscovite entourage. consequence Kádár’s incidental in the was Jews this of Initially number small the was population… unnoticed pass a not among did that change a] 1957, June in Congress Party the [after retary of the Party cell at the Hungarian Embas Hungarian the at cell Party the of retary luin t a ar’ Jws oii cn e on i a etr y svn Antos, István by letter a in found be can origin Jewish cadre’s a to Allusions - the from distinguishthe Kádárist itself leadershipcould whichs aspects in KS 288.5/27. Minutes of the meting of the Hungarian Politburo, May 28, 1957. May 28, Politburo, Hungarian ofthe Minutes meting ofthe KS 288.5/27. 46

hrfr te luin o h cdes eiiu aflain a used was affiliation religious cadre’s the to allusion the therefore Aczél és korunk és Aczél Antiszemitizmusok Hungary in Communism

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[Aczél and our Era] (Budapest: Sík Kiadó, 1997), 74. 1997), Sík (Budapest: Kiadó, Era] our [Aczél and

[Antisemitisms] (Budapest: Argumentum, 2007), 214. 2007), Argumentum, (Budapest: [Antisemitisms] –

From Kun to Kádár to Kun From 57

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CEU eTD Collection 51 See: ofthe HWP. 50 (1945 ofcommunists 49 31. 48 1957. August 21, Cairo, Legationin 47 rural of rate the in rise The origins. Jewish their to leadership previous the Rákosi the against turned Marxist dogmatic were who communists many by 1957 in joined were members previous The survive. to bound was Party, the within rivalry Jewish antisemitic held previously of survival composition its re requested membership previous the and of greatmajority changed,the fell drastically Party the of membership though 1956, After int of conflicts about feelings reinforced 1940s the of end the during changes cadre selective but Party the in up origin. class working of cadres 1949 during 1946. f of thousands lower bythe below, encouragedfrom also was tendency this leadership, Party top the in Jews of number low the maintain to illu examples These

Ibid. members not been had was i.e. new, membership HSWP’s the of only percent fifteen InJune1957, (1945 antiszemitizmusa politikai kommunisták ‘A ÉvaStandeisky, 1945 ‘Erkölcsök ÉvaStandeisky, MOLM

‘we Jews].’ are theparty[of cleansing ‘Zágor that him told that Pável furthermore already’, up packing are Jews ‘the that comrade and home’ come should Hungary], [to home gone had he when member our at said Lévai Comrade 48

Moreover, during the modifications inflicted upon the institutional structure institutional the upon inflicted modifications the during Moreover,

- Thus, not only did many who had supported antisemitism during WWII end WWII during antisemitism supported had who many did only not Thus, KS, 288.32/1957/5. Péter Péter 288.32/1957/5. KS, - 1950, the bureaucratic apparatus of Party and state was expanded with expanded was state and Party of apparatus bureaucratic the 1950, ormer Arrow Cross elements to enlarge its membership during 1945 during membership its enlarge to elements Cross Arrow ormer Levente Sipos, ’Az MSZMP, 1957’ [The HSWP, 1957] in: 1957] [The HSWP, 1957’ ’Az MSZMP, Sipos, Levente - 1957)] in: 1957)] strate that though it is possible that János Kádár himself preferred himself Kádár János that possible is it though that strate

and peasant origins, to the detriment of communists of Jewish of communists of detriment the to origins, peasant and - regime. Századvég -

ben’ erests between Jewish and non and Jewish between erests Várkonyi’s letter on behalf of the Party cell of the Hungarian Hungarian ofthe cell Party ofthe Várkonyi’sbehalf on letter 51

[Morals in 1945] in: in1945] [Morals

, Vol. Vol. , Some in the l the in Some - level of the apparatus. The Party took on tens of of tens on took PartyThe apparatus. the of level beliefs, or at least the sense of Jewish and non and Jewish of sense the least at or beliefs, ship meeting [of the local Party cell], that cell], Party local the [of meeting ship 12, No. (2007) No. 44. 12, 47 58

atter group attributed the mistakes of mistakes the attributed group atter Mozgó Világ Mozgó , , 3. - 1957) [The political antisemitism political [The 1957)

- , Vol. 32, No. 2 15No. 2 (2006), Vol. 32, , Jewish Party members. members. Party Jewish História - - eiit u had but Leninists admission. , 1995/9 , - 10, 37. 10, 50

The -

- - CEU eTD Collection regime. thefor Kádár irritation constant wasa whichyears, 15 for exile internal in there remained He Embassy. American the at sought refuge Hu invaded Soviettroops When ofthe favour insurgents. out in spoke unit.by immediately panzer He 1956 a 31, October on from prison was liberated He 55 1956 Rosdy (ed.), Pál 2006); Kiadó, Kálvin (Budapest: Church] Calvinist Hungarian 1956 az Egyházban Egyház Református in: of1956] the and Events Church Calvinist Hungarian eseményei’ [The és 1956 Egyház Református 54 28. (2011), No.4 Vol.5, in: 1964] to from1948 Hungary in Churchpolicies 1948 Magyarországon szakaszai egyházpolitika kommunista http://eszmelet.freeweb.hu/34/baloghm34.html Kádár 53 52 ap previously be should positions Church leading in depositions and reassignments appointments, all that ruled decree Mindszenty.Cardinal József roles, important play not did institutions changes. decisive mark not did 1956 Churches, the to regards with though area, this in modifications certain introduced affair religious of part as matters Jewish with dealt state 2.3.2. the interplay top both of result the thus was Party the in position Jewish weakened undoubtedly The low. origin Jewish of cadres of number traditionally more topopular versionsantisemitism. open of membership

Cardinal Mindszenty was imprisoned in 1949 by the Rákosi regime for hisanti for regimeopen by Rákosi the in 1949 imprisoned was Mindszenty Cardinal d ofthe Onthe activities és egyházpolitika ‘Egyház Margit Balogh, 37 Ibid, In order to ensure state control over religious matters, the new 1957:22 legislative 1957:22 new the matters, religious over control state ensure to order In religious a as defined officially were Jews Hungarian There - ban -

era] in: era]

- [The Catholic Church in 1956] (Budapest: Új EmbÚj (Budapest: in Catholic1956] Church [The 40. fore, there was pressure on the leadership from below as well to keep the the keep to well as below from leadership the on pressure was there fore, The The

Eszmélet 52

between several bureaucratic levels apparatus. ofthe

n h ohr ad nrae te ubr o toe h were who those of numbers the increased hand other the on National Representation , No.4/1992, 89 No.4/1992, , - 1957

, Vol. 34 (Summer, 1997). Accessible at: Accessible 1997). (Summer, 34 Vol. ,

- es esztendőben történtekhez es esztendőben ifferent Churches during the 1956 revolution see: István Bán, ’A Magyar ’A Bán, revolution see: István 1956 the during Churches ifferent 55 -

91; Sándor Ladányi (ed.), Ladányi Sándor (ed.), 91;

proved by the Presidential Council ( Council Presidential the by proved

a Kádár a 53

(Retrieved: May 26, 2011.); Zolt 2011.); 26, May (Retrieved:

- 54 to eoe n drn te eouin religious revolution, the during and Before

of Hungarian Israelitof Mediárium: Kommunikáció Mediárium: perhaps with the ex the with perhaps - - bottom and bottom and bottom

korszakban’ [Church and church and [Church korszakban’

[Additions to the events of1956 the [Additionsevents to ngary on November 4, 1956, Mindszenty 1956, 4, November ngary on - er, 1996). er, tól 1964 tól Adalékok a Magyarországi Ref Magyarországi a Adalékok s. The Kádár administration Kádár The s. -

ig’ [The periods of Communist ofCommunist periods ig’[The denomination, so the Party the so denomination,

ception of the Catholic the of ception - to es (NR - -

A katolikus egyház egyház katolikus A án Völgyesi, ‘A ánVölgyesi, Egyház top tendencies, and and tendencies, top Elnöki Tanács Elnöki - - - HI) policies inthe policies Communism. Communism. - 1957 in the 1957 Társadalom

ormátus ormátus , ); CEU eTD Collection 1957. April 19, hisabout resignation, 61 386 (ed.), István Tarsoly Kollega 60 135 (2000), No. 2 Vol.1, 1958 értekezlet see: Je Church Lutheran Hungarian ofthe theleadership Egyház in: 1964] to from1948 inHungary policies Church ofCommunist periods 59 Churchpolicy’. of fewquestions ofa the ‘Proposal for solution 1957. 5, March Politburo, the Hungarian meeting of religio important the less theand central both personnel withreliable up fill “[t]o was Churches withthe to regards government ofthe ofthe tasks 58 életében zsidóság hazai a évtized from the Hungary in life religious [Jewish 57 981 959, 1790 Magyarországon Balogh Margit in: hozzájárulásról’ 56 resigned Heves Lajos community, Jewish Hungarian the of head previous the 1957 April in institutions, 1970s. the in view of point state’s the from resolved satisfactorily only was and problem, Midszenty the of control,under establishment. its of period early the in regime Kádár the of goal explicit the was which positions, Culture. o department the of approval the on depended Budapest in school secondary Jewish only the as well as Institute, Rabbinical the of director the of dismissal and appointment the now Furthermore, Council. Presidential leadership community’s Jewish the necessary. became Culture intermediate of case the in while

MOL,XIX (1945 rendszerben szovjet ‘Egyházaka Margit Balogh, 1948 Magyarországon szakaszai egyházpolitika ‘Akommunista ZoltánVölgyesi, one 1957, 5, March on (Politburo) Committee TemporaryExecutive ofthe proposal a to According f ‘Izraelita LászlóCsorba, be állások egyes az egyházi rendelet számú törvényerejű évi 22. ‘1957. - h lgsaie ere loe te tt t pae rlal” esn i leading in persons “reliable” place to state the allowed decree legislative The 439. - Társadalom -

982. 982. 57

- A

- ban’ [National Lutheran Conference of Deans in 1958] in: in 1958] ofDeans Conference Lutheran ban’[National 59 21 58

- while the regulation of the Catholic Church took much longer becauselonger much took Church Catholic the ofregulation the while As a result, by 1958 both t both 1958 by result, a As a, microfilm no. 50636., M170/1957. Letter from Lajos Heves to János Horváth János to LetterHeves from M170/1957. Lajos microfilm50636., no. a, , Vol.5, No.4 (2011), 28. About the dismissal of the emblematic Lajos Ordass from Ordass Lajos emblematic ofthe About 28. thedismissal (2011), No.4 Vol.5, , - 2005 -

142. 142. 61

elekezeti élet Magyarországon a vészkorszaktól a nyolcvanas évekig’ évekig’ nyolcvanas a vészkorszaktól a Magyarországon élet elekezeti , Vol. 2. (Budapest: História (Budapest: 2. , Vol. 60 and his place was taken two months later by Endre Sós who, Sós Endre by later months two taken was place his and Magyarország a XX. században XX. a Magyarország

orsodn t these to Corresponding 56 , Vol. 2. (Budapest: MTA Filozófiai Intézet, 199 Intézet, MTA Filozófiai 2.(Budapest: Vol. ,

–

In the case of the NR the of case the In

Jenő Gergely (eds.), Gergely (eds.), Jenő

- level positions, the endorsement of the Minister of Minister the of endorsement the positions, level Shoah

us positions.” MOLM uspositions.” ol b dpnet n h cnet f the of consent the on dependent be would

until the eighties]. In: Ferenc Lendvai et al. (eds.) (eds.) al. et Lendvai In:until Ferenc theeighties]. 60 he Calvinist and Lutheran Churches were Churches Lutheran and Calvinist he

- nő Szigeti, ’Országos evangélikus esperesi esperesi evangélikus ’Országos Szigeti,nő - MTA Történettudományi Intézete, 2005), 2005), Intézete, Történettudományi MTA Állam, egyházak, vallásgyakorlás vallásgyakorlás egyházak, Állam, 1989)’ [Churches in the Soviet in the [Churches 1989)’ Cuc Afis t h Mnsr of Ministry the at Affairs Church f , Vol.2 (Szekszárd: Babits Kiadó, 1997), 1997), Kiadó, Babits (Szekszárd: Vol.2 ,

HI, this meant that the election of election the that meant this HI, eeomns n te religious other in developments - KS, 288.5/17. Minutes ofthe 288.5/17. KS, töltéséhez szükséges állami állami szükséges töltéséhez Mediárium: Kommunikáció Mediárium: Egyháztörténeti Szemle Egyháztörténeti 0), 141. 141. 0), - tól 1964 tól

system] in: in: system]

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[The [The , Hét - CEU eTD Collection Szemle Egyháztörténeti in: era] the Kádár Churchduring the and state the between relationship ofthe characteristics 64 April,1960. 5 Goldmann, 63 62 interna an as acted WJC the Second, matters. religious with itself concerning to limited officially was poli a was WJC the First, reasons. two for peculiar World the joined the in West. centres their had that organizations of influence the reduce to tried regime C Protestant and Catholic the of relations international the administration, Kádár the initialof periodIn this concerning ChristianChurches. those from community Jewish differed the towards policies official where areas certain were there organizations, pre Jewry. the in course assimilationist nationalist Hungarian revolution. anti writing by regime the to loyalty demonstrated he that was 1956 in appointment his for reason the account, own Sós’ to According particular. in Zionism and general in Jews toward regime’sRákosi officia the supporting articleswrote predominantlywherehe a as known journalist community the of a journal official the for worked previously was had communist, He appointment. that before community Jewish not had Sós task. the suited view, of point regime’s the from

uce wr ol ecuae wti Esen uoe n a te ae ie the time, same the at and Europe Eastern within encouraged only were hurches Zoltán Rajki, ‘Az állam és az egyház kapcsolatának jellemző jellemző egyházkapcsolatának az és ‘Az állam Rajki, Zoltán Nahum Roth to LetterJ. from Siegfried Z6/1757. CZA) (Henceforth Archives Zionist Central MOL,M ept te bv srcua faeok hc euly ple t al religious all to applied equally which framework structural above the Despite 64 63

h ofca rpeetto o te ugra Jws cmuiy however, community, Jewish Hungarian the of representation official The

- KS 288.22/1967/20. Endre Sós’ letter to János Kádár, July1967. 26, Kádár, János Sós’to letter Endre KS 288.22/1967/20. 62 -

eouinr mmrna o te iity f h Itro durin Interior the of Ministry the for memoranda revolutionary igre J Rt o te J caatrzd ó’ edrhp s “a as leadership Sós’ characterized WJC the of Roth J. Siegfried

Jewish Congress (WJC) in the summer of 1957. This affiliation was affiliation This 1957. of summer the in (WJC) Congress Jewish , Vol. 3, No.2 74 (2002), No.2 Vol. 3, ,

tional Jewish representative body, which contradicted the the contradicted which body, representative Jewish tional

- 86. 61

tical organization, while the NR the while organization, tical vonásaiKádár a - a sii o Hungarian of spirit war

had any office in the the in office any had -

korszakban’ [The [The korszakban’ l policiesl Új Élet Új the g HI , CEU eTD Collection 1957. 25, August Israelites, ofHungarian Representation the and Congress Jewish World 66 65 and diplomacy” “silent of policy the abandon to decided WJC the and government nottoo longWJC afterwards. the quit Jewry Hungarian of representatives the when ignored was paragraph This joining theorganization, thedocument stated that madeWest, an it ideal arena toestablishsuch relations. Jewry.” World with contacts allowing by attitude this compensate to Government Hungarian the of part the on desire a “stimulatedhave Israelwhich with relations Hungarian deteriorationof G the of Director Riegner, Gerhard decision. the in role a played also probably regime Kádár the of isolation international the Moreover, WJC. the with contact establishing by payments Jew Hungarian the of heads the as well as leadership, Hungarian The WJC. the of auspices the under West of distribution the about decided t religion.to the Jewish belonging citizens its of interests the represented alone it that claim state’s Hungarian e ugra Jws cmuiy o on h WC Te lis ofrne which Conference, Claims The WJC. the join to community Jewish Hungarian he

MOL,XIX Septem Hungary, to visit his on Riegner’sGerhart report Dr. Z6/1280. CZA, to voicein opinion. their differences its with hinder agrees it because and not Jewry program theoretical Hungarian could because this organization, Congress, the Jewish with World cooperation the of that than different be though In the face of growing evidence of antisemitism in the USSR, USSR, the in antisemitism of evidence growing of face the In of WJC the with agreement the signed organization Jewish Hungarian the When allow to decision the behind interests financial defined well were there However,

there might occur issues on which the opinion of Hungarian Jewry might JewryHungarian of opinion the which on issues occur might there - A - 21 ish administration hoped that they would get a chance to share in these these in share to chance a get would they that hoped administration ish - a, microfilm no. 50637, document no. M170 no. document microfilm50637, no. a, eneva Office of the WJC was convinced that it was the then apparent then the was it convincedthat was WJC the of Office eneva 65

The WJC’s wide international membership, especially from the from especially membership, international wide WJC’s The

s Constitution makes it possible for members members for possible it makes Constitution s 66 -

emn etttos o es ws operating was Jews, to restitutions German

- 19/1957. Agreement between the Agreement between 19/1957.

ber 1957. ber oh h Israeli the both

CEU eTD Collection th and Israelites Hungarian the by Congress Jewish World 70 15. resolutions, FourthPlenar 69 68 131. 1991), Press, University 67 stepped the of because favourably WJC the viewing not were authorities state onwards, 1959 from that seems It Sós. Endre and was resignation Offi National The the between correspondence lengthy policies. by preceded Zionist” “aggressive of endorsement WJC’s the Israeli groups” “fascist of support the to allusion Union. Soviet the of defamation its and groups”, “fascist and “reactionary” of support WJC’s the to objected communiqué official The 1960. July in Congress Jewry cooperate to communities. wasthe Jewish right denied with other heritage.” spiritual their develop are as such means, necessary “the with Jews its provide to Union Soviet the for called which resolution country. that institution the with Jews Soviet provide to resolution a in USSR the addressed 1958 July in Geneva Jewry. Soviet of discrimination religious and the under 1958 in Rome chairman in established been had which organization an (COJO), umbrella Organizations Jewish of Conference The Jewry. Soviet for up speak

MOL,XIX Collections. Judaica Libraries, A George Smathers ofFlorida, University 23 Committee Executive ofWorld Minutes Congress, Jewish World Z6/154. CZA, Ro’i, Yaacov The Hungarian Jewish community Jewish Hungarian The - West German arms deals. The Hungarians objected Hungarians The deals. arms German West ship of Nahum Goldmann, passed a resolution protesting against the cultural the against protesting resolution a passed Goldmann, Nahum of ship - y Assembly, Stockholm, 2nd Stockholm, Assembly, y A 68

- The Struggle for Soviet Jewish Emigration 1948 Emigration Jewish Soviet for Struggle The al framework necessary for maintaining the continuity of Jewish life in life Jewish of continuity the maintaining for necessary framework al 21

The Fourth Plenary Assembly, held in Stockholm in 1959, adopted a adopted 1959, in Stockholm in held Assembly, Plenary Fourth The - a , microfilm no. 50643, no. document microfilm50643, no. ,

available to other nationalities and ethnic groups... to maintain and maintain to groups... ethnic and nationalities other to available

69 -

12th August, 1959. Booklet no. 1. Review, decisions and Review, and decisions 1. no. Booklet August,1959. 12th h Cnrs as epesd ert ht Soviet that regret expressed also Congress The resigned its membership in the World Jewish World the in membership its resigned 63 referre -

up activities against the discrimination of discrimination the against activities up 67

The WJC World Executive meeting in meeting Executive World WJC The e reaction of foreign press. June 13, 1960. 13, June press. offoreign reaction e M d - 11

to the WJC’s refusal to condemn condemn to refusal WJC’s the to - - 7/1960. Proposal for the quitting of the ofthe thefor quitting Proposal 7/1960. 1967

(Ca to mbridge: Cambridge mbridge:Cambridge this and interpreted it as it interpreted and this World Jewish Congress Congress Jewish World ce of Church Affairs Affairs Church of ce rd

- 28 th

July,1958. 70

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CEU eTD Collection 77 273 2009), Press, SUNY (ed.), A. Raider in: Mark SovietJewry’for 76 179. 1978), In: it.” prevent into vain tried Russians the and in Paris, Jewry] the ofsituationSoviet [i.e. subject this on gathering international 75 74 1960. June13, Congress’, Jewish World from the Church Israelite the Hungarian of thefor ’Resignation Affairs; proposal Church 73 Hungarian Congressand the relationship of theformation about Israelites ofOfficeHungarian 72 Av Shaul between cooperation but clandestine the close of thewas result Jewry.It ofSoviet situation with the 71 not doneat overzeal the due the demand was toSós’ Government of but Gerhard was Riegnerinformationreceived from Hungary inside “the disaffiliation that Sós. Endre bypersonally and Community Jewish the of leadership the by below, from to decision the however, but government, Hungarian the WJC from instruction an not was disaffiliate the of information the to According convened. pre a took take gathering the place. should completely, Romania from emigration Jewish halting conference, the about bringing from Goldmann Nahum Union.” Soviet the in Jews of situation ominous the about leadership Soviet the appealto “to WJC the within shape takenhad convened in WJC the quit Community the Jewish that Hungarian suggested Affairs Church of Office State the of representative the 1960, waspartaking suspended intheoriginally WJC only. planned tobe Jewry. Soviet

CZA, Z6/1757. Letter from S Z6/1757. CZA, Struggle the and NahumGoldmann Protest?: or Accommodation of ‘Leadership Rutland, SuzanneD. „[a]bout that inmemoirs his remembered NahumGoldmann Le Z6/1337. CZA, MOL,XIX MOL, exclusively that dealt in Paris convened was conference the first international 1960, InSeptember ic te pig f 90 te raiain f hs ag itrainl conference international large this of organization the 1960, of spring the Since 76 XIX

igur’s office and the World Congress. Jewish World the and office igur’s It is possible that Hungarian authorities knew a knew authorities Hungarian that possible is It

- - - emptive step by disaffiliating from the WJC before the conference was was conference the before WJC the from disaffiliating by step emptive A A

Paris to discuss the situation ofJewry. the situation Soviet Paris todiscuss - - 21 21 71 - -

a, microfilm no. 50643, document no. M no. document microfilm50643, no. a, M no. document microfilm50639, no. a, tter from Nahum Goldmann to Jayaprakash Narayan, 15 March, 1960. 1960. March, 15 Narayan, Jayaprakash to Goldmann from tter Nahum ouetr eiec pit a te ieto ta H that direction the at points evidence Documentary -

Nahum Goldmann, Goldmann, Nahum 1958. Jewry, 298, 280. 298, iegfried J. Roth to Nahum Goldmann, 11 October, 1960. 1960. October, 11 NahumRoth Goldmann, to J. iegfried

Nahum Goldmann. Statesman Without a State Without a Statesman Goldmann. Nahum The Jewish Paradox Jewish The 74 64

oit fiil dd vrtig o prevent to everything did officials Soviet

- - 11 11

eas o a ofrne which conference a of because fifteen years ago I called the first called I yearsago fifteen - - 7/1960. Pál Veres, National Office ofOffice National Veres, Pál 7/1960. National Report from the 11/1959.

(New York: Fred Jordan Books, Books, Jordan (New Fred York: bout the brewing scandal, and scandal, brewing the bout 75

etween the World Jewish World etweenthe including threatening with threatening including 72

However by June

a step initiated initiated step a ousness.”

(Albany, NY: (Albany,NY:

ungarian 77

CEU eTD Collection day.” the in back feelings famoussuchfor were his circle Olt and example,Károly For movement. Communist Hungarian the currents in antisemitic been have always there “Undoubtedly, that stated 1972. 3, February Munich, in Hungary], ofJews situation [The Magyarországon” helyzete 81 1958. community, religious Jewish withinthe situation 80 1959. April 27, Affairs, ofChurch Office State the of the President to 79 No on HSWP ofthe Committee theat Budapest Eskulits AffairsJózsef ofChurch Office State the Department at 78 Soviet the and the in groups relations foreign religious Israel’s regards with stand a took representation official The country. other to compared as community Jewish Hungarian the Hungarian of Office National Israelites reinforced mutually each other. the of President lay Sós’ as with seat paired his Jewry, keep Soviet to for aspiration up speak to efforts international the in role decided. clearly be the cannot that plausible quite doing is it However, Sós’ was or above from came WJC the from antisemitism. his for known was Olt because Károlyappointed Oltwas 1959, In negatively. position Sós’ affected that (SOCA) Affairs Church of Office State the of leadership top the in changes were there Moreover, course. assimilationist o disapproved 1959. March in Congress Jewish World the for Jews Hungarian of Board Central the of President as Weinstein Pál of resignation the in culminated which leadership lay community’s the of members other (Lágymányos). Budapest of district outer an in deteriorating.attacked was selling He synagogues,especially ofthe because of theone

OSA, HU OSA 300 OSA HU OSA, MOL,XIX MOL,XIX MOL,XIX The b The was community the within position Sós’ well. as plausible quite is version This rief membership of the NR the of membership rief - - - vember 19, 1959. vember19, A A21 A - - 21 21 Ss ucniinl oat t te omns regime communist the to loyalty unconditional Sós’ f - Union’s domestic policies, issues that linked Jews by ethnicity rather ethnicity by Jews linked that issues policies, domestic Union’s a, - - a, microfilm no. 50639, document no. 11 no. document microfilm50639, no. a, 6 no. document microfilm50640, no. a,

microfilm no. 50641, documentM no. 50641, no. microfilm - 40

- 4, box no 24, Item no. 840.5. EERA/ Hungarian Unit Report, “A zsidóság “A Report, Unit EERA/ Hungarian 840.5. Item no. 24, no box 4, President with whom Sós did nothave did President partly whomSós good with relations,

79 HI in the WJC reveals the particular situation of situation particular the reveals WJC the in HI

oe ebr o te eiiu community religious the of members Some authorities’ growing worries about the WJC’s the about worries growing authorities’

81 78

hte te eiin o disaffiliate to decision the Whether - -

39/1959. Letter of Pál Veres, Head of Veres, Head Letter ofPál 39/1959. 11 - He had personal antagonisms w antagonisms personal had He 18/1958. Endre 18/1958. - 11/1959. Letter from Dr. Pál Weinstein Weinstein Pál Letter from Dr. 11/1959.

Sós’ report about the Sós’report 80

The report report The

n his and

ith CEU eTD Collection In: ForeignMinistry]. Jer to Gorky alley reports [Budapest dokumentumaiból.’ 83 74 (2002), No.2 relationship Kádár a vonásai jellemző kapcsolatának egyház állam és az ‘Az Rajki, Zoltán See: humanism”. “socialist and demilitarization for and imperialism” “international Zionist 82 The ones. Christian as extent same the religious to Jewish crippled Hungary. were with institutions relations diplomatic good build to aspirations ad any meant not had descent Jewish c of establishment future.” the of hope the is this and Jews any be to going not are there tha claimed embassies European 2.4.1. thi Israel’soccasionalon foreign deliberations policies. to more was there However, Israel. with relations regime’s Kádár the and community Jewish Hungarian the concerning 2.4. of ageneral more religious, they were were notstrictly regarding issues that express opinions also hadto occasionally Churches Christian of representatives the Though ethnicity. of elements no was community the theJewish thestate, policies suggeststhatintheof disaffiliation, practical thedecision not or Whether religion. just than

Cvi Erez, ‘A budapesti Gorkij fasor jelenti Jeruzsálemnek. Az izraeli külügyminisztérium külügyminisztérium Az izraeli Jeruzsálemnek. fasorjelenti Gorkij ‘A Cvibudapesti Erez, takestand to had Churches Christian that Issues h peiu sbhpe hs led hne a te oncin ewe policies between connection the at hinted already has subchapter previous The n ae 96 te sal Frin iitys drs t ta cutys Eastern country’s that to address Ministry’s Foreign Israeli the 1956, late In

Alliance issues Jewish between the state and the Church during the Kádár era] in: era] the Kádár during the and Church state the between - 86.

nature(supportingetc.). peace, world Világosság ommunist power in 1948, that many Hungarian leaders were of of were leaders Hungarian many that 1948, in power ommunist awy srcl dfnd n eiiu trs u cud include could but terms religious on defined strictly always t

in in foreign policies: relationsIsrael with , Vol. 33, No. 10. (1992), 796. (1992), No. 10. 33, Vol. ,

t “it is clear that in [Hungary’s] new top leadership, top new [Hungary’s] in that clear is “it t vantages for the country’s Jews and for Israel’s for and Jews country’s the for vantages s included for example speaking up against against up examplefor speaking sincluded 66

itroncens ta te NR the than interconnectedness s ugra sae ietd h NR the directed state Hungarian usalem. - korszakban’ [The characteristics ofthe characteristics [The korszakban’

From the documents of the Israeli Israeli ofthe documents the From 82

Egyháztörténeti Szemle Egyháztörténeti

E ver since the since ver , Vol. 3, 3, Vol. , HI’s HI’s HI’s - CEU eTD Collection 86 revolutionary’. ’counter events the Hungarian label to even refused leadership the and Polish 1957 January, 85 (Budapest in Hungary], movement Zionist yearsofthe 84 more a play to between goingrelations the in role is significant “emigration that stated 1956 December in Aviv Tel in EmbassyHungarian the to sent events revolutionary the following instructions tactical Israelithe Foreignopinion, his Ministry in inNovember1956that of promise governme previous the that hopeful appeared Touval Meir Hungary, to envoy new for Israel’s leadership, Kádár Jews the of moves first the Hungarian on Commenting Israel. to emigration of right the ensure to possibility the with them w this that hoped diplomats Israeli State: Jewish the of interests clear the on based was this Naturally, leadership. new the recognize to Israel of part the on Gomułka. Poland’s importantly most even wit appeared tobedoubters andgovernment recognize there Kádár’s immediate the In formed. to refused be countries Western most revolution, 1956 the of oppression the would of aftermath state Jewish the and Jews towards policy non of representatives other all countries, wereCommunist influentialmost political access denied the circles. to like diplomats, Israeli ideology. its and state dissolved was organization

Erez, ‘A budapesti Gorkij fasor 799. fasor jelenti’, ‘A Gorkij Erez, budapesti in countries Communist summit of in the Budapest did not participate ofPoland delegation The AttilaNovák, sals niiae ta wt te salsmn o the of establishment the with that anticipated Israelis though it will certainly not keep it in the form and content as it was originally intended. originally was it as content and form the in it keep not certainly the will it though of achievements of promise the keep certain would it that possible cont implement to wants to and tries revolution government present the h nw diitains initi administration’s new The aliyah 86

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was going to be kept by the new administration as well. He wrote to to wrote He well. as administration new the by kept be goingto was

. A cionista mozgalom négy éve éve négy Magyarországon mozgalom A cionista 84

along with other politic other with along ne h poes f ieaiain Tu, t is it Thus, liberalization. of process the inue l oe poe te sal lgc ih. h first The right. logic Israeli the proved moves al 85

It was therefore an important diplomatic step diplomatic important an therefore was It

Hungary and Israel in the near future than it it than future near the in Israel and Hungary 67

: Múlt és Jövő, 2000), 172. 2000), és Jövő, : Múlt aliyah

or at least will not overrule it, it, overrule not will least at or al groups not supported by the by supported not groups al Kádár government, a new new a government, Kádár

[In Transition. The four The [In Transition.

ud provide ould hin the bloc, aliyah -

the , nt’s nt’s - CEU eTD Collection 126 1972), Science Social and Political of Academy American 90 in: Bialer, Uri See: France. weaponsfrom secured later Israel refused. but Moscow earlier, theCzechoslovaks Egyptian ofthe afterthe publication The milliondollars. oftwo hundred price a for altogether anti hundred three t 89 the Middle wentwho to actually ofpeople the number not to and Israel to 1957. May20, Israel, to ofemigration data numerical the about Affairs) ofForeign Ministry the of Department Political 88 diplomaticactivities, of therestructuring about Aviv Tel in legation the Hungarian to Affairs) ofForeign (Ministry 87 the at out broke Crisis Suez the when halted abruptly was 1954 since Union Soviet West.” the of Middle the in 1955. in dealarms Egyptian the of conclusion the since unquestionably and death, Stalin’s ever noticeably quite states Arab neutral the to closer drawing been had Union Soviet The Moscow. by established line policy foreign the follow not did emigration of between improved relations diplomatic t instead level ministerial of deputy diplomatic a sent and Israel 1957. of months numbe their 1956; year the during people 441 to amounted Israel to Hungary from dissidents legal of number the while data, of possibility the regarding Israelihopes Osztály Politikai ( Department Political Fourth the by prepared report A Israel. to Hungary from easingemigration”aimingat is whichconstruction underdraft a is before.hadThere wo hundred and thirty tanks, one hundred tank destroyers, hundred and forty artillery pieces, nearly pieces, forty and artillery hundred destroyers, tank hundred one thirty and wotanks, hundred

John C. Campbell, ’The Soviet Union and the United States in the Middle East’ in East’ in the Middle States the United Union and Soviet ’The C.Campbell, John about fiftyfighterbombers, planes, hundred involving one operation washugedeal business The a MOL,XIX MOL,XIX Israel Studies Israel The strengthening of relations with Israel and the rather lenient position toward toward position lenient rather the and Israel with relations of strengthening The

‘Top Hat, Tuxedo and Cannons: Israeli Foreign Policy from 1948 to 1956 as a Field ofStudy’ Field as a 1956 to from 1948 Policy Foreign Israeli Cannons: and Hat, Tuxedo ‘Top - 135, 127. 135, - - J J - - 1 1 - , Vol. 7. No. 1. (Spring 2002), 1 (Spring 2002), No. 1. 7. Vol. , 90 - - East by exploiting “the new, dynamic Arab nationalism and its distr its and nationalism Arab dynamic new, “the exploiting by East - document008055/1956. no. 1/a, box no.1, (Izrael), j k (Izrael), box no.1, 1/c, document no. 001632/3/1957. 001632/3/1957. no. document 1/c, box no.1, k(Izrael), tank cannons, two naval destroyers, twelve torpedo boats and six submarines; sixboats and submarines; torpedo twelve destroyers, naval two cannons, tank

88 ) of theHungarianFore h low The

December 30, 1956. 30, December The data refers to datato refers The

89 In early January 1957 Hungary recalled its chargé d’affaires from d’affaires chargé its recalled Hungary 1957 January early In

The Kremlin hoped for the strengthening of the USSR’s positions USSR’s the ofstrengthening the forhoped Kremlin The

- e Jws eirto ta hd en emte fo the from permitted been had that emigration Jewish key

- Czech agreement, all in all, they had also received weapons from weapons received also had they all, in all Czechagreement, persons who received exit visas from the Hungarian authorities authorities fromthe Hungarian exit visas whoreceived persons

ign Ministry on May 20, 1957 also proves that 20, 1957also onMay Ministry ign - aliyah 80, 59 and 25, respectively. and 25, 59 80, 68 , Vol. 401, America and the Middle East (May, East the and Middle America Vol. 401, , wo states. rs aoe ,0 drn te is three first the during 3,000 above rose r

were not unf not were Israelis also made an explicit request for armsfor request explicit made an also Israelis

Letter from Lajos Nagy LetterNagy from Lajos o Report of János Rigó (4 János of Report - unded. According to th to According unded. Eastern country. country. Eastern ,

which is always a sign a always is which

: Annals of the the of Annals - Czechoslovak

th since since

IV. IV. ust 87 is

CEU eTD Collection t concerning resolutions assembly of regime Hungarian present the and Union by Soviet the disregard continuing the deploring Resolution Hungarian on vote UN 95 55 1972.), Institution Press, Hoover 94 1956. 30, December diplomaticactivities, ofFor (Ministry 93 Crisis. afterthe Suez thearea control to aspirations Union’s Soviet the to as an answer intended was armedby beingwas threatened militaryit if forces U.S. from aid and/or assistance economic American request countrya could that East the Middle in situation 92 81. 1991), Press, University permitted 91 contract The Poland. with agreement repatriation a concluded Union Soviet the 1957, 25, March On satellites. European Eastern its of policies the with emigration Jewish repeatedly Israel correlation: this confirms the‘Hungarianabstained voting Question’. whenonresolutions to came on it voting the during State Jewish the Nations. United the in Israel from position neutral a force least at Question’. Hungarian diplomacy ofJewish thequestion used ‘Hungarian the to regards with government Kádár the for favourably vote to possible Nati United the in states member many as persuade to trying with concerned invoke. would emigration Jewish allowing that reaction international positive the on counted leadership The interna country’s the lessen to leadership Hungarian the of ambition tactical the was this for reason One opposite. the exactly did Union Soviet the when pro undoubtedly an in Israel Israeli supportof theEisenhower the of because partly crisis, the of result a as partly strained, extremely became Israel 1956. October of end

OSA, Radványi, János MOL,XIX the withto relation 1957 in January declared States the of United President Dwight Eisenhower, Ro’i, YaakovSee: oee, ugr ws o te ny onr i te omns bo t allow to bloc Communist the in country only the not was Hungary However, strength to managed leadership Hungarian the that seems it So

HU OSA 300 OSA HU - J - 1 eign Affairs) to the Hungarian legation in Tel Aviv about the restructuring of therestructuring about Aviv Tel in legation the Hungarian to Affairs) eign - j (Izrael), box no. 1, 1/a, document no. 008055/1956. 008055/1956. no. 1/a, document box 1, no. (Izrael), j Hungary and the Superpowers. The 1956 Revolution and Realpolitik. and 1956 Revolution The Superpowers. the and Hungary The Struggle for Soviet Jewish Emigration 1948 Emigration Jewish Soviet for Struggle The

- at this time. In this issue, the Soviet Union did not openly interfere interfere openlynot did Union Soviet the issue, this In time. this at 40

- 1, box 293. RFE Research Institute Hungarian Unit UN Files. ’ Files. UN Unit Hungarian RFEResearchInstitute 293. box 1, 91

Moreover, diplomatic relations between the superpower and superpower the between relations diplomatic Moreover, 93

- The other reason was closely connected to this and was and this to connected closely was reason other The Arab Soviet influence area, and allow Jewish emigration Jewish allow and area, influence Soviet Arab -

57.

- doctrine.

69 92

aggression from another state. The Doctrine Doctrine The state. fromanother aggression he situation in Hungary’ (no date) (no Hungary’ in situation he - 1967 Letter from Lajos Nagy LetterNagy from Lajos aliyah (Cambridge: Cambridge Cambridge (Cambridge: 94

to gainsupport, or n eain with relations en

The behav The inl isolation. tional

(Stanford, CA: (Stanford, Breakdown of Breakdown 95

n as ons

ior of ior

CEU eTD Collection 183. the Privilege Perilsof and Alliances Dangerous (ed.), Mendelsohn Ezra in: Regime’ Ceausescu the during Rosen Moses Rabbi under Jewry ‘Romanian LeonVolovici, war.See: afterthe 102 101 tariffs, customs and newtrade about catalogue ofthe submission 100 67. 1997), Press, University Syracuse 99 129. 1982), Publishing, 98 142. Cass,1997), 97 author. No 1958. York, New Congress, Jewish Papers, Personal NahumGoldmann Z6/1704, In: CZA,to Israel.” wouldproceed Poland to go to allowed Jews knewthe that he country Goldma Nahum Congress Jewish the of World President writtento A 585. Memorandum 1990), Press, University York London: New 96 between dealing business extraordinary the of story the told Ioanid Radu monograph, thoughch time, this Romanianpolicies wouldsoon 1950s. the of end the by Bulgaria in left Jews thousand few a only were there emigration, broa rather a in understood reunification, go” let were acquaintances and relatives their join to Israel to emigrate to wanted who “those sources, archival Hungarian to According War. World Israel. to Poland from emigrated Jews thousand forty than more 1960, and 1956 between Khrushchev” with talks during hisfirst Gomułka concessions by won it.” achieve to means the of one be would repatriation of renewal the that consideration into took probably leadershipand Polish the of consolidation the “interestedin was because it time that at Poland. from Israel to on go would whom of many Jews, of lot a include would process repatriation the that interview an in acknowledged Khrushchev Nikita 1939. 1, September before citizens Poland to repatriation

Michael Steinlauf, Michael Steinlauf, Michael Checinski, I Govrin, Yosef Levin, Nora

By 1965, as a result of mass emigration, about 100,000 Jews remained in Romania of the 430,000 430,000 ofthe in Romania Jews remained 100,000 about massresult emigration, as a of By1965, Ibid. MOL,M

101

Jewish emigration was permitte was emigration Jewish

Czechoslovakia and Romania did not permit significant Jewish emigration at significant emigration permit Czechoslovakia Romania didnot and Jewish - KS 288. 32/1962/15. Report of Gyula Nyerki (Hungarian legation in Tel Aviv) about the about Aviv) Tel in legation (Hungarian Gyula of Nyerki Report 32/1962/15. KS 288. Paradox of Survival. The Jews in the Soviet Union since 1917 since Union Soviet the Jewsin The Survival. of Paradox

sraeli Bondage to the Dead. Dead. the to Bondage Poland. Communism, Nationalism, Anti Nationalism, Communism, Poland. -

Soviet Relations 1953 Relations Soviet

96 97 hs o Jws ad oih ainlt, h hd en Polish been had who nationality, Polish and Jewish of those

Howeve h areet a vee b mn a “n o te first the of “one as many by viewed was agreement The nn also claimed that “Khrushchev told various visitors from this fromthis visitors various told “Khrushchev that claimed also nn

Stu

r, the Soviet leadership did not put any obstacles to it to obstacles any put not did leadership Soviet the r, dies in Contemporary Jewry, Vol. XIX: Jews and the State: the State: Jews and XIX: Vol. Jewry, Contemporary in dies Poland and the Memory of the Holocaust the of the Memory and Poland - 1967. From Confrontation to Disruption to Confrontation From 1967.

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 181 2004), Press, University Oxford (Oxford: d from Bulgaria after the end of the Second the of end the after Bulgaria from d 70 sne A a eut f hs large this of result a As sense. d

ange respect. inthis - semitism. January 8, 1962. 8, January

(New York: Karz (NewYork: 100 , Vol. II. (New York and and York Vol. II. (New,

in the name of familyof name the in

102

(Syracuse,NY: and as a result, as and

(London: Frank (London: Frank

Inhis recent - Cohl - 194, 194, - scale scale CEU eTD Collection 1957. 15, May in Budapest, legation Israeli ofthe the illegal activity to with regards Affairs Foreign 105 1960. January27, Division, ofEuropean Eastern Director Ministry, Foreign theIsraeli 104 Israel and Romania 103 Israel.” in equivalent, financial their or valuables, the back got then who citizens Hungarian from objects valuable other and jewellery currency, of amount significant a “took attaché commercial the lega Israeli the of action illegal The Hungarian in relapse 1957. the for given of reason official spring the in halted abruptly was emigration Jewish months. few a facilitate 1960. early d’affaires chargé further of possibility of the liberalization and refusals visa] [exit of revision the of approval (for the find to 2.4.2. work that didnot outquite it well. cash. later, and investments R single every for paid Israel 1960s. and 1950s the in Jewry country’s the of emigration mass the facilitated which Israel, and Romania

MOL,XIX 93 (Henceforth:ISA), Archives State Israel RaduIoanid, The good relationship betwe relationship good The “ It is time to renew the pressure on the on pressure the renew to time is It

Bargaining aliyah

way and form in which we can mention a cheque to the Foreign Minister Minister Foreign the to cheque a mention can we which in form and way 104 - J - The Ransom of the Jews. The Story of the Extraordinary Secret Bargain Between Bargain Secret Extraordinary the of Story theJews.The of Ransom The 1

- h lte sget ta te sals a tid iia tascin to transactions similar tried had Israelis the that suggests letter The

j (Izr j as in the caseencounteredas inthe ofRomania some problems. but

(Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2005). 2005). Ivan R.Dee, (Chicago: of the Israeli legation in Budapest, Menachem Daniv his Ministry in Ministry his Daniv Menachem Budapest, in legation Israeli the of aliyah

ael), box no. 1, 1/c, document no. 001632/3/1957. 001632/3/1957. no. 1/c, document box 1, no. ael),

possibilities) and ask for the implementation,” urged the the urged implementation,” the for ask and possibilities) 103

Though the Israelis tried a similar scheme in Hungary, in scheme similar a tried Israelis the Though 105 en Israel and Hungary after the revolution only lasted only revolution the after Hungary and Israel en tion in Budapest. Hungarian authorities claimed that claimed authorities Hungarian Budapest. in tion

Th .10/1.29. (2154/9 .10/1.29. rsl bcm a opnain su o 3.5 of issue compensation a became result e 71

[Hungarian]

- Israeli diplomatic relations was the the was relations diplomatic Israeli - ). ). mna imgat n capital in immigrant omanian Letter from Menachem Daniv to to Daniv Letterfrom Menachem Foreign Ministry… Foreign Report of theReport of Ministry

it is time is it

CEU eTD Collection 109 VII (2008 University, Vol. European 1957 Israel, and 108 1945 107 106 earlier the to return not did Hungary from emigration Jewish as deal, the of part their keep not Hungariansdid instalments. four in dollars million 1.5 was upon agreed amount The i restitution pay to agreed the to Hungarian state budget. boost a give to possibility good a thus was scandal” “smuggling 1957 The emigration from Hungary. Thewas that information conducting expert financial Hungarian the negotiations Paris informed in a 1956, of summer the in that was light to them bring to authorities Hungarian the compelled What 1950s. the in activities family. 15 to limited was amount the though effect, that to governments Israeli the and Hungarian betweenthe arrangements therewere 1949, earlyas As new. t practice Israeli the the economic damage. for restitution as Israel from demanded Hungary amount the was This dollars. million

Ibid. Embarrassment. of‘A Matter Kovács, András Garai, George Ibid. matters being visibly co financial the request, prepared a be would Israelis the to such links close with group on favourably look would we that government would government Hungarian 10 the if pleased of emigration the months), 12 very (roughly time of period certain a within authorize, be would Israelis [t]he The timing of the “smuggling scandal” was nevertheless not coincidental. In fact, In coincidental. not nevertheless was scandal” “smuggling the of timing The h Irei oenet tog nt fiily cnwegn responsibility, acknowledging officially not though government, Israeli The - 1953 - 12,000 Jews... if they were to receive a verbal promise from the Hungarian Hungarian the from promise verbal a receive to were they if Jews... 12,000

107

(Unpublished PhD Thesis, London School of Economics, 1979), 178. 1979), Economics, of School London Thesis, (UnpublishedPhD

hs ti d is it Thus, - 1961’ in: András Kovács and Michael Mi Michael and Kovács András in: 1961’ The Policy towards the Jews, Zionism, and Israel of Israel and Jews,Zionism, the towards Policy The fcltt te rnfr f esnl ses f mgat ws not was emigrants of assets personal of transfer the facilitate o

106 oubtful that the Hungarian government was ignorant of these of ignorant was government Hungarian the that oubtful

level: from then on, only a few hundred Jews left Hungary left Jews hundred few a only on, then from level:

n the hope of being able to ensure the continuation of continuation ensurethe to able being of hope the n nnected nnected

- 2009) 2009) government that Israelto spendon willinggovernment would be that – (Budapest: CEU, 2013), 175 2013), CEU, (Budapest: to offer certain economic certainto offer benefits. Documents on Secret Negotiations between Hungary between Negotiations Secret on Documents 72

ller (eds.), ller

Jewish Studies at the at Central Studies Jewish

the Hungarian Communist Party, Communist Party, Hungarian the - – 204. 204.

even without the two two the without even

20,000 Forints per Forints 20,000 109 108

However, the However,

aliyah . CEU eTD Collection 1957. 26, March Interior, ofth the Ministry of Department Passport Tatai, József Major Affairsto ofForeign DeputyMinister 114 restit Israeli Department on 113 112 related the and restitutions Israeli Department on 111 University European Central the at Studies Foreign of the Ministry Department of 110 dealing is legation foreign a that inappropriate is it think “We request. his rebuked reconsideration, for applicants beginning the visa Jewish rejected of list a submitted in he when operations, the in involved personally was Szarka Károly Affairs Foreign of Minister Deputy though of proportion good a rejecting by authority and importance own its asserting dictated interests body’s This visas. exit the issuing was which Interior, the of Ministry Hungarian the was deal the blocking factor One Hungary. in successful urging messagequotedabove. Daniv’s Menachem prompted that realization this was It investigation. under period the during Israel to Hungary from movement population considerable no was there Jewish and payments Hungary, Israeli from of emigration continuation the ensured meetings Sík, UN Endre during counterpart, Hungarian her with negotiations secret whose necessary 1959. April in suspended were payments emigration, of numbers low the with dissatisfied money Israeli and visas correl the acknowledged never former the though authorities, Israeli and Hungarian between issue bargaining main the became year. each

MOL, Sík, Endre MOL,XIX ‘ MOL,XIX Information on current issues ofHungarian issues current on Information hr wr svrl esn wy h ei vs fr money for visa exit the why reasons several were There 111

XIX h itreto o Irei iitr f Forei of Minister Israeli of intervention The 110 Bem rakparti évek rakparti Bem - - - J J J - -

- 1 1 1 h blne ewe pyet ad emte eirto numbers emigration permitted and payments between balance The - - - j (Izrael), box no. 1, 1/c, document no. 001632/1957. Letter from Károly Szarka, Letter fromSzarka, Károly 001632/1957. no. 1/c, document box 1, no. (Izrael), j the of 4thPolitical Report 00354/1961. no. 4/a, document box 2, no. (Izrael), j j (Izrael), box no. 2, 4/a, document no. 00354/1961. Report ofReport the 4thPolitical document00354/1961. no. 4/a, box2, no. (Izrael), j

utions and the related question of emigration, May 11, 1960. May11, emigration, question of related the and utions - transfers to the Hungarian National Bank. When Israel was was Israel When Bank. National Hungarian the to transfers

112 [Years on Bem quay] (Budapest: Kossuth Kiadó, 1970), 189 1970), Kiadó, Kossuth (Budapest: Bemon quay] [Years

n lgty ihr ubr ta before. than numbers higher slightly in 114

Affairs, January 14, 1966’ in: 1966’ 14, January Affairs,

h ofca a te iity f h Inte the of Ministry the at official the .

- Israeli relations by Gábor Bebők, 6 Bebők, Gábor by relations Israeli question of emigration, May 11, 1960. May11, emigration, questionof 73 to bten h nme o ise exit issued of number the between ation

n far Gla er was Meir Golda Affairs gn Kovács and Miller (eds.), (eds.), Miller and Kovács

xhne a not was exchange visa claims. Even claims. visa th

Regional Regional

113

ir flatly rior However, - 192. Jewish

e CEU eTD Collection 120 Janua inWarsaw, Embassy Hungarian 119 Magyarországon mai a Zsidók betwe population Jewish ofthe number determinethe to 118 117 1960. April 26, Affairs, Foreign of Ministry theat Israeli Europe Eastern Department of 116 1957. KárolyMay2, to Szarka, Tatai 115 y few hundredeach a surpassed have not would Israel to emigrants of number the request, visa exit single move. to willing so not were illegal among Jews (abo of emigrants number high disproportionally The revolution. 1956 the of wake the in so did leave to wanted really who Those unrealistic. were emigration its affairs. run to personnel necessary the and budget, community’s the patriotism, Jews’ Hungarian about had have would claim leadership’s Jewish Hungarian the less validity the Israel, towards emigrants Jewish more The 1960. in diplomats Israeli the goodjobs,” the keep and [centre], power the fidelityto “ emigration. discouraging by regime the to loyalty its prove to trying was which community, Jewish Hungarian work,and illegal thedeparture and emigration,experts free of professionals. the considered also emigration, to attitude negative its in Interior, letter.” your to attached applicants rejected of list lengthy the with dealing not are we Therefore, emigrants... Hungarian of issues passport the with

Kovács, ‘A Matter ofEmbarrassment’ ‘A Kovács, Matter MOL, között’és 1995[Experiment 1945 behatárolására számának népesség zsidó a ‘Kísérlet Tamás Stark, Ibid. ISA, MOL, Th t of leadership official the was emigration Jewish blocking factor Another

ird, it must be noted that Israeli expectations of the scope of Hungarian Jewish Hungarian of scope the of expectations Israeli that noted be must it ird, 93.10/1.29. (2154/9 93.10/1.29.

XIX XIX - - J J - - 1 1 ut 10 percent) 10 ut - - j (Izrael), box no. 11, 29/e, document no. 008548/1961. Letter from Irén Rózsa to the to Letter fromRózsa Irén document008548/1961. 29/e, no. box 11, no. (Izrael), j József Letter from Major 001632/1/1957. no. 1/c, document box 1, no. (Izrael), j ear, well belowIsraelis ear, whatexpected. the

), (Budapest: Múlt és Jövő, 2002), 101 2002), Múlt Jövő, és (Budapest:

hy r itrse i te alr of failure the in interested are They Yerachmiel Ram Yaron’s report on Hungarian on report Yaron’s Ram Yerachmiel 118

119

ry 29, 1962. ry29, certainly suggests so. But those who were left behind left were who those But so. suggests certainly

Even if Hungarian authorities had authorized every authorized had authorities Hungarian if Even

en 1945 and 1995] in: András Kovács (ed.) in: 1995] Kovács and András en1945 117 - 135, 122 135,

was the bitter observation o observation bitter the was 120 115 -

123.

- aliyah, M The Israeli relations t relations Israeli

agr f enemy of danger

inistry of the of inistry demonstrate demonstrate 116

o the o ,

he he f CEU eTD Collection influen indirect. Moscow’s of because reversed Israel. were with these relations of both good However, cultivated and Congress, Jewish World the through contacts Western establish to community Jewish the to concessions certain granted internatio its decrease to Conversely, leadership. highest the of majority the constituted Jews which in predecessor’s its from differed regime new the that accentuate to served and beliefs, such to opposition professed anti even possibly and language toleranceantisemitic of This leadership. ofhighestranks the originin Jewish anti these reshuffling cadre of because erupted that Party the within antisemitism of manifestations tolerated Kádár Meanwhile, legitimacy. own its C consolidation selectively sanctions applied it First, mind. in goals two with antisemitism popular of representations its yet ambiguous, were areas these in policies to policies these of connections the and Hungary in situation ommunism’ in the official narrative of the “counterrevolution” in order to increase to order in “counterrevolution” the of narrative official the in ommunism’ This chapter discussed the Kádár regime’s initial attempts to regain control of the of control regain to attempts initial regime’s Kádár the discussed chapter This

- Jewish beliefs by intentionally minimizing the number of Party members of of members Party of number the minimizing intentionally by beliefs Jewish . eod i atmtd o discour to attempted it Second,

ahr hn ossety o upes r ap or suppress to consistently than rather - Jewish discrimination was i was discrimination Jewish 75

rational. The Kádár regime manipulated regime Kádár The rational. age n sharp contrast with the officially officially the with contrast sharp n nal isolation, the Kádár regime regime Kádár the isolation, nal

n wa i mr, substantiated more, is what and h pplr oin f ‘Jewish of notion popular the eih sus State issues. Jewish pease threats to its its to threats pease ce, however however ce, CEU eTD Collection

76 3.

CEU eTD Collection Theory and 3 1. 2005), Routledge, NewYork: 2 1 their fit only not which WWII of interpretation an offer to countries had regimes the these because for problem a presented case Eichmann The different. somewhat the totalitarian responsibility stateoperation. and its individual in of logic working the Eichmann, Adolf of character the about debate scholarly global book the into turned later were which magazine scale.” international an on event discrete a as time first the for sphere public the into Jews European of genocide Nazi the brought trial Eichmann “the that stating as far as went Jews.” the of murder mass and persecution Nazi the of perceptions forever changed Eichmann… Adolf of execution and trial capture, “the that noted Cesarani David memory. Holocaust of) beginning real the not (if in point turning 1962. of spring the in executed and 11, December on guilty pronounced was He 1961. 11, organization. outlawed an in membership and agai crimes humanity, against crimes including charges,criminal 15 on indicted trial, on stand would he where Israel to transported subsequently was He 1960. 11, May Argentinaon Aires, Buenos in agents Israelisecret by capturedwas

OSA, HU OSA 300 OSA HU OSA, Michael Rothberg, ‘Beyond Eichmann: Rethinking the emergence of Holocaust memory’ in: in: memory’ ofHolocaust emergence the Rethinking Eichmann: ‘Beyond Michael Rothberg, (ed.), Cesarani David dl Ecmn, fre Nazi former a Eichmann, Adolf h signifi The an signalled trial Eichmann the that argued have historians Many

Not only the trial itself, but Hannah Arendt’s iconic articles in the in articlesiconic HannahArendt’s but itself, trial onlythe Not , Vol. 46, Issue 1 (February, 2007), 74. 2007), (February, Issue Vol. 46, , 1 3.

cance of the trial in communist Eastern Europe, however, however, Europe, Eastern communist in trial the of cance - 40 The EichmannThe trial After Eichmann. Collective Memory and the Holocaust after 1961 1961 after Holocaust the and Memory Collective Eichmann. After -

1, box no. 1606. CNR Report, Munich, 29 March, 1961. March, 29 Munich, CNR Report, 1606. no. box 1,

SS – -

Obersturmbannführer 77

the politics of amnesty of the politics amnesia? and

His trial began in Jerusalem on April on Jerusalem in began trial His Eichmann in Jerusalem in Eichmann

nst the Jewish people Jewish the nst Letnn Colonel) (Lieutenant

Michael RothbergMichael , started the started , New (London and

important History Yorker

was

CEU eTD Collection Germany in Fascism against Struggle Period Interwar 7 296. esp. 1965), 1919 International: Communist The 6 5 Practice. 4 bourgeoisie’s manipulation. Arbeiterpartei Deutsche capitalism). to opposed was (which class working the crush to aimed which bourgeoisie petty the by r a as Fascism described theories Marxist of number a inter the During 1989. until countries communist in interpretation official basis. mass organized an creating “fina of tool a as it saw 1933 of definition Comintern capitalism monopoly of dictatorship terroristic the as anti Fascism and Fascism between fight a foremost and interp the in thus basis, ideological an anti were regimes Communist emphasized. propagandists communist and thinkers Marxist that elements important most the of some highlight to possible is it systemic level. a on bloc Eastern the of countries all for problem a posed narrative communist the and interpretation historical between this tension beliefs).The political their forpersecuted aga atrocities Germany’s Nazi and his on foremost anti and Fascism Marxism narrative, War Cold contemporary

‘Theses on Fascism, the War Danger and the Tasks of the Communist Parties’ in: Jane Degras (ed.), (ed.), Degras Jane in: Parties’ Communist the of the and Tasks Danger War the Fascism, ‘Theseson Dimitrov, George Renton, see: Dave Fascism of accountMarxist of theories detailed a For David Beetham (ed.), Beetham(ed.), David Though there has not been a si a been not has there Though

(Londo - Leninism. Communist doctrine interpreted WWII as the struggle between between struggle the as WWII interpreted doctrine Communist Leninism.

(Manchester: Manchester University P University Manchester (Manchester: n; Stirling, VA: Pluto Press, 1999) Press, Pluto VA: n; Stirling,

Against Fascism and War and Fascism Against - h wdnn spot f ilrs SA ( NSDAP Hitler’s of support widening The Fascism, but the proceedings of the Eichmann trial focused first and first focused trial Eichmann the of proceedings the but Fascism, Marxists in Face of Fascism: Writings by Marxists on Fascism from the the from Fascism Marxists on Writingsby Fascism: of Face in Marxists

i te al 13s a epand s th as explained was 1930s early the in )

- 1943. Documents. Documents. 1943. (London: Pathfinder, 1971), 155 1971), (London: Pathfinder, 6 ngle coherent Marxist coherent ngle

This strictly materialistic definition remained the remained definition materialistic strictly This

(New York: International Publishers, 1986), 2. 1986), Publishers, International York: (New retation of communist dogma, WWII was first was WWII dogma, communist of retation u as crepne t te rnils of principles the to corresponded also but 78

ress, 1983), 197 1983), ress, Volume 3 (London: Oxford University Press, University Press, (London: Volume Oxford 3 - acs. ere iirv saw Dimitrov George Fascism. nt es rte ta victims than (rather Jews inst eactionary ideology supported supported ideology eactionary c cptl wih ie at aimed which capital” nce - Leninist theory of Fascism, of theory Leninist – – 6. 204; Léon Trotsky, LéonTrotsky, 204;

Fascism. Theory and and Theory Fascism. Nationalsozialistische 5

hl te official the while rsl o the of result e - war period, war - acs on fascist The The

CEU eTD Collection 14 1997), Press, University (ed.), 13 1997) Press, Holocaust the of the Memory and Poland the Dead: to Bondage 85 esp. 1999), Press, University NC: Duke (Durham, Cohen Shari J. 51; esp. 2001, Studies, Holocaust Advanced for Center Museum, Memorial Holocaust States United t 12 in: Holocaust’ 11 (2006), 8 No. 1944 inHungary Autobiographies ofthe Communist Politics Politics German 10 (ed.), Silberklang David under But Germany. 9 Nazi 596. 2003), of (October, defeat the for 8 credited been had leader’ ‘great memoriali the in changes phenomenon. larger a of part as presented being by normalized Union t assert academics some While history. WWII of interpretations communist of focus primary socio remai repression that claimed regimes Communist States. United the and countries European Western attack to basis a as served It War. Cold the of battles ideological the in used was capitalism and Fascism between linkage theoretical of resurgence the against guarantee only the as presented post legitimize to instrumentalized was Fascism one. moral a as also but victory, military a as only not viewed parti in Union Soviet the and general, in communists of struggle successful the of reminder a as served it First, EasternEurope. he Holocaust’ in: in: heHolocaust’

Nati Cantorovich, ‘Sovie Cantorovich, Nati memory’ in: as myth and War Patriotic Great ‘The NinaTumarkin,

Zvi Gitelman, ’Politic Zvi Gitelman, example:for See the of SovietTreatment Hole: Memory History’s ‘Down Korey, example:for William See revolutionaries: ‘Reluctant R.Thompson, Mark In the context of fascist and anti and fascistof context Inthe anti the of maintenance the WWII, After Bitter Legacy. Confronting the Holocaust in the USSR the in Holocaust the Confronting BitterLegacy. - economic thatwere structures oncapitalism. based 11 a te eoy f h Hlcut a cmltl opesd n h Soviet the in oppressed completely was Holocaust the of memory the hat

and its Eastern European communist counterparts, communist European Eastern its and

1209 Present Tense Present Politics without a Past: The Absence i History of Absence The Past: a without Politics , Vol. 8, No.1 (1999), 43. James Mark, ’Antifascism, the 1956 Revolution and the and Revolution the 1956 ’Antifascism, James43. Mark, (1999), No.1 8, Vol. , Hungary and the Holocaust: Confrontation with the Past the with Confrontation Holocaust: the and Hungary - Randolph L. Braham, ‘Assault on Historical Memory: Hungarian Nationalists and and Nationalists Memory: Hungarian Historical on ‘Assault Braham, L. Randolph 1240.

s and Historiography of the Holocaust in the Soviet Union’ in: ZviGitelman in: Union’ in the Soviet the Holocaust of Historiography sand Yad Vashem Studies Yad Vashem

t Reactions to the Eichmann Trial: Preliminary Investigations 1960 PreliminaryInvestigations Trial: the Eichmann to t Reactions - 42. , Vol. 10 (Winter, 1983), 53. (Winter,1983), 10 Vol. , sation of WWII at this time. During the Stalinist period, the the period, Stalinist the During time. this at WWII of sation

- fascist struggle, the persecution of Jews was not a not was Jews of persecution the struggle, fascist , 35 (2), (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2007), 106. 2007), Vashem, (Jerusalem: (2), 35 , Yad Anti 79 ua, gis Nz Germany Nazi against cular, -

118 (on Czechoslovakia); Michael Steinlauf, Steinlauf, (on Michael 118 Czechoslovakia); - - fascist narrative had several functions in functions several had narrative fascist Fascism and the East German opposition’ in: opposition’ German East the and Fascism

(Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana Indianapolis: and (Bloomington - 2000’ in: 2000’ - war communist rule which was was which rule communist war

n Post n (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University University Syracuse NY: (Syracuse,

European Review European - communist Nationalism communist Europe 12

others argue that it was it that argue others Fascism. . Symposium Proceedings, Symposium . Proceedings, ned inherent in those in inherent ned - 9 Asia Studies Asia

13 utemr, anti Furthermore,

hr wr also were There 10 , Vol.11, No. No. 4 Vol.11, ,

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, Vol. 58, 58, Vol. , - 1965’ in: 1965’

- CEU eTD Collection 17 16 45. 1997), Cass, Frank 15 62. 1999), Press, CambridgeUniversity (Cambridge: Century Sivan(eds.), Emmanuel and in:Winter Jay Russia’ inSoviet See: million deaths. 20 to admitted Khrushchev 14 instead ofinsisting onthetrial of Eichmann inEasternEurope. all, at acknowledged be should and could Eichmann over court Israeli the of authority with it providing by example, (for court Israeli the with collaborate should states communist whether including trial, the to regards with Europe. pac clear state’s Jewish the as propaganda 1950s the since Germany West with relations East. Middle the in imperialism” Western of “mainstay Wester increasingly the of becauseand 1956 of Crisis Suez the since especiallyIsrael, undesirable. highlywas court Israeli an by defined framework a through interpreted be would communities liv smaller) some larger, (some communities Jewish had still countries communist European Eastern the of Each interests. Jewish of articulator and representative main the of role the asserted sacrifices of theUSSR. made by thepeople whichcould victimhood acknowledgement have of overshadowedextent of Jewish the a as remembrance. people Soviet the of suffering and heroism the was It Union. Soviet the in shifted emphasis the rule, Khrushchev’s

Govrin, YosefGovrin, ofSo number the Stalinism, example,during For Cantorovich, ‘Soviet Reactions to the Eichmann Trial’, 109. Trial’, the Eichmann to Reactions ‘Soviet Cantorovich, The Eichmann trial p trial Eichmann The

17 Israeli

This situation then raised important practical questions for the whole bloc whole the for questions practical important raised then situation This 14 - Israeli Soviet Relations , , Relations Soviet

hs hf i WI mmraiain i nt ed aor the favour lend not did memorialisation WWII in shift This

ing within its territory. That the most recent history of these these of history recent most the That territory. its within ing - Soviet Relations 1953 Relations Soviet

n orientation of its foreign policies, was viewed as the the as viewed was policies, foreign its of orientation n osed another problem for ‘real socialist’ states, in that Israel that in states, socialist’ ‘real for problem another osed 80.

- 1967. From Confrontation to Disruption Confrontation From 1967. Catherine Merridale, ’War, Death, and Remembrance Remembrance Death,and ’War, Merridale, Catherine

80 viet deaths attributed to the war was 7 million, while was million, war 7 the to attributed vietdeaths hl ta bcm te oa pit of point focal the became that whole

wt Cmuims arch Communism’s with t 16 War and Remembrance in the Twentieth the Twentieth in Remembrance Warand

documentation), and whether the the whether and documentation), ee osdrd y communist by considered were 15

The country’s strengthening country’s The

(London: - enemy in in enemy CEU eTD Collection 2006 (Winter 4 22 21 p ( formerNSDAP 56 mentioned bulletin The Party. Communist ofthe staff executives but several services, diplomatic Amo GDR. in the careers remarkable 20 History Contemporary 19 42. 1995), in: 1990’ after Narratives German East Identity in 18 occupiers.Nazi of hands the in duringWWII GDR propagandists back toturn the past. towards defeats.” and failures past of acknowledgement an or sacrifices past of commemoration a than rather struggle future a favoured especially GDR the of propaganda the 1945, before existed had which Eichmann. point any at implicated be might personalities well or leading as danger, a also anti true only “the GDR, the to opposed that of presentation the through German East for time same (GFR) Republic Federal German the incriminate to opportunity an was It propaganda. the at situation dangerous very a and opportunity fo responsibility ( History’ of ‘Victor and state German socialist the as (GDR), German Republic The Democratic leaderships. European Eastern for presented trial his and Eichmann igr e Geschichte der Sieger arliament. See: Brinks, ‘Political Anti ‘Political Brinks, arliament.See:

Barbara Szacka, ‘Polish Remembrance of WWII’ in: ofWWII’ Remembrance ‘Polish Szacka, Barbara 42. History’ Memory, ‘Victims, Ankum, made had who Nazis former about Bulletin a issued government the GFR 1960 Infact,in early ‘Po Herman Brinks, Jan Anti History: ‘Victims,Memory, Ankum, von Katharina n oad te co the Poland, In country certain also were There - retd prah o ainl dniy ae o t on based identity national to approach oriented

- 2007), 12. 2007), oevr pras o getr xet hn te cutis f h bloc the of countries other than extent greater a to perhaps Moreover, Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei Deutsche Nationalsozialistische te emn past.” German the r , Vol. 32, No. 2 (April, 1997), 210. 21997), (April, No. 32, Vol. ,

litical Anti

mmunist regime propagated a narrative of Polish victimhood victimhood Polish of narrative a propagated regime mmunist ), “exempted itself from all political and historical historical and political all from itself “exempted ), 21

The criminal procedure against Adolf Eichmann forced Eichmann Adolf against procedure criminal The

- ng them were not only scholars, artists, members of the press and and press members ofthe artists, scholars, werenot only ng them Fascism in the German Democratic Republic’ in: in: Republic’ Democratic the German in Fascism - Fascism’, 212 Fascism’, country as the sole heir of Nazi Germany and as as and Germany Nazi of heir sole the as country

- 18 nw Es Gra pltcl n intellectual and political German East known -

pcfc rbes ht h cpue f Ad of capture the that problems specific h Ecmn cs ws hs n unparalleled an thus was case Eichmann The - History and Memory and History 81 fascist state on German soil.” German on state fascist

- 22 216. International Journal of of Sociology Journal International

The Polish self Polish The

in the criminal process against Adolf Adolf against process criminal the in -

Fascism and the Question of National National of Question the and Fascism

) members in the East German members German East the in e cnet f successful of “concept he , Vol. 7, No.2 (Fall No.2 7, Vol. , - image as ‘martyr of theimage‘martyrof as Journal of of Journal 19

, Vol. 36, No. 36, , Vol. - Winter, Winter, But it was it But olf CEU eTD Collection Society and Politics European East 26 Un 25 in: Hubris’ 24 Society and Culture, Politics, Journal of International in: East’ Turns Union theEuropean in Poland: Memory Cultural and ‘Nationalism Wagner, Gerhard 23 as Weste well forming the to well correspond not did and goals, policy as undertones ideological strong had propaganda, and theory communist andthecontext Eichmann trial t anti against Fascism generic to the Therefore, population. the from support little received and weak also was Hungary opposed as Furthermore, Bulgar substantiate. or Czechoslovakia to hard particularly story struggle anti the made which resist, to soil Hungarian on soldiers German and weak insignificant. was Hungary’s WWII, during movements resistance considerable had 1944. in sides switch to Nazi of side the on WWII effort” war German the assist to likely least place the Europe, image. particul that, like and narrative competing a was Jews against crimes Eichmann’s on emphasis The tragic. also was WWII during Poland of occupation Soviet the that fact the from attention divert to image historical this used century nineteenth the least) (at to back went nations’

István Deák, ‘A Fatal Compromise? The Debate Over Collaboration and Resistance in Hungary’ in: in: Hungary’ in Resistance and Collaboration Over Debate The Compromise? ‘AFatal Deák, István C.Janos, Andrew Nationalist for Reason isNo Why That And Little: so Collaborated Poles ‘Whythe Connelly, John NormanDavies, iversity Press, 1982). Press, iversity h ntr o Fsim Nzs ad h hsoy f WI a peetd by presented as WWII, of history the and Nazism Fascism, of nature The Nazi of all in and, Quisling a “without countrya Poland, to opposed As

Slavic Review Slavic 26

Up until the country’s invasion in March 1944, there were barely any barely were there 1944, March in invasion country’s the until Up Heart of Europ of Heart The Politics of Backwardness in Hungary 1825 Hungary in Backwardness of Politics The

, Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005), 772. 2005), No.4 (Winter, 64, Vol. , 25

ry to legitimize the country’s post country’s the legitimize to ry Furthermore, unlike Poland and Czechoslovakia which both which Czechoslovakia and Poland unlike Furthermore, Germany and remained its ally up until the abortive attempt abortive the until allyup its remained and Germany i fr ntne te home the instance, for a - e. A Short History of Poland Poland of History A e. Short Fascism narrative was especially unfit for the Hungarian the for unfit especially was narrative Fascism , Vol. 9, No. 2 (Spring, 1995), 209 (Spring,1995), No.2 9, Vol. ,

arly irritating from the point of view of this Polish self Polish this of view of point the from irritating arly hreatened these contradictions. tohighlight 82

, Vol. 17, No.2 (Winter, 2003), 205. 2003), (Winter, No.2 Vol. , 17,

(London: Clarendon Press, 1984), 202. 202. 1984), Press, (London: Clarendon - 23 rd c bred

and the communist leadership communist the and - 1945 - 233. - war Western borders and and borders Western war

muit oeet in movement ommunist (Princeton, NJ: PrincetonNJ: (Princeton,

rn understanding of the of understanding rn 24 Hnay entered Hungary , - acs resistance fascist

- controlled controlled - CEU eTD Collection 28 1960. 12, February Bucharest, and Warsaw Budapest, 27 superpowers two the of forces military the where territory only the was Berlin time. that at situation demographic and economic untenable Germany’s East and balance of theWest German establishment. ex of exposure the prevent to as so trial the holding to stop a put to trying was country the that arguingGermany, attackWest to out setpropaganda government. Bonn the against campaign joint a prepare to was gathering the of goal The 1960. February early in Warsaw in Germany East and Hungary Romania, Poland, from Foreign about asecret reported Ministry meeti Israeli The FederalRepublic. the in power of positions to returning were Nazis former full a leashed propagandists German East 1956, intensively been had GDR The trial. his during prominent become later would issues which to as bloc the in elsewhere 3.1. problems relatedother, (or andwere were toeach howthey not)resolved country and systemic how explore comparatively to possible is it thus and WWII, of version communist universal the with well mesh always not did histories Fu problem. this with dealt particular, in regime Kádár Hungarian the and general, in countries European Eastern how explore to opportunity excellent an presents Eichmann Adolf of case the Thus, Jews. of murder mass the as Holocaust

Cantorovich, ‘Soviet Reactions to the Eichmann Trial’, 111 Trial’, the Eichmann to Reactions ‘Soviet Cantorovich, ISA,93.10 The prominence of the GFR among the issues stemmed from the Cold War power War Cold the from stemmed issues amongthe GFR the prominenceofThe and Moscow from signals been had there captured, was Eichmann before Even

Hungarian Hungarian decisionspolitical and bloc /1 27 - 22. (2154/2 22.

Shortly after Eichmann’s capture was announced was capture Eichmann’s after Shortly

- ). Letter from the Israeli Forei theIsraeli Letter from ).

campaigning against West Germany West against campaigning 83

ngof theleaders of - gn Ministry to the Israeli Legations in Legations the Israeli to Ministry gn level considerations - - 115. cl atc. hy lie that claimed They attack. scale

- Nazis active in the ranks the in active Nazis to the world, Soviet world, the to Jewish communities communities Jewish rthermore, national national rthermore,

and as of of as and - specific specific - CEU eTD Collection 32 239. 1984), Press, CambridgeUniversity 31 10. &Ltd,1991), Co. Tauris 30 XVIII. Taylor, Frederick Republ 29 would beduring carried trial. onalso theEichmann anti active an USSR the Furthermore, Britain. to trying and also was government France alongside aggressor an as media quicklydeteriorated.relations si Moscow Suez the Crisis, During Israel. towards stand critical the was procedure court Eichmann propagandagoal thebloc theGFR. in wouldbe theattack on Eichma the during that predictable was it strategies, Soviet term have NATO. into GFR the could of integration military the delayed resistance whose and widespread, quite was rearmament to aversion West the at aimed also propaganda such 1950s, mid the until up least At Germany. West nuclearized and rearmed a of fears Soviet real degree some to indicating militarism, and revanchism of resurgence supposed USSR the of theme recurrent Eas of thousands capitalism”, of “crisis the about assertions propaganda’s communist Despite them. directlyconfron

Ibid. Pinkus, Benjamin Sodaro, Michael J. Democratic German fledfrom the people million half a and about two 1961, and Between1945 the on comments communist official in appear to likely was that element Another

ic to the German Federal Republic, reducing the population of the former by fifteen percent. percent. fifteen formerby the of population the reducing Republic, Federal the German to ic - sal rpgna campaign. propaganda Israel The Berlin Wall. A World Divided, 1961 WorldDivided, Wall. Berlin A The ted each other and the question was causing repeated tensionsbetween repeated causing was other thequestion and each ted The Soviet Government and the Jews1948 and Government Soviet The t Moscow, Germany and the West. From Khrus the West. From and Moscow, Germany - Germans were escaping to West West to escaping were Germans e wt is e Aa ale ad fe te a, Soviet war, the after and allies Arab new its with ded

counter Soviet Jewish aspirations for emigration with emigration for aspirations Jewish Soviet counter ’s propaganda campaign against the GFR was the the was GFR the against campaign propaganda ’s Israel became the subject of insulting attacks in Sovietin attacks insulting ofIsrael subject the became

84 32

h hsiiy oad te eih State Jewish the towards hostility The - 1989

emn ulc aog hm the whom among public, German - 1967. A Documented Study Documented A 1967. (New York: HarperCollins, 2006), 2006), (New HarperCollins, York: emn o a al basis. daily a on Germany hchev to Gorbachev Gorbachev to hchev 30

In the light of these long these of light the In

n ra, h main the trial, nn (London: I.B. (London: I.B. (Cambridge: - Israeli 29

A - - CEU eTD Collection s withjoint a theirdispute end to agreed eventually Argentina and Israel Council, Security the involvement of the and negotiations monthsof After Aires. in Eichmann Buenos abducted had they when ofthe republic rights the sovereign violated 35 Italy. and France Luxembourg, Belgium, Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Greece, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland, document the that atrocities Hungary,the of invasion theGerman before was signed Declaration as the However, expedition. Eichmann’s request to thought government Hungarian the thison that document wasbased therein.”It erected will be g offree countries and liberated these the lawsof to according punished and judged thatbe may they werein order done deeds abominable their which in countries the sentto back will be have taken or for responsible been “ 1943, 30, October Unionon of governments the by signed Security”) 34 1960. June24, Péter, János and Hollai by Imre case, the Eichmann into relation the Politburo to Party Workers’ Socialist theHungarian 33 Israel, and Argentina between conflict the in part taking mean procedurewould a such because also success, ofprospect slightest ruled communists Polish extradition, considered originally Czechoslovaks the Though states. socialist the of prestige of loss foreseeable the thereby and refusal Israeli of fears for dropped was Eichmann of Union, Soviet the and states two these of Ministries Foreign the with deliberations brief some after However, WWII. during stationed was Eichmann where countries bloc other two Poland, and Czechoslovakia that in humanity crimes against his of majority great a committed he that account the on court, Hungarian extra the for ask propo firstTheir case. Eichmann the with deal to plan action an out work to apparatus bureaucratic ( Party Workers’ Socialist 3.1.1.

In June 1960, Argentina requested a meeting of the UN Security Council, claiming that that claiming Council, Security meetingthe UN a of Argentina requested InJune1960, “ as known (also Declaration the Moscow to According Department ofthe Proposal MOL,288.32/1960/11. h Dprmn o Frin far o te eta Cmite f h Hungarian the of Committee Central the of Affairs Foreign of Department The

Dealing with the Israeli Dealing with the blo criminal in court: consultations sal dition of Eichmann from Israel so that he could be tried at a a at tried be could he that so Israel from Eichmann of dition 33

to the Politburo on June 24, 1960 suggested tha suggested 1960 24, June on Politburo the to those German officers and men and members of the Nazi party who havewho party membersthe Nazi and menof and officers thoseGerman SM K Klgi Osztály Külügyi KB MSZMP country.

a consenting part in the above atrocities, massacres and executions massacres and atrocities, above inthe part consenting a

tatement.

China, mentions refer to those committed in the Soviet Union, Soviet the in committed those to refer mentions 34

t u bcue h pa wud o hv “the have not would plan the because out it the initial plan about requesting the expedition the requesting about plan initial the

h dat lo rpsd oslain with consultations proposed also draft The the United Kingdom, the United States and the Soviet and States United the Kingdom, theUnited

85 35

of Foreign Affairs of the Central Committee of of Committee Central Affairsofthe ofForeign

n bcue uh cam ih bring might claim a such because and Declaration ofthe Declaration ) was the first organ of the the of organ first the was )

Four Nations on General General on Nations Four t Hungary shouldHungary t overnments which overnments the Israelis Israelis the c

CEU eTD Collection 38 93. esp. 1991), Press, CambridgeUniversity Ro’i, Yaacov Jewry.See: 37 264. 2005), CEU, (Budapest: 2005) ( Miller Michael and Kovács András beyond’ and in: 1960s in the Czechoslovakia Partyof Communist ofthe politics internal and foreign ‘Israel inthe Crhová, 36 of monopoly their on firmly information. grips their hold to intended governments the that also but Europe, Eastern in Holocaust the about discussion a open to occasion an be matter. that for organization Czechoslovakia Bizottsága Országos Üldözötteinek National the materials, Commit these actions published two that these organizations do to The decided simultaneously. involved parties the as inasmuch out worked semi was compromise a Finally, a first. materials the publishing on insisted Czechoslovakia through materials the with Israel on documentation for request provide to proposed Hungary war. the during territories their on activities Eichmann’s court’s Israeli the fulfill should they whether on Israelthat speakright to of entirety upforworld hadno Jewry. the held which states socialist of position general the to counter run have would authority trial. the of time the by citizens Israeli become had who people to regards with it acknowledged Hungarians the though avoided, be to was competence court’s Israeli the of recognition explicit the that decided also the German Federalcounterclaimabout by a

Crhová, ‘Israel in the foreign and internal politics’, 263. politics’, internal and foreign ‘Israel inthe Crhová, American by especially in the West, contested also was Jewry world for up speak Israel’s to right in: Marie Published 1960. 12, August AntonínNovotný, Affairsto Foreign of Ministry Czechoslovak devel not could countries socialist’ ‘real European Eastern tee of Persons Persecuted by Nazism in Hungary ( Hungary in Nazism by Persecuted Persons of tee

ee o aflae wt te eih omnte o ay Jewish any or communities Jewish the with affiliated not were

The Struggle for Soviet Jewish Emigration 1948 Emigration Jewish Soviet for Struggle The That signalled not only that the Eichmann case would not would case Eichmann the that only not signalled That

ad h Uin f Anti of Union the and ) 86

Republic, which isundesirable.” Republic, -

fiil oil organizati social official eds.), eds.),

h rcgiin f h cuts full court’s the of recognition The Jewish Studies at the CEU the IV at Studies Jewish áims Magyarországi Nácizmus - 1967 op a uniform position position uniform a op - acs Fgtr in Fighters Fascist 37

( Cambridge:

n while on, 36 . (2004 .

It was - CEU eTD Collection 217 followed (eds.), Miller Michael and Kovács governments interwar 39 country’s the and Romania of part became Transylvania War, World First the After Israel. Eretz of citizens become to training group youth the entered Kasztner while movement, Socialist the of organization local the in activities political his started Szirmai age. early an at active politically became hometown Both (Cluj). Kasztner’s Kolozsvár from away kilometers eighty (Zalău), Zilah of town small more thanpolitical simple considerations. toit had have might Zionism and Kasztner towards animosity Szirmai’s policies. state biographi how well very of Ministry the for spokesman a highlights but as absurd, rather therefore is story the of version Szirmai’s Transportation. member a was he which of government, ri extreme Tel in shot was Kasztner Rezső claims, Szirmai’s to Contrary implicate to propaganda communist Zionism.that He highlighted for apropos good a presented trial the that emphasiz He opinion. his offer to rose quickly ideology and culture for responsible member the Szirmai, István 1960. 28, June on meeting its on purposes propaganda 3.1.2

‘Minutes of the Politburo of the Hungarian Socialist Worker’s Party 28 June 1960’ in: András András in: June1960’ 28 Party Worker’s Socialist ofthe Hungarian Politburo ofthe ‘Minutes that was There up. exist. also him shut factors to order in shot Such had government Israeli the light. whom affair [sic] Kaszner to come I to the them and want things, don’t these about knows Eichmann movement. Zionist the and government Israeli the compromise severely which matters certain are there - Both men were born into Jewish families in 1906 in Transylvania. Szi Transylvania. in 1906 in families Jewish into born were men Both for implications its case and The Eichmann first Hungarian discussedthe Politburo 218.

39 Anti

ght - Zionism: a person - wing Israeli the of orders the on not and Eckstein, Zeev supporter es and personal dynamics played a role in the formation of formation the in role a played dynamics personal and es Jewish Stu Jewish

al theme? dies at the CEU the IV at dies 87

. (2004 . Barissia - - Zionist 2005) (Budapest: CEU, 2005), 2005), CEU, (Budapest: 2005) woe ebr were members whose ,

vv y young, a by Aviv Hashomer rmai in the in rmai sraelis Hatzair Hatzair ed CEU eTD Collection Per Mendelsohn (ed.), Ezra in: ofCommunism’ Collapse 40 time, years’ of couple a in that prophesized and realities” for disregard the on based ideology dangerous “a was Zionism that opined also Szirmai 1940s, late the in back the damaging forint.” and property’, ‘rescuing currency, their hard through smuggling craze organizations, emigration the to adding nationalism, bourgeois “spreading gro the on organizations Zionist all ban to proposed He time. that at friendly bit least the not for was Zionism responsible toward position unofficially His affairs’. functionary‘Zionist Party’s the as acted he where Hungary political a made sixteen and himself saved Kasztner prison, in war the of half second the spent Szirmai while However, Szirmai where communists, Hungarian the from help financial get to repeatedly tried Committee Aid and Rescue Jewish the of member a as Kasztner, when acquainted personally became two the that possible Jewish help to trying wasKasztner c Transylvanian thebetween as liaison illegality in living was Szirmai Budapest: in men both found forties the of t convinced increasingly was and Zionism, of supporter a remained Cluj, in Party Jewish National the to close worked hand other Kasztneranswer onthe internationalism toethnictensions. thebest leaving completely not (if ideas, Zionist from away moved thus 1929, in Party Communist Romanian the joined Szirmai community. Jewish the by given answers the of extremes two represented a increasingly

András Kovács, ‘Hungarian Jewish Politics from the End of the Second World War until theWar World the Second of End from the Politics ‘HungarianJewish Kovács, András ils of Privilege ilsof 40

On a private meeting with two ultra two with meeting private a On uthoritarian, nationalist policies against Jews. Szirmai and Kasztner Kasztner and Szirmai Jews. against policies nationalist uthoritarian,

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 133. 133. 2003), Press, University Oxford (Oxford: career -

hundred other Jews on the famous ‘Kasztner train’. Kasztner Kasztner train’. ‘Kasztner famous the on Jews other hundred

in the in hat Palestine was the only safe place for Jews. The beginning The Jews. for place safe only the was Palestine hat

his Jewish identification behind) and considered communist considered andbehind) identification Jewish his

Mapai muit ad h Hnain omns Party; Communist Hungarian the and ommunists refugees to obtain exit visas to go to Palestine. Itis Palestine. goto visas to exit obtain refugeesto

(Labour) Party in Party (Labour)

was a member of the Central Committee. Committee. Central the of member a was 88

Jews and the State: Dangerous Alliances and the the Alliancesand Dangerous the State: and Jews - etZoit msaisfo Pale from emissaries Zionist left

Israel, Szirmai in communist in Szirmai Israel, ns ht hy were they that unds stine

CEU eTD Collection 44 209. 43 esp. 2007), McIntyre, Douglas Toronto: (Vancouver, Anna Porter, from: Kasztner Rezső of details Biographical July, 26 2011.) at: Available Encyclopedia]. 42 128. 1979), Economics, Israel 1946 Hungarybetween 41 the case,resolution ofthe political the body incl of angle Zionist the emphasized members Politburo other no stand Though Israel. harsh against the adopt to Szirmai encouraged surely time some quite by language Zionist. a him labeled hard a of attack personal a of target Politburo, the been the had at Szirmai speech above his before months few A Czechoslovakia. in trial show ZionistHungarian a planning was Rákosi when ‘Zionist 1953, of his beginning the at for Rákosi Mátyás imprisoned by activities’ was he First, Party. the in it of reminded repeatedly Szirma regime.if the Even communityof theJewish butasmembers of the ‘we’: oftheuniversal supporters more experience.” u Jewishness, of censorship“the asKarády characterizedViktor that ‘radicaldissimulation’ of example representative a been have might stand His outburst. incongruous rather Szirmai’s communitythe Jewish 1960. in opinions harsh influenced Szirmai’s within controversy old the that possible is it and century twentieth the in made Jews Hungarian choices different very the of representative are took lives two Hungary.” in considerhimself Jewish “nobody would

This case is going to be presented and contextualized in the next chapter. in the contextualized and presented be isgoingto case This Karády, Viktor from: Szirmai ofIstván details Biographical in Hatzair Hashomer the to Agencyemissary Jewish A. withYaari, Garai’sinterview George

Besides histor

of the Hungarian Communist Party, 1945 Party, Communist Hungarian the of 43

Túlélők és Újrakezdők Túlélők Jewish members of the Party did not consider themselves as members as themselves consider not did Party the of members Jewish drto ee a a ilso o a hmtc cnrt community concrete thematic, a of illusion an as even nderstood ic circumstances, psychological factors possibly also played a in role also factors possiblyplayed circumstances, ic psychological -

1948. Quoted in: George Garai, Garai, in: George Quoted 1948.

44 - http://mek.niif.hu/00300/00355/html/ABC14240/15145.htm

trial si trial ial, ht t that Finally, i wanted to “censor his Jewishness”, ironically, he had beenhad heironically, “censorhis Jewishness”, to wanted i

milar to the Doctors’ Plot in the USSR and the Slánský and USSR the in Plot Doctors’ the to milar

[Survivors and Restarters] (Budapest: Múlt és Jövő, 2002), 2002), Múlt Jövő, és (Budapest: Restarters] [Survivorsand Magyar Életrajzi Lexikon Életrajzi Magyar e oit no hd en sn anti using been had Union Soviet he - 1953 89

(Unpublished PhD Thesis, London School of School London Thesis, (UnpublishedPhD - 50. The Policy towards the Jews, Zionism, and and Jews,Zionism, the towards Policy The uded this issue when issue this ruled it thatuded

The trajectories different t

- [Hungarian Biographical Biographical [Hungarian ie Pry ebr who member Party liner Kasztner’s Train

(Retrieved: (Retrieved:

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hese CEU eTD Collection pre emerging, then mostofthe important goal The territory. previous Crown’s Hungarian thirdsofthe 47 46 45 enjoy. usually would citizens rights the of most from Jews deprived 1944 by had Germany) Nazi not (and state the that fact the negates which citizens, been had they that claiming was approach Kádár’s of part problematic The statement. true strictly followthe o fascist the emphasizing By debate onthe Eichm the to contribution his In mind. his troubling issues different slightly had Kádár János attitudes duringHungarian WWII 3.1.2. also was it because extent some corresponding line. toMoscow’s to him, for important personally was that theme propaganda a up pick to body political the pressured successfully Szirmai

Following the lost First World War and as a result as a ofpost and War First World the lost Following (eds.), Miller and Kovács in: Politburo’ ofthe ‘Minutes (ed Miller in: and Kovács June1960’ 28 Politburo, ofthe ‘Decision did not only murder Jews, there were others there, too. This is not a Jewish Jewish a not is This too. there, others were there Jews, murder only not did Ei citizens... that Hungarian be of should thousands thing of hundreds decisive exclusively murdered the anEichmann affair, into this in affairs act fascist do we awful If these question. Jewish turn to idea good a not [i]t’s antifascist and the foreign strengthen to government’s used against fascist efforts. Israeli be must the case] of [the policy, nature domestic Zionist the and Germany neo of view in thequestion is question; this offascism and anti In itself, that about 600,000 Jewish victims of the Holocaust were Hungarians is a is Hungarians were Holocaust the of victims Jewish 600,000 about that itself, In Zionism, implicate to sought Szirmai István where meeting Politburo same the At

“...that Eichmann killed - fascist symptoms visible in the life of the Federal Republic of of Republic Federal the of life the in visible symptoms fascist fficial communist interpretation communist ofWWII.fficial ann case,annemphasized that he

–

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Kádár’s regime condemned the Horthy establishment Horthy the condemned regime Kádár’s

- fascist struggle, Kádár signalled that he intended to intended he that signalled Kádár struggle, fascist

Hungarian citizens”: the problem of 90

elected governments of the Hungarian Hungarian the of governments elected Jewish Studies, 218 Studies, Jewish -

war settlements, the country lost about two about lost the country warsettlements, - fascism. s.), s.), 46 Jewish Studies Jewish

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front front - CEU eTD Collection armistice. arrange Alliesto the contact to weremade efforts moreyear),serious that in Januaryof area Voronezh Armythe in Hungarian Second the of defeat the catastrophic (largely triggered 1943 springbutof the from 1942, in already Americans 48 Juden ungarischen forwa isput argument 2011.) 27, June (Retrieved: phd.okm.gov.hu/disszertaciok/ertekezesek/2004/de_2088.pdf 46 2004), Egyetem, Debreceni dissertation, Shoah],(Ph.D Kádár, Gábor See: these developments. to not object did population Hungary’s majorityof the Sztójaygovernment), inSub wereconfiscated assets as Jewish prey easy by of theBlinded possibility 2005) Kiadó, Arendt Egyesület Hannah (Budapest: ] Jews. ofHungarian destruction economic The Corpses. Zoltán and Vág Kádár Gábor account see: detailed a For movement. freefor rights Jewish restricted and service labour men into Jewish forced Jews, by property ofagricultural theacquisition forbade community, religious theJewish ye the following in enacted Laws” “Jewish Other them. between relationships non and Jews marriages between mixed forbade Laws, Nuremberg Jewish “Third The harder. made significantly was ofJews property acquisition agricultural The authorization. state to weresubject that from trades excluded completely were Jews education. in Clausus of number the law restricted The focus. intellectual organs’ the influence theywhere could positions in in the press and employed theatres by be not Jews could education. school wellsecondary as in as apparatuses, administrative public legal and theiremployment forbade percent, six in occupations intellectual in presence Jewish maximized year later, a waswhich enacted Law” Jewish “Second The professions. freeintellectual inthe Law”of1938 “First Jewish called so The many rights. restricted Jewish 1944 March, in Germanoccupation untilup the from 1938 passed Laws Jewish The laws. ofdiscriminative myriad a by population Jewish the country’s annihilated Hungarian 1944, of spring in the arrived Eichmann Adolf Way before WWII. in alliance the twoto country’s led and revision goals ofterritorial met with Hungarian order European came AfterHitler education. higher in limitingenrolment Jewish at aimed and in Europe, was firstkind its of of1920 the anti The period. ofthe hardships by economic the were reinforced which polic ofexclusionist targets convenient and wereobvious Jews state, the post In within the country. population Hungarian Christian “authentic” Horthy’s Miklós Regent under governments ofvarious the rhetoric borders, new Hungary’s groupsoutside minority national Hungarian significant of formation the in resulted Aslosses the territorial Treaties. linecame political Christian eminent conservative result the reality in was that phenomenon a explain to Fascism and Communism between opposition ideological the used inappropriately It misleading. antisemitism. achieve armistice, to war the of course the during attempts governmental official negated it time, same the At peasantry. the and proletariat the of manipulation their and classes” Naz with alliance the for blame the placed and fascist, as

There weresemi fewa There h cmuit li ta te oty salsmn ws acs ws rather was fascist was establishment Horthy the that claim communist The - Carpathia and in the rest of the country after the German invasion of 1944 (on the orders ofthe the orders (on of1944 invasion the German after country ofthe rest in the and Carpathia Law” of 1941 which already appropriated the racial definition of Jews as used by the Nazi Nazi the by as used Jews definition the racial of which appropriated already Law”of1941 stewardship emphasized the need to preserve and positively discriminate the remaining theremaining discriminate positively and preserve to the need emphasized stewardship 48

A magyarországi Vész magyarországi A n aqitd h gnrl ulcs “home public’s general the acquitted and

into power in Germany in 1933, the in1933, in Germanypower into .[The rd in Götz Aly and Christian Gerlach, Gerlach, Christian Aly in and Götz rd

last chapter. The murder of Hungarian Jews] (Stuttgart: DVA, 2002). 2002). DVA, (Stuttgart: Jews] ofHungarian murder The lastchapter. -

official attempts by the Kállay government to contact the British British the contact to government theKállay attempts by official i, i, Hullarablás. A magyar zsidók gazdasági megsemmisítése. gazdasági zsidók magyar A Hullarablás. ruled that Jews could occupy only up to twenty percent of positions of twenty to up percent only occupy that Jewsruled could korszak gazdasági vetületei gazdasági korszak

Jews employed at companies and reinstated the Numerus the Numerus reinstated and companies at employed Jews

91 to be the revision of the 1919 Paris (Trianon) Paris the 1919 revision of the be to

Führer - 50. Available at: 50. Das Letzte Kapitel, Der Mord an den den an Der Mord Kapitel, Letzte Das ’s aspirations to revise the post revisethe to aspirations ’s [Economic aspects of the Hungarian Hungarian the of aspects [Economic - - Jews and also punished sexual punished also and Jews ra” r bread” ies based on the above principles principles theon above ies based Gray n te ruling “the on Germany i - Jewish Jewish - 1919 monoethnic Hungarian Hungarian monoethnic 1919

ars discriminated against discriminated ars ca cavns and chauvinism acial governments had already already had governments Numerus Clausus Numerus starting in 1941 in 1941 starting

of different different of [Robbing the the [Robbing A similar Asimilar and the and - war

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law law

CEU eTD Collection 95. 1999), Meier, and London: Holmes 49 who those (i.e. Fascism of victims the that emphasized Kádár undermined resistance. fascist have would story the le for claim Communism’s because and narrative WWII communist the match not did these because Germany Nazi with alliance Hungary’s of support nationChristian and ‘ Hungarian the of enemies internal main the as Jews identified interests, and views antisemiclass’ this fedwhich Jews, and liberal in employment by occupied large and bywere positions those that found theyprofessions, intellectual sought consequently they When country. reduced generall the and expulsions, states’ succession the of result a as jobs their lost them of many WWI, after However, sector. public the in employment into streamed stratum social this of members many l of way privileged their to clung still but estates landed their losing slowly were who gentry former the class, fed Hungarian onthetraditions the of nobility. anti indeed was establishment Horthy the Though WWI. after Treaties Paris the by Hungary upon inflicted losses the remedying revision, territorial promised alliance The ideology. adherenc of out Germany Nazi with ally not did Horthy But permitted. climate political the if actions legal and political into turn to hesitate not antisemitism, did it which of forms various nursed indeed regime Horthy’s interests. political

Vera Ránki, Vera Kádár’s presentation deliberately ignored the domestic political roots and popular popular and roots political domestic the ignored deliberately presentation Kádár’s middle Christian Hungarian the was establishment Horthy the of basis social The - Bolshevik, this was based on a conservative a on based was this Bolshevik, The Politics of Inclusion and Exclusion. Jews and nationalism in Hungary in nationalism Jews and Exclusion. and Inclusion of Politics The

Judeo ife. gitimacy in Hungary, built on the myth of widespread anti widespread of myth the on built Hungary, in gitimacy - y much smaller need for public administration staff in the the in staff administration public for need smaller much y 49 Bolshevism’ as the most important outside threat. outside important as Bolshevism’ themost

During the period of the Austro the of period the During

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- - CEU eTD Collection 53 disputes. border possible avert wayto as the transfer population and ofPoland westernborder future Riveras the wasunde ofthe border location exact the westwards.Though move to boundaries Poland’s decided 1945 February in Conference 52 Century (ed.), Lentin Ronit in the Shoah’in: Poland and Poland 51 London: and (Chicago 50 significant thatcould haveas of claimed been historically area German stretch land. at which borders, western postwar its legitimize to sought regime Polish the Nazis, German Katyń. of tragedy the as such offences Soviet minimizing thus and crimes Nazi emphasizing to important an was Auschwitz grounds. empty abandoned, through trotted only not and prisoners liberated actually Army Red advancing the where camps few the of one as also but war, the during camp prisoners’ Polish a as significance its of glorybecause Soviet and victimhood Polish about narrative the carry to fit very was Auschwitz tragedy. bigger general, a of part as presented was and emphasized Jewish of place a as acknowledged t resistance Polish for memorial a and oppression fascist of symbol the into regime Communist the by transformed was which atrocities, WWII of site apparent veryacamp, Auschwitz the was it In Poland, it. considerationsbehind standpoint, official Polish the to identical was It bloc. Eastern the in unique not was Kádár by propagated as unity, national of importance indifference sufferi toJewish non acquitting Hungarians, were it) resisted

Steinlauf, Steinlauf, Yalta the Kingdom, the and United States United the SovietUnion, ofthe theWith participation Zubrzycki, Zubrzycki, Geneviève

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51 (New

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York: Berghahn Books, 2004), 183. 2004), Books, Berghahn York:

University of Chicago Press, 2006), 103 2006), Press, Chicago of University The Crosses of Auschwitz. Nationalism and religion in post religion and Nationalism Auschwitz. of Crosses The

cided, the Allies acknowledged in general the principle of the Odera Odera ofthe principle in general the the Alliesacknowledged cided, , 68. , ng and cooperation with the Nazis. cooperation ng and

, 106. Annamaria Orla Annamaria 106. , victimization; 93

Jews from the accusation of antisemitism, of accusation the from Jews Re - Presenting the Shoah for the Twenty the for Shoah the Presenting - Bukowska, ‘Re Bukowska, - 108.

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h st was site The not only only not - First ol of ol 53 52

CEU eTD Collection pro regime’s the viewed as serving be could articles therefore Affairs, 56 55 54 Total After During Before …thetrial articles fromcaptu altogether the thirty and hundred and trial, the during above mentioned papers the in articles seventy about with thoroughly, very trial the covered media Hungarian supervision. Jewis the of paper official Népfront workers. t of daily official the was ( capital the of Hírlap community: Nemzet ( dailies four in proceedings court the of coverage Open the at available collections Survey Press Europe Free Radio the on Based equated. becannot leadership, Communist the of goals policy the press the Hungarian 3.2.

Everything that appeared in appeared Everythingthat OSA HU OSA, Hazan, Baruch See: Though

unofficially belonged to the Party’s Budapest unit and the municipal leadershipmunicipal the and unit Budapest Party’s the unofficiallyto belonged

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) and spoke mostly to the intelligentsia. As mentioned above, above, mentioned As intelligentsia. the to mostly spoke and ) Magyar Nemzet Magyar Table 3.1: Coverage of the Eichmann trial in Hungarian media (no. of articles) of (no. media inHungarian Eichmann ofthe trial Coverage 3.1: Table 23 1 5 17 Népszava

it has been argued in academic literature that propaganda always reflects reflects always propaganda that literature academic in argued been has it

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was proofread by an employee of the Department of Church of Department ofbythe anwas employee proofread ), but was nearer to the style of a tabloid. a of style the to nearer was but ), te olwn pgs rsn te ugra media Hungarian the present pages following the , ring of Eichmann until his execution his until (see Tablering 3.1). ofEichmann

33 1 20 12 MagyarNemzet Kossuth,

was the national party paper of the HSWP, the of paper party national the was

54 n te fiil ora o te Jewish the of journal official the and

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Népszabadság 23 3 10 10 Élet Új

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CEU eTD Collection http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,823490,00.html from Article retrieved 1954. 23, August as John’as early ofOtto Case ‘The entitled it in anmentioned editorial magazine Time example, For West. eventhe in 58 in the West panders 57 Interior. ofMinister the closest the of one Globke, m frequently were question in politicians the of generals and admirals the “among that and Party” Nazi the of leadership the to belonged “12 State, th claimed press The 3.2). Table (see proceedings the of coverage Hungarian the in appearing topic common West in positions high occupying still were Nazis former 3.2.1. narrative WWII Holocaust of and trial. the duringtheEichmann the controlled regime Kádár the that degree the about them from conclusions draws party outlined above the that extent the assesses analysis The

However, accusations against Schröder were not new, as his Nazi pa Nazi werehis as not new, Schröder against accusations However, former [Eichmann’s államapparátusban’ nyugatnémet a cinkosai volt ’Eichmann Merly, István ugra mda u get mhss n h ciiu o West of critique the on emphasis great put media Hungarian

Successes: Germany West - German state apparatus] in: apparatus] state German

Bundeswehr 58

t u o 1 West 17 of out at aides

4 hd evd n Hitler’s in served had 40 , o hnelr dnur n Grad Schröder, Gerhard and Adenauer Chancellor to Esti Hírlap Esti 95 and Israeland ascollaborator

entioned by name, among them Hans Hans them among name, by entioned - German Ministers and Secretaries of of Secretaries and Ministers German , April 11, 1961. April 11, ,

(Retrieved: January 20, 2011.) 20, January (Retrieved: st had been aired years before, yearsbefore, aired been st had - emn ws h most the was Germany -

line was followed and followed was line

Wehrmacht. -

Germany. That That Germany. ” 57

The CEU eTD Collection (eds.), Miller and in: Kovács 62 152. 1983), Publishing, Nijhoff Kluwer (ed.), Braham 61 60 1. Table isin of articles number total The with issue. given the dealt ofarticles number of the total manyhow percentages trial), 59 B’nai B’rith posts” Him Hitler, of assistants “yesterday’s Nazis” former reveal not to made were “attempts trial Eichmann the during that held which media, Soviet of interpretation Zionism Critiqueof Germany) withWest (alliance CritiqueofIsrael NATO) USA, (Austria, organizations and countries Western Critiqueofother CritiqueofWest WWII during withNazis alliance RichJews’ Holocaust Hungary, in activities Eichmann’s career, and life earlier Eichmann’s itself trial Reportingthe on …thetrial

B’nai B’rith Report on Media Coverage of the Eichmann Case in Communist Countries, June 1961’ June1961’ Countries, in Communist Case Eichmann Coverageofthe Media on Report B’naiB’rith L. Randolph in: Holocaust’ the of treatment Soviet the hole”: “memory history’s ‘In WilliamKorey, Israel Govrin, afterthe during or before, (i.e. underinvestigation duringperiod the appeared that articles Ofthe all fe These generally. people against crimes his with compared Jews against crimes West of rulers day b marked the was present and to crimes Eichmann’s between 11 relationship alleged an prior upon emphasis April Union on Soviet trial the the in of case opening Eichmann the of treatment press the h fcs n the on focus The atures continuedtrialbegan. afterthe 61

n h Fdrl eulc Acrig o h cneprr pes nlss of analysis press contemporary the to According Republic. Federal the in Contemporary Views of the Holocaust Holocaust the Viewsof Contemporary ,

i T - - Germany Soviet Relations Soviet able 3.2: Coverage of the Eichmann trial in Hungarian media (issues) media inHungarian Eichmann ofthe trial Coverage 3.2: able

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(Boston, The Hague, Dordrecht, Lancaster: Lancaster: Hague,Dordrecht, The (Boston,

n ta Caclo Aeae permitted Adenauer Chancellor that and

0 6.89 0 43.1 13.8 63.8 24.1 %

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CEU eTD Collection ‘Eichmann 67 70. 1970), 66 197. Lang,1999), Teschke, 65 ofGlobke’s Proof Juden’ [New die gegen Verbrechen Globkes for Beweise ’Neue and the Jews] of the Extermination and Juden’[Globke der Ausrottung die ’Globkeund entitled two pamphlets produced already propagandists Berlin East History Israeli of Journal 64 Israe Section, 63 countries’ the to addition in new anything present not did fact, in that, accusations well with unison in reacted propaganda and Press states. communist the of move counsel, also but theWestern Dr. “moral Servatius, press. support” in E to support financial offered only not countries Western other some and to According sentence. death the despite full” the “to out carried been not had trial the that 1962 in execution Eichmann’s of occasion Nazis.” other protect to order in trial on Eichmann putting only was Israel that impression absurd the give to “tried Defense, of Ministry the with collaboration close in journalists, Polish the that s it bizarre how recalled Weit Erwin interpreter Gomułka’s Władysław memoirs, his In Germany. West and Israel between link the stressed press the Poland, Germany. East and Israel between relations diplomatic no were there that account Hausner Gideon General Attorney but adviser an as team the join home. Globke, Hans p to Jerusalem to sent was Kaul Karl Friedrich Jewish a Republic: Federal the of elite political the a attack to as pretext served Jerusalem in trial the Republic, Democratic German the in Likewise,

OSA, HU OSA 300 OSA HU OSA, ErwinWeit, 300 OSA HU OSA, Israel’in: Zionismand Attitudes towards German Realpolitik: East ’Ideologyand AngelikaTimm, the Information of Charge in the Official to Deputy Hess, Moshe 93.43/MFA/584/5. ISA,RG It is clear that the implication of West Germany was a priority and a coordinated a and priority a was Germany West of implication the that clear is It 64

Hitler’s Legacy. West Germany Confronts the Aftermath of the Third Reich Third the of Aftermath the Confronts Germany West Legacy. Hitler’s

The Israeli prosecution was approached by the East Germans to allow Kaul toKaul allow to Germans East the by approached was Israeliprosecution The –

Communist reporting on execution’. on reporting Communist l Mission in Cologne to Leo Savir, Deputy Head of the Mission, 20 February, 1960. February, 20 ofthe Mission, Head Deputy LeoSavir, to Cologne in l Mission Eyewitness. The Autobiography of Gomulka’s Interpreter of Gomulka’s Autobiography The Eyewitness. 63

n mn bohrs ee ulse wt rgrs o h ise at issue the to regards with published were brochures many and - - 30 40

- - , Vol. 25, No. 1 (March, 2006), 203 2006), No.1 (March, 25, Vol. , 3, microfilm no. 63. Records of Radio Free Europe, Czechoslovak Unit: Europe, Free ofRadio Records microfilm63. no. 3, Also: P. John 1961. Aviv, 29, March Tel Report, RFESpecial 1606. box. 1, 66

The Czechoslovak news agency news Czechoslovak The Crimes against the Jews]. the against Crimes

eet opoiig ouet on documents compromising resent Ceteka -

222, 206. Righ 206. 222, , “fascist groups” in the GFR the in groups” “fascist , Ceteka

(London: André Deutsch, Deutsch, André (London: t after Eichmann’s capture, capture, Eichmann’s t after

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67 - eid t n the on it denied German lawyer, German

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Tibor P Tibor ’AzEichmann (ed.), Molnár Adrienne h ise f Israeli of issue The forgiving its for government Adenauer the of accusations to connected Closely - os oiin twrs h GR Ms o te cuain wr od n already and old were accusations the of Most GFR. the towards positions ious os Intézet, 2004), 147. 2004), Intézet, os ethő, ’Ami a jeruzsálemi perből kimaradt’ [What was left out from the Jerusalem trial] in: trial] Jerusalem fromthe left was out [What kimaradt’ perből ’Ami ethő, jeruzsálemi a -

sal afi. eid h til tee r say cnmc n political and economic shady are there trial, the Behind affair. Israeli - ranking German politicians ranking , 23 July, 1961. 23 , - ügy a leláncolt kacsa görbe tükrében’ [The Eichmann case in the crooked mirror of mirror crooked the in case Eichmann [The tükrében’ kacsa görbe ügyleláncolt a Magyar Nemzet Magyar

A „ -

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, April 15, 1961. 1961. April 15, , 69

rograms during the period under investigation. The The investigation. under period the during rograms – 70

a – n article reported. “The Eichmann “The reported. article n

claim

negatively. Ben Gurion “met Adenauer with a with a Adenauer “metnegatively.Ben Gurion 98

ed another report. The relations between relations The report. another ed

[The memory of the „Sixties”] (Budapest: (Budapest: „Sixties”] ofthe memory [The 68

on of Israel as a a as Israel of on - w tms in times two - trial, instead trial, usalem to to usalem - CEU eTD Collection the on focused were trial the of documents supporting and witnesses proceedings, The m much was program radio or article one in suffering) non and Jewish (i.e. issues two the of mentioning combined the and suffering pronounced more much were both (7)suffering,21.2% dealt dealt (24) 72.7% which of out Holocaust, the during suffering with dealt (11) 30.5% and suffering dealt (20) 55.6% considered of theformer.as therelativization that non and Jewish both about talked they that revealed piece mentioned article general in citizens pointing without outthat theyhad the part been someother of Jews, certain a of part one if Even only. suffering general) specified, t in not realized was completely aim this that striking rather is it citizens, Hungarian as victims the about talk to preferred which line Party official the Given Holocaust. the during suffering 3.2.2. evoke potentially could antisemitism. and Hungarians the of goals the overwrote propaganda bloc the sense, that In them. of use made clearly imagery incite to want not did indeed Politburo Hungarian the Before the trial, 36 articles dealt with suffering during the H the during suffering with dealt articles 36 trial, the Before iss crucial Another

sus Se al 33. rils an Articles 3.3). Table (See issues

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with non during - both eih ufrn i te ae ril, eas I because article, same the in suffering Jewish

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porm ta dat ih eih suffering Jewish with dealt that programs d h til hn before, than trial the issues. During the trial, 33 articles dealt with dealt articles 33 trial, Duringthe issues. 99

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olocaust, out of which of out olocaust, only whereas only

- ih non with eih o non (or Jewish - et German West

ih Jewish with non - - - Jewish Jewish Jewish Jewish - CEU eTD Collection 2000 (eds.): Rainer M. János ÉvaStandeisky, Kőrösi, Zsuzsanna in: era] theduring Kádár 73 In: flats.” Jewish bette themat dully stared just A. Some react? public the “Q.Hungarian How did bySS: the 72 Jerusalem, of Court District In:yet there.” notwas army theGerman and occupied, not been had Hungary when wasthe period that in “this emphasized AttorneyBach State inin 1 Hungary labor perform to forced made were that intellectuals Jewish revealed 1341. No. numbered document, another session, the same During homes. Jewish women in Christian workofthe inParliament the Hungarian debate 71 not did Zionism implicate to Politburo the of intention the therefore press, Hungarian Jewish Mentions Mentions non Mentions Mentions suffering Jewish Mentions …thetrial for destructionwar. during the out singled been had that country the of population Jewish the was it that knew who sur Holocaust were them among Many ignored. be to mass considerable a was which 100,000, around was time this at Hungary in origin Jewish of those of number the Furthermore, trial. the of news the from omitted completely not was Holocaust propaganda helpe resistance toabsurd Their unconscious or conscious papers. Party various in origin Jewish of journalists of presence the in found be can indifference. population’s occupation German before way already measures antisemitic authorities’ Hungarian the revealed WWII, during Jews of persecution

Éva Standeisky, ‘Értelmiségi antiszemitizmus a Kádár korszakban’ [The antisemitism of intellectuals antisemitism of [The korszakban’ Kádár a antiszemitizmus ‘Értelmiségi ÉvaStandeisky, thestreets weredrivento ofJews thousands when marches ofthe one foot remembered Hansi Brand a described Judge the Presiding presentedto 972 document51. No. No. Session example,during For neetnl, n xlct odmain f ins ol apae oc i the in once appeared only Zionism of condemnation explicit an Interestingly, r ones; the others were pleased that those who had been bombed out were going to have nice have weregoingto out bombed whobeen had that those werepleased ones; the others r

(Budapest: 1956 (Budapest: only only

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Jewish suffering during the Holocaust the during suffering Jewish non Holocaust the during suffering Jewish The Trial of Adolf Eichmann, Eichmann, Adolf Trial of The and - Jewish suffering during the Holocaust the during suffering Jewish

non - os Intézet, 2000), 26 2000), Intézet, os

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Vol. III. (Jerusalem III. Vol. 72

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from 7 December 1942 on the question oflabor theon question 1942 December from 7

The Trial of Adolf Eichmann. Record of Proceedings in the the in Proceedings of Record Eichmann. Adolf Trial of The - 39.

Vol. Vol. III

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MOL,M Ferenc MOL,M irmai were indeed of Jewish origin but only Szirmai had had anything to do with do to anything had had Szirmai only but origin Jewish of indeed were irmai In Dögei’s interpretation, his political opponents working in the economic sphere economic the in working opponents political his interpretation, Dögei’s In thus 19 Fejtő, Fejtő,

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KS 288.4/30 C ofthe Minutes meeting ofthe KS 288.4/30. n hd as had, and case) represented the same danger: “bourgeois [elements] are leading the the leading are [elements] “bourgeois danger: same the represented case) used the term “ term the used ei claimed, that “he is from Eger and a rich Jew” rich a and Eger from is “he that claimed, ei A History of the People’s Democracies. Eastern Europe since Stalin since Europe Eastern Democracies. thePeople’s of History A

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CEU eTD Collection 25 in: 24 23 11 October 22 Múltunk 21 remarks up. came antisemitic such which in situation the about specifics further contained letter His Party leadership,objected. which he citedincident He indignation. with an decisions. time this at leadership incomplete. still was it felt he when halted” was 1956 to regards with battle ideological and theoretical cadre and methods style, leadership Kádár’swith do to had which of the all decision, his for reasons detailed he Kádár, János to addressed letter a In 1962. September in posts his 1956 revolution. the of participants the and intelligentsia disobedient the against crackdowns violent

The The N Karola GyörgyMarosán, MOL,M in: reality?’] wasin Marosán [Who György valójában?’ György volt Marosán ‘Ki Nyers, Rezső Múltunk categorized this way, why do they not notice that in the highest leadership there there leadership highest the in that notice not they do why way, this categorized Osztálya ( dismissal. Organizations Mass his and Party for of Department reasons the given of Head be Committee, Central the of to member Sándor, [József Sándor’s asked Comrade and individual u came the secretary district defended and CC a of dismissal the occasion, another On ord [ádr Gsá ad ord [ósf Sno, ht ord Szurdi comrade that Sándor, [József] comrade and Gáspár [Sándor] comrade 7 the since Ever far. so occasions three on Szurdi István comrade defend to had I 1962? understanding in isthis ugly of kind different a leadership, highest the in is he because already, he is Or [members]? Jewish and ugly both also are anti to references included also letter Marosán’s stepped Marosán leadership, the of rest the for unexpectedly Rather th

7th Congress of the HSWP took place between November 30 and December 5, 1959. 5, December and between30 took November place HSWP 7thCongressofthe Con , 1994/1 , - - émethné Vágyi , 1994/1 , - 12, 1962. Appendix no.1: György Marosán’s letter to János Kádár, September 1, 1962. September1, Kádár, János to letter Marosán’s György Appendix no.1: 1962. 12, KS 288.4/58. Minutes ofthe KS 288.4/58. policies. gress,

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Ibid. János MOL,M s oet bu ta! ádrs nwr a tpcl ti i nt interesting not is this typical: was answer Sándor’s anymore,are communists. we that! about honest is he and unity workers’ the thereis that aSzurdi: to regards with account into taken not Christian, menti not I workforce... reasoning: weak Their a and apparatus. worker state the to over go should Jenő Fock, Sándor Gáspár and József and Gáspár Sándor Fock, Jenő

Jemnitz, ’Kiegészítések Marosán György arcképéhez’ [Supplements for György Marosán’s Marosán’s Györgyfor [Supplements arcképéhez’ György Marosán ’Kiegészítések Jemnitz, - - 12, 1962. Appendix no.1: György Marosán’s letter to János Kádár, September 1, 1962. September1, Kádár, János to letter Marosán’s György Appendix no.1: 1962. 12, Múltunk Central ofthe Minutes meeting ofthe KS 288.4/58. , 1994/4, 1994/4, , 167. - democrats who were closest to him and urged them urged and him to closest were who democrats

). 28

the beginning of t of beginning the 26

Magyar Dolgozók Pártja, Pártja, Dolgozók Magyar 114

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Ibid 11 antiszemitizmusa’, politikai kommunisták ‘A Standeisky, anti traditional ofits Partybecause Democratic the Social joined Many Jews formersocial Letterof h intra The of merger the since passed decade a than more though that illustrates incident The , , 23 - democrats and who had belonged to the Communist Party. In fact, the former former the fact, In Party. Communist the to belonged had who and democrats , 2007/2, 270. 2007/2, , Szociológiai Szemle Szociológiai - 24.

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democrats to János Kádár, November 24, 1956. Published in: János Jemnitz, János in: Published 1956. 24, November Kádár, János to democrats 1957)] in: 1957)] , 1993/2, 3 1993/2, , -

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The Politburo dealt with the issue during its November 23, 1965 and February 1, 1966 meetings. 1966 February and 1, 1965 23, November its during withdealt issue Politburo the The February1966 and 1, 1965 July20, 1964; 14, November its during withdealt issue Politburo the The Korey, 300 OSA HU OSA, Trials’ R’oi,‘Economic WilliamKorey,

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CEU eTD Collection 46 1963). d no Scheiber, AffairsSándor on ofChurch Office the National Seifert to 45 1961. September13, Budapest, to freemasons American visit of 44 1958). Summer, (approxoimately date no community, Jewish the Hungarian of situation internal 43 1961. June21, Churches, ofHungarian thesituation 42 1957. Affairs,19, July ofChurch 41 of director the appointed be to offer University’s Hebrew the refused he that so much the l patriotic to opposed always clique, Zionist the of interest the in propaganda consistent clique.” Zionist operating invisibly the of Scheiber Sándor Dr. was them Among “Zionist”. termed frequently were leadership loyal the by followed line the of disapproved or questioned community who Jewish the ofmembers SOCA, the to Sós fromreports the Jews!” simply are we Jews, Hungarian not are We speeches? and articles our in rea to have always we Whydo Jews? Hungarian ourselves call always we do ( region Plain Great the high a Reis, Sándor dr. of visit the Forexample, the SOCA. to voicesdiscordant all dulyreported Sós Endre question. The important most are withpeople positions... loyal filled us.” to com a form to manage we and state the to loyal entirely Church Israelite the of leadership national “the that reported Olt Károly craze.” emigration the of rid get to struggling spir patriotic the “increase to order in Front People’s Patriotic the of work the in Jewry Hungarian include to like would they that (SOCA)

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into a battle between “patriotic” and “Zionist” and “patriotic” between battle a into 119 ent no. 002127/6/1957. Note Horváth, Note ofJános Office 002127/6/1957. no. ent rticle.aspx/Scheiber_Sandor

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However, he However, - CEU eTD Collection József 56 55 1963. 20, March Balló, István to Prantner József 54 1959. July, Israelites, Hungarian of OfficeNational the Affairsto Church ofOffice 53 the Uveeler, Mark Thus c foreign of loss encouragedbystate were West, the in organizations and communities Jewish some with those including 4.2.2. capitalist in1963,despitenegative Sós’ Westerncountries reports. Office the of officials the led process them. among activities their increase to authorities organizations religious Hungarian encouraged religious, were countries capitalist in living dissidents the least at adm (or Hungarian the of popularity acceptability) the increase and organizations political their of the activities counteract to abroad émigrés Hungarian with relations good cultivate to tried contacts émigréof possibilities “the of overseastravelbecause to permittedwas he that claimed authorities the around person,” Zionist unreliable, politically “a SOCA the by considered was Isto travel to allowedbeen not had included he which before, years four tour While States. international United the and an Canada countries, Scandinavian on embarked Scheiber Sándor 1963, In of amounts different

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4 (Summer/Autumn, 1980), 215 1980), (Summer/Autumn, 4 aged to secure a visit to Hungary in late 1959 and 1959 late in Hungary to visit a secure to aged ial Committee ( Committee ial 121

- - 1 1 - - 17/1960. Pál Veres toKárolyVeres Olt, Pál 17/1960. 30, Sós’October note, Endre 26/1959. Központi Szociális Bizottság Szociális Központi - 228. Ronald W. W. Zweig, Ronald 228. onference against Germany’ Germany’ against onference Hungarian The (SSEA).

(Boulder, CO and (Boulder, 59

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CEU eTD Collection Kovács. András Document of courtesy 1963. 6, March 67 July Olt, Károly Sós’to letter 66 65 1963. 64 date. no Sós, Endre 63 http://fxtop.com 62 1961. 1, March aid, foreign Jewish of theout on subject carried 61 order t toreceivefundsfor Zionist “spread to propaganda.” and purposes, intelligence” and “contraband for Uveeler and th established the thus and surveillance. Uveeler’s in involved got Interior the of Ministry influences imperialist” “Western suspected authorities the though Clai East Bulgarian, the reached period. time same the during Yugoslavia to USD million a than more and Poland to USD 135,000 Czechoslovakia, to went USD 534,000 comparison, By 1964. other community who necessarily didnot members leadership. support Sós’ commotion” Zionist significant a leadership. socialist” “anti his against attack an as SOCA the to it reported immediately Sós Endre unsatisfactory, financialaccounts the found becausehad heaid financial their ofusage re Haymann Erwin SSEA the of President when indicated. have would rate exchange actual the amount the of half about Forints thirtymillion with religiousorganization Jewish Hungarian the of

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which CEU eTD Collection 1959. May14, Leavitt, Moses to 72 considereda “Zionist influence” ifitmeant politicaland/or economic benefits. it what with coping on bent also was regime Kádár the convenient, if antisemitism accep willingly than more authorities label Hungarian “Zionists”; representatives Jewish Western to continuing and JDC, the with cooperated they that acknowledging never the of agents by Interior the of Ministry tailed being constantly while The authorities, the aid. with negotiating incoming facilitate openly were to and Hungary visit to allowed were associations Joint) these of representatives the (including organizations Jewish toget worked community Jewish the time, and same authorities the Hungarian At opponents. their to network” “Zionist an this saw link who to leaders, opportunity community’s Jewish the of some of help the with invoked wo widespread a of image the perception, this justify To direction. same the from threat of perception increased an meant Hungary dependentgrou Vice Executive the Altogether around. sickness much still is “There 1959. in Leavitt to Moses Chairman situation glum the described JDC the of Operations Overseas from support you the of people older “The the of situation. many deprived improving has revolution not Hungarian worsening, a suggested which revolution, 1956

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CEU eTD Collection Hungarian to withregards Department Regonal 77 Psychology 76 23. 1985), Press, London: and Westview (Boulder 75 Laqueur, state strengthen to wasdevice simplya or ideas Communist by wayinfluenced any exploitatio capitalist and monopolies “feudalism, from tohis protect regime order in nationalization necessityof the claimed Nasser 1961. UARin the left had afterSyria hestarted which project nationalization 74 Pact Baghdad the of formation 73 ended Israel in Compound Russian the of sale the 1964, In relations. improve slightly to possibility the at hinted that diplomacy Soviet from coming gestures several were incr was orientation whose Israel, with relations while Organization Liberation Palestinian the supporting started state. Jewish the towards spirit martial Syrians’ the appease to trying i encourage not did it regime, Neo militant the When unity. Arab supported which Party, Baath the of wing moderate the Midd the in Union role.” diplomatic regional Union’s] Soviet the [i.e. its enhance to serve “would hoped, Khrushchev connection, This Arabism’. re good fall short Britain. Great and States United the by supported alliance, Pact Baghdad pro between rapprochement a was area the its in goal enhancingbiggest Soviets’ The of East. Middle idea the in influence the hegemonic on up give not did Union Soviet the 1950s, the of part 4.3.

MOL,XIX 1966 Syria, Towards SovietPolicy and Theory ‘Prospect AudreyMcInerney, Apter, Judith and ArthurKlinghoffer Jay deve ofEgyptian Sovietevaluation positive The Persson, Magnus See: Though advocating ‘peaceful coexistence’ with the United States from the second second the from States United the with coexistence’ ‘peaceful advocating Though

- Baath Party took power in 1966, though the Soviet Union endorsed the new new the endorsed Union Soviet the though 1966, in power took Party Baath Relations The Struggle for the Middle East the for Middle Struggle The ain wt Eyt again, Egypt with lations n.” It is beyond the scope of this dissertation to decide whether this nationalization wasin whethernationalization this decide to ofthis dissertation scope the isbeyond n.”It - , Vol. 13, No. 2 (June, 1992), 269. 269. No. 2 (June,Vol.1992), 13, , out following Nasser’s anti Nasser’s following out - J - 1 - j (Izrael), box no. 48, document no. box 48, no. (Izrael), j with Israel with le East was Syria, where Moscow established close relations with relations close established Moscow where Syria, was East le Great Britain, the United States and the security of the Middle East: the the East: Middle the of security and the States United the Britain, Great

(Lund: Lund University Press, 1998) Press, Lund University (Lund: easingly Western, were kept at a relatively low level. There There level. low relatively a at kept were Western, easingly

- Soviet Arab countries in the face of the anti the of face the in countries Arab Soviet ts hostility to Israel. to hostility ts

(United States: Ma States: (United

Israel and the Soviet Union. Alienation or Reconciliation? or Alienation Union. Soviet the and Israel - seily eas Nse’ avcc o ‘pan of advocacy Nasser’s because especially Communist attacks in 1959, Moscow cultivated Moscow 1959, in attacks Communist

- Israeli relations, February 17, 1967. 17, February relations, Israeli 125

lopments was largely the result of Nasser’s Nasser’s of theresult was largely lopments 75

Another important partner of the Soviet the of partner important Another - 00784/1967. Summary report of the 6th the of Summary report 00784/1967. 76 cmillan, 1969), 67 1969), cmillan,

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- - 1967’ i 1967’ 68. 68. - control. See: Walter Walter See: control.

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CEU eTD Collection 97 Cass,1998), 81 161 1991), Press, University 80 CurtIsraeli [sic] in seen “Improvement 79 120. Day,1981), and Stein (New York: 78 trade of balance the instance, For payments. balance trade stellar produce not did considerably for profit stable a produced Hungarian economy. it sixties the of beginning the by modest, rather su a view, of point Hungarian the from were, 1960s the in Israel with relations economic and trade Israel. with agreement trade a have not did that Czechoslovakia) S vis and internally 4.3.1. East. E of countries socialist’ ‘real that Israel towards militancy not but unfriendliness, and countries Arab with relations West. the in campaign international Jewis blocking practices public, Israeli the of front in times several appeared Israel in corps diplomatic Soviet the of members practice, previous boycot trade Russian the

oviet Union remained one of the two countries of the bloc (together with with (together bloc the of countries two the of one remained Union oviet YosefGovrin Ro’i, Yaacov OSA HU OSA, Rafael, Gideon Hungary’s ties with Arab countries in the Middle East, especially Egypt, were were Egypt, especially East, Middle the in countries Arab with ties Hungary’s both inconsistent were period this in Israel towards policies foreign Hungarian

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- , Israeli Soviet Relations 1953 Relations Soviet Israeli , The Struggle for Soviet Jewish Emigration 1948 Emigration Jewish Soviet for Struggle The 110. teghndfloigMso’ retto.Hwvr hs liaison this However, orientation. Moscow’s following strengthened Des 300

tination Peace. Three Decades of Israeli Foreign Policy. A Personal A Memoir Personal Policy. Foreign Israeli of Decades Three Peace. tination - - 60 ccess story. While at the end of the fifties trade with Israel was was Israel with trade fifties the of end the at While story. ccess à -

vis Soviet policy. In spite of the 1964 real estate deal, the the deal, estate real 1964 the of spite In policy. Soviet vis -

1 (Rumanian unit), box no. 277. 277. no. box unit), (Rumanian 1 - 202. t which had been in effect since the Suez Crisis. Suez the since effect in been had which t eirto wih a be ciiie b a increased an by criticized been had which emigration h

astern Europe developed their relations with the Middle the with relations their developed Europe astern

relations.”

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RFE Special, New York, September 7 1964. 7 1964. NewSeptember York, RFESpecial, - 1967

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CEU eTD Collection 1962. 20, company,March transport of IBUSZ director 83 1962. 24, October Israel, and Hungary between tourism about LászlóFöldvári 82 1965 between Budapest in Legation Israeli the at department consular the of head and natural blo and Soviet the financial of outside from acquire resources to needed raise country the to life, intended of policies quality Hungarians’ and modernization of plans implement successfully pron became economy services. hotel pricey of advantage take would who tourists allow to reversed was instruction In the of Ministry source. that from received country the income currency foreign of level insufficient the about concerned were authorities Hungarian because 1963, of Hungarian XIX 1966.MOL, 14, January relations”, Israeli of questions „actual the about report Bebők’s Gábor unnumbered/1966; document 4/a, 2, 36 41, XIX MOL, Sources: Egypt Israel Country hectic rather ( and incalculable was Egypt, East, Middle the in partner trading significant most the with

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MOL,XIX ofContemporary Institute Harman Avraham HUJI), (Henceforth: Jerusalem of University Hebrew sfunctionality ofthe Hungarian bureaucratic apparatus inpolicyformation. involved of State the of politics the Israel. influence to able be may occasion, on the and help forces can we presence, socialist political our our of With appreciation order. the social increase and propagate to needed is what is n This Israel. is of State the in influence and weight it presence, its increases Republic view, of point political a From

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Regional Department of the Hungarian Ministry of of Ministry Hungarian the of Department Regional - Tsur, February 15, 1968. 15, February Tsur, - - sr “n light “in Tsur, Israeli relations, February 17, 1967. 17, February relations, Israeli 128 ohr ra o frin eain between relations foreign of areas other , ecessary that the Hungarian People’s People’s Hungarian the that ecessary 14

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ions with the Israelis would lead to Arab protests. They propagated a propagated They protests. Arab to lead would Israelis the with ions n idrcl b te re ‘hw ta ocre i Soviet in occurred that ‘thaw’ brief the by indirectly and - 1965. - 60

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- 10. Report on the tendencies ofIsrael’s the on tendencies Report 10. 91

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ISA,93.10/1 ‘ ‘ MOL,XIX MOL, MOL,XIX Information on current issues ofHungarian issues current on Information ofHungarian issues current on Information responsible for the area. As a result, we do not use our possibilities to the full the extent. to possibilities our use not do we result, a As area. the for responsible 9 the by decided [di our the now, to Right countries negatively. Arab of goals political sovereignty Hungarian affect not the must this but extent, necessary and accountreasonable into take to ought we s mgain ubr rmie isgiiat Irei ilmt suh other sought diplomats Israeli insignificant, remained numbers emigration As XIX András Kovács and Michael Miller (eds.), Jewish Studies at the Central European University, University, European Central the at Studies (eds.),Jewish Miller Michael and Kovács András 93 - - -

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th . The Israeli legation also tried to help Hungarian Jews acquire acquire Jews Hungarian help to tried also legation Israeli The .

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th the Foreign Ministry was the result of what Andrew C. Janos Janos C. Andrew what of result the was Ministry Foreign the

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CEU eTD Collection (Autumn, No.4 20, Vol. 108 Reconciliation? or Klingh 69; Arthur Jay 1968), AmOved, 107 124. Day,1981), and Stein York: R Gideon “performance”. the repeat to Israelis ask the thusto had and difficulties sometechnical into ran but they 106 105 863 (November,2005), 6. No. 104 Polan 103 Yugoslavia, as such not, did Moscow that countries several with ties close had Warsaw Union. Soviet the from autonomy Poland’s of widening the at aimed that policies pursued had it then, Since crisis. 1956 its since following been greaterfor policy independence. endeavours Poland’s of demonstration a Polish it considered who Soviets the by the favourably by tapped diligently was meeting authorities, the that it has rumour Though Eban Rapacki. Adam counterpart Polish his Abba with meet to occasion the used and participated Minister Foreign Israeli Even 1966. May in Warsaw in place take t Europe Polish Eastern in the serving diplomats of Israeli of gesture meeting the the allow to was government Israel with relations good build to efforts Polish of indicative more Even Warsaw. from Circus State Polish the as well as Theatre, Poland’s by Israel to visits long including uncommon, not was groups cultural of exchange The chapter. previous the in discussed already as significance, border Western Poland’s recognized lev ambassadorial to Aviv Tel in legation their raised Israel.” with relations good relatively maintained “Poland 1960s, the

Adam Bromke, ‘Poland’s Role in the Loosening of the Communist Bloc’ in: in: Bloc’ Communist ofthe Loosening in the Role ‘Poland’s AdamBromke, Gilboa, example:for Moshe See the meeting tap to attempted authorities Polish waspresent, also who Rafael Gideon to According Eban, Abba the Israeli to Road ’The Abadi, Jacob ’Anti DariuszStola, Poland’s strengthening foreign relations with Israel fit into the linethe Israelthe into fit with strengthening foreignrelations Poland’s d, 1967 d, afael, afael, - 106 1968’ in: 1968’ An Autobiography An Destination Peace. Three Decades of Israeli Foreign Policy. A Personal Memoir Personal A Policy. Israeli Foreign of Decades Three Peace. Destination

t has it

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eetees en rud ht h gteig a nt viewed not was gathering the that argued been nevertheless - 888.

(New York: Random House, 1977), 306 1977), RandomHouse, (New York:

Shesh Shanim Shesh 107 offer and Judith Apter, Apter, Judith and offer - Polish Rapprochement’ in: Rapprochement’ Polish

104

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Israel and the Soviet Union. Alienation Union. Alienation the Soviet and Israel

[Six Years Middle Eastern Studies Eastern Middle l n 92 n so, Israel soon, and 1962 in el

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CEU eTD Collection 1965. May Doron, 29, 112 (1967 111 Pre University Syracuse 110 Realism vs. Idealism Politics: Rockefelle from the money fromcoming centres research and universities Western visited scholars Polish hundred several 1950s, theofthe end 109 determinedIsrael. theinconsistencypolicies towards of structural the with combined factor, This currency). foreign obtaining of goal vague the for (except strategy dominated ideologically clear, a following not was hand other the on Hungary, positions. defined th determined which schemes, political and ideological broader Israelyear.former thesame were and established Ge West between GDR. the with relations diplomatic ties of off break the to had led Cairo to visit 1965 Ulbricht’s that Eventually, countries with relations diplomatic maintain not accordin up contacts those give to had have would it because area the in contacts Germany’s West weaken to countries Arab with relations diplomatic establish then and please s Jewish the concerning position militant a represented Ulbricht Walter Israel. with Endecja ort of easing the as it interpreted who members Party those to with both roadslogan, socialism’ ‘Polish the with well in fit line policy foreign Moscow’s from distancing States. United the with relations cultural and economic close ae pras h ms hsie n h oit bloc. Soviet the in hostile most the perhaps tate,

MOL,M YosefGovrin, Michael Steinlauf, Atyear. million next the $97 States and United from million the $95 a loan received Poland In1957, hodoxy, and with those who propagated national interests in the spirit of the prewar prewar the of spirit the in interests national propagated who those with and hodoxy, Both in the case of Poland and East Germany, the Israeli relation was fit into into fit was relation Israeli the Germany, East and Poland of case the in Both relations diplomatic shunned demonstratively Republic Democratic German The -

1989 . g to its own Hallstein Doctrine. According to this principle, the GFR would GFR the principle, this to According Doctrine. Hallstein own its to g 110 - KS 288.32/1965/5. Report from Report KS 288.32/1965/5. –

91)

, (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2011 Mitchell, (London: Vallentine , Israel’s Relations with the East European States: from Disruption to Resumption to Disruption from States: European East the with Relations Israel’s rmany and 10 Arab countries, while formal relations between the the between relations formal while countries, Arab 10 and rmany Bondage to the Dead: Poland and the Memory of the Holocaust. the of the Memory and Poland Dead: the to Bondage

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- Party rifts that brought antisemitism brought that rifts Party - Day War, Moscow influence on on influence Moscow War, Day CEU eTD Collection 3 Press, University 1967 Six June (eds.), Morozov Boris and Ro’i Yaacov in: ‘Conclusions’ Adamsky, DimaP. 2 in: Explored’ Studies 1 the in targets other striking also while force, air UAR’s the of majority the destroyed ef military Arab unified a prevent counts. IDF. the for match a be would armytheir anticipatedthat expect not did Egyptians the time, the at Embassy U.S. the at counselor political a was who Parker, B. Richard to According attack. military with threatening by again yet answered Israel that move a Eilat, from the prevent Aqaba, announced of Gulf the also of blockade Nasser Israel. from the country from his Force separating Emergency line demarcation UN the of withdrawal the requested He Peninsula. Abde GamalPresident Soviet border, Syrian the false on concentrations troop Israeli reported likely that information most on Based action. military with threatening by answered cross encouraged regime This 1966. of beginning the at country latter the in regime Ba’ath new radical the of installation the after tension considerable a into escalated Syria

Parker, ’The June 1967 War’, 180. June1967 ’The Parker, Anwar Sadat, Sadat, Anwar War’ in: 1967 June ofthe the and Outbreak SovietUnion ’The Golan, Galia An armed conflict broke out on 5 June when Israel struck with a surprise assaultsurprisetoa with Israelwhenstruck 5 June on out brokearmedconflict An inciden Repeated - border sabota border , Vol. 8, No. 1 (Winter 2006), 6. Richard B. Parker, ’The June 1967 War: Some Mysteries Some Mysteries War: June1967 ’The Parker, B. 6. Richard 1 (Winter 2006), 8,No. Vol. ,

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Day War Day In Search Identity of Search In 2008), 268. 268. 2008), ge activities by al by activities ge

(Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press; Press; Center Wilson Woodrow D.C.: (Washington,

ts in the demilitarized zones along the border between Israel and Israel between border the along zones demilitarized the in ts Journal l Nasser instructed his military in May 1967 to occupy the Sinai Sinai occupythe to 1967 Maymilitary in his Nasserinstructed l

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Summer war East the Middle in

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3 -

179. They miscalculated on both on miscalculated They 1

to which the Jewish State Jewish the which to

Stanford, CA: Stanford Stanford CA: Stanford,

The Soviet Union and the and Union Soviet The - Journal of Cold War Cold of Journal 172.

YaacovRo’i and 2

Egyptian CEU eTD Collection 1967 Poland, 4 to surprise unpleasant an as came itself war the that is today scholarship in position efforts 5.1. handling ofsimilar issues. foreignpolicy and domestic the determined structure power and ideology uniform which to degree the on as well o control Moscow’s of extent the on light shed can aftermath in more A circumstances? local bloc by determined this was and population the among the about brought differing with deal factors regimes the did what How differences? not, were they If uniform? the and drawn crisis conclusions East Middle the to parties communist ruling the in reactions were evol countries satellite in discussions domestic how and relations, of area every in encompassing all was uniformity this Moscow, by dictated action uniform a as episode this broke Romania Syria). (from Heights Golan the and Jordan), (from Jerusalem East Bank, West the Egypt), oc territories, Jordanian and Syrian Egyptian, into deep advanced army Israeli the Subsequently, Jordan. and Syria UAR,

Dariusz Stola, ‘Anti DariuszStola, Despite the USSR’s USSR’s the Despite except bloc Eastern the of countries other all then USSR, the days few a Within

- h Six The 1968’ in: 1968’ - off diplomatic relatio diplomatic off - Zionism as a Multipurpose Policy Instrument: the Anti the PolicyInstrument: Multipurpose as a Zionism The Journal of Israeli History Israeli of Journal The -

Day War in the Middle East and and East Middle the in War Day at n rnig bu te ue 97 rss te dominant the crisis, 1967 June the about bringing in part

- depth analysis of these aspects of the war and its its and war the of aspects these of analysis depth cupying the Gaza Strip, the Sinai Peninsula (from (from Peninsula Sinai the Strip, Gaza the cupying ns with Israel. While literature usually dismisses usually literature While Israel. with ns e aon te oit itt. o ht extent what To dictate. Soviet the around ved 136 , Vol. 25, No. 1 (March, 2006), 181. 2006), (March, No. 1 25, Vol. ,

4 -

opinions within the Party and and Party the within opinions

wide regime characteristics or or characteristics regime wide it remains to be seen whether seen be to remains it c ver satellite policies, as policies, satellite ver ommunist diplomatic diplomatic ommunist - Zionist Campaign in in Zionist Campaign

CEU eTD Collection 7 204. 1982), LittleBrown, (Boston: (1962 6 118. 1965 Republic, Arab United 38 1985), Reconciliation? or Alienation Union. the Soviet and Israel 193 2012), Press, CambridgeUniversity (Cambridge: AviShlaim(eds.), Louisand Roger of effort coordinated 5 their by Council Security the in a warfare” conducting “psychological were delegates Bulgarian and Soviet the time, the at representative anti Tarabanov Milko representative Bulgarian and Fedorenko Both pre the behind back draw to ordered was Israel if possible be only Ambassador of USSR position Fedorenko tothe UN cease was Nikolai that The fighting. the of day each on met crisis, the of escalation the of fears Soviet and 5.1.1. of compliance and ofHungary’s activity withMoscow inthe field foreign relations. extent the uncovers analysis The strategies. above Moscow’s peaceful to conformed satellites disputes’ the of desirability the of settlement. allies Arab its convince to tried Moscow scenes, the behind time, same the At Israel. by occupied territories of return (i arena international the in advocate main the became USSR The twofold. was events unpleasant these to Moscow of reaction Soviet of inferiority the suggested it because embarrassment pro Moscow.

Rami Ginat, ‘The Soviet Union: The Roots of War and a Reassessment of Historiography’ in: Wm. Wm. in: Historiography’ Reassessment of a and ofWar Roots The SovietUnion: ‘The Rami Ginat, Bulgaria was elected as a nonpermanent UN Security Council member for the years1966 thememberfor Council Security UN nonpermanent as a was elected Bulgaria AnatolyDobrynin, -

- cease a arrange to attempting Council, Security UN The oit eie i Syria in regimes Soviet sal psto drn te etns Acrig o ien aal Israel’s Rafael, Gideon to According meetings. the during position Israeli - 1986) 1986)

Communist diplomacy - 39 and 52 and 39 5

6 (NewYork: h rpd sal avne drn te a traee wt te al f the of fall the with threatened war the during advances Israeli rapid The

h floig ae eaie h ex the examine pages following The - In Confidence: Moscow’s Ambassador to America’s Six Cold War Presidents War Cold Presidents Six America’s to Ambassador Moscow’s Confidence: In 55; Guy Laron, ‘Stepping Back from the from Back GuyLaron,‘Stepping 55;

Times Books, 1995), 148 1995), Books, Times - 1967’ in: 1967’

The 1967 Arab 1967 The n Eyt Te ia Irei itr ws grave a was victory Israeli final The Egypt. and at Journal of Cold War Cold Studies of Journal

the UN 137 - - ncluding the UN) of Arab struggles for the the for struggles Arab of UN) the ncluding regarding 152; HenryA.Kissinger, 152; Israeli War. Origins and Conseque and Origins War. Israeli -

218; Arthur Jay Klinghoffer and Judith Apter, Judith and 218; ArthurKlinghoffer Jay

(Boulder and London: Westview Press, Press, London: and Westview (Boulder et o hc dpoai efrs of efforts diplomatic which to tent

Third World. Soviet Policy toward the toward SovietPolicy World. Third

the Middl the , Vol. 12, No. 4 (Fall, 2010), 99 2010), (Fall, No. 4 12, Vol. , - - supplied Arab arms. The arms. Arab supplied fire and representing US representing and fire Years of Upheaval of Years e Crisis East 7

- represented a harsh a represented war armistice lines. armistice war nces - - fire 1967.

would would

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CEU eTD Collection 2002). Press, University Oxford (Oxford: East Middle 12 Jun the and Union Soviet 1967 June20, Plenum, Committee Central CPSU the Brezhnevto 11 Records Official Council Security In: withIsrael”. relations ofdiplomatic maintenance further the concerning decision anfor ofStates demand withthe concerted once at notnowcomply does Israel of “[i]fGovernment thatthe 10 Morozov, 9 162. 1981), Nicolson, and (London: Weidenfeld 8 Soviet attackedthe Chinese fighting. the of phase initialbehaviourduring the Soviet passive the unhappywereabout that Arabcountries with the exceptionof Romania. 13), June on Yugoslavia 12, June on Hungary and Poland 11, June on (Bulgaria days Central other severanc the announced also Czechoslovakia pro the toppling thus and Damascus occupying to close dangerously came IDF the When thr Fedorenko Nikolai Council, leadership ourComrades…. with leadership.” positions The coordinatesits Soviet Grozev Gero Minister Foreign Tarabano instructed Deputy Bulgarian the 6, June as early As Sofia. and Moscow between coordination close extremely an to attest York New in Mission and battering provocation verbal constant “by and night” the into late sessions the “dragging

Quoted in: Quoted Rafael, Gideon

See for example: Michael B. Oren, Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Modern the and Making of the 1967 June War: Sixof Oren, Days B. example:for Michael See Leonid by report East’, the AggressionMiddle in Israel’s Regarding Policy SovietUnion’s ‘The government the Israeli warned whichinit 1967 June, 7 statement on a issued USSR Government The - The harsh Soviet posi Soviet harsh The cease 7 and 6 June the disobeyed Israel After UN Bulgarian the and Ministry Foreign Bulgarian the between cables Several oit eie te oit no boe f dpoai rltos ih Israel. with relations diplomatic off broke Union Soviet the regime, Soviet immediate cease immediate The Jordan Baev, ’Eastern Europe and the Six Day War: The Case of Bulgaria’ in: Ro’i and Ro’i and in: Case ofBulgaria’ The Daythe War: and Six Europe ’Eastern Baev, Jordan

.” Soviet Union and the June 1967 Six Day War Day 1967Six June the and Union Soviet - 8 East European Communist countries followed suit within the next few next the within suit followed countries Communist European East Destination Peace. Three Decades of Israeli Foreign Policy. A Personal A Memoir Personal Policy. Foreign Israeli of Decades Three Peace. Destination

- fire,… the Soviet Union will reconsider its attitude to Israel and will takea and Israel its to attitude will reconsider the SovietUnion fire,… v to proceed in the Security Council “in concert with the Soviet Soviet the with concert “in Council Security the in proceed to v

e 1967 Six Day War Day Six 1967 e 12

tion is frequently attributed to the pressure coming from the the from coming pressure the to attributed frequently is tion oee, hr ws nte fco a pa a wl. The well. as play at factor another was there However, , 1350 , Union from the onset of the war, claiming that the “Sovietthe war,claimingthat the onset of the from Union

aee wt te break the with eatened th

meeting,June19 7 , 317. ,

o dpoai te te ae a. All day. same the ties diplomatic of e , 187. , 67. (New York: United Nations, 1970), 7. 1970), Nations, (New United 67. York: - ie eouin f h Security the of resolution fire

in: Ro’i and Morozov (eds.), (eds.), in: Ro’iMorozov and - f o dpoai relations. diplomatic of off United Nations Nations United The The

11 10

CEU eTD Collection 16 So 1967 June20, Plenum, Committee Central CPSU the Brezhnevto 15 157. 2011), University, European University European Central the meeting”in: theMoscow about Kádár Brezh 14 75. 1970), Studies, InstituteofPalestine In: 1967. June6, Peking 13 Six the of wake the in forces armed their of potential the of prepared Bulgarians concer This action. military Greek or Turkish a involved have could which crisis the of escalation possible the about concerned mostly were They vehemence. such with Assembly General the in later and Council, the alliance Arabmilitary despite the defeat. maintain enlisting to served Council, including Security the in efforts, policies Moscow’s for diplomatic support Bulgarian its All East. Middle the in allies Arab its liberation. national attain to onlyway the mid the since East Middle the in allies gain to efforts diplomatic its up stepped had China as stake at much was There real of instead language harsh use and Israel with relations diplomatic off break to was parties two these appease to go could USSR the furthest Arab the countries, belligerent the by expected and Chinese the by suggested as war into going dif a in assistance sufficient give not ‘did down,’ them ‘let Union Soviet “the that believe countries Arab in people many war into go to Nasser incited Chinese the that fr in and leaders bloc of meeting just people’s Arab the of flames struggle.” the out stamping on bent is click revisionist

Nigel Disney, ‘China and the Middle East’ in: Middle the and ‘China NigelDisney, Leonid by report East’, the AggressionMiddle in Israel’s Regarding Policy SovietUnion’s ‘The Chinese.”, the well,including him as influenced but others Nasser, cautioned SovietUnion “The (Peop Ribao” “Renmin Party Communist Chinese ofthe Organ by Official ‘Editorial the viet Union and the June 1967 Six Day War Day Six 1967 June the and Union viet The Bulgarians had their own moti own their had Bulgarians The nev said at the Moscow meeting. In: ‘Memorandum of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to János János to Affairs Foreign theof Ministry of ‘Memorandum meeting.In: theat Moscow said nev 13

Brezhnev himself referred to Chinese attacks in his speech at the Moscowthe at speech his in attacks Chinese to referred himself Brezhnev Fuad A. Jabber, A.Jabber, Fuad

, Vol. VI. (2007 VI. Vol. ,

András Kovács and Michael L. Miller (eds L. Miller Michael and Kovács András ont of the Soviet Politburo in June 1967. He claimed claimed He 1967. June in Politburo Soviet the of ont

- International Documents on Palestine 1967 Palestine Documentson International 1960s and had been propagating armed struggle as struggle armed propagating been had and 1960s , 327. , iut oet, n s on.” so and moment’, ficult ves for engaging in the debates of the Security the of debates the in engaging for ves - MERIP Reports MERIP 16 2009) (Budapest: J (Budapest: 2009) 139

However, Moscow could not afford not could Moscow However,

14 i aprn i te vlain the evaluation the in apparent is n

and that Chinese propaganda made propaganda Chinese that and , No. 63 (December, 1977), 3 1977), (December, 63 No. , in: Ro’i and Morozov (eds.), (eds.), in: Ro’iMorozov and ewish Studies Project Central ewish Project Studies 15 .), Jewish Studies at at Studies .),Jewish

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- Day CEU eTD Collection Journal 21 20 c006d4e70?OpenDocument http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/5ba47a5c6cef541b802563e000493b8c/2aacf966659eae64052566c at: Available A/6717. No. AssemblyDocument General Nations United General’ Secretary the to Republics 19 18 248. 1955 WarsawPact, Vojt in: Published 17 forc its of withdrawal Israel, Council. Security the in than proposals USSR for support possible of range wider a provided an decolonized of number quo “a Egypt, to territories lost the return to was objective diplomatic Moscow’s resolutio a through position. Israeli the influence to unable be would Council Security the that grounds the on convened be Assembly General position inthestaunch Security support of theUSSR Council. dependenteconomymost inthe bloc, onSoviet the of one was regime Bulgarian the concern, military this besides even But backup. exchan this in help reflected Soviet secure to Council sought and Security perception, Bulgarian the in representatives USSR and Bulgarian the problem. the solve to help Soviet enlist to proposed at Turkish or Greek a of face be the in would inadequate highly army Bulgarian the of readiness and capabilities the that Finding War.

Brian Urquhart, ’The United Nations and the Middle East: A50 East: the Middle Nationsand United ’The Urquhart, Brian Sov ’The Golan, Socialist ofSoviet Union ofthe Affairs Foreignfromfor 1967 Minister June13 the dated ‘Letter 7, 1967. October War, East Middle ofthe Wake Armythe in Bulgarian theof the on State Report John R. Lampe, R.Lampe, John

Kosygin addressed the Assembly on June 19. He called for the condemnation of condemnation the for called He 19. June on Assembly the addressed Kosygin Jun On o otiig n mitiig mltr peec i te country.” the in presence military a maintaining and obtaining for , Vol. 49, No 4, (Autumn, 1995), 576. No 4, (Autumn, Vol. 49, 1995), , 21

e 13, the Soviet Union requested that a Special Emergency Session of the of Session Emergency Special a that requested Union Soviet the 13, e ech Mastny and Malcolm Byrne (eds Byrne Malcolm and echMastny iet Union and the Outbreak’, 17; 17; the Outbreak’, and Union iet The Bulgarian Economy in the Twentieth Century the Twentieth in Economy Bulgarian The - 1991. clig n sal o ihrw eid h 14 amsie line. armistice 1949 the behind withdraw to Israel on calling n

(Budapest and New York: Central European University Press, 2005), 245 2005), Press, University European Central New and (Budapest York:

[Retrieved: September 29, 2013]. 2013]. 29, September [Retrieved: ofcal nurl onre i te eea Assembly General the in countries neutral officially d es from all areas occupied in the war (and thus behind the behind thus (and war the in occupied areas all from es

19 140

The main Soviet motive was to try to push to try to was motive Soviet main The Ro’i and Adamsky, ‘Conclusions’, 271 ‘Conclusions’, Adamsky, Ro’i and

.), A Cardboard Castle? An Inside History of the the of HistoryInside An Castle? Cardboard .), A 18

which probably played a role intheirwhich role probably a played

- The close cooperation between cooperation close The Year Retrospective’ in: in: Retrospective’ Year tack, the Bulgarian Politburo Bulgarian the tack,

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room Helm, 1986). Helm, room ge for diplomatic diplomatic for ge 20 Middle East East Middle -

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CEU eTD Collection 42. (February 33 2011), Vol. 25 129. 24 557 (Spring, 2. 1968), No. in: Assembly’ ‘General in: there” governors military appointing se ithas territories the on administration occupation an isestablishing government 23 22 Council.” tone in “differed proposal new the because occurred failure the Goldberg, J. Arthur UN the to Ambassador US to According it. against voted delegations African many and bloc Latin entire The France. and countries Muslim countries, communist the the harsh win the to omit failed two required did also it resolution though draft this 1967 However, 5, references. June condemnatory to prior held they positions the states Afro seventeen and Yugoslavia Cyprus, by proposed officially was resolution draft A strategies. changed theythus Assembly, General the in even necessarysupport a view thatcontrastedexist, thatof ‘friendly’ many amongArabcountries. the Germany. occupation the likened government Israeli he the by when up Reich, set administration Third the of that with policies identified Israeli Kosygin speech, lengthy his During restitution. war Israeli for demand (unsuccess propagated previously parties. belligerent truce 1949

Arth Kosut (ed.), Hal the Israeli regions, occupied in the gauleiters appoint usedto Germany wayHitler’s as “In same the in: Assembly’ ‘General

h Sve dlgto so raie ta ter propo their that realized soon delegation Soviet The

but not in substance from the Soviet resolution that was rejected by the Security the by rejected was that resolution Soviet the from substance in not but 24 ur J. Goldberg, ‘What Resolution 242 Really Said’ in:Really Said’ 242 ‘What Resolution Goldberg, urJ.

which would have called on Israel to immediately withdraw immediately to Israel on called have would which 25 23 -

lines), and Israeli compensation payment for damage inflicted upon its its upon inflicted damage for payment compensation Israeli and lines), Nevertheless, Kosygin also affirmed in no uncertain terms Israel’s right to right Israel’s terms uncertain no in affirmed also Kosygin Nevertheless, - third majority: it received only 53 votes in favour from the Arab stat Arab the from favour in votes 53 only received it majority: third Israel & the Arabs: The June 1967 War 1967 &June The Arabs: Israel the 22

International Organization International - ih ht te SR eund o h oiia psto i had it position original the to returned USSR the that, With 594.

ul) n h Scrt Cucl tpe wt the with topped Council, Security the in fully) 141 , Vol. 22, No. 2. (Spring, 1968), 558 2. (Spring,1968), No. Vol. 22, ,

(New York, N.Y.: Facts on File Inc, 1968), 1968), Inc, File on Facts N.Y.: York, (New o hs o the of those to American Foreign Policy Interests Policy Foreign American International Organization International a wud o gi the gain not would sal gauleiters ized and is and ized

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ns, the Americans want to destroy Yugoslavia too.” Yugoslavia destroy to want Americans the ns, An Age of Mediocrity. Memoirs and Diaries 1963 Diaries and Memoirs Mediocrity. of Age An www.foia.cia.gov/sites/defaul

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MOL,XIX MOL,M n h atrah f h cnlc, h Hnain oenet rvdd gp and Egypt provided government Hungarian the conflict, the of aftermath the In particularly not were zone influence Soviet the of countries most doubt, No - KS 288.5/430. Minutes of the meeting of the Hungarian Politburo, July 18, 196 July 18, Politburo, the Hungarian meeting of theMinutes of KS 288.5/430. - J - 1 - j, (Egyiptom), box 1968/32, document no. 00734/1/1968. Report ofReport the 9thRegional 00734/1/1968. no. document 1968/32, box (Egyiptom), j,

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reported in early August, “Hungarians say, “Hungarians August, early in reported

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- CEU eTD Collection War Day Six 1967 June the and Union Soviet 1967 June20, Plenum, Committee Central CPSU the Brezhnevto 53 http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/113622 Soviet of of Meeting Record ‘Polish Kádár wasted”,said willthem notbe by rendered thatassistance guarantee minimal have a should countries socialist but the countries do, capitalist asthe countries other to assistance toward attitude doubts raising the questionis Therefore, too. countries Arab we the gave failed, we it Indonesia to gave it failed, Ghana to weregiving we 52 51 Assembly General the to as long as how lobbies, the in pondering and UN, the worth in activities invigorate “It's leaders. bloc other the of initiatives and opinions the that seems it East, Middle the in conflict the to regards with line policy foreign its follow to satellites its coerced Union Soviet Six the in performance Mid the in states ‘friendly’ the for aid economic and military of future the discuss to opportunities provided meetings the Furthermore, bloc other or Soviet for support necessary the acquire to Nations con and bloc) the of rest the to Yugoslavia from and satellites the towards Moscow from (especially countries the between information imperialism.” international of circles powerful a constitute countries socialist the of actions combined the that “demonstrated meetings these it, put Brezhnev As Council. Security the of resolutions the obeying into Israel coerce to demands Soviet to weight determination and unity the demonstrate to served Egypt Sixafter the andSyria aid to resources financial mobilize to reluctant rather was leadership Party July. Hungarian in leaders bloc of meeting Budapest the at mentioned he which people’.” ‘The Soviet Union’s Policy Regarding Israel’s Aggre Israel’s Regarding Policy SovietUnion’s ‘The “In our public opinion, and I think that in other countries it is likewise, the question looks like this: like looks the question likewise, itis countries other thinkin I that and “Inopinion, public our 400 OSA, The meetings held in the summer and fall of 1967 had several goals. First, they First, goals. several had 1967 of fall and summer the in held meetings The 51 - 40

áo Kdr a vr wl aae f h pbi’ ufvual opinion unfavourable public’s the of aware well very was Kádár János - 1, box no. 1601. no. box 1,

- a Wr Cnrr t te iey cetd eif ht the that belief accepted widely the to Contrary War. Day RFE Special, Tel Aviv, August 14, 1967. AugustAviv, 14, Tel RFESpecial, - day War.

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CEU eTD Collection http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/113622 55 http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/113629 AAN,A/13, Warsaw. XI Archive,KCPZPR, Policy ProgramDigital Public Historyand 54 Party state? socialist the of version Kádárist the about tell reactions the do what and these to react weredissenting and differing many there large, at population the and intelligentsia, Hungarian the community, Jewish the among Moreover, done. be to and happening was what of interpretations differing and debat unfolding the conflict, the of pre 5.2. aid to providing sabotage practically to managed also quietly, extremely though leadership, Hungarian conformist seeminglyThe known. well is example Romanian The uniform. two, the Moscow. between by meetings encouraged bilateral during of advantage taken also was Nasser with relationship good Tito’s Broz Josip Assembly. General UN the in resolution the from coming initiatives back did leadership Soviet the Furthermore, Moscow. of critical occasion on were which opinions, have did leaders bloc indeed, that prove meetings the of minutes The June. in Moscow in meeting their your await we formula, any notpropose works... do We

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Six 55

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CEU eTD Collection 58 57 (eds Miller In:and Kovács 1967. June5, public in 56 uncertainty introduce “might Nyers, by suggested as was, aggressor theirs.” been always had “it because Egypt by warranted was step the that thought he Aqaba, of Gulf the of closure the to regards with while aggressor the Israel was that indisputable this with agreed but also approach Szirmai István publications. official in Israel on focusing Nyers was, long aggressor emphasizing the suggested who debatable therefore was it Because out. pointed Aqaba of Gulf the closing by situation the escalated had Egypt conflict, ongoing years.In Eastconnection tothe intheMiddle over the repeated hostilities outbreaksof not was membership the remark, this unanimous about howtoevaluate thematter with Politburo the in debate the restrict issue.” policy foreign purely “a was East Middle the th East Middle the in place taken had that action Soviet and developments military about information minimal with body political the provide to able only was Secretary First the Politburo Hungarian daily as well Titov. briefings toHungary from Ambassador Vladimir Soviet as fighting, the of day every ones similar by followed was call The 1967. 5, June of afternoon the in East Middle the in conflict military a of outbreak 5.2.1.

Ibid. MOL,M ofthe tel record Strictlyconfidential Rezső Nyers was of the opinion that both the Arabs and Israelis contributed to the the to contributed Israelis and Arabs the both that opinion the of was Nyers Rezső sh one received Having about Brezhnev Leonid from call phone first the received Kádár János

Reactions the Party in - KS 288.5/426. Minutes of the meeting of the Hungarian Politburo, June 6, 1967. June6, Politburo, the Hungarian meeting of theMinutes of KS 288.5/426. 58

not Zoltán Komócsin and Béla Biszku. The former considered it it considered former The Biszku. Béla and Komócsin Zoltán not éa Bisz Béla

u and ht evn dee it te su o wo the who of issue the into deeper delving that warned ku ort update from Brezhnev, during the June 6 session of the of session 6 June the during Brezhnev, from update ort -

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ephone conversation between János Kádár and Leonid Brezhnev, Leonid and Kádár János between conversation ephone us far. Kádár was quick to emphasize that the war in war the that emphasize to quick was Kádár far. us .), Jewish Studies at the Central European University European Central the at .),Studies Jewish 152 .

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Gyula Kozák, ‘A hatvanas évek társadalmáról (adalékok)’ [About the society of the 1960s 1960s ofthe society the [About (adalékok)’ társadalmáról évek hatvanas ‘A Kozák, Gyula Ibid. Ibid. situation. their device, their is has Israel This and puppet. way... every in them they grip, terrorize their and in countriesinfluence these keep they oil, the for there well are Imperialists is East Middle the in situation The It is perhaps not a coincidence that it was Rezső Nyers and István Szirmai who who Szirmai István and Nyers Rezső was it that coincidence a not perhaps is It

hip consciously resigned its omnipotent political influence. “[W]e interpret the the interpret “[W]e influence. political omnipotent its resigned consciously hip 59

áo Kdr rte anyd pt n n t te ipt b categorically by dispute the to end an put annoyed, rather Kádár, János 60

). In that body, many of his coworkers were not Party members and and members Party not were coworkers his of many body, that In ).

en nw fr er, e u nt tr t re to start not us let years, for known been ers. Rezső Nyers, a prominent reformist, was working on the on working was reformist, prominent a Nyers, Rezső ers. more balanced more Évkönyv X. Évkönyv

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opinion. István Szirmai, at this time the H the time this at Szirmai, István opinion. 153

- nw, e nw ht t s about. is it what know we known, ons more diverse than in other state state other in than diverse more ons Agitációs és Propaganda Bizottság Propaganda és Agitációs - os Intézet, 2002), 11 2002), Intézet, os Nyers thus expressed a less less a expressed thus Nyers - Arab position of Kádár Kádár of position Arab ey okn on working vely - – evaluate the the evaluate 35. Közgazdasági

- Israeli ead ead s ) CEU eTD Collection 64 speech. Komócsin’s 63 1968. 16, June Dubček, Alexander and Kádár János meetingbetween 62 the hands A ofthe four Politburo. policy actual that clear is it body political the of gathering next the of minutes the from meeting, Politburo details. more in position wer they and 14, June on Secretaries Party Budapest and higher for meeting a was There issue. the debating work,” their continue “calmly very that situation the of evaluation official its CC of handful a and county the informed Politburo The members. Secretariat Kádár by monopolized formation policy and controlled, information of flow the Consequently, press. the in or resolutions Party official either in appear East Middle Soviet the in actions toward positions critical want not did Kádár latter. the for responsibilities coul these actions, Arab criticized British to actions Israeli linked events pro strictly a of alternatives wereworking the Party inwithin apparatus. and state they areas the of characteristics the by influenced strongly were members Politburo the of reactions the Thus Soviets. the by infiltrated) not (if supervised closely more perh and ideological more were that fields in working were organization, Party and affairs foreign of representatives Biszku, and Komócsin Dubček. Alexander Secretary areas],” those [in

Ibid. MOLM MOL,XIX n hs oeg plc ma policy foreign this In

- KS, 288.4/88. 288.4/88. KS, - J - 1 - j (Csehszlovákia), 1968/ box no. 23, 29 box23, no. 1968/ (Csehszlovákia), j

János Kádár explained this issue a year later to Czechoslovak First Czechoslovak to later year a issue this explained Kádár János

Minutes of the meeting of the Central Committee, June 23, 1967. Zoltán 1967. 23, June Committee, Central ofthe Minutesmeeting ofthe - making with regards to the Six the to regards with making 64

- huh t a nt xlcty ttd uig h Jn 6 June the during stated explicitly not was it Though Arab position. If, as Nyers suggested, evaluations of the the of evaluations suggested, Nyers as If, position. Arab

63 tr Kdr a nt ed t oel dsus any discuss openly to ready not was Kádár tter,

n te od hy eeisrce o eri from refrain to instructed were they words other in - member committee of the CC Secretariat with János ofthe Secretariat with committee CC member d have easily lead to deductions about Soviet Soviet about deductions to lead easily have d

about the Middle East in the Party was heavily heavily was Party the in East Middle the about - American imperialism and at the same time, time, same the at and imperialism American 154

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War was taken out from from out taken was War - level level aps aps CEU eTD Collection 67 1967. 13, June Politburo, theHungarian MOL M 1967. June13, on the Politburo informed Komócson relations...” diplomatic severe to the Poles to wesuggested Fock and Biszku Kádár, Comrades 66 65 Kádár János opinion. clearly asdeviants. communists Jewish identified were there that problematic more way it found leadership the that clear became it speech, Secretary’s First the from circles.” as such regime the towards “inimical” and “oppositional” are who those and affair;” the in question Jewish a “see who those feelings; antisemitic harbouring those situation: the of evaluation Party’s the with si the about speaking Komócsin, Zoltán Party. the within crisis East Middle the to regards with opinions dissenting were there that clear it make body political the of session 13 June the of records the meeting, Kádárism era, Brezhnev displayeda strong authoritarian quality case. inthis the in advocated frequently so leadership” “collective Marxist the Shunning from practically committee This r Israel. diplomatic of severance the including decisions, policy important members as Biszku Béla and Komócsin Zoltán Fock, Jenő Kádár,

MOLM with consulting and relations diplomatic ofsevering the question weto returned that, all “After MOLM eti aon o axey s nesadbe u ti de nt emt hm to them permit not does this but understandable is anxiety of amount certain A attacker. and aggressor the is who everyone to clear not is it that understand non a in behaved rac on based conclusion of kind some has draw to want don’t I And manner. membership... party the of part smaller A Though Komócsin mentioned public reactions that were against the Party line, line, Party the against were that reactions public mentioned Komócsin Though interve committed the Despite 66 h ts of task the

67 The Politburo only gave its formal approval to the political steps steps political the to approval formal its gave only Politburo The - - KS, 288.5/427. Minutes of the meeting of the Hungarian Politburo, June 13, 1967. June13, Politburo, the Hungarian meeting of theMinutes of 288.5/427. KS, ofMinutes KS 288.5/427.

oiy omto, n rsrce ter oe to role their restricted and formation, policy

- eiit rnil o Pry eorc ad ht f the of that and democracy Party of principle Leninist removed

the meeting of the Hungarian Politburo, June 13, 1967. June13, Politburo, Hungarian ofthe meeting the

ntion by Kádár during the previous Politburo Politburo previous the during Kádár by ntion

Par the Politburo and any other official state organ state official other any and Politburo the

ty tuation, listed three groups that did not agree not did that groups three listed tuation, 155 etee right “extreme

ebr wo xrse ter dissenting their expressed who members

- KS 288.5/427. Minutes of the meetingof Minutes ofthe KS 288.5/427.

- ig ainls, antisemitic nationalist, wing 65

olwn orders following decided about all about decided - communist communist ltos with elations post facto post e, and I and e,

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CEU eTD Collection 159. 1989), 72 140. 2004), Privilege Perilsof the Alliancesand Dangerous the State: and in: ofCommunism’ Collapse 71 70 1601, no. box 69 University CentralEuropean Project Studies Jewish (eds.), Andor 68 apparatus” the in and bodies governing various the through swept wave Judaization’ security and military affairs, foreign organs. in scenes the behind purge” “silent a was Mechanism. Economic New the of result a as was it but go for emphasized let were origin Jewish of officials state many (RFE), Europe Free post. public less that Party official the with disagreement his of because functionary a of removal clear only The dismissals. of extent the determine to hard is it though the Party, HSWPmemb theof problemJewish butclearlyas framed that within opinions dissenting on clampdown a propose he did only Not mind. his change to Secretary First the compelled Party the within reactions the that clear is it matter, issue the handle to wanted Kádár earlier, week a only While

Péter K Péter from Politics ’HungarianJewish Kovács, András 300 OSA HU OSA, 300 OSA HU OSA, th at Kádár János ‘Speechof be adapted. te such if but fluster, than rather areas all in leadership consistent and clear recommend I stable... and intact be should party the that system our for question vital a is This this. ignore w of that as issue decisive a such on government the and party the of position the debate apparatus, the from Jews of purge hushed a by followed were threats Kádár’s of Tibor Zádor. The government’s foreign affairs spokesperson was demoted to a to demoted was spokesperson affairs foreign government’s The Zádor. Tibor of 71 ende, ende,

Péter Kende si Kende Péter Jewish Studies at the Central European University European Central at the Studies Jewish RFE Special, “Hungary’s Jews live in comfort”, May, 1968. comfort”, live in Jews “Hungary’s RFESpecial, hom we should support and against whom we should fight. I cannot cannot I fight. should we whom against and support should we hom Röpirat a zsidókérdésről a Röpirat 68

them that the lay the that them 69

- - 40 40 Radio informing source anonymous an to according Nevertheless,

- - 3, box no. 9, Report no. XII no. Report 9, no. box 3, box 3, ndencies were to spread, then measurements would have to to have would measurements then spread, to were ndencies milarly claimed that following the Six the following that claimed milarly Ezra Mendelsohn (ed.), Mendelsohn (ed.), Ezra e Politburo meeting of 13 June 1967’ in: András Kovács and Eszter Eszter and in: Kovács András June1967’ meeting 13 of Politburo e

no.9, no.9,

RFE Special, Report no. F no. Report RFESpecial, -

offs did not happen because of their Jewishness but Jewishness their of because happen not did offs [Pamphlet about the Jewish Question] (Budapest: Magvető, Magvető, (Budapest: Question] Jewish the about [Pamphlet 156 , 2003), 276. 276. 2003), , the End of the Second World War until theWar World the Second of End the Studies in Contemporary Jewry, Vol. XIX: Jews XIX: Vol. Jewry, Contemporary in Studies -

5853, July5853, 1967. 70

András Kovács also opined that there that opined also Kovács András

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, Press, University Oxford (Oxford: , Vol. III (2002 III Vol. , -

61, May 2, 1968 and OSA, and 300 May 1968 2, 61,

- Day War, “a real ‘de real “a War, Day - as a a as 2003) ( 2003) oeg policy foreign ers. Budapest: Budapest: - cut case of of case cut

- line was was line - 40 - 1, 1, 72 -

CEU eTD Collection 74 2009) ProQuest, 73 three dismissed government Polish the that charged LaborCommittee Jewish the of report a Similarly, articles. other and medicines plasma, blood work, overtime of form the in countries Arab the of efforts the to contribute to refusing for Jews) administration.” the within posts managerial upper “in individuals 51 others, among included, which list administration” state the and party Zi ‘subversive for hunt a in “engaged Affairs Internal of Ministry factors Six independent ofthe Morozo Boris to According claims. these support not does interviews personal and sources archival Soviet on based research recent However, East. Middle the in situation the to regards these developme Vladimir Chair KGB position. connected observers Western 1967. May in inferior post his from dismissed was Semichastny an to transferred also and Committee Industr Central the Light of Secretary as of post his Minister from demoted was time, Shelepin Andrei same Commerce the Around 1967. June of end the Poland even and at dismissed was Egorychev Hungary,Nikolai Secretary Party city Moscow otherwise. suggests USSR, the in happening dismissals of examination official with line in fall not did who those eliminate to Moscow of example the following simply was Kádár that suggest might which that wouldprove a thedecision documents known no are there today, until Up bureaucracy. state Hungarian the of

Stola, ‘Anti Stola, AnatPlocker, There were purges in the apparatus in Poland as well. As early as June 1967, the the 1967, June as early As well. as Poland in apparatus the in purges were There Union Soviet the in dismissals known few a were there time, same the Around - Zionism as a Multipurpo a as Zionism , 2. , Zionists to Dayan: The Anti The Dayan: to Zionists , vr snl oe f h dsisl cn e xlie b long by explained be can dismissals the of one single every v,

nts to these politicians’ differing positions from that of Brezhnev with Brezhnev from with positions that theseof nts to politicians’ differing 74

Several members were dismissed from the Party (a (a Party the from dismissed were members Several

- Day War. bout purges in the HSWP afterbout purges the intheHSWP Six se Policy Instrument’, 186. PolicyseInstrument’, 73 -

Zionist Campaign in Poland, 1967 Poland, in Campaign Zionist and within a few weeks, managed to draw up a up draw to managed weeks, few a within and

157

oiis Hwvr te closer the However, policies. - 1968 onists’ within the the within onists’ - Day War.

(Ann Arbor, MI: MI: Arbor, (Ann lot of them of lot

generals and y

- term term CEU eTD Collection 1967. June6, Politburo, the Hungarian meeting of MOL M Politburo. meeting the Hungarian of 1967 theat June6, said inthe Ministr then sources, firstnews in areas: following in the controlled be should crisis] East the Middle to relating 79 1967. 14, 78 1968. 20, August Affairs, Foreign of Ministry theNémethyHungarian Béla to Ambassador 77 76 50. 2004), Wolak, 1967 15, NewNovember York, 75 suggests than a ideologically rather pragmatic, determineddiscrimination ofJews. t crisis. East Middle the to regards with policies execute and control to appointed Kádár János that Def of Ministry the Affairs, Foreign of Ministry the in happened purges claims, Kovács Vályi Péter or Szirmai István Aczél, György were origin.Jewish of those or members Party to restricted not widespread, more were Poland in purges had of surfaced criticisms after propaganda and agitation for responsible Committee Central Polish the of Secretary as post his from demoted was Starewitz Artur that reported army. Polish the from dismissed were officers Jewish 150 som Altogether, Jewish. was wife his that rumours simple on based military the from recruits. new educating when propaganda’ anti ‘use to refused they because Force Air Polish the of commander the and he highest leadership feared that the execution of its policies could be sabotaged.couldbeofpolicies This execution its the that highestleadershipfeared he

“...with regards to the direct leadership, we agreed that these cases [i.e. policies and information and policies cases [i.e. thatwe these agreed leadership, the direct to “...withregards S the right after ofFinance Minister of the post to was promoted Infact,Vályi MOL,XIX ‘Anti Stola, 300 OSA HU OSA, ense and in the Ministry of Interior, then these policy areas correspond to those to correspond areas policy these then Interior, of Ministry the in and ense Despite the uncertainty about the extent of purges in the Hungarian apparatus, in the Hungarian apparatus, of purges the extent Despiteabout theuncertainty

definitely selective. Certain high ranking functionaries of Jewish origin, such as as such origin, Jewish of functionaries ranking high Certain selective. definitely Forced Out: The Fate The Polis of Out: Forced

- y of Foreign Affairs, in the Ministry of Defense and in the Ministry of the Interior”, Kádár Kádár the Interior”, of in and the Ministry Defense of inAffairs, the Ministry yForeign of - the authorities’ propaganda activities “during the June 1967 events.” 1967 June “duringthe activities propaganda authorities’ the J Zionism as a Multipurpose Policy Instrument’, 188. PolicyInstrument’, Multipurpose a as Zionism

- 1 In this case, it could be argued that the purges happened in areas where areas in happened purges the that argued be could it case, this In -

j, (Lengyelország), box no. 61, document no. 87 document no. 61, no. box (Lengyelország), j, - 30

- 4, microfilm no. 102. Radio Free Europe, Czechoslovak Unit. RFE Special, Special, RFE Unit. Czechoslovak Europe, Free Radio microfilm102. no. 4, . “Increased anti“Increased .

h Jewry in Communist Poland Communist Jewryin h - Semitism laid to Eastern Europe.” Also in: Arthur J. Also ArthurJ. in: Europe.” Eastern to laid Semitism 158

General Czesłav Makiewicz was ousted was Makiewicz Czesłav General 78 ,

ee lal nt eoe. f as If, removed. not clearly were -

2/003171/1968. Report ofReport 2/003171/1968.

(Tucson, AZ: Fenestra Books, Books, Fenestra AZ:(Tucson, - KS, 288.5/426. Minutes of theMinutes of 288.5/426. KS, 76

The Hungarian Embassy Hungarian The ix - Day War, on Juneon War, Day

- Israeli 77

The ey e CEU eTD Collection 1967. June29, community, theJewish of leaders with the discussion 81 1967. 1, 80 the of origin Jewish of citizens of “declaration a 23 June on published example for managed bloc Communist the in communities Jewish all Not place. took dissent of expression East Middle the in conflict w the stricter of wake under the SOCA in community control the Jewish the of bring to supervision necessary close it deemed the functionaries under published was piece The world. the around all and East Middle the in Israel, in peace for also concern expressed article The conflict. the of orchestrators the as Republic Federal German the Unit the listed it Rather, aggressor. the Israelas condemn not did piece The leadership. it though policy, East Middle government’s community’s Hungarian the with agreement expressed Jewish the of position official the essence 5.2.2. members from ranks. its Jewish some purged also HSWP the Poland, in than restrictively and discretely more echelons Party lower reaching information The crisis. the to relating decisions political immediate Party of way usual The decision area. the in counterparts its then authoritarian less any

MOL,XIX ’Országgyűlésü On August 1, August On appear not did regime Kádár the crisis, East Middle 1967 the during policies its In

Reactions in the Jewish Reactions the Jewish in community -

aig a cre we a four a when curbed was making to avoid having to condemn Israel. The East Berlin dailyBerlin East Israel.The condemn to having avoid to - A - 21 nk és a béke ügye’ [Our national assembly and the cause of peace] in: ofpeace] the cause and assembly national ügye’[Our nk béke és a

- a coey otold rm bv. utemr, hl conducted while Furthermore, above. from controlled closely was d, box no. 39, document0020 39, no. box d, Új Élet Új

published an article about about article an published

159 - - ebr omte ws e u t take to up set was committee member

4/1967. 4/1967.

József Prantner’s report about his about Prantner’s report József the Six the 81

o ae ue ht o open no that sure make to - Day War which was in was which War Day ed States, Britain and and Britain States, ed Neues Deutschland Neues Új Élet Új , August August , hose hose 80

CEU eTD Collection 1967. June29, community, theJewish of leaders with the discussion 87 entiret its hands in Israeli in remained Jerusalem fairthat it isthinks However,he territories. occupied the keep should thatIsrael 86 conflict’, East Middle the to with regards community Jewish in the atmosphere the about the ForeignMinistry and Central Committee HSWP XIX Jerusalem of part o the occupied wantskeep to Israel that isimpossible feelings…It 85 an Kovács in: Congregation’ 84 August 1967. conflict’,23 East Middle the to with regards community Committe Central the HSWP Affairsto 83 1967. September, 26 L.Brassloff, 82 Repu People’s Hungarian the to loyalty conversation their about him his reassured partners all that satisfaction with noted he Though conflict. East Middle the in role Israel’s and Hungary in antisemitism of revival the issues: two to regards direction” correct the towards perceptions their “steer to order in 1967 23, June on community Jewish Hungarian the of leaders entirety.its c Israeli under remain should Jerusalem of city the that thought others while them;keep to inadvisable andimpossible was it that manybelieving gains,territorial self country the the that and Arabs the by threatened truly was with existence Israel’s that agree to refused who aggression. and those responsibility Israel’s of with assessment government’s patient be to state the of officials its including Sc community, Sándor line. Party official the Jewish accept to hard it found the leadership, of members Many position. unanimous Israel against of circles ruling the of aggression “the condemning Republic” Democratic German

MOL,XIX impossible viewit is military of point and economic frompolitical, a that said also Scheiber “Sándor mixed with mybelievers religious fill conquests territorial reported:”Israel’s ImreBenoschofsky Jewish Hungarian ofthe representatives ofthe opinion leading the on report ‘Aagent’s secret MOL,XIX A letters Correspondence, General Z6/1176. CZA, - - ósf rnnr Peiet f h Sae fie f hrh far mt ih 13 with met Affairs Church of Office State the of President Prantner, József real a represent not did above declaration Jewish Hungarian official the However, J defence. - 1 - j, box no. 1967/48, document no. 003675/1867. ’Report of the Office of Church Affairs to the Affairsto the of ofOfficeChurch ’Report document003675/1867. no. 1967/48, no. box j, - - 86 J A - 84

1 - the neighbouring Arabstates”. 21 -

j, box no. 1967/48, document no. 003675/1867. ’Report of the Office of Church Church the of ofOffice’Report document003675/1867. no. 1967/48, no. box j, However, the Jewish community was divided with regards to Israel’s to regards with divided was community Jewish the However, - d, box no. 39, document0020 39, no. box d,

y.”Ibid. d Andor (eds.), (eds.), Andor d

e and the Foreign Ministry about the atmosphere in the Jewish the Jewish in atmosphere the about Ministry the Foreign and e 23 August 1967. 23 Jewish Studies at the Central European University European Central at the Studies Jewish 160 87 - 82 E, 1967. Memo to Dr Nahum Goldmann fromF. Nahum Goldmann Dr to Memo 1967. E, -

4/1967. 4/1967. in the wake of the war, es war, the of wake the in

József Prantner’s report about his about Prantner’s report József

83 r the Sinai.” MOL, MOL, Sinai.” the r heiber asked the the asked heiber

ay believed Many pecially with pecially blic, it did it blic, ontrol in ontrol acted in in acted , 278. ,

CEU eTD Collection Cze 90 89 1967. June29, community, theJewish of leaders with the discussion 88 consequences The Czechoslovakia. in communities religious Jewish the on exerted Pravo Rude in appeared that articles unsettling by war. the of wake the in isolated” “artificially were they that “intruders”reported andlike communityinsecure, religious felt Prague the Jewish from off laid be would they that or down closed be would businesses private their that war the of aftermath the in afraid were communitiesamongall Jewish inthe Eastern RFE inHungary reported bloc. thatJews issues were for thepublic. thecommunityand taboos toremain anti the of How cited aboveIsrael,as the of condemnation when came tothe it hook the off them let eventually authorities the leadership, Jewish the of insistence would which principles, our to contrary similarly is philosemitism though antisemitism, of Prantner leadership upfirmly assured theJewish against expression that“weany stand deep roo the over concern Prantner expressed who behaviour. Scheiber, Sándor Israeli of worries the condemn dismissed explicitly they did neither conversation, the during aggressor the as Israel named them of none that attention his escape not

OSA, HU OSA HU OSA, 300 OSA HU OSA, MOL,XIX choslovakia (January choslovakia e atsmts i te onr wih e a sraig fe te Six the after surfacing saw he which country the in antisemitism ted eeomns t oe following home at Developments ever, with regards to the open discussion of antisemitism and other consequences other and antisemitism of discussion open the to regards with ever, ny or i ot te ie f antisemitism.” of fire the onto oil pour only - - sal sad f h rgm, hr ws o om o cmrms. These compromise. for room no was there regime, the of stand Israeli A , which carried a piece on the “evil influence” that Israeli diplomats had diplomats Israeli that influence” “evil the on piece a carried which , - 21 300 - d, box no. 39, document0020 39, no. box d, - - 30 40 -

- - July, 1967)”, 11 September111967. 1967)”, July, 4 (Czechoslovakia), microfilm no. 102. microfilm no. (Czechoslovakia), 4 no. XII Report 9, no. box (Hungary), 3

h cnlc i te ide at asd unease caused East Middle the in conflict the

fiil at pbiain, uh s h daily the as such publications, Party official 161

their employment. their -

4/1967. 4/1967.

József Prantner’s report Prantner’s report József 88 -

5853, July 1967. July1967. 5853, RFE Research: “The cultural scene in scenein cultural “The RFEResearch:

It seems that after seeing the the seeing after that seems It 90

This feeling was reinforced was feeling This 89 Új Élet

Similarly, members of members Similarly,

article suggests.article about hisabout - Day War. War. Day - CEU eTD Collection Kovács. András of courtesy Document 94 Papers Slavonic Canadian 93 split” Czechoslovak warcauses notes M/E “Bonn 92 91 political agents vigilant The alertness. increased with occasion the for preparing leadershipwas Hungarian the and revolution, 1956 the of anniversary tenth the marked Frank the in association Csoportfőnökség “ for authorities the of radar the on been already had who community religious Jewish the within those of surveillance the time, same the At stronger. grown had feelings anti (Zionist), nationalist groups, above the among noted, break the since ever Western and groups Zionist young of activities and behaviour the in changes noteworthy no were “there that August early in reported community the of surveillance the with entrusted been had who Department III/III the of government’s pro su was not had Jews leadership Polish that Polish Affairs Internal of the Ministry the ceased,by informed East Middle the in fighting the after Shortly Czechoslovak ofRFE unit inAugust observed that 1968 religious co theJewish included arrests in Zionist”activities was increased tocollect against incriminating data them.

ÁSZTL, Anti ‘The Rozenbaum, Wlodzimierz 300 OSA HU OSA, Ibid reachingEurope. Western party Prague the co ceased, East Middle having persons all of surveillance the police secret increased greatly in has leadership fighting the since weeks [i]n h III ru Laesi o te iity f h Itro ( Interior the of Ministry the of Leadership Group III/I The agent An groups. “Zionist” shadowing were Services Security the too, Hungary In . nnections with Israel or with Jewish organizations, according to information information to according organizations, Jewish with or Israel with nnections

O - 17169/2, “Zionists engaged in inimical activities” file, agent report on August 14, 1 14, August on file, report agent activities” inimical in “Zionists engaged 17169/2, ) which was responsible for intelligence, had discovered a “Zionist” a discovered had intelligence, for responsible was which ) - - Arab position andhadArab enthusiastically position Israeli victory. cheered the 30 -

off of diplomatic relations with Israel.” with relations diplomatic of off - 4 (Czechoslovakia), microfilm no. 102. 102. microfilm no. (Czechoslovakia), 4 , Vol 20, No. 2. (June, 1978), 218 1978), No. 2. (June, Vol , 20, l tet yaou i Bdps bc i 16. ht year That 1966. in back Budapest in synagogue street el 92

- Zionist Campaign in Poland, June Poland, in Campaign Zionist

162 mmunity in Prague.mmunityin

- 236, esp. 223. esp. 236, RFE Special, August 18, 1967. 1967. August RFESpecial, 18,

94 - - 91 oit n anti and Soviet December 1967’ in: 1967’ December

Nevertheless, the agen the Nevertheless,

A special report by the specialreport A - redy individuals friendly pported the pported

- socialist III/I Jewish Jewish 967. 967. - 93 es es

t CEU eTD Collection 99 1967. 31, October Prantner, József 98 Kovács. 97 1967. 31, October Prantner, József 96 1966. 20, September Politburo, ofthe Hungarian meeting ofthe minutes Among the forces. externalinimical 95 and imprisonment months three and year one to Court Secondary the by sentenced were individuals other four Meanwhile, three a for these suspended Office Prosecutor’s The sentences. 4 received each they which for incitement” committed “repeatedly an to issued warning police Office official Prosecutor’s Public Supreme The 1967. were September persons in eight arrested investigations, the of consequence a As Interior. of Ministry “preven to youth the in but well. street as Szeged of town Leó provincial Frankel in only not surveillance under were associations” Legation.”Israeliwith the help ofthe out carried “was which illegally” or legally Israel to migrate to people Jewish young “agitate to was Ministry, the of report agent secret a to according group, this of goal a were that issues Jewish about materials propaganda discuss and “read to meetings held Donát, József named student medical young a by organized Jews young 20 about of group a Interior, of Ministry the of “Zionis various were these Among list. impressive this to it made all “gangs” street other and “hooligans” of groups groups their extended Ministry the of

Ibid. MOL,XIX ÁSZTL, MOL,XIX MOL,M ae o ifrain rm hs ae b te n o 16, w sc “Zionist such two 1966, of end the by case, this from information on Based

as well as individuals. Religious gatherings, events attended by young people, people, young by attended events gatherings, Religious individuals. as well as V - KS 288.5/405. Report for the Politburo about the measures taken against internal and and internal against taken measures about the the Politburo for Report KS 288.5/405. - - - 154251. Investigation file about the case of József Sárvári. Document courtesy of András ofAndrás courtesy Document Sárvári. József of thecase about file Investigation 154251. A A - - 21 2 1 - - a, microfilmn a, M no. document microfilm52216, no. a, t assimilation and incite Zionist feelings,” Zionist incite and assimilation t

six of them, while two individuals were found guilty in in guilty found were individuals two while them, of six o. 52216, document no. M no. document 52216, o.

bevne o aiu “poiinl ad “inimical” and “oppositional” various to observance t associations” as well. According to one informant one to According well. as associations” t 98

97 There, Rabbi Tamás Raj organized local Jewish local organized Raj Tamás Rabbi There,

arrested with the same accusations, and were and accusations, same the with arrested 163 l t ict Zoit feelings.” Zionist incite to ble

- - 11 11 - - 2/b/1966. Report József to ofReport Dr. Deák 2/b/1966. József to ofReport Dr. Deák 2/b/1966. 99

at least according to the to according least at - year trial period. period. trial year - ot prison month 96

h main The 95

CEU eTD Collection 2013). http://www.valosagonline.hu/index.php?oldal=cikk&cazon=1044&lap=0 at: Available 2008) (December 12 Six yearsthe following the during antisemitism Jews,Zionism, 3. 1967 az antiszemitizmus 101 Kovács. 100 Jewish the against campaign open no was there That destabilization. cause could state be etc.) arrests, (intimidation, well remained Ministry the that ensuring by and community; religious Jewish the of head the at leaders cooperative) and surveillance be prevention. would on then from function main their that 1960s early the of as clear became it apparatus, security its and Interior the of Ministry the of case the state the controlling was organs the of activities the in increase substantial any of lack The well. as characters ethnic with entity an as community Jewish the viewed regime Kádár the in pr East Middle events by evoked was tightening this the That kept control. regime tight under Hungarian community the Interior, of Ministry the of agents the of control under the of jurisdiction the Institutefurther,i curbed was the of Six the Following regime. the by hotbed Zionist a considered been already had Scheiber, Sándor of direction the under which, Institute Rabbinical authorities. the by reprimanded was Raj Tamás affairs. public from disqualification of years two

Róbert Győri Szabó, ‘Zsidóság és kommunizmus a Kádár a és kommunizmus ‘Zsidóság Győri Szabó, Róbert ÁSZTL,V institutio Jewish of area Another With the help of the loyal leadership of the Jewish religious community and the and community religious Jewish the of leadership loyal the of help the With

100

- 155 325/1 155 hs a esrd n h oe ad y lcn lyl o a least at (or loyal placing by hand one the on ensured was This

oved yet again that though officially applying a religious definition, the definition, religious a applying officially though that yetagain oved result of earlier functional decisions about these bureaucratic units. In units. bureaucratic these about decisions functional earlier of result - -

es arab 2. The case of József Donát and partners. Document courtesy of András András of courtesy Document partners. and Donát ofJózsef case 2. The - izraeli háború utáni években’ [Jews and Communism in the Kádár era era Kádár in the Communism and [Jews utáni években’ háború izraeli NRHI fore any activity deemed inconvenient or inimical by the the byinimical or inconvenient deemed activity any fore

. 101 - t lost its independent legal status and was rendered wasand independentitsstatus legal lost t informed and could take the necessary steps steps necessary the take could and informed ns where the regime tightened its control was the was control its tightened regime the where ns

164

- korszakban III. Zsidóság, cionizmus, cionizmus, Zsidóság, III. korszakban - Day War’ in: in: DayWar’

[retrieved: September 2, 2, September[retrieved: - Day War, the autonomy the War, Day Valóság , Vol. 51, No. 51, Vol. , CEU eTD Collection crisis” 105 War” Israeli 104 103 Hírlap megyei Fejér 102 worried wereconcerns theybecause economic of out disagreedOthers Arabcountries. Soviet the of defeat the in pleasure celebratory took standpoint official the non and Communist real between but separation real “the 1967, Arab the to regards with the that claiming situation this confirmed RFE of result a as opinion public judgement” opposite diametrically country’s the of sections broad and regime Hungarian the between wedge... “psychological a be to appeared There conclusions. pub and audience own their conducted RFE pro the that suggested source The crisis. East Middle the to relation in mood public about information had Politburo the fighting, of day second report was reassuring. very Six the to reaction public’s Hungarian the on article 5.2.3. mechanism. Six the after Hungary in community

OSA, OSA HU 300 HU OSA OSA, 300 HU OSA OSA, MOL,M ’AKöze h rato o te ugra pbi is public opinion public Hungarian our that government.supports theofour standpoint attest opinion the of expressions spontaneous numerous the and of newspapers of editors the by received letters of unanimous...Hundreds reaction The However, other sources suggest that th that suggest sources other However, paper county the issue, 1967 20, June its In

Reactions th of l - - KS 288.5/426. Minutes of the meeting of the Hungarian Politburo, June 6, 1967. June6, Politburo, the Hungarian meeting of theMinutes of KS 288.5/426. Kelet és a magyar közvélemény’ [The Middle East and Hungarian public opinion] in: opinion] public Hungarian and East Middle [The közvélemény’ magyar a és Kelet

, June 20, 1967, 3 1967, June20, , - - 40 40

- - 4 (Hungary), box no. 3, item no. 1354/67. “Hungarians on Middle East East “Hungarians Middle on item 1354/67. no. 3, no. box (Hungary), 4 3 no. box (Hungary), 4 e Hungarian public -

line was not between ant between not was line

- 4.

104 - Day War was partly the result of this preventive this of result the partly was War Day

of the conflict. Anothe conflict. the of - omns [people].” Communist 165 , Item no. 1291/67. “Opinion concerning the Arab the “Opinion concerning 1291/67. Item no. , e situation was quite the opposite. By the the By opposite. the quite was situation e

102 lic opinion survey and reached similar similar reached and survey opinion lic

eé mge Hírlap megyei Fejér - Day War in the Middle East. The East. Middle the in War Day isemitism and f and isemitism - Arab line was not popular. not was line Arab r source interviewed by interviewed source r lot completely almost 105

Ma - ilosemitism Israeli conflict in in conflict Israeli y h opposed who ny

sud long a issued - supported supported

[sic] - 103 ,

CEU eTD Collection 109 http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,840966,00.html 108 107 14 August Affairs, Foreign of Ministry the Hungarian of Conference theMinisterial 106 their pro anti Poles, many among But instant. an in “ stereotype, antisemitic the defeated origin, shadenfreude war.” to went Jew cowardly Jewis of citizens Polish of fleeing the and Forces Defence Israeli the between connection a discovered suddenly who Poles from came also messages the Jews: only not were Israel. for support expressed that letters 3,200 as many as received Six the during that claimed Sadat Dov Ambassador Israeli Czech victory. Israeli the the cheering by Slovaks towards animosity government’s as perceived they what countered people Czechoslovakia, people’s oflife.” quality the money,preciselymoneywastedmore is Arabs of support the that claims which propaganda the counterbalance to do can we “ex to leadership Party the urged He issue. this addressed Csécsei, Kálmán representative Tel diplomatic theformerAviv, Hungarian to Republic inAugust 1967, People’s Hungarian the of representatives diplomatic of conference a At standards. Hun affect negatively would countries Arab aiding on spent money that

Mark Kurlansky, Kurlansky, Mark in: Jewish Question” The ‘Poland: Kurlansky, Mark PTI), Intézet (Henseforth: Politikatörténeti h rato o te ulc a nt nqe o Hungary. to unique not was public the of reaction The h origin since WWII. As the popular joke went, “ went, joke popular the As WWII. since origin h - Israeli sta : as they understood, the Israeli soldiers, many of whom were of Polish of were whom of many soldiers, Israeli the understood, they as : 1968: The Year that Rocked the World the Rocked that Year The 1968: World the Rocked that Year The 1968: nds with regardsEasternnds with totheMiddle war.

Soviet

Jojne”, 106

- trained Arab troops in six short days. The use of the old the of use The days. short six in troops Arab trained

109 Time

suggests that Polish society did not shed antisemitism antisemitism shed not did society Polish that suggests

Ad o” add ay oe wt nt little a not with Poles many added won”, “And , August 18, 1967 18, August , PIL/909/26. Personal Papers of Dezső Nemes. Nemes. ofDezső Personal Papers PIL/909/26. 166 -

oit elns ee xrse through expressed were feelings Soviet

(NewYork 33. 2004), Books, (New Ballantine York: . . at Accessible at Jojne poszedl na wojne na poszedl Jojne

(Retrieved on November 20, 2012.) 20, November on (Retrieved the expense of the Hungarian theHungarian of expense the : Ballantine Books, 2004), 67. 2004), Books, : Ballantine -

a Wr hs emb his War, Day In the Slovak parts of of parts Slovak the In - 19, 1967. 19, 108 107

garian living living garian h senders The amine what what amine -

dominated In Poland,In Minutes ofMinutes

”, “the “the ”, assy

CEU eTD Collection 113 1967. October, 17 GoverningCouncil, WJC 112 full certainty. 111 with respondents. 88 withBulgarian and Rumanian 78 Slovak, 110 that reported Europe Free Radio city, latter the In Prague. for and leaderships, Moscow communist example other some of those to contrast in was position This c this antisemitism of manifestations or demonstrations the other possible of to because probably request Budapest, in students’ Legation Israeli Arab the of front some in demonstrate of disapproval his expressed Kádár conflict, Politburo first the during Already Hungary. in protests a to measures minimum. retributive kept and campaign propaganda moderate a conducted pub antagonize not to tried regime Kádár The anti be would it and erupt would East Middle the in situation the of because disagreement public that most: the leadership Hungarian the worried what exactly was the towards positions showed sympathies people’s Rather, Jews. towards feelings of framework the within form initially not did “overwhelminglyIsraeli onthe side.” sympathie as inasmuch war the to regards with similar was opinion public EasternEurope, and Western in that showed These instructive. arenevertheless results tourists with 1967 July countries. 17 and June 10 between interviews Six the to reaction

MOL,M Letters R Z6/1179. CZA, conducted, Europe Free that Radio same themight have been This with Czechand 112 with 179 Polish, with Hungarian, including 208 werecompleted, interviews 665 As opposed to several other countries of the bloc, there were no organized public organized no were there bloc, the of countries other several to opposed As Six the about opinion public that suggest findings and reports above The public examined which study larger a of hold got Congress Jewish World The 111 -

KS 288.5/426. Minutes of the meeting of the Hungarian Po the Hungarian meeting of theMinutes of KS 288.5/426.

huh t s usinbe hte te td ws ersnaie the representative, was study the whether questionable is it Though - Day War in communist Eastern Europe Eastern communist in War Day

- Z, 1967. Z,1967.

Strictly confidential letter from S.J. Roth to the Members ofthe theRoth Members to from S.J. Strictly letter confidential

112

167 regime and towards Soviet dominance. That That dominance. Soviet towards and regime

lic opinion any further and only only and further any opinion lic

but I could not verify this with not verify this could but I etn a te ie f the of time the at meeting litburo, June 6, 1967. June6, litburo, 110

based on close to 700 to close on based visiting Western Western visiting ould lead to. lead ould - Day War War Day

- Soviet. were s 113

CEU eTD Collection 213. 1982), Cohl Publishing, Karz York: in: country.” Quoted our in created be wish to Column not Fifth a do “[w]e that declaring by speech his he ended imperialism”, “nationality” certainofa in Poland people at hinted aggressionand Israeli condemned He 1967. June19, 119 crisis”East theMiddle 118 117 116 43. 1978), Press, Westview 115 anti to “Resistance 1967. 2, NewSeptember York, 114 with agree not column’ peers. their of attacks n the included These crisis. East Middle the about students inform to how on instructions received anti staunch the by encouragement tryin was opinions.” extreme most the arrestof case in even anybody not did and caution, unbelievable with question Israeli “the handled police th and institution”. enterprise every “in mobilization Party through organized were protests public Israel condemnatio the demanding Union, Soviet the in occurred had that the demonstrations “spontaneous” described Press Soviet the Politburo, Hungarian the of meeting the after days be must ‘Israel saying destr posters with parade to encouraged were students “Arab pplto a lre o vr lmtd xet Acrig o etr rprs the reports, Western to According extent. limited very a to large at population e

The Polish First Secretary made his infamous speech at the Trade Union Congress in Warsaw on in on WarsawUnion Congress Trade the at speech hismade infamous Secretary Polish First The 300 OSA HU OSA, 300 OSA HU OSA, Anti ‘The Rozenbaum, Kass,Ilana OSA HU OSA, The Hungarian leadership at the time applied “administrative measures” among among measures” “administrative applied time the at leadership Hungarian The oyed’. Official press agencies gloatingly reported these demonstrations.” these reportedgloatingly agencies press oyed’.Official 119 g to counter certain symptoms of antisemitism, which had received some some received had which antisemitism, of symptoms certain counter to g , Hungarian propaganda declared that among the population, those who didwho those population, the among that declared propaganda Hungarian , who came out “in favour of the aggressor, the wreckers of peace and the forces offorces the and ofpeace the wreckers aggressor, “inofthe favour cameout who Soviet Involvement in the Middle East: Policy Formulation, Formulation, Policy East: Middle the in Involvement Soviet o Ire ad h wtdaa o is forces. its of withdrawal the and Israel of n eed to protect children of Jewish origin against the possible antisemitic possible the against origin Jewish of children protect to eed h at iewr pltcly good “politically were line Party the 300 116

- - -

40 40 30 Michael Checinski, Checinski, Michael

118 - - - - Zionist Campaign in Poland’, 224. Poland’, in Zionist Campaign 4 (Hungary), box no. 3, item no. 1371/67. „In item 1371/67. no. 3, no. box (Hungary), 4 3 Unit. Czechoslovak Europe, Free Radio microfilm102. no. 4,

(Hungary) As opposed to Gomułka’s vituperative speech about the ‘fifth the about speech vituperative Gomułka’s to opposed As

, box. no. 9. Report no. no. IV Report 9. no. box. ,

- Israeli position of the socialist bloc. Some schools Some bloc. socialist the of position Israeli Poland. Communism, Nationali Communism, Poland. 168 - Semitic policy.” Semitic

- 117 willing, but uninformed people people uninformed but willing, - 12.515, August, 1967. 12.515,

At the same time, the regime the time, same the At 115 structions for teachers during teachers for structions

n oad svrl anti several Poland, In 1966 sm, Anti sm, - 1973 - Semitism. (Boulder, CO: (Boulder,

RFE Special, Special, RFE 114

(New (New

Three - CEU eTD Collection 122 in: strengthen] should forces progressive ofall unity and solidarity szolida erő mindenhaladó hogyerősödjön legfontosabb, a ‘Most az the interview: of Transcript interview. televised a on Komócsin Zoltán said 121 in: antisemitism] Zionismand are nationalism ofbourgeois brothers 120 t friendlybecame now subjects. own Komócsin its of reactions the of fear regime’s Kádár the but Moscow d policy foreign conformist the not was It affairs. internal in Moscow from dissent to opportunity the of exploitation the policies, foreign and domestic between relationship the to regards prev the was actions domestic subdued more for rationale The dissent. potential of degree the limited crisis the about public general the reached information what control strictly to measures disse of volume the keep to only support, its demonstrate openly to public the expect not did and extent necessary absolute the to Moscow to conforming only was regime Hungarian the gen the for consequences little with issue, policy foreign a as handled was crisis East Middle the an threat imminent thecountry. in speech, high from column’ coming suggestions ‘fifth Gomułka’s after dimension” Jewish basis. class not were East Middle the of problems the that emphasized always events the on commenting leaders Political propaganda.” imperialist conscious and waves emotional of… influence the under

Dariusz Stola, ‘Anti DariuszStola, goals” who imperialist is against but about race, or ofreligion questions about not talking “we are twin [The cionizmus’ és a antiszemitizmus az ikertestvérei nacionalizmus ’A burzsoá DánielCsatári, Corresponding to the highest leadership’s intentions as expressed in the Politburo, the in expressed as intentions leadership’s highest the to Corresponding summarized eral public. This suggested to those who did harbour dissenting views that that views dissenting harbour did who those to suggested This public. eral 121

hl i Pln te anti the Poland in While ecision that paved the way for domestic consequences different from from different consequences domestic for way the paved that ecision - Zionism as a Multipurpose Policy Instrument’, 185. PolicyInstrument’, Multipurpose as a Zionism tn oiin lw A te ae ie te edrhps political leadership’s the time, same the At low. opinions nting ention of public unrest and not, as it is generally suggested with with suggested generally is it as not, and unrest public of ention

o Jews and hoped that Israel’s victory would result in the defeat the in result would victoryIsrael’s that hoped and Jews o this fear this questions of religion or race, but should be approached on a a on approached be should but race, or religion of questions

- ranking Hungar ranking , stating ,

ritása és egysége’ [Now the most important thing is that the the is that thing most important [Nowthe és egysége’ ritása

“[I]nimical elements, nationalists, antisemites nationalists, elements, “[I]nimical - 169 ins cmag to o “ lcl Polish local “a on took campaign Zionist

ian politicians that Zionism was such such was Zionism that politicians ian Népszabadság Pártélet

, September September , 122 , June 15, 1967. June15, ,

hr wr no were there 1967, 67. 1967, Zoltán

120 –

CEU eTD Collection 234 Union. the Soviet and Israel between relations 125 speech. Komócsin’s 124 speech. Komócsin’s 123 countries socialist other explicitly Secretary General Soviet The relations. diplomatic in not did signedthere declarationhowever, the step the announced USSR the day the on Moscow in ended had countries Communist pressure, though Arab countries.” with “relations of because inevitable became split the HSWP, the of circles bu measure the about hesitated that leadership Polish and Hungarian the was It countries. bloc break Israel represent to Budapest in Switzerland of by corps diplomatic the followed entrust to arrangements was step diplomatic The decision. similar Moscow’s after days two 5.3.1. 5.3. aboutanti anxious of

See the full text of the statement in: Avigdor Da Avigdor in: statement the ofthe fullSee text MOLM MOLM the Soviet Union and our system. our and Union Soviet the - This is probable for several reasons. The meeting of the leaders of European European of leaders the of meeting The reasons. several for probable is This break the announced Hungary 236. - The Sweden. by Israel in represented was Hungary while Hungary, in interests i theConsequences Six of off of diplomatic relations was preceded by talks and coordination among the among coordination and talks by preceded was relations diplomatic of off

Relations with Relations with - - KS, 288/5/427. Minutes of the meeting of the Hungarian Politburo, June 13, 1967. Zoltán 1967. June13, Politburo, the Hungarian meeting of theMinutes of 288/5/427. KS, 288.4/88. KS, 124 t eventually, according to the official version circulated within the upper the within circulated version official the to according eventually, t

The severance of diplomatic relations was clearly prompted by Soviet by prompted clearly was relations diplomatic of severance The

it seems there was no explicit order there seems explicit fromit was Moscow. no - Soviet reactions 125

Minutes of the meeting of the Central Committee, June 23, 1967. Zoltán 1967. 23, June Committee, Central ofthe Minutesmeeting ofthe

Israel hr ws o icsin bu i drn te etn either. meeting the during it about discussion no was There at the Moscow meeting meeting Moscow the at

- Day War in foreign relationsDay War foreign in - . off of diplomatic relations with Israel on 12 June, 12 on Israel with relations diplomatic of off

” 123

(London, New York, Toronto: Abelard Toronto: New(London, York,

told Just like in 1956, the Kádár regime was most was regime Kádár the 1956, in like Just 170 gan, gan,

the Central Committee of the CPSU that CPSU the of Committee Central the Moscow and Jerusalem. Twenty years of of years Twenty Jerusalem. and Moscow clude any reference to the severanceofthe clude to anyreference w ere not asked to severe diplomatic severe to asked not ere

- Schuman, 1970), 1970), Schuman, ;

CEU eTD Collection speech. Komcócsin’s 128 University European Central the at Studies whomwith and when nor relations, off diplomatic whobreak should of discussion, separate ofa theframework 127 (eds.), Morozov Ro’i and 1967 20, June Plenum, Committee Central CPSU the Brezhnevto byLeonid East’, report Middle diploma 126 the resultsRákosileadership’s ofthe for of was looking was inlight what not Moscow which wing dogmatist more a to belonged and enough strong not were rivals possible Hungarian the in Kádár to alternative an have not did Moscow Moreover, conflict.East Middle the to relation in UN the in battle diplomatic a losing already was it and too cautious more leadership Soviet the made 1956 affairs. a into intervening for criticism international prompted surely have would and situation international tense already the amidst move risky too way a been have would this as Kádár removed or force used have would Moscow the for possible relat been diplomatic break to have not leadership Hungarian would it theoretically, and isolation in problem the consider weIf so? do not it did yes,why if And Israel? to regards with did Romanians foll to leadership Kádárist the for possible been have it would arises: thus question The suit. follow not country, did which one Romania, was there because and Hungary to countries these of unimportance refers which explanation official off of relations].” diplomatic break the [i.e. this to regards with difficulties have could us and Poles the maybe that the take and suit follow to “said:relieved they and was leader step,diplomatic theSoviet decision Hungarian the about Brezhnev informed ties.

MOL,M within or conference mention,joint the at no was there that isimportant it because mentionthis “I sever to countries socialist other not ask wethe did meeting Moscow “at the that Brezhnevsaid Hungary did not step out of the line and fulfilled Moscow’s expectations. The The expectations. Moscow’s fulfilled and line the of out step not did Hungary 126

tic relations with Israel.” ‘The Soviet Union’s Policy Regarding Israel’s Aggression in the Aggression Israel’s Regarding Policy SovietUnion’s ‘The withIsrael.” relations tic János Kádár told the same to the Hungarian Politburo. Hungarian the to same the told Kádár János – - KS 288.5/427. Minutes of the meeting of the Hungarian Politburo, 13 June 1967. Zoltán June1967. 13 Politburo, the Hungarian meeting of theMinutes of KS 288.5/427.

all were to decide that themsel decide wereto all

The Soviet Union and the June 1967 Six Day Six 1967 June the and TheUnion Soviet 128

to Arab pressure is unconvincing given the relative the given unconvincing is pressure Arab to , 272. , ves.” János Kádár said. Kovács and Andor (eds.) Andor(eds.) and Kovács said. Kádár ves.”János

171

w n needn plc ln lk the like line policy independent an ow ions with Israel. It is unlikely that that unlikely is It Israel. with ions oeeg cutys internal country’s sovereign

at a ti tm, o the for time, this at Party War 127 did have the impression the did have , 321. ,

Finally, when Kádár when Finally,

Jewish in: - CEU eTD Collection 130 1956 question the and nationality 129 discriminatory receiving were minorities Hungarian when Romania on call to policies “tactical suggested also Orbán László future. the in time single every policies erroneous their with Romanians the confront leadership Hungarian the that suggested He out. burst Erdélyi Károly Affairs Foreign of Minister Deputy narrow,own their they alwaysprioritize questions concrete in solidarity, socialist common big, “Shunning policies. minority Romanian towards critical a openly tourgeposition more Hungarian line and cautious rethink thehitherto l “individualist” “nationalist”, another incorrect yet this as of show, example Committee Central the of session 23 June the of speeches break not to decision Romanian The about politicians Hungarian of thinking the in shift a signallingHungarian disagreement Romanianpolicies. with t ‘preserve to Romanians the with conflict open avoid to trying was Kádár However, minority.Hungarian the of Leninistpath” The leaders years. Hungarian for administration Kádár the to headache of lot a caused had territory Israel’sthe pressure Arab oreven countries “aggression”. of i Hungarians of situation the with do to more had Israel with relations diplomatic of severance Hungary’s suit. follow to Hungary for chance a been have would there Israel, with relations keep to decided had Romania than East other country any if fact, In 1953. and 1948 between policies

MOLM Földes, György The Middle East crisis and deviant Romanian foreign policies relating to it caused it to relating policies foreign Romanian deviant and crisis East Middle The its on living minority Hungarian the against policies discriminatory Romania’s - KS 288.4/88. Minutes of the meeting of the Central Committee, June 23, 1967. 23, June Committee, Central ofthe meeting Minutes ofthe KS 288.4/88. 129 Magyarország, Magyarország,

and this led to the unfavourable developments from the point of viewof point the from unfavourable the developments ledto this and i camd ht h Rmnas a ls tak f h “correct the of track lost had Romanians the that claimed hip

he unity of the socialist camp’ but at the same time, subtly time, same the at but camp’ socialist the of unity he - 1989] (Budapest: Napvilág, 2007), 64. 2007), Napvilág, (Budapest: 1989] Románia és a nemzetiségi kérdés 1956 kérdés nemzetiségi és a Románia

- off relations with Israel was seen, as remarks and remarks as Israelseen, was with relations off 172

the Hungarian minority question. question. Hungarianminority the - Centr

n. t rmtd ay to many prompted It ine.

local national interests,”nationallocal

- 1989

changes” in Hungarian in changes” l uoen socialist European al . [Hungary, Romania [Hungary, . n Romania than Romania n

130

CEU eTD Collection Repo Unit, Special Polish 133 Hungarian about ForeignTrade 132 131 political Hungarian highest the NEM, the introducing before right that convinced was discontinuatio the expect representatives of remained H As due. was renewal the before months three least at sides two the of one by otherwise given a included and 31, December until valid was countries two the between agreement trade The Hungarian Ministry ofForeignfrom August contently Trade 1967 reported that the of report A trade. of area the in developments similar by followed in Romaniaalso belonged. ill of series a in element the to appear not did le IsraelParty Hungarian with relations diplomatic off break not to decision their by crisis. proven East Middle policies, the during their separatism in tendency erroneous an exhibited Romanians as viewed war be now be would affairs, domestic state’s another with interfering could it because sensitive though criticism, that felt He treatment.

OSA, HU OSA 300 OSA HU OSA, MOL,XIX Ibid imports 7.3 million Forints which correspond to the trade levels of the earlier the normal months. of levels trade the to correspond which Forints million 7.3 imports and million, 6.6 reached June in exports our Consequently, Israel]. and Hungary of consolidation partial the of result a as efforts, war immediate of ceasing afterthe break The . the situation, the mutual exchange of products was restarted [between [between restarted was products of exchange mutual the situation, the

nay i nt niae n ws fr non for wish any indicate not did ungary n fet ni te n o 1968. of end the until effect in paragraph stating that it would be renewed automatically if no note was note no if automatically renewed be would it that stating paragraph - J - 1 - - f o dpoai rltos ewe Hungary between relations diplomatic of off j, box no. 196 no. box j, Hungarian economic enterprises continued to visit Israel and did not Israel and didnot continuedHungarian tovisit economicenterprises 132 adership as something to follow but, follow to something as adership - 50

rt, December 27, 1967. 27, December rt,

- 2 (Poland), box no. 2. Records of Radio Free Europe/Liberty Research, Research, Europe/Liberty Free ofRadio Records 2. no. box (Poland), 2 - n of economic relations after the war. The Israeli diplomat Israeli The war. the after relations economic of n advised policies, to which the discrimination of Hungarians of discrimination the which to policies, advised - Israeli trade relations, August 28, 1967. 28, August relations, trade Israeli

7/49 (Izrael), document no. 00541/2/1967. Report of the of Ministry Report 00541/2/1967. no. (Izrael), document 7/49

173 131

iwd n hs otx, h Romanian the context, this in Viewed 133

ia Ben Eitan -

eea i 16, h contract the 1967, in renewal o n the contrary, as yet another yetanother as contrary, the n

- sr bevd that observed Tsur n Ire ws not was Israel and ranted because the the because ranted

CEU eTD Collection 1967. 24, 136 1969. 16, measures; January concrete for suggestions and Church the Israelite to withregards policyexperiences 135 1968 February 15, Tsur, Six Timeof the the at States European Eastern 134 “negative, WJC’s the criticise to forums with Hungarians the provide to maintained Institut Rabbinical Budapest the at studying Union Soviet the from students several were there later, decade a and Hungary in celebrations certain in part took delegations Jewish Soviet So the and Hungarians the between contacts before, years few a even as new were relations USSR example, For bloc. the of communities Jewish the with cooperation increased St United the and Austria Kingdom, United the France, in organizations Jewish some and USSR), the bloc even and the Czechoslovakia Poland, of Romania, Yugoslavia, communities (Bulgaria, Jewish the with were relations ongoing permitted few imperialism.” political international of interests the “served organization the authorities, Hungarian to according because, observers as even part take to allowed not were representatives Cong Jewish World the meetingsof part Their regime. Hungarian the by curbed severely were contacts 5.3.2. years,in earlier trade economicaffairs. in considerationsintervene” political let not leadership“would

ates. The Office of Church Affairs tried to balance the loss of Western contacts with contacts Western of loss the balance to tried Affairs Church of Office Theates. MOL,XIX MOL,XIX the and ‘Israel HistoryDivision, Oral Jewry, Contemporary of AvrahamInstitute Harman HUJI, olwn te Six the Following

it eih omnt wr non were community Jewish viet Foreign contacts of the Hungarian Jewish communityForeignHungarian contacts the of

- - A A 135 - - 21 21

- - Even visiting guests of the WJC were denied entr denied were WJC the of guests visiting Even c, box no. 88, 530 88, no. box c, 0020.1/1969. 48, no box d, e as well. Western relations on the other hand were mainly mainly were hand other the on relations Western well. as e

relations did not follow the notfollow did directionrelations ofpolicies. diplomatic - a Wr te eih omnt’ opruiis o foreign for opportunities community’s Jewish the War, Day

- 55/1. 55/1. ress was yetdiscontinued.again was ress Géza Seifert’s note w Seifert’snote Géza - Day War’ Project, Interview no. 50(3) with Eitan Ben 50(3) Interview no. Project, DayWar’ Károly Grnák’s first draft of the report on church on the report first of draft Károly Grnák’s 174 - existent.

136

u b te n o te 1960s, the of end the by But ith regards to Soviet Jewry, April Jewry, Soviet to regards ith

y to Hungary. The Hungary. to y

Hungarian JewishHungarian cpto a the at icipation 134

As - CEU eTD Collection 1968. April 22, aggression’,Israeli the 1967 after Israel to citizens ofHungarian travel Department about 139 AffairsofHungarian Foreign of Ministry the Department at 138 1969. 16, measures; January concrete for suggestions and Church the Israelite to withregards policyexperiences 137 T thus animportant sourceof information,helpeliminated. material andsupport was with community Jewish Hungarian the of relations the Trade). of Foreign of Ministry the visits of employees official were them of (half Israel in visitors Hungarian ten than less saw 1967 of half second the result, a As himself. Interior the of Minister the of approval p the with possible only was Israel to travel and issued, not were approved single every Interior, already had been which withdrawn,Israel was visas visato exit anpassport containing the of Ministry the by issued decree a of result a As Israel. them. of (78) minority a approved only but 1967 30, December and 20 June between applications visa incoming single w Affairs Foreign of Ministry the of auspices the under formed was committee A members. family or tourists, community, Jewish Hungarian the of guests official were they if matter no well, as Israel from visitors incoming of number the even saw which theJOINTestablishment with ofrelations for offoreignresources. hopes 1970s, early the by eased somewhat situation The support. which visits, his continued Culture aspirations.” reactionary he Six he

MOL, XIX MOL,XIX MO MOL,XIX Nevertheless, one genie was out of the bottle and it could not be stuffed back in. back stuffed be not could it and bottle the of out was genie one Nevertheless, Six the Following

L, XIX

- Day War prompted a certain revival of Jewish identification and interest in interest and identification Jewish of revival certain a prompted War Day - - - A J J 138 - - - 1 1 21 - -

j, box no. 1968/46 (Izrael), document no. 00 no. document (Izrael), 1968/46 no. box j, Regional theSummary 6th of 00811/1968. no. document (Izrael), 1968/46 no. box j, Even harsher restrictions were introduced in the area of exit exit of area the in introduced were restrictions harsher Even - d, box no 48, 0020.1/1969. 0020.1/1969. 48, no box d,

- - a Wr te ugra atoiis d authorities Hungarian the War, Day eus fo Ire. h nw ra loe a 14 visa 184 at looked organ new The Israel. from request 137

ak vee o te eoil onain o Jewish for Foundation Memorial the of Uveeler Mark

were allowed to ensure continued foreign financial financial foreign continued ensure to allowed were Károly Grnák’s first draft of the report on church on the report first of draft Károly Grnák’s 175

139

As a consequence of these meas these of consequence a As - Israeli relations in 1967, March 19, 1968. March 19, 1967, in relations Israeli 2177/1968. ’Note of the 9th Regional Regional of’Notethe 9th 2177/1968. Eretz

completely ceased, and ceased, completely atcly etitd the restricted rastically hich investigated every investigated hich

visas to visas ersonal ersonal ures,

CEU eTD Collection 140 the ex of degrees and ways different to connected was general of in Jews extent against retributions varying the However, regimes. the towards positions broader reflected that and Party, one than more of discontinuation the to similar consequenceswere lead not did Israel with relations diplomatic of severance the Moreover, Romania. with antagonism ongoing case) Hungarian the in least (at was but only, coercion Moscow’s necessarily not did relations diplomatic of severance the shows, example Hungarian the as Moreover, countries. Arab to aid economic and action military of of origins the on Moscow from opinions differing were there fact in unison, in acting were countries European Eastern that suggested Israel with relations of severance the and UN the in actions diplomatic surface, the on Though onto policies its of coercion Moscow’s that demonstrate deepenedresult as developments. ofthese a betwee 1980s. early the by criticisms of list long a to grew shows, Introduction the cited in group SHALOM themessage ofthe and,relations community as tothe Jewish Isra on position Party official the from dissent to reference of point first the as served War community.the of youngermembers the among mostly Jewish, things

Kovács, ‘Hungarian Jewish Politics’, 143. Politics’, Jewish ‘Hungarian Kovács, el. This topic was then followed by other questions about the Hungarian state’s state’s Hungarian the about questions other by followed then was topic This el. This chapter has argued that diplomatic battles during and after the Six the after and during battles diplomatic that argued has chapter This ploitation ofnationalismploitation Eastern ‘real in countries. European socialist’ n the loyalist official leadership of the Jewish community and younger Jews Jews younger and community Jewish the of leadership official loyalist the n

within the bloc the within

h lc of lack the

176

in that purges of Jewish cadreshappen Jewish ofthat purges in

oua spot o te pro the for support popular

rd rltos Domestic relations. trade the satellites was limited. limited. was satellites the

the crisis, the necessity the crisis, the

h rsl o an of result the 140

The Six The - stem from from stem -

Arab line line Arab Day War War Day

The rift The ed in ed - Day CEU eTD Collection CA: Stanford, Press; Center Wilson (eds.), Morozov 2 http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/113622 at: Available AAN,A/13, Warsaw; XI Archive,KCPZPR, Policy ProgramDigital Public Historyand 1 from sacrifices burdensome East. Middle the to advisors as personnel military sending and shipments arms further with it providing by feet its on on statement a issued already had (CPSU) Union Soviet the of Party Communist the the fact, of (CC) In Committee 1967. Central July in leaders bloc of meeting Budapest the at said Brezhnev Arab regimesandthem fight toenable to wars. their own Six the of militarydebacle August. in countries Pact in Warsaw five attempt of invasion reform the by a ended was and which spring, Czechoslovakia the in Poland in protests student of form the in moveme protest and France in unrest civil massive Biafran blockade, Nigerian publicized the widely following famine a States, United the in protests rights civil and rallies

‘Polish Record of Meeting of Soviet of ofMeeting ‘PolishRecord Jordan Baev, ’Eastern Europe and the Six Day War: The Case of Bulgaria’ in: Yaacov Ro’i and Boris Ro’iBoris and Yaacov in: ofBulgaria’ Case The Daythe War: and Six ’Eastern Europe Baev, Jordan fightand war conduct ontheir own themselves, USSR the get they that to so everything do to have not We war. new a but in involved countries, those of regimes progressive the directed against imperialism, from blows new prevent to capacity their strength, their th maximallyassist to is line general Our The year 1968 “rocked the world”. It brought student riots, strengthening anti strengthening riots, student brought It world”. the “rocked 1968 year The In the Sov the In

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- Day War. Military aid was important to save “progressive” save to important was aid DayMilitary War.

h Sve pplto. o ae hs mr palatable, more these make To population. Soviet the

21 June claiming that the UAR army should be put back back put be should army UAR the thatclaiming June 21 Stanford University Press, 2008), 184. 2008), Press, University Stanford - 2 bloc leaders (and Tito) inTito) Bu (and leaders bloc

The decision of the Soviet leadership required rather required leadership Soviet the of decision The 177 e progressive Arab states, contribute to contribute states, Arab progressive e

[Retrieved: August 21, 2013.] 21, August [Retrieved: 1

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- war CEU eTD Collection Czechoslovakia. of theinvasion 6 5 4 Unive Indiana IN: (Bloomington, (eds,), Goldmann I. Marchall and Glants Musya Zvi Gitelman, 3 popular of mobilization the antisemitism? to comes it the when is differences What these Germany? of East and significance Poland USSR, the notably 1968, in it applied anti of usage the in neither ofdifferences exodus, thoseoccurredJewish were inHungary.Why theresuch anti experienced bloc intellectuals few a compelled only Czechoslovakia of invasion the and unnoticed almost passed events Polish the some, for excitement caused have might economy, planned of overhaul major a for attempt the of introduction the Though Hungary. early 1960s. the since forming been had which movement, Jewish underground an of existence the absentia. in Israel of citizen a himself declared and citizenship Soviet his renounced openly Kazakhov, Yasha Jew, young a were which emigrate, to right East crisis being articles, numerous with 1968, swingin full in was campaign The world. the a Israel, of State the of existence the by threatened gravely was country the that people its to suggested government Soviet Zionism. international of threat the again yet evoked propaganda Moscow’s

Yaacov Ro’i, ‘Religion, Israel and the Development of Soviet Jewry’s National Consciousness’ in: in: Consciousness’ Jewry’sNational Soviet of the Development and Israel ‘Religion, Ro’i, Yaacov Five Hungarian philosophers signed the so the signed philosophers FiveHungarian Ibid. Shroeter, Leonard oprd o hs truet vns te er a rltvl ueetu in uneventful relatively was year the events, turbulent these to Compared

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to protest. And while And protest. to - called Korčula Manifesto ( Manifesto Korčula called

- state that was supported by all the Jews around around Jews the all by supported was that state 4 “Zionist”) propaganda campaigns and massive and campaigns propaganda “Zionist”)

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Shortly after the initial January protest two students, Adam Michnik and Henryk and Michnik Adam students, two protest January initial the after Shortly of performance the banned authorities Polish 1968, early In of goals and origins the enumerates chapter this of part first The

tails see: Jaff Schatz, tailssee: Jaff Schatz, The Polish August. The Self Limiting Revolution. Limiting Self The August. Polish The - ee e ad etn y h Wres Mlta Truhu the Throughout Militia. Workers’ the by beaten and met were ins cmags n aiu cutis f h bo unfolded, bloc the of countries various in campaigns Zionist -

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1991), 294 1991), nd Szlajfer (as well as a number a as well (as Szlajfer nd wre suet aant the against students warned t

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n dmne “n n to end “an demanded and - Russian sentiment. After sentiment. Russian - 295. Dziady, Dziady,

Viking Press, 1982), 1982), Press, Viking

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CEU eTD Collection Survey. Nemzet Magyar 11 1967 Poland, 10 229. 1982), Publishing, 9 which 1957 in starting period difficult a close by preceded of been had expression however, relations, This 1968. 16, May on Assistance Mutual and Cooperation had countries two the Moreover, avoid. to tried generally state Hungarian the that something country, sovereign a of affairs domestic the into interference meant have would it on Commenting issue. domestic handli the and campaign the that been have might comment to reluctance the of reason One Poland. in campaign si PUWP. the by eliminated successfully been had it that noted reassuringly but imperialists, Western of politics” “divisive the of device excesses. antisemitic anti strong campaign’s the to references 6.1.1. Hungarian propaganda’s silencePolish on anti country. anti of wave large by accompanied activities.” their of weary when spas Western in relax wo and cars private with dressed, Exquisitely cares.

Michael Checinski, Michael Checinski,

gnalled toremain, thattheissuewas public, forone offoreign the policy. Imre Vámos, ‘A fellazítási kísérlet és a lengyel tavasz” [Divisive attempt and the Polish Spring ] in: Springin: ] Polish the and attempt [Divisive tavasz” lengyel és a kísérlet ‘A fellazítási ImreVámos, ‘Anti DariuszStola, oee, ugra pes oty vie cmetn o te anti the on commenting avoided mostly press Hungarian However, omitted dutifully it Poland, in turmoil the on reported media Hungarian Though

- 1968’ in 1968’ - , July 28, 1968. OSA, HU OSA 300 OSA, OSA HU 1968. July , 28, Zionist rallies. Zionist Poland. Communism, Nationalism, Anti Nationalism, Communism, Poland. - : Zionism as a Multipurpose Policy Instrument: the Anti the PolicyInstrument: Multipurpose as a Zionism

The Journal of Israeli History Israeli of Journal The

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Schatz, 1956 ofthe leaderships Polish and Hungarian ofthe evaluations opposing fifties, the Inthe late One of the goals of the anti the of goals the of One - The Generation, Generation, The 1960s.

According to Dariusz Stola, “[a]t least since the autumn of 1967, when a a when 1967, of autumn the since least “[a]t Stola, Dariusz to According - 1968)] in: 1968)] 13 The public reaction to the anti the to reaction public The - 1968)’ [The dif [The 1968)’ st Germany which refused to ratify Poland’s Western borders, the Hungarian the Hungarian borders, Western Poland’s ratify to refused which st Germany

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282 industry) were causing substantial public unease in Poland by Poland in unease public substantial causing were industry) - 312; Stola, ‘Anti Stola, 312; ntly, also signalled a more general opposition to communist to opposition general more a signalled also ntly, - imposed Kádár. As already detailed in Chapter 2, Kádár and his and Kádár 2, in Chapter detailed As already Kádár. imposed , 2011/3, 136 2011/3, ,

ficult decade of a friendship: the tensile tests ofPolish tests thefriendship: tensile ofa ficult decade ustrial protests followed a rise in food prices, the party party the prices, food in rise a followed protests ustrial - Zionist campaign in Poland was to prevent the youth the prevent to was Poland in campaign Zionist Polish society which took part in the unrest in 1956. 1956. in unrest inthe part took which society Polish - Zionism was used to reinforce the increasingly the reinforce to used was Zionism a - - 163. particularly sensit particularly Zionism as a Multipurpose Policy Instrument’, 193. Instrument’, Policy Multipurpose a Zionism as 181

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CEU eTD Collection workethe and structure 17 December,2012.) 28 on 16 Research Peace 15 14 a be it (whether commodities Modern movement. opposition workers’ substantial workers the depoliticizing in succeeded Kádár 19 by Hungary in formed been already had economy second the broadly, More place. in remained regime the if even Hungarians, all to life of quality better a promised another. to café one from differed coffee espresso of t Year, New the of day first the on already that discovering upon felt she thrill Janu On Zionist campa Six the after Israel towards policies communist battle ideological Anti unrest. public bre pacify to means ideological increasing to reverted public’s it progress, the economic for demands manage successfully not did regime Polish the 1960s. Because the during Europe Eastern embourgeois throughout the prevailed that to trend socioeconomic adapt to attempts failed regime’s announcementa goods. raise drastic consumer of inthe pricesof indee strikes workers’ industrial justified: were worries their that clear is it hindsight, of benefit the With unrest.” popular of eruption possible the about concerned seriously been had leaders

Erzsébet Szalai, ’Tulajdonviszonyok, társadalomszerkezet és munkásság’ [Property relations, social social relations, munkásság’[Property és társadalomszerkezet ’Tulajdonviszonyok, Szalai, Erzsébet In: ’1968’. Heller, Ágnes in Post Crises Political through ‘Adaptation Lamentowicz, Wojciech ‘Anti Stola, 8 Ezée Saa hs hw ta wa se al te wlae ittrhp of dictatorship’ ‘welfare the calls she what that shown has Szalai Erzsébet 68. The public mood in Hungary at this time was quite different quite was time this at Hungary in mood public The anti Polish The ary 1, 1968 the 1968 1, ary - Zionism as a Multipu a as Zionism , Vol.19, No.2. (1982) Special Issue: Poles on Poland, 117 onIssue: Poland, Poles Special No.2. (1982) Vol.19, , ign as well ign ad t ue a isie b te ulcs eaie ecin to reaction negative public’s the by inspired was use its and , rs’] in: in: rs’]

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NEM was introduced. Philosopher Ágnes Heller recalled the the recalled Heller Ágnes Philosopher introduced. was NEM .

Kritika

rpose Policy Instrument’, 193. PolicyInstrument’, rpose , Vol. 33, No. 9 (2004), 2 9 (2004), No. 33, Vol. , . Available at: Available . 182

17 http://beszelo.c3.hu/97/11/13.htm - Day War and Moscow’s recent anti recent Moscow’s and War Day

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CEU eTD Collection 88 1972), Kiadó, Akadémiai (Budapest: organization] the and economic 18 not was Kádár that suggests policies Polish on silence general regime’s Hungarian nev it campaign, Zionist ofthe stability policies was the toensure regime. of goal ultimate the cases, Polish and Hungarian the both In stability. social undermined) bolstered had policies economic state’s Hungarian the Poland, in unlike because state, the to stability restore to need no was There Hungary. in unnecessary domestic strategic Poland’s standards. the of non workers because both increased state Party the of stability the while accumulation, of possibility the offered were former the state: the and workers the both for benefits albeit mutual, offered situation This workplace. official the outside work extra of cost the at goods consumer more them offered state their but counterparts, awaited themat their own workerscalledtheir toaccomplishregular jobstobeable at in sick themany tasksthat industrial season, agricultural the of peak the during that showed research economic aspi who those of energy and moonlighting for economy the absorbed consumption) personal as well (as sale for land of plots small cultivating second the of opportunities The sacrifice. and Suc enormous time. of amount an captured luxuries such attain to required work the and politics from workers industrial urban of attention the diverted 1960s, the of beginning the since es realvehicle,

Lajos Héthy and Csaba Makó, Makó, Csaba Héthy Lajos and huh ugra poaad ws eod f h ecse o te oih anti Polish the of excesses the of devoid was propaganda Hungarian Though Polish their than political less outset, the from not, were workers Hungarian - involvement in politics, and their increased satisfaction with satisfaction increased their and politics, in involvement tate or household appliances), which had become increasingly available becomeincreasinglyhad appliances), which household or tate h acquisitions required a relatively high amount of personal effort personal of amount high relativelya required acquisitions h

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PTI evaluations in certain areas about the present situation in Poland. We, for for simply is We, it incorrect theparent punish to the and child. for of deed thewrong Poland. Zionism of in mentioning much too situation is there present that think the instance, about areas certain in difference evaluations are there of elimination complicated and a the is question this call that know they I revisionism. which of remnants Poland the or in revisionism something future near the in n15,Krsce cnwegdtepsiiiyo ifrn ntoa pts to paths national different of possibility the acknowledged Khrushchev 1954, In anti of lack the However,

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- Zionism

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idea idea - CEU eTD Collection 27 26 25 24 23 3. 2009), ProQuest, 22 Romania 21 2007). East(ern) in Germany Patriotism and Youth Children. AnnaSaunders, 2006); Press, University State Pennsylvania PA: (UniversityPark, Rodden, John are: nationalism 20 faction. Puławska reformist the joined 1956, a greatold number of period, Stalinist the of de the since Polish semi broader from through society mobilized threat simultaneously looming they a and of “Zionists”, Party and the “revisionists” within atmosphere an create to managed informatio controlling By Partyapparatus.and state the in remaining Jews with showdown afor green light a as interpreted was 1967 June of speech column’ ‘fifth Gomułka’s control. their under Poland’ in problems Muscovites nationalistic.” “anti and deeply were authoritarian who members Party of group informal an ‘Partisans’, and sought defineitselfby to contrast theJews. to identity. hi national of reconstruction the with paired Germandom. of symbols universal

Schatz, ‘Anti Stola, 289 Ibid, Ibid. Schatz, AnatPlocker, Verdery, Catherine withterms to coming at attempts German East that examines the literature of fewAexamples h ms atclt rpeettvs f hs oiin ihn h PW were PUWP the within position this of representatives articulate most The

(Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991). Press, California of(Berkeley, CA: University 21 The Generation The Generation The -

290. The Polish regime in the 1960s embarked on a “national path to socialism”, to path “national a on embarked 1960s the in regime Polish The

- - Zionism as a Multipurpose Policy Instrument, 189 PolicyInstrument, Multipurpose a as Zionism and Jewish communists, but they tended to blame Jews for all the the all for Jews blame to tended they but communists, Jewish and Stalinization campaign, the term “Zionist” referred to leading politicians leading to referred “Zionist” term the campaign, Stalinization

Zionists to Dayan: The Anti The Dayan: to Zionists

National Ideology under Socia under Ideology National -

ps ad present. and past s , 277 , , institutional and info and institutional

288. gig oad te o ehln o pwr te ‘Partisans’ the power, of echelons top the towards going n 26

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278. Muscovite

20 Not only did they harbour animosity toward toward animosity harbour they did only Not -

Zionist Campaign in Poland 1967 Poland in Campaign Zionist In Romania, independent foreign policies were policies foreign independent Romania, In

Jews h Jews 24 27 185

rmal networks. rmal h Pls scrt aprts a mainly was apparatus security Polish The h ielgcl ruet ta emerged that arguments ideological The lism. Identity and Cultural Politics in Ceausescu’s Ceausescu’s in Politics Cultural and lism.Identity story and an ethnically defined Romanian defined ethnically an and story

(Manchester: Manchester University Press, Press, University Manchester (Manchester: ad, out of disillusionment or ad, outofdisillusionment calculation, 22

- 190. 25

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the CEU eTD Collection ofimperialists”. strategies subversive the against measures about the the Politburo for „Report 29 28 popular raising Rákosi of to fear opposition for outright nationalism ban not could Kádár However, the and intelligentsia the young, the among widespread most leadership’s the showed anti nationalism, of ideas that conviction already 1966 in imperialists” of strategies “subversive in and generations younger to came it when especially regime, Kádár the worried continuously phenomenon That Party. the outside exist Kádár’s interests in1968. anti an reason, that For Communism. of reform the for reference of point a as image positive Nagy’s strengthened have would Polish of spreading the Kádár’ than road national the of adherents the to nearer was errors of factor determining a as Jewishness their at pointed which leadership the Stalinist of critique A socialism. to road national a of proponents Party strongest these counter Polish his to opposed as and revolution, popular the of suppression the After while). a for group this to belong did Kádár though (even 1956 ImreNagy’s 1953and was reformistsbetween outby main attackagainst carried them and ‘Partisans’ the both benefitted Gomułka. conflict the of anti revitalization of The form the Zionism. in 1968, in again surface the to came undercurrent antisemitic struggle a as thus latter the were by ‘Partisans’) interpreted the increasingly later (and faction Natolin the and group this between

MOLM ‘Anti Stola, However, even though Imre Nagy was long gone, nationalist groups continued to continued groups nationalist gone, long was Nagy Imre though even However, pr also was leadership Stalinist Hungarian the Though - KS, 288.5/ 386. Minutes of theMinutes 386. of 288.5/ KS, 28 -

Zionism as a Multipurpose Policy Instrument’, 194. PolicyInstrument’, Multipurpose a as Zionism

- ie oiis bt loig t o rw no n organized an into grow to it allowing but policies, like - style antisemitic expressions within the HSWP because that that because HSWP the within expressions antisemitic style

meeting of the H meeting of - 186 Sovietism and indifference to socialism were socialism indifferenceto and Sovietism - ins cmag woul campaign Zionist

ungarian Politburo, February 1, 1966. 1966. 1, February Politburo, ungarian gis Jw. hs ever This Jews. against

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Éva Standeisky, ’Mélyrétegi metszet. Jobboldali fiatalok a hatvanas években’ [Deep cross [Deep években’ fiatalok hatvanas a Jobboldali metszet. ’Mélyrétegi ÉvaStandeisky, MOLM The Hungarian Politburo received a report of the Ministry of the Interior about the about Interior the of Ministry the of report a received Politburo Hungarian The - Soviet undertones of Hungarian nationalism and Polish and nationalism Hungarian of undertones Soviet - wing youth in the 1960s]. In: 1960s]. youth the wingin 31

- 30 - According to Éva Standeisky’s analy Standeisky’s Éva to According KS, 288.11/1968/2414. “Report on the execution of the Politburo resolution of February 1, 1, February resolution of ofthe Politburo the on execution “Report 288.11/1968/2414. KS, Soviet, Poland received territories after WWII from the USSR, so similar similar so USSR, the from WWII after territories received Poland Soviet,

uig til ht ocre a ru o Ctoi suet wo were who students Catholic of group a concerned that trial a During licies, while thatwaslicies, an inHungary. not option

and location of internal inimical forces”, (no date) date) (no forces”, inimical ofinternal location and -

Soviet predispositio Soviet . (Budapest: 1956 (Budapest: .

Zsuzsanna Kőrösi, Éva Standeisky, János Rainer M. (eds.) M. Rainer János ÉvaStandeisky, Kőrösi, Zsuzsanna

member stated in his confession that they had they that confession his in stated member 187 n. They fanatically cling to their extreme andextreme their fanaticallyn. They cling to - nimical activities” among Hungary’s youth Hungary’s among activities” nimical os Intézet, 2001), 87 2001), Intézet, os

sis, every single member of this group this of member single every sis, - – oit elns ee too were feelings Soviet

111. - style anti style

- oit n national and Soviet - Zionism could Zionism - section.

Évkönyv Évkönyv - Soviet Soviet of the the of CEU eTD Collection 103 34 275. 1971), Press, University 33 allies Pact Warsaw 32 its and USSR the leadership, Czechoslovak the without and East importantly but Prague, in communists movement reform Czechoslovak c under not expression organizations of freedom greater allowing regime, the of features repressive most the eliminate to sought communists minded Czechoslovakia. in end an to came era Novotný The President. as post ceremonial) largely (though public last his resign to forced also was Novotný later, months Two Czechoslovakia. repla to 5 January on elected situation. his improve to nothing did lands Slovak and Czech both economyof ailing the resultingfrom shortages food Party,and fa the by unstable 6.2. using as example inspiration thePolish oppo deprive to wanted leadership anti Hungarian the to expressions, linked strongly so communism, national of ideas Polish of spread anti character

Galia Golan, Golan, Galia Golan, Galia Ibid. - During what came to be to came what During increasingly became CPCZ the of head the at situation Novotný’s Antonín - 129.

Soviet feelings and antisemitism that the Kádár regime feared. By preventing the preventing By feared. regime Kádár the that antisemitism and feelings Soviet

The Czechoslovak reform movement of 1968 and bloc reactions Czechoslovakbloc The reform1968and movement of

with Germansupport. Reform Rule in Czechoslovakia in Rule Reform Crisis in Communism Movement: Reform Czechoslovak The

- Germany and Poland. Following several consultative meetings with meetings consultative several Following Poland. and Germany l f 97 Hs nmst twrs lvk irttd ay n the in many irritated Slovaks towards animosity His 1967. of ll

muit control. ommunist called the Prague Spring, Dubček and his fellow reform fellow his and Dubček Spring, Prague the called

ce him as First Secretary of the Communist Party of of Party Communist the of Secretary First as him ce lo for also 32

Itwas inter this exactly eae a became

for to orattraction (Cambri ocw n sm o is aelts most satellites, its of some and Moscow 188 ,

33 dge: Cambridge University Press, 1973), esp. esp. 1973), Press, CambridgeUniversity dge: ocre nt only not concerned 34 n tlrtn pltcl and political tolerating and

vnuly Aeadr učk was Dubček Alexander Eventually, h icesn mmnu o the of momentum increasing The relation between nationalism,

their activities.

(Cambridge: Cambridge Cambridge (Cambridge: sitional groups from from groups sitional for h orthodox the

- Jewish Jewish social - CEU eTD Collection N 18, in: Response’ Czechoslovak the and ofCzechoslovakia Invasion 1968 35 The means. military using on deciding before positions two the between wavering eve position, Hungarian the to nearer standing initially though Bulgarians, The stand. moderate more a displayed the East the about d opinion two However, situation. common a form to in and movement views their reform discuss blossoming to Czechoslovakia the during times several met Europe Eastern 6.2.1. reformism were eradicated. was and resign to s forced was Secretary First their the 1969, implement April fully In not goals. could reformist they but invasion, the after power in remained invaders. the with cooperate to population t of refusal the and Dubček Alexander for support demonstrated Moscow the appoint to President the of resistance the by aborted was it leadership, Czechoslovak to Though seems Czechoslovakia. plan invaded original GDR) Brezhnev’s Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, (USSR, control and by had to bestopped militaryintervention. Czechoslo in developments the that conclusion the reached ucceeded by Gustáv Husák, under whose leadership the remnants of Czechoslovak of remnants the leadership whose under Husák, Gustáv by ucceeded

Fred H. Eidlin, ‘”Capitulation”, “Resistance” and the framework of “Normali of the framework and “Resistance” ‘”Capitulation”, Eidlin, H. Fred Just like in the case of the Six the of case the in like Just 20 August of night the During o. 4 (1981), 319 (1981), o. 4

Polish and East German East Polish and concerns reform Czechoslovak about - German and Polish leaderships represented a hardrepresented a leaderships and Polish German - akd oenet te zcolvk at’ cniuu and continuous Party’s Czechoslovak the government, backed - 332. 332.

ominant positions crystallized among them early on. While While on. early them among crystallized positions ominant

ntually joined the first group. The Soviets appeared to be be to appeared Soviets The group. first the joined ntually

- Day War, the leaders of Communist countries in in countries Communist of leaders the War, Day - 1 te ris f ie asw at countries Pact Warsaw five of armies the 21,

have been the complete change of the the of change complete the been have 189

učk n sm o hs supporters his of some and Dubček

- Journal of Peace Research Peace of Journal line policy, the Hungarians line policy, the ai hd pn u of out spun had vakia - zation”: The August August The zation”: e rs ad the and press he

, Vol. Vol. , CEU eTD Collection 590. 1982), Press, University 41 76. 2000), Routledge, (New York: (eds.), Westin Charles and UlfHannerz 40 307. 2011), Press, (ed.), Tismaneanu 39 1970),198 38 1991. (eds ByrneMalcolm Mastnyand 37 64 1998), Press, Reader Documents Archives Security National A 1968. Spring 36 Aristov, Averki Warsaw to Ambassador Soviet with conversation a in 1968, April In intervention. of favour in argued and vote his cast Gomułka on, early from Therefore, terms. uncertain no the of ineffectiveness perceived and unpopularity Dubček its awaits Poland “All that claiming banner a carried students effects. domestic tendencies’ their theircountries, political control. destabilizing thus to over spill would ideas reform Czechoslovak fearedthat Ulbricht and Gomułka Both control, under attack. the on being forces” “counterrevolutionary about question no was there that insisted th opined yet not was Czechoslovakia in “counterrevolutionary”. situation the that Gomułka fuming a opposing of anti vis stands leaderships’ various

Norman Davies, NormanDavies, 1944 Poland nationalism? to internationalism ‘From JerzyTomaszewski, Vladimir in: Doctrine’ the Brezhnev and Spring, the Prague Kremlin, ‘The Kramer, Mark ErwinWeit, 14 July in Warsaw, States Past FiveWarsaw of the of Meeting ‘Transcript ‘ Stenographic Account of the Dresden Meeting, March 23, 1968’ in: 1968’ 23, March Meeting, Dresden the Account of Stenographic The Polish First Secretary was most concern most was Secretary First Polish The argued, Kádár 1968, March in pact Warsaw the of meeting Dresden the At

(Budapest and New York: Central European University Press University European New and Central York: (Budapest - 37 Zionist propaganda aft

- 209. e pk o “ocs f nentoa ipraim ta gt Czechoslovakia got that imperialism” international of “forces of spoke He t rvsoit fre gie te pe hn i Pau, atr Ulbricht Walter Prague, in hand upper the gained forces “revisionist” at Eyewitness. The Autobiography of Gomulka’s Interpreter of Gomulka’s Autobiography The Eyewitness.

- 72. and about “the machinations of the Kiesinger the of machinations “the about and

Promises of 1968: Crisis 1968: of Promises God’s Playground. A History of Poland 1795 to the Present to 1795 Poland of History A Playground. God’s

During the Warsaw meeting in July 1968, while Kádár still Kádár while 1968, July in meeting Warsaw the During Gomułka .), A Cardboard Castle? An Inside History of the Warsaw Pact, 1955 Pact, Warsaw the of History An Inside Castle? Cardboard .), A

40 er theer invasion.

à The fact that during the March demonstrations, some demonstrations, March the during that fact The - Nationalism and Internationalism in the Pos the in Internationalism and Nationalism vis the Prague Spring strongly correlated to the use the to correlated strongly Spring Prague the vis

, Illusion, Utopia Illusion, , epesd h need... the “expressed 190

ed about the Czechoslovak reformist Czechoslovak the about ed

(Budapest: Central European University University Central European (Budapest: Polish leader by public opinion in opinion public by leader Polish

(Budapest: Central European University University European Central (Budapest: 39 , 2005), 294 2005), ,

Jaromír Navrátil, Navrátil, Jaromír to

(London: André Deutsch, Deutsch, André (London:

- - tas government.” Strauss nevn immediately, intervene 96’ in: Kjell Goldmann, Goldmann, in: 96’ Kjell - 15, 1968.’ In: Vojtech In: Vojtech 1968.’ 15,

- (New York: Columbia Columbia (New York: 301. , t

” - Cold Cold Era War 41

The Prague Prague The the at hinted

- 38

CEU eTD Collection workedout. were reform economic ofthe wheredetails the Sciences 46 45 310. 2011), Press, (ed.), Tismaneanu 44 43 103 In: Navrátil, 1968.’ April 16, Czechoslovakia, in Situation the on Views Gomułka’s 42 East and Polish Soviet, by attacked been indeed had Hájek Jiří Affairs Foreign of Minister and movement. reform Czechoslovak anti that show invasion even thebloc. within isolated been easily have could GDR the continued, East tendency the If the leader. German alarmed 1968 in followed Yugoslavia and year, previous the Germany FRG.” the with relations diplomatic seek to decision Soviet a off head to events the exploit and Bonn toward policy Prague’s in change any forestall could he Czechoslovakia, oppos “by that conviction his reflected such situation of Czechoslovak informed fully kept be would negotiations” he whether and Bonn with negotiate was “He agenda. most his on the one important was question this 12, August on Vary Karlovy in Dubček with meeting a requested he When (GFR). Republic Federal German the with relations diplomatic foreig Czechoslovak are inCzechoslovakia.” beginning tobeimplemented plans counterrevolutionary when observer indifferent an be cannot one that arguing

Member of the Central Committee and the head of the economics institute at the Academy of the at institute ofthe head economics the and Committee ofthe Central Member of Committee Central the ofPresidium Member Vladimir in: Doctrine’ the Brezhnev and Spring, the Prague Kremlin, ‘The Kramer, Mark Tigrid, Pavel Władis AristovRegarding Averki Warsaw to Ambassador Soviet from Moscow ‘Cableto - h rprs vial aot h vros faenl at meig’ p meetings’ Party ‘fraternal various the about available reports The independent possible a about uneasy was hand, other the on Ulbricht, Walter 104. 44

- h fc ta Rmna salse fl dpoai rltos wi relations diplomatic full established Romania that fact The German Why Dubcek Fell WhyDubcek 43

Pvl ird eebrd ae. lrcts w nts bu the about notes own Ulbricht’s later. remembered Tigrid Pavel , Promises of 1968: Crisis, Illusion, Utopia Crisis, Illusion, 1968: of Promises

ei ee bfr te invasion. the before even media

plc ln, ot motnl te osblt t establish to possibility the importantly most line, policy n - Zionism was not part of the phraseology to attack the the attack to phraseology the of part not was Zionism

(London: Macdonald, 1969), 95. 1969), (London: Macdonald,

R fr pltcas rnie Kriegel František politicians eform interested to know if and when Prague would would Prague when and if know to interested 191 the CPCZ. the

(Budapest: Central European University University Central European (Budapest:

Yet

s h mtclu ls of list meticulous the as n te eom in reforms the ing The Prague Spring Prague The 45 Oa Šik Ota , ir o the to rior łew łew h West th 46 - - ,

CEU eTD Collection 50 49 275 1971), Inc. Company 48 13. 1968), Affairs, InstituteofJewish 47 that accusations few The Zionism. labelled been have could state Polish the against interests Jewish defend to claim intellectuals’ Czechoslovak similarly, Then, world. all Jews represent to right country’s that of denial the on communist based countries European Eastern by defined was Zionism Israel’s matters. domestic purely as issues these consider not did they suggested Jews Polish and antisemitism latter’s the because “Zionism”, their for intellectuals reformist Czechoslovak on attack major a led have could propaganda Polish stage, early this at media.” Czech of control in [were] elements Zionist and counterrevolutionary, th concern their expressed meeting Party Polish a of contributors demonstrations. student March the followed that Poland in campaign antisemitic the against protested media sensit mentioned above the concerned they because leaderships two the alarmed have must which issues Jewish certain raised intellectuals Zion accusationsrare before were theAugust invasion. intelligentsia. the of members reformist certain and media was Zionism events. the of stage this at press official the in appear Zionism did Germany mentioned. seldom were ties” “Zionist and/or origin Jewish against London in Affairs Jewish of Institute the by collected examples

Lendvai, Lendvai, Golan, Lendvai, Paul Press Reports Documents, Facts, Czechoslovakia. against Antisemitism Use of The n at i i pcla ta a ti stage, this at that peculiar is it fact, In

nevertheless used not against Dubček’s leadership but to discredit Czechoslovak discredit to but leadership Dubček’s against not used nevertheless ist propaganda campaign either i either campaign propaganda ist these men these The Czechoslovak Reform Movement Reform Czechoslovak The Anti - Semitism without Jews without Semitism Anti -

Semitism without Jews. Communist Eastern Europe Eastern Communist Jews. without Semitism were originally aimed at their reformist political activities political reformist their at aimed originally were

- 277. 49

n a 12, May On

, 2 71.

n Poland or the GDR. Czechoslovak reformist Czechoslovak GDR. the or Poland n , 315. , h Nw ok Times York New The 192

hr ws o ay oe infcn anti significant more any not was there

ive policy areas. Czechoslovak Czechoslovak areas. policy ive 47

(New York: Doubleday and and (NewDoubleday York: 48 Only in Poland and East and Poland in Only

oee, vn these even However, eotd ht various that reported ocr fr Polish for concern t te revisionist, “the at shows . (Lon . te attacks the , don: don: , but , over the the over 50

Even their -

CEU eTD Collection 53 52 215. 1972), Hill, (New McGraw York: Theiner) 51 East.” Middle the of question the on view “erroneous his express to decision Kohout’s of disapproved Hendrych Secretary were Israel public.” in view that make to right the have and…must matter, the of view private own his situation the about distortions any without informed truthfully be “to countrywhole the of wish sides.” both on forces progressive the one Party’s have reformists.andZionist fellow earned forhis Dubček the label 19 the during policies Israel’s of critical being not Germany, East the in applied consistently been Zionism of of notion the Had policies. Novotný’s of critique case representative a and line, Czechoslovak new possible this of element Czechoslovak of normalization The Germany. with Westrelations diplomatic establishmentof the and foreign Czechoslovak policies independent of emergence the for concerns their on based well, as invasion the before origins time. atthis Jewish their for intellectuals and politicians Czechoslovak attack not did propaganda Polish policies. Warsaw’s about opinions critical expressing intellectuals’ reformist Czech to resistance regime’s Polish the represented media Polish in appear did

Navrátil, Kohout, Kohout, Pavel During the 4 the During substantia a for case the made have could Germany East ide at t b efcie n bsd n rnil, uh t spot the support to ought principle, on based and effective be to East, Middle 52

From the Diary the From of the Middle East. A citizen, however loyal he may be in principle, can have have can inprinciple, be he however may citizen, loyal A East. of theMiddle

The Prague Spring Prague The He referred to the fact that Arab pronouncements about the liquidation of liquidation the about pronouncements Arab that fact the to referred He - not aired in Czechoslovakia. In his irritated answer at the meeting, Party meeting, the at answer irritated his In Czechoslovakia. in aired not sided Middle East policy, asserting that “a socialist country’s policy on on policy country’s socialist “a that asserting policy, East Middle sided From the Diary of a Counter a of Diary the From th

Czechoslovak Writers’ Congress in June, 1967 some criticised the criticised some 1967 June, in Congress Writers’ Czechoslovak

, 219. , , , 11.

53 The writer Pavel Kohout expressed that it was the was it that expressed Kohout Pavel writer The

- But the genie was out of the bottle, and even an even and bottle, the of out was genie the But revolutionary

193

- Israeli relations Israeli

(translated from Czech by George George by fromCzech (translated anti l

became an important an became

- 7 ofit could conflict 67 campaign Zionist oslovak CEU eTD Collection One 56 55 57. 1972), 54 were or Dubček, by out carried preferably solution, political a favoured others intervention, military advocated some While question. Czechoslovak the with deal to how on unified not were meetings body political the the of members that of testify Politburo minutes The 1968. July until up least at Dubček of lack the in on up give to foundready not was leadership Soviet The be action. such for support Moscow’s can invasion the before Poland in or GDR the in either condemning State Jewish orafter for actions the its conflict. during the without but found be should neighbours its and Israel between conflict the to solution Six the referencing by line policy foreign Czechoslovak independent more a at hinted 1968, April in published Party, Communist Programme the Action Eastreformfor of Middle process.The conflictthe Czechoslovak citizenship from and the Party expulsion hispro for his of deprivation the himself earned but Jewish, not was member, Party loyal a been Mi the towards policies Prague’s the with interview an in and August in Israel to travelled Mňačko Ladislav writer popular the leadership, Novotný it in state our of policies anti against “appealed had the congress that writers’ claimed intellectuals, Czechoslovak 300 than more by signed Congress, Hendr angry

A. H. Brown, ‘Political Change in Czechoslovakia’ in: Leonard Shapiro (ed.), (ed.), Shapiro Leonard in: Czechoslovakia’ in Change ‘Political A.Brown, H. Golan, Mastny (ed.), Vojtech - The most plausible explanation for the lack of a subs a of lack the for explanation plausible most The Dubček the ousting, Novotný’s After Party States Party The Czechoslovak Reform Movement Reform Czechoslovak The

ych could not stuff it back. The Writers’ Manifesto issued after the the after issued Manifesto Writers’ The back. it stuff not could ych

(London: Macmillan, 1972), 1972), (London: Macmillan, East European Dissent, Vol Dissent, European East

rltosi t Israel.” to relationship s

rnftr lgmie Zeitung, Allgemeine Frankfuter ddle Eastern country. Eastern ddle - Day War. Th War. Day , 245 , 117.

194 leadership recognized the importance of the of importance the recognized leadership

- 246. . 1965 . 2.

- Semitism and racism in the official official the in racism and Semitism e program pointed out that a political a that out pointed program e - 54 1970 1970

o ae atr wre o the for worse matters make To 55

(New York: Facts on File Inc, Inc, File (NewFacts on York: Mňačko, who had previously had who Mňačko, tantial anti tantial

e pny criticized openly he - Israeli sentiments. Political Opposition in in Political Opposition - Zionist campaign Zionist 56

of the Soviet Soviet the of

wavering wavering

CEU eTD Collection C Slánský lifea received Hájek Bedrich But in 1945. back fromKarpeles name his changed 60 59 50. 1991), Press, University Hopkins Johns London: The 58 57 it when Presidium Party Czechoslovak the from objection official an provoked his change name. he did nor origin, Jewish of Foreign he Czechoslovak was neither the resigned, had yet not only Minister not fact, In Hájek. to Karpeles from name “ the anti use 1968 4, September On politicians. reformist to started GDR the and Poland USSR, 6.2.2. invasion. countries bloc the of any in possible anti full a 1968, of summer late the until up policies toleranceDubček’sfor Soviet of Zionism notfeature did inthe press reports. elements” immature politically and revisionist “nationalist, condemned Czechoslovakia” in forces counterrevolutionary actually and wing “right the atte call did press Soviet the in Publications point. this at accusations Zionist anti using not media Soviet behind influence likely most the was issue Czechoslovak stands. two the between zechoslovak Party or leadership. or Party zechoslovak Apparently, Apparently, 100. Ibid, Valenta, Jiri Spring’,319. the Prague Kremlin, ‘The Kramer, Shortly after the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, the propaganda of the of propaganda the Czechoslovakia, of invasion Pact Warsaw the after Shortly media Soviet of reluctance this Given -

Zionist campaign to discredit the Czechoslovak reformist leadership was not yet not was leadership reformist Czechoslovak the discredit to campaign Zionist former

60 - trials and, almost blinded in prison, was not holding any significant position in the the in position any wassignificant not holding in prison, almost blinded and, trials Anti

Zpravy

- Izvestia Soviet Intervention in Czechoslovakia, 1968. Anatomy of aDecision. of Anatomy 1968. Czechoslovakia, in Intervention Soviet Cz Zionism the after invasion , the paper distrib paperthe , echoslovak Foreign Minister” was of Jewish origin and changed his his changed and origin Jewish of was Minister” Foreign echoslovak

confused Jiř confused

h lc o uiy ihn h Sve laesi aot the about leadership Soviet the within unity of lack The

í Hájek with Bedrich Hájek, a pre a withHájek, í Hájek Bedrich

uted by the occupying forces and printed in the GDR,the in printed and forcesoccupying bythe uted . This situation changed drastically after the the after drastically changed situation This .

195

to use anti use to

Izvestia Izvestia

- attacked Jiří Hájek, claiming that claiming Hájek, Jiří attacked - Zionist propaganda, and in view in and propaganda, Zionist Zionism against Czechoslovak Czechoslovak against Zionism - war activist who indeed had had warwhoindeed activist - sentence during the sentence

(Baltimore and and (Baltimore 59

however, ntion to ntion 58 - scale

and - CEU eTD Collection 66 65 64 63 62 61 Radio Berlin East The Kohout. Pavel and Proházka Jan Sviták, Ivan Goldstuecker, Arno name: by listed then country.” our against attacks with events March the during out come passionately most and ardently most have Czechoslovakia in forces Zionist Pol the between connectionsthe explaining issue, 2 September its in list the to names new few a added Mnacko.” Zionists and fascists Israeli the of counter “anti alleged the Warsaw inclaiming that chimed Radio Rybacek. day, TheIvan same Jiřina and Sviták C ‘Joint’.” organisation “counter invasion, the after days two Only Czechoslo in prevailed who Zionists the back fight to necessity a as propaganda reformist Smrkovský Josef ofthe politician for “Zionist plot”. being part Party.” the of leadership the over taken have forces Zionist and Czechoslovakia, of Party Communist the over 25, August as early As qu the perhaps was 2. machine propaganda Ulbricht’s November on Kriegel against attack antisemitic openly an published

lub of Non of lub Ibid, 7. Ibid, Ibid. against Antisemitism Use of The Lendvai, WilliamKorey, Lendvai, n h US, East USSR, the In

revolutio - revolutionary underground,” there were “agents of the international Zionist Zionist international the of “agents were there underground,” revolutionary Anti Anti - - - Semitism without Jews without Semitism Jews without Semitism Party Activists founded during the period of reform, by name such as such name by reform, of period the during founded Activists Party The Soviet Cage. Anti Cage. Soviet The ish events of March and the Prague developments. “[P]recisely the the “[P]recisely developments. Prague the and March of events ish nary writers such as Goldstuecker, Kohout or the notorious supporter notorious the or Kohout Goldstuecker, as such writers nary - Soviet” campaign in Czechoslovakia was the doing of “many “many of doing the was Czechoslovakia in campaign Soviet”

Neues Deutschland Neues The newspaper mentioned several members of the KAN, the KAN, the of members several mentioned newspaper The - emn ad oad te nevnin a epand by explained was intervention the Poland, and Germany 62

t utg Lc Nvmsý Ldsa Mak, Edouard Mňačko, Ladislav Novomeský, Laco Lustig, št h nx day, next The Czechoslovakia

, 280. , 288. , - semitism in Russia semitismin Izvestia

196 , 4. ,

explained that among the members of the the of members the among that explained argued that “the workers have lost control lost have workers “the that argued elnr Zei Berliner 65

The official Party paper paper Party official The

(New York: The Viking Press, 1973), 150. 1973), Viking Press, The (NewYork: ickest to bring up Zionist charges. Zionist up bring to ickest tung 66

mlctd h popular the implicated These “Zionists” were “Zionists” These Trybuna Ludu Trybuna 63

Walter vakia.

CEU eTD Collection 69 68 67 this to regards with problem: said Biszku Béla 3, September on Politburo the of meeting in press the of excesses the from on early itself distanced leadership The reformers. Czechoslovak against accusations Zionist use reforms. Zi international an depicted propaganda when or policies, erroneous view) of point Pact’s Warsaw the (from for explanation served an aspolitician’s Jewishness orintellectual’s antisemitism, an when into turned H Zionists. labelled were groups both invasion the after scarce, were bloc the within politicians communist and intellectuals Zionism.” th theme the “reiterated 1968 10, September on invasion the about Government Soviet the by published Book” “White official The journal literary the of members staff several program, the to according Israe counter in circles imperialist the Czechoslovak with relations “the that 31 August on stated

MOLM Korey, 11. Ibid, sight which could implement a more progressive leadership. This is what we we politi what is havework toconsider,theleadership with. we thisis to have This The leadership. progressive us. more a for implement could given which sight a in one is other any not not is situation there one, present is the the is Czechoslovakia] [of situation leadership time, the same of the evaluation At The uniform. Parties. different the of the of newspapers positions the know I are. there Parties many as situation Czechoslovak are there now, ForParties. Pact] [Warsaw five the of behaviour the of coordination the about think to have will we point, some At As opposed to Soviet, Polish and East German media, the Hungarian press did not did press Hungarian the media, German East and Polish Soviet, to opposed As reformist Czechoslovak against accusations Zionist invasion, the before While The Soviet Cage Soviet The -

KS, 288.5/470. Minutes of the meeting of the Hungarian Politburo, September 3, 1968. 3, September Politburo, the Hungarian meeting of theMinutes of 288.5/470. KS, 68

, 149. ,

wvr a hs tg anti stage his at owever, 197 at KAN was led by agents of international international of agents by led was KAN at ns mvmn bhn Czechoslovak behind movement onist

l.” 67

certain countries of the bloc. At the At bloc. the of countries certain These counter These

as many interpretations of the of interpretations many as - eouinre hd close had revolutionaries 69 - revolutionaries were, revolutionaries

ins frequently Zionism Literarni Listy Literarni cal

. CEU eTD Collection 1968 71 steps. diplomatic Yugoslav and 70 the of because necessary was intervention military that emphasized leaders Party’s counterrevolution.” a become yet not had it time a at counterrevolution Hungarian the of prologue the to similar extremely Czechoslovakia [in process “this that convened those for out pointed he 1968, March in Pact Warsaw the of meeting Dresden the During control. under events the take should) (and could leadership Czechoslovak the that months for believed Kádár Buda by acknowledged Prague, in attempt reform the of beginning the from were, 1968 Czechoslovak the and 1956 Hungary’s between parallels The counterparts. German East or Polish his than grounds different on rested invasion the Kádár’ importantly, Most grounds. same the on architects its orthodox Kádár’s and NEM introduced newly the against attack an launch Partyto the within opposition allowed have would and well, as reform economic Hungarian reformists Czechoslovak branding Moreover, worst. at foolish best, at insincere look leadership Hungarian the made have would negotiation bilateral even and attitude supportive of months after “Zionist” leadership Ulb or Gomułka of that more than was positive movement reform the and Dubček towards relationship Kádár’s First, a result ofthe ac as being into came that danger counterrevolutionary the avert to people Czechoslovak brotherly the for “help provided it that namely invasion, the for explanation official Hungarian official The

‘ about thefor Politburo Affairs ofForeign ofthe Ministry Proposal Ibid. Stenographic Account of the Dresden Meeting, March 23, 1968’ in: 1968’ 23, March Meeting, Dresden the Account of Stenographic The reason for Hungarian propaganda’s distancing from anti from distancing propaganda’s Hungarian for reason The ,69.

tivities of imperialisttivities andanti

position, also printed in the press, was strictly adhering to the to adhering strictly was press, the in printed also position,

When the reform was crushed, the Hungarian the crushed, was reform the When richt. Labeling the Czechoslovak reformist reformist Czechoslovak the Labeling richt. 198

- socialist internal forces.”socialist

ins cud ae nemnd the undermined have could Zionist Navrátil, s official justification for justification official s Czechoslovak, Romanian Romanian Czechoslovak, - Zionism is manifold. manifold. is Zionism The Prague Spring Spring Prague The et However, pest. 70

is ] CEU eTD Collection Je 72 Szabadegyetem at held conflict East Middle the a about lecture a “organized during students have rabbinical fellow two to with provocation” reported political was he 1968, October In August.” in rally peace pro “posed Beer 1968 in Then, restaurants. and cafés Budapest various in youths Jewish few a regularof meetings of form the in organizing” youth “Zionist considered authorities the what Beer1967 again. in Interior the of Ministry the of radars the on appeared and 1965 in back authorities the of attention the caught had Seminary, the at student a Beer, Iván 1968. in school and Czechoslovakof in1968,followingPolish harassment the crises. started only forms various and arrests as such measures, “political” actual war, 1967 the following surv the chapter, previous the in discussed as Though, Germany. Eastand Poland USSR, the in appeared it than form different a in only Czechoslovakia, of invasion the of aftermath the past. in situation domestic parallel a for explanation ideological an out worked already had it for invasion, the justify to (Zionists) enemy new a invent to need not did leadership stren Kádár to attempted 1956, to 1968 linking explicitly By uprising. popular the for course” wing “right Nagy’s Imre blamed primarily which 1956 of evaluation Party’s the echoed “ ih wn eeet” hc hd ae cnrl f zcolvk politics. Czechoslovak of control taken had which elements” wing right nő Fock’s speech. Fock’snő MOLM eea stu Several the in accusations Zionist use did leadership Hungarian the said, being That

eillance of Jewish youth gathering considered Zionist activities increased increased activities Zionist considered gathering youth Jewish of eillance - KS, 288.5/471. Minutes of the meeting of the Hungarian Politburo, September 13, 1968. 1968. 13, September Politburo, the Hungarian meeting of theMinutes of 288.5/471. KS, et o te abncl nttt wr arse ad imse from dismissed and arrested were Institute Rabbinical the of dents ). According to a report sent to the Office of Church Affairs, the the Affairs, Church of Office the to sent report a to According ).

, along with fellow Rabbinical Seminary student István Berger,István setup with fellow Rabbinical student along Seminary , gthen the justification for his actions in both crises. The Hungarian The crises. both in actions his for justification the gthen

vocative questions with regards to the Czechoslovak events on a on events Czechoslovak the to regards with questions vocative

h Atl Jze Fe Uiest ( University Free József Attila the 199

ósf Attila József 72

This

CEU eTD Collection 75 1969. April 22, Institute, Rabbinical 74 1968. 28, October Affairs, Church the of Officeto Bárdoly 73 East crisis. Middle 1967 the to regards with importantly most policies, regime’s the with agree not did who community religious Jewish the within from individuals those eliminate n ItwasGermany. East and Poland “Zionist” using anti case, this in However,charges. to opposed ideologically not was regime communist Hungarian Rabbinical the from fired Instituteallowed and weretobeinauguratedrabbis. as not “only” were Landesmann György and Beer, Berger Iván István students, Seminary three that meant This accordingly. pressure the to att open from them save would authorities the with cooperation full same the reach conclusions. to peers his and Seifert Géza of President on Office pressure considerable the of representatives the and leadership the of leaders present of Church.” behaviour positive the [and] Church, with Israelite the “not and problems the solve to Interior giv measures,” political but administrative, the of Ministry the of bureaucrats policies.” present Israel’s lectur small a held answers, his to listening not lecturer, the off cutting in other each outbid to “tried students rabbinical

MOL,XIX MOL,XIX MOL,XIX charges of pressing The

- - -

A A A 75 hs a be ter oiin vn eoe h meig ih h Jewish the with meeting the before even position their been had This - - -

21 21 21 What the Jewish leadership concluded from the incident was that only that was incident the from concluded leadership Jewish the What - - - d, box no. 48, no number.no 48, no. box d, 0020.2/1969. 48, no box d, 0020.3/1969. 48, no. box d,

The Office of Church Affairs suggested to the responsible the to suggested Affairs Church of Office The

against the three rabbinical students demonstrate that the that demonstrate students rabbinical three the against

ot used to discredit Czechoslovak reformists, but tobut reformists, Czechoslovak discredit to used ot e, during which they openly and firmly supported supported firmly and openly they which during e, - Zionism had a different content than in the USSR, the in than content different a hadZionism Károly Grnák’s note to József Prantner, March 27, 1969. 1969. 27, March Prantner, József to note Grnák’s Károly Report on the inimical behaviour of the stude ofthe inimicalbehaviour theonReport Letter from Mrs. János Ladányi and Mrs. Tamás Tamás Mrs. Ladányi and János Letterfrom Mrs. 200 en the “good relationship between the state the between relationship “good the en

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, and discredit Czechoslovak reformist politicians. politicians. reformist Czechoslovak discredit and , 202

- Zio

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unist blocunist relation bothin h opsd h etbihet I Esen uoe wee all where Europe, Eastern In establishment. the opposed who th - acs, anti Fascism, is eadn eih issues Jewish regarding l oiia atos wre vr effectivel very worked actions, political al

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a cceptable or desirable policy elements. After the 1967 Middle East Middle 1967 the After elements. policy desirable or cceptable ence on

h bloc the Moscow to manoeuvre to the - Day War, when the lower Party echelons, and even even and echelons, Party lower the when War, Day - that Zionist campaign in the wake of the war facilitated war the of wake the campaignin Zionist ugra eooy ih uh edd foreign needed much with economy Hungarian

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n Mso dd o ma a straightforward a mean not did Moscow and a risks overlooking the overlooking risks n approach which overemphasizes the Eastern overemphasizesapproach the which n 206

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e b te SP Drn te al yas f h cmuit eie Rákosi’s regime, communist the of years early the During HSWP. the by bed - communist Hungary to be recreated during situations of intraparty rivalry intraparty of situations during recreated be to Hungary communist ult, antisemitic stereotyping not only survived within the Party Party the within survived only not stereotyping antisemitic ult, te at, seily ihn h laig ois was bodies, leading the within especially Party, the n This resulted in the repeated emergence of antisemitism antisemitism of emergence repeated the in resulted This - ranking members of the Arrow Cross movement after movement Cross Arrow the of members ranking iti a aac bten hs vros proto various these between balance a aintain 209

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Cultural Department and EducationScientific Public Department (1964 and(1957 Scientific Cultural Department Department ofParty Organizations. and Mass - - 1995. 1995 Abbreviations of Names Archives of Abbreviations of - 1994

Foreign Affairs. Relations withHungary.Foreign Affairs. Relations

Archival Fonds Consulted G 8. i n Bibliography - zah HaMedinah ), Budapest 1964, NY55 Archion Hatzio 211

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Administrative documents. Administrative - 1966).

Propaganda.

Database. Presidential documents. Declassified documents. secret General

64. ), Jerusalem ni Hamerkazi

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eerh Institute, Research

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CEU eTD Collection In:our cultural policies]. Kállai, Gyula. ‘Az értelmiségrőlés kulturális politikánkról’ the intelligentsia and [On 1971. andWinston, New York: Rinehart Holt, LyndonJohnson, B. Palestine 1970. Studies, A. Fuad Jabber, Heller, 557 ‘General in Assembly’ IV.Tájékoztatási Vol. Hivatala, 1957, Forces intheEventsBudapest: Magyar ofOctober inHungary], Népköztársaság ‘Ellenforradalmi erők amagyar októberi eseményekben crooked duck]in: of mirror thechained ’Az Eichmann Eban, Abba. (1962Presidents Dobrynin, Anatoly. 1986. Dimitrov, in: antisemitism] twinbrothers [The cionizmus’ Zionism ofbourgeoisare and nationalism Csatári, www.foia.cia.gov/sit ActRoom. Electronic Reading XXXVIII), CEASAR title: Intelligence 29. CentralInformation AgencyFreedom of IntelligenceCIA “Soviet Policy Report, Arab and the1967 253 Évkönyv ÁronIn: toGyula Tamási’s letter 17,1958. Kállai, June Medvigy,(ed.). Endre and patriotism]. socialist Budapest: Kossuth,1959. ‘A ‘Israel andthe European ofthe Eastern States attheSix Time HUJI,Institute Avraham Harman ofContemporary OralHistoryDivision, Jewry, burzsoá burzsoá - - 594. 256.

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’A burzsoá nacionalizmus ikertestvérei’Aés burzsoá a antiszemitizmus az - International Documents on Palestine 1967. Palestine on Documents International Pártélet 1986).

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New 1995. Books, York: Times Népszabadság , September 1967. Beszélő Összes

Published PrimaryPublished documents New York: Random New Random York: nt: Perspectives thePresidency of 1963

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CEU eTD Collection http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,840966,00.html Question”‘Poland: The Jewish in: Jerusalem trial] Pethő, AB (BeszélőBudapest: No.9). In: SHALOM’. of letter ‘Open In:HSWP]. the cultural operatingtheCentral theoretical to ofthe workshop next Committee elméleti m ‘A Bizottsága írókról. „népi” MSZMP Az Központi működőkulturális mellett Reader. Navrátil, Jaromír. independent Hunga Mód, April 11,1961. former[Eichmann’s intheWest panders Merly, 1989. Marosán, György. strengthen]should in: important themost [Now thing isthatthe solidarityand of unity a‘Most az hogy legfontosabb, minden haladó erősödjön erőés egysége’ szolidaritása Budapest: Kossuth, 1964. andDocuments[Resolutions oftheHungarian Workers Party Socialist 1956 A Magyar ésDokumentumai Munkáspárt Határozatai Szocialista 1956 659eae64052566cc006d4e70?OpenDocument http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/5ba47a5c6cef541b802563e000493b8c/2aacf966 Assembly A/6717. No. Document Republics Socialist Soviet totheSecretary UnitedGeneral’ Nations General ‘Letter in: opinion] ’A Közel documents 1956] ofarevolt, popular Korányi

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