Trilingual Education in Kazakhstan: What to Expect CAP Paper 218, May 2019

merchants made their homes in Zhuldyz Moldagazinova’s main research areas include the region, thereby diversifying sociolinguistics, ethnosociology, and world history. She the ethnic composition of the re- is a Leading Specialist of the Center of Social Monitoring gion. Industrial development in and Forecasting of the Shakarim State University, Semey. the cities of Ust’-Kamenogorsk and Ridder also brought Russians Zhuldyz holds an MA in History and Pedagogy (Barnaul, into the region. Russia) and a BA in History (Semey, Kazakhstan). After earning her MA, Zhuldyz began working in the sphere Today, nearly 1.4 million people live in the East Kazakhstan re- of Applied Sociology. Zhuldyz is currently pursuing her gion. This region is multiethnic, PhD in Sociology. with Kazakhs (60 percent) and Russians (36.5 percent) the larg- est ethnic groups. The Kazakh Problem Statement tion of the region. The East Ka- population lives mainly in the zakhstan region is home to a large former Semipalatinsk region and As of the end of 2015, the Ka- group of ethnic Russians, most of the Russian population in the for- 2 zakhstan Ministry of Education whom live in the cities. However, mer East Kazakhstan region. and Science had developed a the region as a whole is compar- Roadmap of Trilingual Education atively rural (40 percent of the Many urban Kazakhs in the East Development for 2015-2020 to population lives in rural areas) Kazakhstan region speak Rus- guide the transition to trilingual and most of the rural dwellers are sian, which is the dominant lan- education. The main goal of the ethnic Kazakhs. Alongside these guage in the urban landscape of project was to systematically im- dynamics, the region has also East Kazakhstan. This is due to plement trilingual education at seen migration from villages to the predominance of Russians in every level of education in the Re- cities over the course of the past the cities of Ust’-Kamenogorsk public of Kazakhstan. decade.1 and Ridder; these populations were drawn there by industrial The only existing studies consid- In the eighteenth century, Peter opportunities. er trilingualism in Kazakhstan the Great issued a decree that in general. This paper therefore mandated the construction of The city of Semey and the village aims to identify possible risks and fortresses along the upper part of Novobazhenovo (located 55 km prospects for the implementation of the Irtysh river, which led to from Semey) present a slightly of the program of trilingualism at the development of the East Ka- different picture. There, Kazakhs regional level, specifically in the zakhstan region. The area where constitute a majority, with the East Kazakhstan Region. the fortresses were constructed result that bilingual signage in could be considered the center of both Kazakh and Russian is very This research is of particular in- Eurasia. Migration and trade rap- much in evidence. The difference terest due to the ethnic composi- idly began to develop and foreign between Semey and Ust’-Kame- nogorsk or Ridder is likely due to the lack of industrial enter-

CAP Paper 218 1 prises in the former, which has ic. For instance, a bilingual Ka- not on replacing weak languages had the result of minimizing the zakh may speak only Kazakh at with strong ones, but on finding a use of the Russian language, as work, Russian and Kazakh at a balance that will allow for the co- fewer ethnic Russians have ever store, and exclusively Russian at existence of different languages. lived there. Moreover, an influx home. Another factor that influ- of migrants from Abay, Aksuat, ences language choice is the topic The language shift from a bilin- and other villages has brought of a conversation. For example, in gual state to a trilingual one is a the Kazakh language into the ur- Kazakhstan, experts mostly speak fruitful area for research. In Oc- ban environment of Semey. The in Russian when discussing tech- tober 2016, therefore, the author 2009 Kazakhstan National Pop- nical and medical topics due to conducted sociological research ulation Census revealed that 61.4 the lack of corresponding termi- in the East Kazakhstan region, in percent of the population aged 15 nology in Kazakh. the cities of Ust’-Kamenogorsk, years and older indicated having Semey, and Ridder and in the an understanding of oral Kazakh. Fishman believes that in many village of Novobajenovo. She in- However, even in Semey there cases, a language shift leads to terviewed forty individuals aged is a group of Kazakhs who have multilingualism and multicul- 18-65, including 24 Kazakhs, 12 weak command of the state lan- turalism. Kazakhstan’s state Russians, 2 Tatars, and 2 Ger- guage (Kazakh), most of whom language policy is following this mans. Among the respondents are urbanites. direction. Fishman’s studies pro- were 4 men and 36 women; by vide a good lens for studying the profession, they were universi- Migration, geography, a high pro- trajectory of the Kazakh language ty professors, school principals, portion of Russians, industrial and assessing the prospects for businessmen, teachers, doctors, development, and, most impor- its future coexistence with the students, retirees, journalists, tantly, the Russification policy Russian language. and lawyers. Respondents in- carried out by the Soviet govern- cluded ethnic Kazakhs who had ment are among the main fac- Fishman’s concept divides lan- returned to Kazakhstan from tors that have strengthened the guages into strong and weak. abroad (Oralmans). position of the Russian language During the Soviet era, Russian in Eastern Kazakhstan. These was the “strong” (dominant) lan- The views of mothers of school- factors were the reason why this guage across the USSR. In Sovi- children were of particular in- area was selected as a pilot area et-era Kazakhstan, the Russian terest, as they are inherently in- for the implementation of trilin- language practically displaced terested in the issue of trilingual gualism. the Kazakh language from the education. managerial, industrial, and cul- Methodology tural spheres. At the time, Ka- Kazakhstan’s State Lan- zakhs were embarrassed to speak guage Policy Socio-linguistic studies rely on Kazakh, and most of them did not the concept on language shifts know the language at all. As a re- For the entire history of indepen- developed by Joshua Fishman, sult, the use of Kazakh was min- dent Kazakhstan, language issues an American sociologist and lin- imized; at that time, the status have occupied an important place guist. Fishman defines a language of the language of the dominant in state policy, becoming some of shift as the stage of contact with a ethnic group could be considered the most hotly debated questions language that involves function- weak. on the national stage. al, social, and structural changes. Coercion and choice are the two In independent Kazakhstan, In Kazakhstan, knowledge and main factors that cause a lan- the title of “strong language” is command of the state language 3 guage shift. gradually being transferred to (Kazakh) are closely connected Kazakh; the Russian language with ethnic identity. This connec- According to the concept, lan- continues to lose its dominant tion is especially evident among guage choice depends on factors position in many spheres. A bal- Kazakh youth, who, even if they such as group, situation, and top- anced language policy should rely do not actually speak Kazakh, de- CAP Paper 218 2 scribe it as their native language. Numerous draft laws on language Concept, Russian “remain[ed] Sociological research conduct- development have been formu- the main source of information in ed by the “Alternativa” Center of lated in Kazakhstan. The Law many spheres of science and tech- Current Studies with the support on Languages, adopted on Sep- nology, as well as means of com- of the “Open Society” Institute of tember 22, 1989, introduced the munication.”6 Both the strategic Regional Studies in August 2008 term “state language”: the Ka- program “Kazakhstan-2030” revealed that 98.4 percent of Ka- zakh language received the sta- (adopted in 1997) and the pro- zakhs identify the Kazakh lan- tus of “state language,” while the gram on strategic development guage as their native tongue even Russian language was given the “Kazakhstan-2050” (adopted in though only 74.7 percent speak status of “language for inter-eth- 2012) pay close attention to as- fluent Kazakh: 14.4 percent speak nic communication.” Later, Ar- pects of the language policy. Kazakh but cannot write in Ka- ticle 7 of the Constitution of the zakh; 6.2 percent understand and Republic of Kazakhstan (1995) Today, knowledge of Kazakh is a speak Kazakh but cannot write in spelled out the status of the two necessary precondition for get- Kazakh; 2.9 percent understand languages: Kazakh was declared ting a job in the government. A Kazakh but cannot speak or write a state language; Russian was put presidential decree published on it; and 2 percent do not know the on equal terms with Kazakh and June 1, 2006, stated that by 2010 Kazakh language at all.4 was declared the official language all official paperwork in Kazakh- of state bodies and local authori- stan should be done in Kazakh. To this day, there are some re- ties.5 The decree ruled that state au- gions of Kazakhstan where the thorities should “carry out a step- Kazakh language is not widely The official Concept of Kazakh- by-step transition of paperwork, used. Command of the Kazakh stan Language Policy, based on statistics, financial and technical language in these regions is pre- sociolinguistics studies and ad- documentation to the state lan- sented in Figure 1. opted on November 4, 1996, guage by 2010.” contains information about the At the same time, there are re- short-term and long-term objec- However, the Soviet legacy of lin- gions where Kazakh predomi- tives of the language policy. The guistic and cultural Russification nates (chiefly in the south and the Concept’s emphasis is on the has helped keep the Russian lan- west of Kazakhstan). The ethnic development of the Kazakh lan- guage alive in Kazakhstan. The composition of the different re- guage. However, according to the gions might explain this varia- tion. Figure 1. Command of the Kazakh language (%)

Given the low level of Kazakh knowledge in some regions, it is evidently necessary to strengthen the state language. However, this should be done not by displacing Russian, but by developing an ad- equate and accessible methodolo- gy for teaching Kazakh.

In addition to these two languag- es, which are officially recognized in Kazakhstan, the current policy aims to incorporate English into the linguistic environment of Ka- zakhstan.

CAP Paper 218 3 Russian language prevails in the education within the entire ed- overshadowed. When speaking industrial and scientific spheres. ucation system with the help of about trilingualism in schools, Michal Sytnik, a political scien- universal standards for language Erlan Sagadiev, the minister of tist and a member of the nation- learning at all levels of education. education, indicated that, “In al Slavic movement “Lad,” in the The Roadmap proposes that high general, Kazakh will be taught in preface to the leaflet “Russian Is schools conduct a phased transi- schools without any changes. At the State-Forming Language of tion toward teaching the natural the same time, we are consider- Kazakhstan,” notes: sciences and math (IT, physics, ing an opportunity to increase the chemistry, biology, etc.) in En- number of academic hours of Ka- The practice of social interaction of glish; the history of Kazakhstan zakh language classes. The most people demonstrates that when it and geography in Kazakh; and important objective is to improve is time to use complex technical or world history in Russian.8 the quality of teaching Kazakh in medical terminology, the everyday Russian-speaking schools.” Kazakh language becomes insuffi- Among the main activities pro- cient and communication switches to Russian. This leads to all sorts of posed by the Roadmap of Trilin- Former president of Kazakhstan absurd situations, for example, when gual Education Development for Nursultan Nazarbayev believes doctors do not know what to call the 2015-2020 are: that the Kazakh language will internal organs of the human body • Plan for at least 20 percent maintain its status after the tran- in Kazakh or when specialists in the of disciplines to be taught in sition to trilingualism: “During industrial-technological field are not the second language, at least the transition to trilingualism, able to designate a mechanism or a 30 percent in English, and 50 Kazakh will keep its dominant technical process because no rele- percent in the language of study. position.” Significant attention, vant terms exist in Kazakh. That is • Develop 40 English-language he indicated, will be paid to its why any ethnic Kazakh working in curricula and textbooks for further development.9 the field of complex sciences has to use Russian to absorb scientific in- universities; formation, while Kazakh remains the • Develop and implement a Main Findings of the Field language for simple social interac- mechanism that would oblige Research Conducted in East tion.7 English-speaking alumni of the Kazakhstan “Bolashak” scholarship program In the last decade, the English to teach at educational centers East Kazakhstan was chosen as a language has also come into use. (for no less than 2 academic pilot region for the implementa- Evidently, the knowledge of at hours per week) without taking tion of trilingual education. The least three languages—Kazakh them away from their primary present study therefore chose this (state language), Russian (inter- place of employment; region as a case study for assess- state language in CIS countries), • Improve current curricula and ing the risks and opportunities of and English (international lan- develop new ones for trilingual this program. guage)—has become a require- education; ment for citizens of Kazakhstan • Retrain university professors The East Kazakhstan Department in an increasingly global world. to work in a trilingual context of Education developed a com- (with the support of grant prehensive plan for the develop- Resolving the language issue is funding); ment of trilingualism for 2015- one of the most political tasks • Include summer language 2019. In the summer of 2016, facing the government. In 2015, schools in the curricula of 3rd- language teachers were tested Kazakhstan’s Ministry of Educa- and 4th-year university students. for their knowledge of different tion and Science and its Ministry languages. In total, 3,400 teach- of Culture and Sport developed Some public figures and politi- ers participated, including 1,200 a Roadmap of Trilingual Educa- cians are concerned about the teachers of Kazakh from schools tion Development for 2015-2020. standing of Kazakh language, as with a non-Kazakh language One of the main goals it lays out they believe that trilingualism will of instruction, 900 teachers of is to promote unified trilingual result in the state language being Russian from Kazakh-language

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Figure 2. Representation of respondents (number of people) overshadowed. When speaking schools, and 1,300 teachers of and English. It has also developed work, a lack of required material about trilingualism in schools, English. The tests revealed that a standard teaching methodology and technical resources, and the Erlan Sagadiev, the minister of only 14.3 percent of teachers for teachers of Russian in Ka- necessity to pay for private tutors. education, indicated that, “In have a professional command of zakh-language schools, a unified These concerns are natural, as general, Kazakh will be taught in the chosen language: 28.6 per- teacher evaluation system, a cri- there is very limited time to train schools without any changes. At cent of teachers of Kazakh in teria-based evaluation system for teachers to teach natural sciences the same time, we are consider- Russian schools, 10.6 percent assessing students, and diagnostic and math in English, the histo- ing an opportunity to increase the of teachers of Russian in Ka- tests for teachers and students.11 ry of Kazakhstan in Kazakh, and number of academic hours of Ka- zakh schools, and 3.6 percent of world history in Russian. There- zakh language classes. The most teachers of English. After taking Trilingual Education: Hopes fore, parents worry that they will important objective is to improve the test, language teachers were and Fears of Semey Resi- have to spend a lot of money on the quality of teaching Kazakh in sent for additional training: 1,178 dents private tutoring for their chil- Russian-speaking schools.” teachers of Kazakh from schools dren to make up for any gaps. with a non-Kazakh language All respondents are aware that Former president of Kazakhstan of instruction, 985 teachers of trilingual education is being im- In the view of the Semey respon- Nursultan Nazarbayev believes Russian as a second language, plemented. With the exception dents, it is not necessary to teach that the Kazakh language will and 1,291 teachers of English. of a student enrolled in the state natural sciences and math in En- maintain its status after the tran- program “Serpyn 2050,” the goal glish in all schools. Instead, they sition to trilingualism: “During In August 2016, the Nur-Orda of which is to teach and employ say, students should have a choice the transition to trilingualism, school and the Kazakh-Turkish the youth of South Kazakhstan as to which language they study in. Kazakh will keep its dominant lyceum in Semey hosted pro- (a region that has surplus la- position.” Significant attention, fessional English courses for bor power) in the east, north Overall, views on the introduc- he indicated, will be paid to its teachers at regional gymnasi- and west of Kazakhstan, where tion of trilingualism were split, further development.9 ums and lyceums specializing such human capital is lacking, with some expressing support, in different subjects (physics, 12 respondents believe that bi- two categorically objecting, and Main Findings of the Field IT, chemistry, and biology).10 lingualism is a feature of the almost all agreeing that imple- Research Conducted in East region because both languages mentation of the project should Kazakhstan According to official data from are used in the state, education- be delayed by at least a decade. the Department of Education of al, business, and other spheres. East Kazakhstan was chosen as a Eastern Kazakhstan website, the Trilingual Education: Hopes pilot region for the implementa- modernization of textbooks and Respondents’ main concerns and Fears of Ust’-Kameno- tion of trilingual education. The reference books will be the de- about the transition to trilingual gorsk Residents present study therefore chose this termining factor in the success education were a lack of special- region as a case study for assess- or failure of trilingual education. ists with a good command of all According to 2016 data, ethnic ing the risks and opportunities of The region has acquired uniform three languages, the potential Russians constitute the majority this program. textbooks for studying Kazakh for students to be overloaded by

The East Kazakhstan Department of Education developed a com- Table 1. Ethnicities of big cities in the East Kazakhstan region (2016) prehensive plan for the develop- Total Kazakhs Russians Tatars Germans Ukrainians ment of trilingualism for 2015- East Ka- 2019. In the summer of 2016, zakhstan 1,395,324 821,047 524,105 16,963 13,550 4,999 language teachers were tested Region (100%) (58.8%) (37.5%) (1.2%) (0.9%) (0.3%) for their knowledge of different languages. In total, 3,400 teach- Ust’-Kame- 328,795 129,297 187,522 2,571 2,688 1,842 ers participated, including 1,200 nogorsk (100%) (39.3) (57%) (0.7%) (0.8%) (0.5%) teachers of Kazakh from schools Number of 339,254 234,956 88,763 9,074 2,217 869 with a non-Kazakh language families (100%) (69.2%) (26.1%) (2.6%) (0.6%) (0.2%) of instruction, 900 teachers of Russian from Kazakh-language

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Figure 2. Representation of respondents (number of people) Figure 2. Representation of respondents transition to trilingualism. Fewer (number of people) respondents in Ridder thought that the deadline for implement- ing the project should be extend- ed. All 12 respondents agree that the implementation of trilingual education is a requirement of the age in which we live. They be- lieve that if a correct curriculum is developed, students will not be overworked. Six out of 12 respon- dents consider the population’s lack of awareness to be the main obstacle to the implementation of trilingual education at this stage. This seems plausible, as some cit- izens of Kazakhstan are still un- aware that the country is imple- of residents of Ust’-Kamenogorsk that the lack of personnel is the menting a trilingualism program. (57 percent, or 187,522 people) main obstacle to the implementa- Even fewer people know that East and the Russian language pre- tion of trilingualism: if there are Kazakhstan has been chosen as a dominates. A further 39.3 per- well-prepared specialists and a pilot region for the program. In cent of the population (129,297 well-developed methodology for Ridder, a school principal and people) is comprised of ethnic teaching and dividing the study a student enrolled in the Ser- 12 Kazakhs. hours, they say, children will be pyn-2050 program believed that able to study in three languages. schools in East Kazakhstan were Perhaps this reality played an im- Four respondents in Ust’-Kame- already ready for such a transition. portant role in their perceptions nogorsk suggested that the imple- of trilingual education. Certainly, mentation of trilingual education Main Findings respondents from Ust’-Kameno- should begin at the kindergarten gorsk were more positive about level and in mini-centers. These All in all, the field research gave the implementation of trilin- children would be able to absorb rise to the following key findings. gualism in the region than were information in three languag- The mothers of students worry respondents from Semey. Al- es and continue their education more than anyone else about the most all of the 12 respondents within a trilingual system up to implementation of trilingualism. were aware that the government university level. In general, re- Their main fear is that their chil- chose East Kazakhstan as a pilot spondents from Ust-Kameno- dren will become overwhelmed, region for the implementation of gorsk view trilingualism as bene- that their level of knowledge will the trilingual education program. ficial, as they believe trilingualism decline, and that they will strug- A representative of the Depart- is a timely way of broadening Ka- gle with the additional course- ment of Education, similar to his zakhstan’s international ties and work. Among those who support colleague from Semey, argued access to world markets. the transition to trilingualism are that it would be possible to make public and political figures, school this transition on time. Indeed, Trilingual Education: Hopes principals, and heads and employ- several respondents believe that and Fears of Ridder Resi- ees of departments of education. schools and students are already dents ready for this transition, among Thirty-eight of 40 respondents them the principal of a secondary Respondents from Ridder, a pro- agreed with the statement “trilin- school. Other respondents think vincial town, fully support the gualism is a requirement of our

CAP Paper 218 6 time.” The two who did not agree in Kazakhstan’s manufacturing attention. It is necessary to assess were both citizens of Semey. Thir- to increase; to what extent the transition ty-eight respondents indicated • The number of tourists who to trilingualism is possible in that after the implementation of feel “at home” in Kazakhstan such Russian-speaking regions trilingualism in Kazakhstan, the will increase as the share of the as East Kazakhstan and North internal and external environ- Kazakhstani population that can Kazakhstan. In regions where ment of the country would change. speak English grows. the Russian-speaking population dominates, many Russians have The study identified the risks In general, the population of the not learned the state language. and prospects surrounding the East Kazakhstan region supports Our observations reveal that implementation of the pro- the transition, but they are also there is a category of people in gram. Concerns about tri- very much aware of the obvious East Kazakhstan who do not want lingual education included: obstacles to the implementation to study Kazakh and do not want • Loss of knowledge in schools; of trilingualism. These include their children to study the history • Segregation of society; the lack of qualified teachers; the of Kazakhstan or geography • Further decline of the role of lack of necessary material and in the Kazakh language. They the state language in the life of technical resources, especially in recognize the necessity of the society; rural areas; the lack of a unified English and place a priority on • Work overload for students; methodology of trilingualism; Russian, presumably due to • Insufficient competency and a lack of funding for training their geographical proximity to of teachers to teach within a teachers. Illustrating the final Russia, the high percentage of the trilingual system. point, the university lecturers population that speaks Russian, who are required to teach their and the lack of competitiveness On the positive side, the subjects in English are currently of the state language. In the implementation of trilingual obliged to learn or improve their Kazakh-speaking regions, such education will put an end to English by self-funding English as in the southern and western an unofficial division between classes. parts of Kazakhstan, the situation regions according to language is the opposite. There, the Kazakh preferences. All regions will use a It is necessary to weigh all language dominates and is a unified curriculum on teaching in pros and cons and study the requirement for having a full three languages and all languages experience of other countries with life. There is a negative attitude will be equally used in the implementing similar policies. toward the Russian language and, sociolinguistic environment of The most important requirement more importantly, toward ethnic the regions of Kazakhstan. for the success of trilingual Kazakhs who speak in Russian. education is the necessity to If trilingual education manages establish an appropriate language In a sphere as sensitive as to reach the entire population environment. The efforts taken language policy, it is best not of Kazakhstan, Kazakhstan’s by schools and universities are to rush to achieve certain position on the world scene not enough; the challenge is the indicators. It is more important will improve, for the following lack of the language environment to work competently with the reasons: in day-to-day family relations. state language and support the • Trilingualism is a major step The publication of books and the citizens in their desire to learn toward Kazakhstan becoming broadcasting of TV programs and it. The present survey shows one of the 30 most developed cartoons in three languages will that all respondents except for countries in the world; allow great results to be achieved. employees of the Department • Kazakh youth will be able to of Education believe that it study abroad freely; Linguistic differentiation is necessary to extend the • It may cause the number of between Kazakhstan’s regions timeframe of the project. At the foreign investors willing to invest is another factor that requires same time, almost all respondents

CAP Paper 218 7 agree that Kazakhstan’s level of 4 “Neodnozhnachnaia situatsiia v November 28, 2016). 12 development will increase in all iazykovoi sfere Kazakhstana (po State Program “Serpyn spheres of life once trilingual rezul’tatam sotsiologicheskogo 2050,” http://www.ektu. education is introduced. issledovaniia),” Zakon.kz, kz/matriculant/serpin.aspx December 24, 2008, http:// (accessed November 28, 2016). Information about the Grant www.zakon.kz/129460- Supporting This Research neodnoznachnaja-situacija-v- jazykovojj.html (accessed May The survey was funded by the 22, 2019). Oumirserik Kassenov grant, es- 5 The Constitution of the tablished by the Institutional Republic of Kazakhstan, http:// Foundation “International Char- kazautozhol.kz/texts/zakony/ itable Foundation—Altyn Kyran” konstitusiya-rk.pdf (accessed and the Kazakhstan Institute for December 10, 2016). Strategic Studies under the Pres- 6 The National Development ident of the Republic of Kazakh- Program of the Republic of stan (KISI). Professor Oumirser- Kazakhstan for 2011-2020 ik Kassenov (1945-1998) was a (Astana: Akorda, 2010), 72. famous Kazakhstani scholar and 7 Mikhail Aldoshkin, international affairs expert. He “Russkii iazyk—eto was the first head of KISI (1993- gosudarstvoobrazuiuschii 1997). His area of expertise cov- iazyk Kazakhstana,” Pandia, ered a wide range of pressing is- http://http://pandia.ru/ sues in the sphere of international text/77/28/98081.php (accessed relations, including preventing February 11, 2017). nuclear proliferation; geopolitics 8 The Roadmap of Trilingual in Central Asia; regional, politi- Education Development for 2015- cal, economic, energy, and mil- 2020, http://bilim-pavlodar.gov. itary security; and the issues of kz/soch16 (accessed December 1, development and nation-building 2016). in Kazakhstan. 9 N.A. Nazarbayev, “Poslanie Endnotes Prezidenta Respubliki Kazakhstan narodu Kazakhstana,” Akorda.kz,

1 February 28, 2007, http://http:// A. Alekseenko, Mesto vstrechi www.akorda.kz/ru/addresses/ Ust’-Kamenogorsk: Dva addresses_of_president/ mira, dva obraza zhizni v poslanie-prezidenta-respubliki- poiskakh vzaimodeistviia i kazahstan-nnazarbaeva-narodu- sotrudnichestva (Astana and kazahstana (accessed February Almaty, 2016), 144. 2 11, 2017). East Kazakhstan Department 10 “Vnedrenie trekh”iazychiia of Statistics, http://oblastnyie- v VKO,” Akima Vostochno- departamentyi/departament- Kazakhstanskoi oblasti, statistiki-vkо (accessed http://www.akimvko.gov.kz/ November 28, 2016). 3 ru/obrazovanie/vnedrenie- Nikolai B. Vakhtin, ed., trexyazyichiya-v-vko.html Sociology and Sociolinguistics (accessed February 10, 2017). of Language. Reading Book (St. 11 East Kazakhstan Department Petersburg: European University of Education, https://bilimvko. at St. Petersburg Press, 2012), 55. gov.kz/ru/trehyaz (accessed

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