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1 CASECASE STUDY:THESTUDY:THE MUSIC ,TECHNOLOGY INDUSTRY,TECHNOLOGY AND AND SYNERGY 2 SYNERGY 3 4 5 6 7

8 • An outline history of the music industry • References 9 • The structure of the industry • Further reading 10 • Synergy, convergence and the contemporary music 11 industry 12 13 14 The ‘music industry’ is integrated with other media Some of the first companies involved in the new 15 industries, but also has its own unique features. In this industry were already involved in publishing sheet 16 case study we look at those unique features and focus music or manufacturing musical instruments. One 17 on the way in which music products have been so company made billiard tables for wealthy homes, but 18 important in the introduction of kinds of other another produced gramophones alongside typewriters 19 media technologies. Musical performances and – another key technology of the period. This link 20 recordings have always offered the potential for between business and media technologies was revived 21 synergy and convergence – helping the in the 1990s when music moved to computers that 22 development of other media industries through sales were first developed as business tools. The early 23 of related music products and incorporation of music growth was not confined to America. Companies 24 in other products. developed quickly in Europe and around the world 25 – HMV India was founded in 1901. 26 An outline history of the music industry 27 28 ‘Music companies’ earned a great deal of revenue Beginnings 29 at this time from the sale of ‘sheet music’. The 30 The gramophone was invented at roughly the same publishing rights to popular songs meant that even 31 time as film projection, and together the new though the mass audience couldn’t afford to buy a 32 technologies spread around the world at the start of gramophone and records, they could buy the music 33 the twentieth century. The first companies to exploit and play/sing the songs themselves. 34 the possibilities of the gramophone produced both 35 the machines themselves and the ‘software’ – cylinders 36 at first, but then discs. Some familiar names were 1920s – radio 37 involved from the beginning, HMV (His Master’s 38 Voice), Columbia, Victor, etc. Recorded music was The gramophone industry was boosted in the 1920s 39 one of the first forms of mass-produced ‘home by the arrival of commercial radio services. Not only 40 entertainment’. Previously, music-making in the home did the new services (primarily in America) offer the 41 had required both the musical skill and the resources opportunity for recorded music to be played to a mass 42 to purchase instruments and learn to play them. audience, but the manufacturers of gramophones

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found themselves well placed to become involved of films in the 1930s and 1940s with musicals and 1 in the production of radio sets. This period saw the music performances featured in other genres. There 2 foundation of RCA-Victor (the Radio Corporation of were also ‘musical shorts’ featuring popular music 3 America joined with the Victor Record Company in stars. ‘Soundies’ were short films that could be seen 4 1929). and heard on special jukeboxes. 5 The rapid development of radio had helped to One important development in this period was the 6 create the economic ‘boom’ that eventually ended ‘institutionalising’ of different genres of popular music, 7 with the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the start of the particularly black music (known at the time as ‘race 8 Great Depression. But this was also a period in which music’) and ‘hillbilly’ or . Supported by 9 sound was developed in the cinema – first on disc a distinctive culture and a chain of dedicated radio 10 and later on film. RCA became part of one of the first stations and record labels, these were the first 11 modern media corporations when in conjunction with indications of both ‘market segmentation’ and ‘roots 12 theatre chain Keith-Albee-Orpheum, it formed RKO 13 Radio Pictures, partly to promote its own ‘sound 14 on film’ system. RKO was one of the ‘Big Five’ major 15 studios that established the Hollywood studio system 16 in the 1920s. It was also one of the first media 17 conglomerates encompassing radio, recorded music, 18 vaudeville (‘live’ light entertainment) and cinema with 19 its showcase at the 6,000 seat Radio City Music Hall in 20 . (An outline of RCA history is available on 21 the website at www..com.) 22 23 24 The early record companies established themselves 25 overseas in all the principal markets. The Victor 26 Company of Japan was bought by the Matsushita 27 Electronics Company in 1954 and as JVC 28 introduced the VHS cassette in 1977. 29 30 31 1930s and 1940s: jukebox and Hollywood 32 33 plummeted at the start of the 1930s with 34 the impact of the Depression. But still the influence 35 of recorded music spread. The jukebox, a striking 36 example of ‘new technology’, playing sixteen or 37 twenty-four different records, became an alternative Figure 7.12 Caldonia (US 1945), an eighteen-minute ‘extended 38 to radio as a means of both providing entertainment short’ featuring one of the top black stars of the 1940s, Louis 39 in bars and clubs and creating interest in particular Jordan, who wears a ‘zoot suit’ with a ‘reet pleat and a drape shape’. The tagline refers to a popular Hollywood film called Here 40 performers (providing record labels with a means of Comes Mr. Jordan (1941) (John Kish and Edward Mapp, (1992), 41 assessing popularity). Music was an important element A Separate Cinema, Noonday Press: New York). 42

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1 culture’ in the commercial media environment. Both the biggest mainstream acts whose national profile was 2 black music and country music found their way into reflected through Hollywood, was primarily a regional 3 Hollywood, although the films that featured the music affair. Records were promoted by local radio stations 4 were usually B pictures or independent productions and often by local record labels. These would be 5 (black cinema existed to a certain extent outside the picked up and distributed by bigger labels, but often 6 mainstream at this time, with segregated audiences in an artist would remain a ‘regional star’, especially if 7 the southern states). Mainstream popular music was the music genre was not nationally popular (i.e. , 8 dominated by ‘big bands’. country, soul, etc.). But when early rock ’n’ roll 9 performers like Elvis Presley appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show (shown only from the waist up – 10 1950–60s: Hollywood and rock ’n’ roll 11 conservative American television decreed his act 12 The music industry expanded in the 1950s with the was ‘lewd’), they were immediately seen across 13 explosion of rock ’n’ roll (a fusion of the black music America on networked television. In the UK in the 14 and country music which had been ‘marginal’ in the 1950s, with only limited access to American records 15 1930s) and the growing affluence of young record on BBC radio programmes, Hollywood films were 16 buyers. It was also encouraged by: crucial in introducing the new music and films such 17 • the introduction of vinyl ‘singles’ and ‘’ to as Blackboard Jungle (1955) and The Girl Can’t Help It 18 replace the brittle shellac records with limited (1956) paved the way for live shows from touring 19 playing time American stars. UK television responded with shows 20 • the increasing focus on the youth audience by such as Oh Boy! (ITV 1958–9), with British acts often 21 Hollywood studios ‘covering’ American hits. 22 • the development of television as home entertainment with its own need to attract younger 23 1970s Hollywood and the 24 viewers (a need further promoted by advertisers). 25 The links between music, radio, film and television Hollywood embraced pop stars in the 1950s and 26 grew strong in the 1950s and 1960s. For example, 1960s, mainly because they attracted a youth audience. 27 the pop singer Ricky Nelson first appeared as a child But they put the stars into conventional genre vehicles 28 in a television sitcom, the Ozzie and Harriet Show, (see any of the Elvis Presley films, most of which 29 featuring his real-life family, headed by bandleader stripped the star of any musical excitement) and made 30 Ozzie Nelson. As a teenager he became a ‘teen idol’, little attempt to use the music itself as an important 31 combining good looks with country-tinged rock ’n’ ingredient. This was despite the takeover of Universal 32 roll and in 1959 he appeared in a major Hollywood Pictures in 1952 by Decca Records and the 33 western with John Wayne (Rio Bravo). This period establishment of music labels by other studios. It was 34 also saw the first chart-rigging and ‘’ scandals, in not until the post-Beatles period in the late 1960s that 35 which radio DJs were accused of artificially creating the studios began to recognise that the performers 36 hit records, and the establishment of television and their audiences were far more sophisticated than 37 variety shows. they had imagined and that successful films would be 38 Television ‘specials’ hosted by leading mainstream those that were sensitive to the new pop culture. 39 singers such as Nat King Cole and Perry Como were Significant films were The Graduate (1967), which 40 ratings winners, but the most important shows featured new songs by Simon and Garfunkel and saw 41 were those like The Ed Sullivan Show that introduced both single and album success working to help the film, 42 new ‘stars’. Until this point, popular music, apart from and Easy (1969), a low-budget success that put

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the ‘counterculture’ of sex, drugs and anti-war protest format. At the same time, the videocassette increased 1 onscreen and produced one of the first hit ‘soundtrack interest in the possibility of collecting video recordings 2 albums’. Sound tracks had sold before, but usually they of music stars and helped to launch the new format 3 were based on previous stage musicals etc. The early (Hollywood was initially reluctant to release films 4 1970s was a very bad time for Hollywood in terms on cassette, so ‘music videos’ were needed to drive 5 of box-office revenues (i.e. before the arrival of Jaws the new market). The new format also encouraged the 6 and Star Wars). looked like the future. concept of ‘’ with an increase in the 7 There are various 1970s films which have been demand for film and video recordings to be made. 8 cited as ‘turning points’ in the relation between The music companies wanted such recordings to help 9 Hollywood and the music industry. American Graffiti market the performers and their new material; the 10 (1973), Saturday Night Fever (1977) and Grease (1978) fans wanted the recordings to keep. In retrospect, 11 in their different ways all suggested that synergy could the potential for ‘music television’ was there for all to 12 work (American Graffiti was a nostalgia film using 1950s see, but when MTV was launched it took some time 13 music, the other two were more traditional in genre to become a success. The music television concept 14 terms). Sell the film, sell the album – the two could needed a dedicated channel and this was provided by 15 not be separated. Where previously the studio the developments in satellite broadcasting and cable 16 had commissioned a , there was now a television. 17 prolonged negotiation over music rights to existing A further innovation in this period was the 18 titles. Music companies were talking to studios. portability of recording and playback devices, especially 19 Sometimes they were part of the same company the . The Walkman allowed music 20 (e.g. Warner Bros) – but sometimes the cost of rights fans to change the way they listened to music – in 21 proved too high. effect to consume more music, because they were not 22 At the end of the 1970s, music on film also restricted by location. Initially a cassette technology, 23 benefited from the introduction of Dolby Stereo in moved to CD and then to Mini-Disc. 24 cinemas. After nearly fifty years without any major This last was not ultimately successful, partly 25 developments in cinema sound, the success of films because the smaller size did not offer a major 26 like Star Wars in 1977 convinced cinema owners that benefit to compensate for the loss of compatibility 27 they should invest in the new system. It is significant with other systems. That would come with computer 28 that Star Wars produced a successful soundtrack album files. 29 of ‘theme music’ and that John Williams 30 became a new ‘star’ name. 1990s: music goes digital 31 32 technology offered a means of storing 1980s: MTV 33 music in a digital format. Digital recording techniques 34 During the 1980s, music companies benefited were also developing in the 1980s. However, the 35 from three separate technological innovations: innovation that would revolutionise ‘digital music’ was 36 • the CD the development of suitable hardware and software 37 • the videocassette for distribution of digital files over computer networks. 38 • cable and satellite broadcasting. This was achieved largely through compression 39 The CD represented a major opportunity to persuade techniques that eventually produced the MP3 40 customers to re-equip with new audio technology standard. Everybody could use MP3s whereas other 41 and to buy new versions of old favourites in the new compression software only worked on particular 42

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1 computer platforms. MP3 meant the development of a 2 means of: ACTIVITY 7.12 3 • converting existing digital music tracks to computer 4 files that can be played on any computer UK music history 5 • ‘burning’ a new CD of collected files (or ‘copying’ The outline history above refers to the biggest music 6 an existing CD) market, in North America. In the UK, the history is 7 • transferring files to a portable MP3 player (lighter similar, but often with events lagging a few years behind. 8 and holding more tracks than a Walkman) Use the internet and reference books to find out about 9 • ‘swapping’ MP3s with other users over the internet the following and try to outline some of the important 10 • downloading legitimate (i.e. purchased) MP3s to a events in the history of the music industry in the UK: 11 home computer. • Radio Luxemburg (1930s–60s) 12 What we should note here is that technologies such • NME and Melody Maker – first charts (1950s) 13 as MP3 have been used, much as earlier technologies • Radio Caroline and Radio 1 (1960s) 14 (i.e. cassette technology), to copy existing material, but • Rough Trade and Beggars’ Banquet (1970s record 15 also to change the ways in which both producers and labels) 16 consumers think about music products. We will return • The Tube (Channel 4 in the 1980s). 17 to this second point once we have looked at the 18 contemporary industry. 19 today? Not surprisingly, some of the same handful of 20 The structure of the industry 21 large media conglomerates discussed in Chapter 7 22 Given this history of development, closely tied in with and ‘Case study: The media majors’ are also the 23 other media, how is the music industry organised ‘majors’ in the music industry worldwide: 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 Figure 7.13 Major music companies 42 and labels.

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• Sony and as Sony/BMG majors, organise local gigs and manage new acts. One 1 • Vivendi-Universal of the features of the industry over the past twenty 2 In addition, Warner Bros Music has recently years has been the career path of performers who 3 separated from its parent in a ‘buy-out’ and there is a begin with a small independent and 4 fourth major company in the form of EMI (sales 2004: gradually move to a contract with one of the majors. 5 $3.9 billion). The existence of a British company (As popular music stars age, they tend to go back to 6 which concentrates solely on music in the ranks of the the independents as their market importance 7 majors is an indication of the importance of the UK declines.) The majors have also created their own 8 music industry – the UK has the highest per capita small specialist labels in the hope of finding new talent. 9 sales of recorded music and overall counts as the In Chapter 7 we discuss the concept of 10 third biggest market. EMI is the third-ranked music ‘independence’ in the media industries. Here, we want 11 company worldwide and the No. 1 in music publishing to note that in the music industry, small independent 12 with rights to a million songs. Attempts by EMI to companies have been able to develop new record 13 merge with Warner Bros and Bertelsmann were labels very quickly. The Zomba company, founded in 14 rejected by the EU – but BMG was allowed to 1975 in the UK, saw spectacular growth in 2000 with 15 merge with Sony. UK government statistics suggest its label – home to Britney Spears and the 16 that 41,000 musicians, performers and . Even though Zomba became a ‘global’ 17 work in the UK industry. (See DCMS website at label while still independent, Bertelsmann bought a 20 18 http://www.culture.gov.uk/creative_industries/music/.) per cent stake in the company in 1996 and finally 19 Two ‘major’ Hollywood-based groups, Disney and acquired control in late 2002. In 2004, as part of the 20 Viacom/Paramount, are classed as ‘independents’ in newly formed Sony–BMG partnership, the ‘Zomba 21 the music industry. Corporation is the only Label Group’ (including LaFace stars and 22 media conglomerate without significant music industry ) was recognised as the major presence in the 23 activities. American music market, dominating both the Billboard 24 The music industry is not ‘integrated’ in quite and Radio and Records charts. While BMG certainly 25 the same way as cinema. The ‘majors’ are primarily provided Zomba with a sound basis for expansion, 26 distributors, but not so much ‘exhibitors’ – in the case Zomba in turn allowed BMG to become a stronger 27 of the music industry, the exhibitors are effectively presence in the music market. 28 the radio and television stations and the retail outlets. 29 Note here that Disney (owner of American 30 A global industry broadcaster ABC) and Viacom (owner of CBS, 31 MTV and VH-1) have a major presence as It is in the global market that the music majors 32 exhibitors/broadcasters. differ from the usual approach of the multinational 33 conglomerates. The Hollywood studios rarely attempt 34 to make films directly (i.e. to finance a local operation) 35 The importance of ‘independents’ in overseas territories (apart from the UK and now 36 In one sense the music industry is still a ‘cottage China). Infrequently, they pick up local films for 37 industry’ since the vast majority of the 41,000 ‘creative possible international distribution, but mostly they 38 talents’ in the UK work alone or for small companies. deal in American films. By contrast, the music 39 Ninety per cent of the UK industry is classed as ‘SME’ companies tend to buy local record labels and to 40 (Small or Medium Enterprises). It is these SMEs which acquire a ‘roster’ of local artists in addition to their 41 produce the music, eventually distributed by the marketing of global acts. 42

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1 Historically, the music industry has been able to • How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb, U2 2 develop in all parts of the world, partly because, unlike • Under My Skin, Avril Lavigne 3 film and television, audio recording is a relatively • Greatest Hits, Robbie Williams 4 simple and inexpensive process with minimum • Greatest Hits, Shania Twain 5 requirements for technology. It also requires far • Destiny Fulfilled, Destiny’s Child. 6 less organisation of talent and can draw upon deep Significant profits are made around the world, 7 reservoirs of local performance skills and musical but as in most media markets, performance varies 8 knowledge. between territories. Overall, 2004 saw the market 9 Hollywood became dominant in international stabilise after several years of decline with total sales 10 cinema by the late 1920s in most territories, taking of around $34 billion. For the industry there were 11 a significant share of every market, usually through encouraging signs: 12 dubbing. But although the large American and • The US and UK markets were strong (47 per 13 European music companies set up operations in cent of the world market is represented by the 14 most territories worldwide, ‘domestic’ artists and US/UK). 15 repertoire have managed to remain important, • Digital sales in the US and UK grew quickly. 16 especially in Asia, the Middle East and Latin America. • Music DVD sales are also growing and 17 Nevertheless, the top artists worldwide remain replacing lost revenues from older technologies 18 English-speaking. The following music albums (i.e. tapes). 19 sold more than 5 million copies in 2004 (source: • Latin America saw a 12.6 per cent increase in sales, 20 International Federation of Phonogram and Videogram partly owing to economic recovery in the 21 Producers, IFPI 2005, www.ifpi.org/): continent. 22 • Confessions, Usher But major problems still remained: 23 • Feels Like Home, Norah Jones • ‘physical’ piracy – illegal CDs in many territories, 24 • Encore, Eminem especially Asia, Eastern Europe, Latin America 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 Figure 7.14 The international 42 music market.

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• ‘virtual piracy’ – illegal downloads, especially in been driven by young (i.e. 12–13) girls, whereas 1 Sweden, Finland, France, and South Korea. ‘downloaders’ were assumed to be largely male and 2 Piracy in all its forms remains the major problem over 15. How do you think the charts have changed – 3 for the industry. ‘Convergence’ means that piracy is if at all – since the merger of charts? 4 now common in both music and cinema/television – The boxed quote from 2000 is underpinned by 5 both in downloading and ‘printing’ CDs/. This a real concern that the music industry is ‘threatened’ 6 means that the majors have even more of an incentive by new media. This belief was shared by many when 7 to tackle the pirates. However, the IFPI Report also ‘file-sharing’ (i.e. illegal downloading) first began via 8 focuses on the growth of legal downloads and this Napster and other technologies. But since the launch 9 trend points us towards several interesting questions. of Apple’s iTunes in the US in 2003 and the UK in 10 (All figures from IFPI Reports 2005.) 2004, and the swift rise to ‘must have’ accessory 11 status for the iPod, views have begun to change. 12 Now, downloading is big business, with the 13 Synergy, convergence and the participation of major players from both the music 14 contemporary music industry industry (e.g. Sony/BMG) and the computer 15 The music industry has been uniquely placed to help industry (Microsoft, Roxio and Real Player as well 16 each of the other media industries at crucial stages of as Apple). 17 their development. It has provided opportunities for Compare the 2000 quote above with this extract 18 synergy that have been exploited by radio, television from a presentation by Alain Levy, chairman and CEO 19 and cinema and now by ‘new media’. In 2002 the of EMI Music in 2004: 20 excitement in the UK over the voting for ITV’s Pop Idol 21 and the subsequent release of the winner’s first single What does our digital strategy include? 22 showed benefits for television, phone companies and • We want to enable consumers to find and 23 the music industry. In 2005 the UK music industry consume any music . . . 24 decided to combine the traditional ‘Pop singles chart’ . . . in any form . . . 25 with the ‘Downloads chart’ established only in 2004. . . . at any time . . . 26 Early expectations were that this might see significant . . . in any place . . . 27 changes in the types of music represented in the chart, • No longer only about the number of discs sold 28 based on the assumption that sales of CD singles had Where will we be in 3–5 years time? 29 • Composition of the ‘music pie’ is changing 30 – from 100% CD to 75% CD, 25% digital 31 ‘Music and the internet are both natural and distribution of some form 32 unnatural bedfellows. The creation and • It is becoming a much bigger ‘pie’ overall 33 consumption of music is a personal, cultural – new products: e.g. downloads, ring tunes, ring 34 experience, and the technology of the internet backs, dedications 35 changes the mode of consumption in a way that – new platforms: e.g. mobile, digital radio 36 is both appealing and threatening – and certainly – new channels: e.g. Starbucks, airlines, mobile 37 disruptive’ (Martin Mills of Beggars’ Banquet superdistribution 38 Records Group, in the Introduction to Consumers • EMI Music will no longer be a physical record 39 Call the Tune, Department of Culture Media and company, but a digital music business at large 40 Sport, April 2000). (Downloaded from http://www. 41 emigroup.com/financial.html, 4 June 2005) 42

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1 EMI have clearly taken on board everything that has Windows to spread to machines from different 2 happened since 2000. Like much of the industry, they manufacturers. In 2005 when Apple released its new 3 have taken the view that while it is important to operating system ‘Tiger’, it again moved far ahead of 4 fight organised piracy, there is much to be gained by Microsoft and began to attract more ‘converts’ to its 5 embracing the new digital market. Another report on products. But still the doubts remain about Apple’s 6 the same website suggests that research has shown refusal to allow its products to be fully exploited by 7 that customers who buy music online buy more ‘units’ other hardware producers. Many of the people who 8 than those who make only traditional music shop have bought iPods have followed fashion rather than 9 purchases. In 2005 EMI started to sell CDs which chosen a hardware/software combination and Apple 10 included computer software and effectively ‘sanctioned’ will be vulnerable when the price and ‘compatiblity’ of 11 the purchaser to make a digital copy for home use. other manufacturers’ MP3 players prove more 12 attractive than the iPod’s design. Apple do not control music libraries – they are 13 Hardware and software lessons 14 dependent on deals with music companies. At the time 15 The presence of Microsoft and the other computer of writing, significant recording artists are still not 16 players in the music market is significant in that they available via iTunes (e.g. no Beatles, since the two 17 are concerned to make profits via the software coding ‘Apple’ brands are still in legal dispute). Where an 18 that controls the downloading, transfer, storage and artist has had a long career, it is likely that recordings 19 playback of digital files. At the time of writing, iTunes on major labels will be available, but not all those on 20 and the iPod are at the centre of the battle between smaller labels. The music industry is indeed in parts a 21 Apple and Microsoft over computer operating cottage industry and for the less mainstream acts, fans 22 systems. The link between the iTunes and may need to go direct to the artists themselves to 23 the iPod player is an important ‘proprietary’ link via purchase recordings – something else helped by 24 which Apple sells more iPods and more downloads websites. 25 since one requires the other. (In 2004, 1 million A further complicating factor will be the 26 tracks were available for download and 200 million development of further ‘synergies’ between mobile 27 downloads were made. iPods accounted for 20 per phone technologies and digital music software/online 28 cent of all MP3 players sold worldwide (source music stores. This has already introduced companies 29 www.pro-music.org).) such as Nokia and Motorola into the music industry 30 It is generally agreed that although Apple has equation. In June 2005, ‘Crazy Frog’, a ‘ringtone’, 31 regularly produced the best-designed hardware and became the No. 1 ‘single’ in the UK. 32 software, Microsoft ‘stole’ the market by separating These digital music developments were first 33 the software from the hardware and allowing introduced in North America and Western Europe, 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 Figure 7.15 Heavy promotion of the iPod as a ‘must have accessory’ has helped Apple’s brand recognition. Even in silhouette, these 42 characters display the connections between music and fashion – compare with Figure 7.12 Poster for Louis Jordan on p. 258.

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where customers have clearly been prepared to pay 1 By contrast, an internet ‘download store’ does for downloads (as is often the case with Apple, UK 2 not have any shelf space to worry about and can customers paying much more than in the US). 3 stock a million titles. Many of the songs will have Elsewhere, the industry is still struggling with pirate 4 only one or two buyers, but virtually every title will CDs etc. 5 find someone willing to try it. The profit to the 6 online seller is the same for each one – popularity is 7 meaningless and a ‘miss’ is as good as a ‘hit’. (Look Listening to and ‘owning’ music 8 back to the quote from Alain Levy at EMI on 9 In the early 1970s, when the music industry first p. 264.) ‘Hits’ still have an extra value in advertising 10 began to make large profits from albums or ‘LPs’, terms – they bring customers to the website, but 11 considerable effort was put into designing the once they are attracted, online sellers have 12 packaging – the ‘’ or ‘sleeve’. Albums developed new ways to coax buyers into trying 13 became complex art objects – sometimes opening something new, such as recommendations (‘other 14 out into two or three sections (the ‘gatefold’) – purchasers of “x” also bought . . .’) or lists compiled 15 with extensive ‘sleeve notes’ about the performers by other users of the website. The databases used 16 and the music, as well as photographs, graphics and on these sites can easily display everything pro- 17 original artwork. An album cover was something duced by a specific music performer, often ranked 18 to be coveted – protected by a plastic sleeve and according to popularity and complete with reviews. 19 carefully studied when the album was played. (Based on Jack Schofield, ‘A miss hit’, 20 CDs were disappointing replacements for Guardian, 25 March 2005) 21 vinyl for ‘collectors’ since everything became 22 miniaturised – but in other ways they saw a 23 development in the amount of text that could be The ‘culture’ of owning and listening to music has 24 crammed into booklets placed inside the jewel changed alongside the economics of distributing and 25 case. Digital downloads offer only a small digital retailing the products. It is still an open question 26 image to accompany a track. The concept of whether these changes have increased the range 27 ownership of an ‘art object’ has gone. of music available to anyone who wants to listen or 28 whether they have created a new marketplace from 29 which some consumers and some recording artists are 30 ‘Everyone’s a winner’ excluded. There is no doubt that if you are prepared 31 to use the internet to search for music, virtually 32 The internet may be good for the music business everything is available somewhere – as a download 33 because it makes a ‘miss’ profitable. In a traditional or purchasable via mail order. But there are still many 34 , most business was concerned people without internet access and others who won’t 35 with either the current ‘Top 100’ artists or music risk electronic payments – and globally there are 36 from a limited range of specialist genres. As millions without even mains electricity. In some ways, 37 a consequence, shelf space was taken up by a new technologies have allowed the cottage industry 38 limited number of titles, the most popular of to become viable again locally. You can get CDs from 39 which had to be stocked in multiple copies to friends who burn them on their computers, from local 40 meet demand. bands who distribute them at gigs and from local labels 41 who supply the few remaining speciality shops. 42

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1 References 2 ACTIVITY 7.13 This case study was researched solely on the internet. 3 The following websites proved useful: 4 How do you buy music? www.bl.uk/collections/sound-archive/record.html 5 Do your own research into music use and purchase. (See p. 335 on research at the National Sound 6 Ask a cross-section of people of different ages some Archive.) 7 simple questions: www.culture.gov.uk/creative_industries/music/ 8 • What kinds of music do they listen to? www.ifpi.org 9 • Do they buy music or swap with friends? www.pro-music.org 10 • How do they buy/obtain music (shop/mail www.rca.com 11 order/download/from the artist)? www.riaa.com 12 • What do they think of the range of music available 13 to them? 14 Further reading 15 What conclusions do you draw from your findings? Dickinson, Kay (ed.) (2003) Movie Music: The Film 16 Now check your conclusions against the arguments Reader, London: Routledge. (This useful collection 17 about ‘free markets’ in Chapter 16. has several articles directly relevant to the 18 arguments here.) 19 Negus, Keith (1999) Music Genres and Popular Cultures, 20 London: Routledge. 21 Shuker, Roy (2001) Understanding Popular Music, 22 London: Routledge. 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

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