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Home , Sangha, Thai Forest Tradition

Unique spaces, unique states of : the ai forest and the Abhidhamma method of conscious states and B B D C U  Q Abstract Forest monks are often venerated for skilled meditative and mystical powers while simultaneously remaining different, separate and mysterious to city dwellers and city monks. In the particular case of , forest monks are often worshipped as saints of Buddhist practice and can frequently be caught between the desire for an ascetic life and the demand for their services in the cities. Contrary to popular research on the topic, this article will not examine the forest tradition as an allegory of Buddha’s enlightenment beneath the ; but will, instead focus on examining the unique space and state of mind that forest monks occupy as described in the Pāli philosophical texts and commentaries surrounding the Abhidhamma Piṭaka. This article explores the attributes of forest monks as discussed in the Dhammasaṅgaṇi and Puggalapaññatti and through analysis, elucidates common textual attributes of forest monks. The research for this article decodes tensions of the inner and outer lives of monks unique to the forest tradition. This article’s textual analysis of Thai forest monks contributes to a greater understanding of their place not only geographically, but also in Bud- dhism and larger society.

The two vocations for monks, the vocation of away from metropolises and cities towards The bearers of Sinhala scholarship or ganthadhura and the vocation small villages, purlieus and fi nally, the were forest monks that forged amicable of meditation or vipassanādhura.1 The forest.3 As notions of civilization and allure relationships with the Thai royals and elite ganthadhura vocation focused on learning or trickle farther and farther away from cities, thus enabling them to anchor the tradition pariyatti and the vipassanādhura vocation was conceptions of civility, attractiveness, safety in Thailand under the rule of King Kūēnā focused on practice or pratipatti.1 Throughout and appeal become weaker and weaker.3 That in the 1300s.1,2 However, not all Thai kings these commentaries, the practical, meditative is, the spaces farthest from cities are removed supported the integration of the forest school of Buddhism is associated with from the familiarity of city life, where tradition into institutional .1 forest bhikkus or religious eremites, while everything is disordered and dangerous and Under the kingship of , the scholarly tradition is associated with the the inhabitants are fearsome wild animals the Thai forest tradition was not awarded Buddhist elite.1 and immoral persons or entities.3 The forest bureaucratic admission into the state’s The ascetic practices or dhūtaṅga followed is associated with chaos that spoils patterns act in 1902.1 Later in the century, the by āraññavāsins are aimed towards achieving of familiarity and order, as well as wildness tradition was recognized in the general order nibānna and becoming an arahant or noble and danger .3 Another contributing factor of the sangha but was still separate from the ariya.1,5 A by-product of adherence to dhūtaṅga in the case of Thailand specifi cally is that states institutional reach.1 This highlights a or ascetic practices and forest dwelling is the Northern Thai forests are often linked to hierarchy between approved ‘high’ Buddhism Thai ’s perceived ability for the forest unlawful activities such as opium production that is endorsed by the state and vernacular monk to dispel ghosts or malevolent spirits and distribution and child traffi cking and forest Buddhism that is seen as superstitious with magical powers, powers that are given prostitution rings. These associations further ‘low’ Buddhism of the peasantry. Despite due to the fringe element of Buddhism in contribute to greater society’s general unequal institutional relationships, the Thai which they participate.1,6 Thai forest monks feelings of fear, apprehension and awe when sangha was categorized between village are often venerated as saints or arahants regarding the forest and its inhabitants.3 dwelling monks or gāmavāsin and forest because of these abilities that stem from The disorder and danger that would dwelling monks or āraññavāsin or ariya.1,2 unique practices and a unique location usually be attributed to forest dwellers The forest bhikku’s tradition of reclusive outside of ordered society.1,5 When compared manifests as magico-religious powers that practice is juxtaposed against the village to city monks, homeless or wandering saints allude to unconstrained potentiality in the monk’s tradition of active engagement are often considered hierarchically superior case of the monks.3 The forest monk is with the laity and Pāli scholarship.1,2 The and enlightened1 perceived as endowed with these powers āraññavāsin or forest tradition operates in precisely because he dwells in the marginal solitude, away from worldly interference, The Unique Space of the Forest and disordered space of society.3 The forest focussing on conducting experiential inward Thai forest bikkhus most often wander bikkhu is fi lled with confl ict when compared training of the mind through meditation or settle on the margins of society in places to the laity, who requires occupancy within and peripateticism.2,3 This bifurcation of separate from the state controlled sangha.3 the familiarity, safety and control of ordered inner versus outer is not unique to Thailand, The forest itself is perceived as antithetical life.3 In this way, forest monks operate in a as it is also evident in the early history to centralized and ordered civilization.3 The unique space fraught with tension between of Buddhism. For instance, Sāriputta a physical arrangement of people relates to ordered civilization and genteel sensibilities. disciple of Gotama, was acclaimed for his a hierarchy of allure and civilization that They endure the untamed wild as they surpass Abhidhamma commentaries that typifi ed systematically decreases the more one moves worldly defi lements in order to progress on

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the noble path to spiritual achievement, different states of mind and human types in are instead intoxicated with the forest and sainthood or arahantship. It is due to these a Buddhist psychology.8 The states or frames solitude.4 That is, one can become desirous factors that they have been able to transcend of mind are types of conscious development of anything, be it the desire to do something the negative attributes of regular forest folk that one may be in at any given time along a bad such as stealing, or to do something good and maintain their aura of purity. They have greater trajectory of spiritual development.7 like live in the forest for mediative reasons sanctified the forest as a legitimate stage for These texts elucidate Buddhism’s focus like the forest monks. Trungpa claims that spiritual development and achievement.3 on the mind or , and mental factors or the second khandha is also associated with cetasika, and can assist in understanding ‘jumping to conclusions and attaching Forest Practice the unique state of mind forest bikkhus oneself to them’.4 Perceptions of right or The , written by employ in their practical interpretation of wrong ideology or practice is part of the in the 5th century, is a treatise Buddhism.7,8 This analysis will start first with second khandha and the forest bikkhus could on Buddhist meditative practice in the the Puggalapaññatti, as it provides a more be understood as having tension within the Abhidhamma method.1 The Visuddhimagga methodical basis to describe specific types second aggregate. The forest monks have lists 13 types of ascetic practices or dhūtaṅga; of application to Buddhism in mental states. taken up extreme dhūtaṅga or ascetic practices numbers eight, nine and ten are highly One state of mind in the Puggalapaññatti and have been captured and possessed relevant to the forest practice in Thailand.1 is the person who ‘neither tortures himself with the ideology of forest Buddhism. As These three dhūtaṅgas are described as the nor others’.8,9 A person in this state of described in the Dhammasaṅgaṇi, this type practice of dwelling in the forest, dwelling mind finds the householders or gāmavāsins of attachment is negative as it denotes on a tree root and dwelling in open air.1 life tedious and restrictive, so he disregards grasping, which can cause increased dukkha The Visuddhimagga lists the dhūtaṅgas as his worldly aspirations and lifestyle for one or suffering. Grasping also is problematic optional, but these particular practices are more noble.8,9 He enters the homeless life of to the cessation of dukkha and spiritual symbolic of forest bikkhus who emphasize scarcity and follows strict monastic rules in progression. rigorous practice and seclusion, particularly the forest, or in another secluded place.8,9 The in a natural landscape.1 Many forest bikkhus forest bikkhu also emphasizes the practice of Key Points understand that these dhūtaṅgas prescribe a meditation and absolves himself of mental Figure 1: This diagram represents the better, harder and faster path to arahantship defilements in a solitary milieu.8,9 From the contradictions and tensions of the inner and through a focus on seclusion and strict practice of denying the senses and increasing outer lives of forest monks. They are on the yet specific orthopraxy.1,2 As this text was the capabilities of inward reflection and path to arahantship even though they are written centuries ago, closer to the time of meditation, the bikkhu understands the located in disordered and wild milieus that the Buddha than other texts, these ideologies suffering or dukkha of the body through are usually seen as evil. They are enlightened and applications of Buddhism are often the supersession of cravings and desire.8 beings who adhere to the unique state of used by forest monks to legitimise their The forest bikkhu shares all the attributes mind that does not torment, but rather particular tradition and to classify themselves of this Buddhist state of mind called ‘one exhibits behaviours that insinuate they that as ‘true bikkhu’ compared to other monastic who neither tortures himself nor others’ as torment themselves over ‘correct’ ideology traditions that stress different scholarship he denounces the world of the gāmavāsin. He within the 2nd khandha. and orthodoxy.1,2 becomes homeless and starves his mind and The forest bikkhu’s state of mind is The Visuddhimagga’s Abhidhamma body of desire and sensuousness to follow unique as this Abhidhamm-ic method of both approach to meditative practice glorifies the the monastic code and strict Abhidhamm-ic psychological analysis and practice is the work role of solitary practice and claims that the meditation in seclusion.1,8,9,10 for only the most tough-minded monks. The first state of meditation orjhāna comes from The Dhammasaṅgaṇi is the second book forest bikkhus unique status can be divided secluded practice.1 The text states further of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka and shares into the inner and outer life. In the outer that psychic powers or iddhi are endowed a similar psychological analysis as the life the forest bikkhu is regarded positively upon achieving the four jhānas in solitude.1 Puggalapaññatti, as it explores the different as he is removed from worldly desire and The Visuddhimagga does not denounce these khandhas or aggregates of a human being.4,11 on the path to arahantship, venerated by the iddhis as evil or sinful, but rather paints Khandhas often relate to blockages or negative laity (Tosa 2009, vol. 68: 240; McDaniel them as the occasionally dangerous fruits behaviours that need to be passed through 2011: 24).12 More negatively, he is located in of concentrated meditative labour.1 Forest the application of practical Buddhism in the disordered chaos outside of civilization, bikkhus share many of the preferences listed order to spiritually progress.4 The focus of camping with wild beasts, malevolent spirits in the Visuddhimagga as they practice several this inquiry will be the second khandha, the and ghosts and thus is sometimes feared for types of dhūtaṅga, are gifted with iddhis or khandha of feeling and mental pleasure.11 This his power and lifestyle.3 supernatural powers and live in secluded, analysis will explore how the unique states The inner life of a forest bikkhu is naturalistic habitats that have been associated of mind bikkhus use to approach Buddhism perceived positively as he is ‘one who with landmark achievements of the Buddha.7 create tension within second khandha. torments neither himself nor others’ as In this way, forest bikkhus not only operate The second khandha of sensation is per the types listed in the Puggalapaññatti.8,9 within a unique physical space in Buddhist the sensing positive or negative objects.4 However, the bikkhu exhibits ideological Thailand, but also utilise the Abhidhamma Trungpa explains that the second khandha behaviours that torment themselves over method of dhūtaṅgas or ascetic practices to includesfeelings of intoxication that may ‘correct’ ideology within the second khandha. legitimise the correctness of their particular entail ‘jumping to conclusions’.4 The body The forest bikkhu latches on and attaches interpretation and application of Buddhism. is always intoxicated on worldly desires, to ideological conclusions about the right self-mortification, ideology or the solitude application of Buddhism and further, he Unique States of Mind of the forest.4 While the laity or city monks may be devoid of worldly pleasures. Instead The Dhammasaṅgaṇi and the are more closely linked with the struggles of of being intoxicated on illicit substances Puggalapaññatti are the second and fourth denouncing worldly desires, forest bikkhus however, he is intoxicated on the forest books of the Abhidhamma Piṭaka that list are removed from much temptation and and the power it represents.4,11 The second

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•Forest dweller, •one who focus on torments no meditation and one, pugala solitude, paññatti unique arahant state of mind Outer Inner Life Life

Outer Inner Life Life •in disordered •2nd Khandha, chaos, gosts, attached to malevolent ideology, sprits intoxication

Figure 1. Key Points khandha is of feeling and sensation and References explains that a person will always be 1Tambiah, S.J. (1984), The Buddhist Saints of the Forest and the Cult of Amulets: A Study in Charisma, Hagiography, intoxicated on something, and it could be Sectarianism, and Millennial Buddhism, Cambridge: argued that at times, the forest monks show Cambridge University Press. they are more intoxicated on the forest 2Taylor, J.L. (1993), Forest Monks and the Nation State: and the ideology of forest practice than An Anthropological and Historical Study in Northeastern 4 Thailand, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian on meditative concentration or salvation. Studies. These factors help to highlight the unique 3Walter, P. (2007), ‘Activist Forest Monks, Adult space and state of mind forest that bikkhus Learning and the Buddhist Environmental Movement occupy in light of city dwellers. This article in Thailand’, International Journal of Lifelong Education, 26 (3) 329-345. has carefully weaved together the ideological 4Trungpa, C, 1985, Glimpses of Abhidhamma, threads that forest monks use to maintain a Press, Boulder. unique tradition that is undertaken within 5Tosa, K. (2009), ‘The Cult of Thamanya : a unique state of mind in a unique space. The Social Dynamism of Formulating Pilgrimage Site, Asia Ethnology, 68 (2), 239-264. Additionally, this article utilizes various 6McDaniel, J.T. (2011), The Lovelorn Ghost and the ancient that have not been Magical Monk: Practicing Buddhism in Modern Thailand, New previously used in this way or on this topic York: Colombia University Press. to create a new discourse that explores the 7Johansson, REA. (1985), The Dynamic Psychology of , London: Curzon Press. forest monk tradition. 8 Pathak, O.M & V. Gaur (2000), Abhidhammapiṭake: Puggalapaññattipāli, Delhi: Eastern Book Linkers. 9Law, BM. (1969), Designation of Human Types: Puggala-Paññatti, Hertford: . 10Jayasuriya, W.F. (1963), The Psychology and Philosophy of Buddhism: Being an Introduction to the Abhidhamma, Colombo: YMBA Press. 11Rhys Davids, C. (1974), A Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics: Dhamma-Sangaṇi, London: The Pali Text Society. 12Kalupahana, D.J. (1987), The Principles of Buddhist Psychology, New York: State University of New York.

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