Downloaded By: At: 14:35 28 February 2008 hleg ioyitctnece.Teamo hsppri odsusterecent the discuss patriarchal to transform and is critique to paper aims this that Thailand to of in them movement enable aim a would of The that emergence traditions tendencies. religious in misogynistic authority gender challenge and shaping status of an in practice. positions and causes, factors the theory cultural cultural development and in or essentially shift religious religious welcome as of a to role is women oppression the relations non-Western to be gender poor, sensitivity should reduces increased depicts we which While which or discourses. religious, research feminist the about (Western) on relying various mainstream employ than sceptical as to rather of wish empowerment, well of who rhetoric as politics women their secular tradition to guide attractive the to religious is of narrative strategy religious of values a a Such ‘core’ re-interpretations thinking. the often feminist for of with argue is types consistent are These feminism that emerged. secular 2000). systems have (Peach that relevance feminism’ cultural means lacking ‘religious as of globe also lives the but the Western in across as religion only legitimise women of not importance perceived can poor economic the religion of women, or disempower institutional that millions status female that While of influence rules pursuit social and countries. the the in values women’s developing of factor important upon in understanding an as empowerment an have recognised being development, traditions slowly is and opportunity cultural gender and of religious field the In Introduction e hleg,hwvr ae rlgosfmnss,snewmnrrl occupy rarely women since feminists’, ‘religious faces however, challenge, key A of styles patriarchy, inherent its for religion rejecting than rather response, In hiBdhs ol lyarl nblnigtegne irrhe ihnthe within hierarchies gender the broadly. balancing more in society in role as in a well roles as leadership play female tradition the of and could introduction Buddhism The Buddhism Thai society. in Thai Thai Buddhist women in of women status Theravada of low status the the to inferior between relationship aims by a that is supported there ( Thailand that ordination in values female movement introducing patriarchal by a tradition transform of emergence and recent critique the discusses paper This Tomalin Emma empowerment women’s Thai The SN15-04pit16-21online/06/030385 print/1364-9221 1355-2074 ISSN bhikkhuni edr&Development & Gender oeetand movement bhikkhuni O:10.1080/13552070600980492 DOI: o.1,N.3 oebr2006 November 3, No. 14, Vol. riain.Tepprargues paper The ordination). 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omnctosgrants Communications of Ministry the and oain oa to donations , garudhammas Lnbr-ak20,4;Mee20,225). 2004, Mueke 42; 2000, (Lindberg-Falk riain n thsntbe officially been not has it and ordination, a chi mae bhikkhunis riaini hrvd Buddhism, Theravada in ordination bhikkhunis oeetadwmnsempowerment women’s and movement a chi mae rmteBdh,adi Sri in and Buddha, the from , sfrhrcmone ythe by compounded further is o.1,N.3 oebr2006 November 3, No. 14, Vol. a chi mae oe h become who women , hrfr,saetesame the share therefore, , sa‘kle ordinand’ ‘skilled a as bhikkhuni eeaels merit less generate bhikkhunis ordination nSri in mae 387 Downloaded By: At: 14:35 28 February 2008 388 oe iea Theravada as live women Tomalin Emma edr&Development & Gender of benefits cultural discussions social the my and concerning in Thailand emerged in religious women have Buddhist the as a themes lay well main and as have Two domestic ordained agencies, with establishment. development including transmission, Buddhist secular by Thailand, the HIV overlooked by in frequently and is women that trafficking concern dimension facing is There sex ordained). issues and violence, lay gender-related (both well Thailand many as in 1999), interviewed that Satha-Anand have I 2001; people Puntarigvivat by (e.g. as literature academic in the discussed between link The the between link the behind theory The Act Sangha 1928 the under women ordaining oe’ empowerment women’s ilepoeteter eidteln ewe the I between section link next the opportunities the behind In and theory 1999). status the Satha-Anand explore social 1991; will women’s Kabilsingh 2001; improving the (Ekachai in of broadly step from revival more important exclusion the women’s an that argue of is dimension They Thailand social Thailand. the in to ordination attention full draw also many reason, empowerment. the or community, uhni eiiu esn n rn hmtesm ihsas rights same the them grant and persons religious authentic ( nrdcino the of introduction 55). 2000, (Lindberg-Falk monks’ male the the to from subordination lized apart and ‘independent’ remaining udat sals h ‘four-fold the establish to Buddha 311 the all follow to having by daunted idegFl el sta h aoiyo ussehsitriwdwudntwn to want not would interviewed has she nuns of become majority the that us tells Lindberg-Falk oe’ ttsadotoswti udimne oudrorfr,btmany but the reform, transforming undergo towards work to to need appropriate more Buddhism is it within that options argue and status women’s n16)i eidacmag o ea hneta ol recognise would that change legal for for opportunity campaign a the (established behind Institute’ have Chi is ‘Mae women 1969) the Moreover, where in (2000). practice nunneries’ religious and ‘independent education of emergence chi the introduce to than rather upasaka tes oee,aedsisv fti esnn n nta testa the that stress instead and reasoning this of dismissive are however, Others, nttto sarayudron rcs frfr,priual hog the through particularly reform, of 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roles Thai gender in about women attitudes of status religious subordinate male nature. from sexual advice a practical of constraints and issues cultural spiritual regarding The seek but particularly HIV. to support, persons, women and contracted for advice suffered have difficult for have it or Buddhists who make lay women marriages, by to their female consulted ordinands service with female typically counselling of that problems informal in envisioned an or community is education offer it abuse of Moreover, to recognised boys. able institutionalisation as be and the well would as enable respected girls for would from temples a Buddhism this the prevent Thai of help in argued, argued, The creation ordinands trade. is sex is it The the would, into it nuns’ trafficked happening. up ‘temporary end This, similar become to from to likely become girls. girls most opportunity who are and boys to who backgrounds, The those deprived girls. are denied socially backgrounds young from of is come trafficking monks’ sex religious opportunity ‘temporary the free of a this likelihood receive the they boys education, exacerbates where young monks, general many temporary as While and community. temples in the living to time services spend various providing in Buddhism oe srifre ihntesrcueo vrdypbi uditpatc and practice Buddhist of public inferiority everyday intrinsic of structure This the 124). custom: within autono- 2005, reinforced independent, is (Peach than of women rather individuals’ because oriented self-determining men family than mous, and rebirth embedded lower socially a relational, are women that kamma understanding the reinforces a aehsofrn iltems lel oa edteohrwmnt aeterofferings their make to women other by boy the 48). merit youngest lead 2005, the woman make until Greenwood elderly Not men most and men. the elderly (Klunklin younger will the The offering by perimeter. his followed monks, made first, the the has bowls around to monks’ closest the sit in sit men. Women food men status and placing Elderly men. differential women status. younger higher and the by denoting people, denotes platform, younger followed raised clearly and a hall elders upon persons, meeting sit lay Monks the and in monks space between the distinctions the of leading of organisation officiants, members lay the as as or participating addition, monks and as rituals, ordained Buddhism, conducting of chanting, roles public the all perform Men h eodteerie ytoeIitriwdcnen h ecpinta the that perception the concerns interviewed I those by raised theme second The bhikkhuni curdi rvoslvs(wn19)ad‘oe r oilsdt be to socialised are ‘women and 1998) (Owen lives previous in acquired riaini hiadi t oeta orblneti institutionalised this rebalance to potential its is Thailand in ordination h Thai The edr&Development & Gender bhikkhuni oeetadwmnsempowerment women’s and movement Á / 6 ec 05 2) Buddhism 124). 2005, Peach 66; o.1,N.3 oebr2006 November 3, No. 14, Vol. wat tml)cmite In committee. (temple) bhikkhus are 389 Downloaded By: At: 14:35 28 February 2008 390 blt oHV hsi xcrae ytehg rprino e h aesex have the who but men prostitution, of condone proportion not high does the Buddhism by marriage. sangha exacerbated after is prostitutes this with HIV, to ability vdnet h otay Kuki n rewo 05 2.Tu,t niton insist to or Thus, husband one’s infidelity. 52). trusting own not 2005, one’s as perceived of Greenwood be evidence has can and as she relationship marital when (Klunklin a even in fidelity contrary’ use and condom honesty the partner’s to her in evidence believe and ideal trust to the ‘expected of understanding an to Central 49). and manners; (2005, social sexuality‘ and kunlasatr appearance her in in unassuming yet conservative ( pleasant notions and woman in graceful argue, Thai duties; they the ideal reinforcement, and further tradition the Buddhist finds the of deficit’ in ‘kammic men of women’s status in superior belief The 46). 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Buddhist well essentially the the of of as are interpretations corruptions teachings feminist later 2000), are Buddhist influences Peach that patriarchal any 1991; is and view (Murcott popular texts one instance, the the of in images of feminine positive existence women’s 1992), the Sponberg and 1991; and men (Murcott emphasise women enlightenment and studies gain books to These numerous ability traditions. of equal subject Buddhist the different become in 81). has it 2000, articles Buddhism equal; (Peach of women’ are for exposition women liberation and feminist and men This empowerment that of view ‘sources the provide support thus to can interpreted be also can tradition nBdhs si si hitaiy sa,o te eiin,adpotttsaenot are 70 prostitutes 2000, and (Peach religions, teachings’ other or Buddhist Islam, in sin Christianity, a negatively be in Peach viewed to is considered always 1992; not it ‘is (Mueke as prostitution that Buddhism workers out in point sex contrast, by commercial Others, 2005). from 2000, the donations of interests monetary the harm substantial would this that suggest Some su fsxtafcig noigtepeet fnnhr ( non-harm of precepts the invoking trafficking, sex of issue ngtv am yrifrigcaigadatcmn otesnulwrdo desire of world sensual the to to bondage attachment perpetuates and (which craving reinforcing by karma ‘negative lvr’(ec 00 5 uk 92 utrgia 01 2;Kblig 91 67; 1991, Kabilsingh the 227; legitimate 2001, Puntarigvivat to sexual 1992; in functions Mueke 1999). involved women Satha-Anand 65; culture of 2000, rights Buddhist (Peach human the slavery’ Thai deny thereby ‘traditional and earn industry, to trafficking Thus, opportunity an 125). with them their that (2005, provides improve money to This popular earn order monks. to one in to women us, merit donations enables tells as it Peach give about that can as is stories they Moreover, Thailand find in Buddha. we prostitution the texts are towards of Buddhist prostitutes attitude friends the culture in as Thai and In often with negativity 125): prostitutes, associated to universal 2005, stigma industry. with (Peach not the cultures viewed of teachings sex-tourism other not much Buddhist many removes profitable of in degrading in work or a tendency part similar immoral The a of as play Thailand. work also demands in sex factors view industry cultural the that sex suggested as opportunities the have economic sustaining studies well and of educational number as of a However, females, lack the poor to point for to likely are researchers oee,mn r aln nthe on calling are many However, sangha eulmisconduct sexual lhuhti nesadn of understanding this Although and reasons, complex for Thailand in prostitution enter women and Girls sls ople otk tneo omrilsxwr sa tia issue. ethical an as work sex commercial on stance a take to compelled less is bhikkhuni 12 rsrsigta rsiuinlast h cuuainof accumulation the to leads prostitution that stressing or , riaina h ieo h uda(wn19) For 1998). 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Buddhist Tomalin Emma edr&Development & Gender Notes and research environmentalism; Her and religion. and religion women development; and e.tomalin@leeds.ac.uk religions international Email: Indian gender. and of University and the areas religion religion at the Studies in include Religious and teaches interests Theology she of where Department Leeds the in of lecturer a is Tomalin Emma 3 2 1 teBdhs oatccmuiy.Teeaetetretig htBdhssgive Buddhists that things in’. three refuge the ‘take are or These to themselves community). monastic Buddhist the (the Buddha, the the of grant. consisting tradition small refuges’ Academy Buddhist British the a by In Thai funded developing of been the doctrines has following Vajrayana/ and research closely been history and have the I Korea) 2002 of Since discussion and a Mahayana Japan for tradition. Laos), (1994) China, each Skilton and Vietnam, See Cambodia, in Buddhism. Tibetan Myanmar/Burma, (practised today Buddhism Lanka, (practised Theravada Sri types: Buddhism Thailand, main three in into today divided usually is Buddhism o.1,N.3 oebr2006 November 3, No. 14, Vol. sangha dharma spr ftes-ald‘rpegm r‘three or gem’ ‘triple so-called the of part is teBdh’ ecig)adthe and teachings) Buddha’s (the bhikkhuni bhikkhuni oeeta local a as movement oeet This movement. bhikkhuni sangha Downloaded By: At: 14:35 28 February 2008 13 12 11 10 14 5 4 9 8 7 6 ocr htwmnaentral aal flaigarnnit ie e Owen see life, renunciate a leading of genuine Buddha a capable the indicates really this why not not or reasons are whether (1998). the and women of women, of that range ordain discussion to concern a reluctant of detailed be supportive be to a to thus seemed texts For and religious perspectives agendas. for different tendency socio-political ‘four-fold from broader the the interpretation with to establish consistent open is to this was However, 5). intention note original Buddha’s the sangha that suggestion The nteltrtr.Sm ugs htta ti eeto fteBdh’ initial times 20 three Buddha’s 1998, asked the was Owen of to he subservient reflection them (see that make effectively a reported nuns monks for is is rules extra (it the it the ordain that and that to agreed) he that women before allow suggest attention much to received Some has reluctance monks literature. than rules the more keep in to expected are nuns that fact ycnrs,Theravada contrast, By htte eeltradtost h rdto n i o eetteBuddha’s the reflect not did and tradition the to 29 additions 1991, suggest later or (Kabilsingh women) intentions were control than rather they protect to that serve they believe (i.e. discriminatory cuuae hog iigt ok,ada uhte r osdrdt eauthentic be to considered are they merit’. such of as ‘fields and monks, to giving through accumulated ( positive monks to both donations ( and alms food Giving niiul r eetdybr.I steamo uditpatc ooti release obtain to practice Buddhist of aim the is adhere. It to from born. aspire repeatedly Buddhists all are which individuals to precepts five the Samsara of two are These a runs Bangkok. which in Women, children of and Status the women of abused Promotion the for the shelter in for Association Chi pioneer the Mae of a co-founder lawyer also feminist for was education the high-school She by the deceased. heralded of reform now originally 1997 broader Wichiencharoen, was the since reform Kanitha unconstitutional, legal Khunying women. actually for and is call men it to This equality practice, the grants Although governs rule. Constitution this and National to background stands the clergy tradition. still of Buddhist discussion the rule of a within for circle made 45ff) elite (1991, decisions an Kabilsingh important See is over Lanka influence Sri have in who Assembly’) (‘Great Sangha Maha The www.censusindia.net/religiondata/Summary%20- 16/04/06). accessed census (last Indian Buddhists.pdf 2001 the from Data accessed (last 25/05/06). http://www.adherents.com/largecom/com_buddhist.html from Data h a enmridadsethrcre sa cdmcadcmage for campaigner and was academic (who an mother her as by established career was her that temple spent a runs and She Kabilsingh. ordination. married Chatsumarn women’s called been previously was had known, She now is she as Dhammananda, bhikkhunis samsara em ob ncnitwt i paetiiilrlcac oodi oe (see women ordain to reluctance initial apparent his with conflict in be to seems ’ steBdhs emfrtecceo hnmnleitne nowhich into existences phenomenal of cycle the for term Buddhist the is kamma sblee ocne eiiu ei ntednr,wihicesstheir increases which donors, the on merit religious confer to believed is ) n olne ereborn. be longer no and n mrvstercacso aorberbrh otmrtis merit Most rebirth. favourable a of chances their improves and a chis Mae a chi mae bhikkhus oee,aentcniee ob uh‘ed fmerit’. of ‘fields such be to considered not are however, , a chis mae nttto,etbihn h rtadol olg o post- for college only and first the establishing institution, h Thai The Á / 0 sm 00 7 uua20,20). 2000, Kusuma 27; 2000, Tsomo 30; mns ae27rls(the rules 227 have (monks) edr&Development & Gender aaaaaiTeiCleei hrt h a the was She Khorat. in College Theri Mahapajapati , Á / 6.Ohr r escnicdta hyare they that convinced less are Others 26). bhikkhuni oeetadwmnsempowerment women’s and movement bhikkhus o.1,N.3 oebr2006 November 3, No. 14, Vol. n oflyodie nuns ordained fully to and ) hkh patimokkha bhikkhu .The ). 395 Downloaded By: At: 14:35 28 February 2008 396 hake,O. Khuankaew, M. R. Gross, Sanitsuda Ekachai, aisnh C. Kabilsingh, uk,M.A. Mueke, 15 lnln .adJ Greenwood J. and A. Klunklin, ec,L J. L. Peach, B. L. Owen, uct,S. Murcott, hda Bhikkhuni Bhadra, References Tomalin Emma edr&Development & Gender idegFl,M. Lindberg-Falk, uk,M.A. Mueke, Y. Li, e,BikuiadBikuiBhadra Bhikkhuni and Bhikkhuni Lee, uua Bhikkhuni Kusuma, fBuddhism of hita Ethics Christian Review Crossroads utr,Hat n Sexuality and Health Culture, prostitution’, I/ISi Thailand’, in HIV/AIDS nlsso h hkhn re nIda Buddhism’, Indian in Order 4(3) Bhikkhuni the of analysis Press Parallax Calif.: Berkeley, ol elwhpo udit Review Buddhists of Fellowship World .B idy(ed.) Findly B. E. (ed.) Tsomo L. K. 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Publishing Post the Books, Post Bangkok: . 19)‘ngnee icus n h aneac fbudre:afeminist a boundaries: of maintenance the and discourse gendered ‘On (1998) (1993) h sa retcmage o eaeodnto n a upre a supported has and ordination female for campaigner ardent an is She . 19)‘ohrsl od agtrslshrbody her sells daughter food, sold ‘Mother (1992) Á lay tt nvriyo e okPress York New of University State Albany: , 20)‘eaesxaiyi hidsore bu aci ‘a nuns’)’, (‘lay Maechii about discourses Thai in sexuality ‘Female (2004) / 4) (1991) oilSineadMedicine and Science Social 20)‘udimaddmsi violence’, domestic and ‘Buddhism (2002) 20 h is uditWmn rnltosadCmetre nteTherigatha the on Commentaries and Translations Women: Buddhist First The 20)‘oe nbten eoigrlgosprosi hiad,in Thailand’, in persons religious becoming between: in ‘Women (2000) udimAtrPtirh:AFmns itr,Aayi,adReconstruction and Analysis, History, Feminist A Patriarchy: After Buddhism ihod oteg Curzon Routledge Richmond: , 20)‘ihrodnto htlast h rdcto fdefilements’, of eradication the to leads that ordination ‘Higher (2002) oe’ udimBdhs’ Women Buddhism’s Buddhism Women’s wt ikWlu d)(2001) ed.) 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Wijayasundara, P. Esterik, Van atnvl,VnrbeadB Earth B. and Venerable Rattanavali, L.J. Peach, utrgia,T. Puntarigvivat, klo,A. Skilton, S. Satha-Anand, pneg A. Sponberg, sm,K.L. Tsomo, K. Thitsa, ..Too(ed.) Tsomo K.L. e okPress York New Press York New of University State nrdcin,i ..Too(ed.) Tsomo K.L. in introduction’, ilneaantwmni Thailand’, in women against violence Press trafficking York New anti-sex of University in identity (eds.) moral and subjectivity, sexuality, discourse’, on perspectives abig nvriyPress University Cambridge Thailand Press York nJR ae n ..Bl (eds.) Bell D.A. and Bauer J.R. in nJ .Cbzn(ed.) Cabezon I. J. in htMnOet oe:MnsVie rmWrdReligions World from Voices Men’s Women: to Owe Men What odn hneItrainlReports International Change London: , 20)‘‘e lvs’o ’e okr’?Cosclua n oprtv religious comparative and Cross-cultural workers’’? ’’sex or slaves’’ ‘‘‘Sex (2005) (1980) (1994) 20)‘aarjpt’ eay h uditwmnsmovement women’s Buddhist the Legacy: ‘Mahaprajapati’s (2000) utr n Religion and Culture 19)‘tiue oadwmnadtefmnn neryBuddhism’, early in feminine the and women toward ‘Attitudes (1992) (2000) 20)‘ hiBdhs esetv’ nJC ansadDC Maguire D.C. and Raines J.C. in perspective’, Buddhist Thai ‘A (2001) 19)‘okn oBdhs otr akpottto nThailand’, in prostitution back turn to Buddhism to ‘Looking (1999) ocs itr fBuddhism of History Concise A rvdneadPottto:IaeadRaiyfrWmni Buddhist in Women for Reality and Image Prostitution: and Providence uditWmnArs utrs Realizations Cultures: Across Women Buddhist 20)‘etrn h re fnn oteTeaai rdto’ in tradition’, Theravadin the to nuns of order the ‘Restoring (2000) aeilzn Thailand Materializing udim eult n Gender and Sexuality Buddhism, h Thai The 6(1) h atAinCalnefrHmnRights Human for Challenge Asian East The uditWmnArs utrs Realizations Cultures: Across Women Buddhist edr&Development & Gender 20)‘otes sa h oi-eiiu ot of roots socio-religious the Asia: ‘Southeast (2003) h ol elwhpo udit Review Buddhists of Fellowship World The bhikkhuni xod egBooks Berg Oxford: , imnhm idos Publications Windhorse Birmingham: , oeetadwmnsempowerment women’s and movement lay tt nvriyo New of University State Albany: , o.1,N.3 oebr2006 November 3, No. 14, Vol. lay tt nvriyof University State Albany: , e ok State York: New , Cambridge: , 03:33 40(3): Albany: , Á / an Á / 9 397