Landscape Archaeology and Sacred Space in the Eastern Mediterranean: a Glimpse from Cyprus

land Article Landscape Archaeology and Sacred Space in the Eastern Mediterranean: A Glimpse from Cyprus Giorgos Papantoniou 1,* and Athanasios K. Vionis 2 1 Research Training Group 1878: Archaeology of Pre-Modern Economies, Abteilung für Klassische Archäologie, Institut für Archäologie und Kulturanthropologie, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, Lennéstr. 1, D-53113 Bonn, Germany 2 Department of History and Archaeology, University of Cyprus, P.O. Box 20537, 1678 Nicosia, Cyprus; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Academic Editors: Ioannis N. Vogiatzakis, Theano S. Terkenli, Maria Gabriella Trovato and Nizar Abu-Jaber Received: 6 May 2017; Accepted: 9 June 2017; Published: 14 June 2017 Abstract: This article aims to raise issues for discussion about the change in the use and concept of sacred landscapes, which were originally constructed in the era of the Cypriot kings (the basileis), but then continued to function in a new imperial environment, that of the rule of the Ptolemaic strategos and later of the Roman proconsul and the various Christian bishops. Our archaeological survey project in the Xeros river valley, titled ‘Settled and Sacred Landscapes of Cyprus’, reveals that these new politico-economic structures were also supported by the construction of symbolically charged sacred landscapes. Thus, while outlining the long history of the island as manifested from the diachronic study of Cypriot sacred landscapes, we identify three pivotal phases: first, the consolidation of the Cypriot polities and the establishment of a ‘full’ sacred landscape; second, the transition from segmented to unitary administration under the Ptolemaic and Roman imperial rule and the consolidation of a more ‘unified sacred landscape’; and finally, the establishment of a number of Christian bishoprics on the island and the movement back to a ‘full’ sacred landscape. Moving beyond the discipline of Cypriot archaeology, this contribution aims to serve as a paradigm for the implications that the employment of the ‘sacred landscapes’ concept may have when addressing issues of socio-political and socio-economic transformations. While it is very difficult to define or capture the concept of landscape in a pre-modern world, it offers a useful means by which to assess changing local conditions. We have also attempted to situate the term in archaeological thought, in order to allow the concept to become a more powerful investigative tool for approaching the past. Keywords: Cyprus; landscape archaeology; sacred space; political power; economy; religion; ideology; ancient sanctuaries; churches 1. Introduction Landscape archaeology is currently hugely popular. However, there are problems with defining the term “landscape”. This is partially because the term is used in various ways, not only between different disciplines but also within each discipline, which forces us briefly to analyze the concept in an archaeological context. It should be acknowledged that the term has also been used very freely in archaeological writings. Many scholars have used the term as a “fashionable gloss” for survey studies or an improved “site-catchment analysis” [1,2]. One should, however, try to understand the term in its broader sense. The concept of landscapes encompasses temporality, spatiality and materiality; therefore, much can be said about human responses to the changing conditions of life over time through its study. The term is concerned both with the conscious and the unconscious shaping of the land and the Land 2017, 6, 40; doi:10.3390/land6020040 www.mdpi.com/journal/land Land 2017, 6, 40 2 of 18 processes of organizing space, and involves interaction between the physical environment and human presence.Land 2017 As, 6, Matthew40 Johnson notes, “the two senses of the term ‘land-scape’ are important2 of 18 here: not justThe theterm land, is concerned but how itboth is viewedwith the or conscious mentally and constructed” the unconscious [3]. shaping of the land and the processesContemporary of organizing approaches space, to and landscape involves archaeologyinteraction betwee includen the a broadphysical range environment of archaeological and issues,human such presence. as social As Matthew organization, Johnson rural notes, economy “the two senses and sacred of the term space, ‘land-scape’ trying to are extract important agency, ideology,here: not meaning, just the land, memory, but how identity, it is viewed social or mentally order, constructed” morality and [3]. social transformation from landscapes.Contemporary While the lastapproaches decades to of landscape landscape archaeology archaeological include research a broad in range the Eastern of archaeological Mediterranean (andissues, in the Mediterraneansuch as social organization, region in general) rural haveeconom seeny and an intensification sacred space, oftrying interest to inextract bringing agency, together geographicideology, (concrete meaning, and memory, descriptive identity, forms social concerned order,with morality determining and social the naturetransformation of and classifyingfrom landscapes. While the last decades of landscape archaeological research in the Eastern Mediterranean places, as well as establishing the links between them) and sociological “imaginations” (an aspiration (and in the Mediterranean region in general) have seen an intensification of interest in bringing to explain human behavior and activities in terms of social process abstractly constructed) [4], some together geographic (concrete and descriptive forms concerned with determining the nature of and archaeologistsclassifying haveplaces, seen as well landscape as establishing as “the arenathe links in whichbetween and them) through and sociological which memory, “imaginations” identity, social order(an and aspiration transformation to explain are constructed,human behavior played and out, acti re-invented,vities in terms and of changed” social process [5]. Landscape abstractly then, can beconstructed) seen as the [4], “arena” some archaeologists for social agency have seen [6]. landscape as “the arena in which and through which memory,Cypriot sacredidentity, landscapes social order are and rarely transformation examined inare relation constructed, to political played power,out, re-invented, political economyand and ideology.changed” [5]. Such Landscape landscape then, perspectives can be seen areas the absent “arena” from for studiessocial agency of the [6]. crucial transitions from the Cypro–ArchaicCypriot and sacred Cypro–Classical landscapes are rarely city-kingdoms examined in to relation the Hellenistic to political period, power, from political the Hellenisticeconomy to the Romanand ideology. era, and Such from landscape Roman perspectives times to early are Christianity. absent from studies Acknowledging of the crucial the transitions potential from of landscape the Cypro–Archaic and Cypro–Classical city-kingdoms to the Hellenistic period, from the Hellenistic to studies to provide a major source of new interpretations on the longue durée (the long-term approach to the Roman era, and from Roman times to early Christianity. Acknowledging the potential of the study of the past, employed by the French Annales School of history) this contribution should be landscape studies to provide a major source of new interpretations on the longue durée (the long-term regardedapproach as a to dynamic the study attempt of the past, to re-workemployed and by the re-experience French Annales not School only theof history) Cypriot this sacred contribution landscapes throughshould various be regarded transitional as a dynamic phases, attempt but also to re-work to further and re-experience illuminate the not political only the andCypriot socio-cultural sacred historieslandscapes of the through Cypriot various city-kingdoms, transitional thephases, Hellenistic, but also to the further Roman illuminate andthe the Latepolitical Antique and socio- periods whencultural viewed histories independently of the Cypriot (Figure city-kingdoms,1). We demonstrate the Hellenistic, how the a diachronic Roman and approach the Late Antique to Cypriot sacredperiods landscapes, when viewed which independently includes ancient (Figure sanctuaries 1). We demonstrate and early Christianhow a diachronic basilicas approach can open to new interpretativeCypriot sacred windows, landscapes, impossible which includes to reach ancient without sanctuaries such a comparativeand early Christian approach. basilicas Late can Antiquity,open in particular,new interpretative is a crucial windows, period inimpossible the development to reach ofwithout Cypriot such sacred a comparative landscapes approach. as again, Late similarly to theAntiquity, beginning in particular, of the Archaic is a crucial period period and in the the consolidation development of of Cypriot the Iron sacred Age landscapes polities, we as moveagain, from similarly to the beginning of the Archaic period and the consolidation of the Iron Age polities, we a ‘half-empty’ to a ‘half-full’ and later to a ‘full’ sacred landscape. move from a ‘half-empty’ to a ‘half-full’ and later to a ‘full’ sacred landscape. Figure 1. Map of Cyprus with places and archaeological sites mentioned in the text. Circle: ancient Figurecity; 1. triangle:Map of ancient Cyprus cult-site; with places cross: andChristian archaeological site (digital sitesgeological mentioned data courtesy in the of text. the Circle:Geological ancient city;Survey triangle: Department, ancient cult-site; Republic cross:

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