STUDY OF THE GEOMORPHOLOGY OF CYPRUS FINAL REPORT Unger and Kotshy (1865) – Geological Map of Cyprus PART 1/3 Main Report Metakron Consortium January 2010 TABLE OF CONTENTS PART 1/3 1 Introduction 1.1 Present Investigation 1-1 1.2 Previous Investigations 1-1 1.3 Project Approach and Scope of Work 1-15 1.4 Methodology 1-16 2 Physiographic Setting 2.1 Regions and Provinces 2-1 2.2 Ammochostos Region (Am) 2-3 2.3 Karpasia Region (Ka) 2-3 2.4 Keryneia Region (Ky) 2-4 2.5 Mesaoria Region (Me) 2-4 2.6 Troodos Region (Tr) 2-5 2.7 Pafos Region (Pa) 2-5 2.8 Lemesos Region (Le) 2-6 2.9 Larnaca Region (La) 2-6 3 Geological Framework 3.1 Introduction 3-1 3.2 Terranes 3-2 3.3 Stratigraphy 3-2 4 Environmental Setting 4.1 Paleoclimate 4-1 4.2 Hydrology 4-11 4.3 Discharge 4-30 5 Geomorphic Processes and Landforms 5.1 Introduction 5-1 6 Quaternary Geological Map Units 6.1 Introduction 6-1 6.2 Anthropogenic Units 6-4 6.3 Marine Units 6-6 6.4 Eolian Units 6-10 6.5 Fluvial Units 6-11 6.6 Gravitational Units 6-14 6.7 Mixed Units 6-15 6.8 Paludal Units 6-16 6.9 Residual Units 6-18 7. Geochronology 7.1 Outcomes and Results 7-1 7.2 Sidereal Methods 7-3 7.3 Isotopic Methods 7-3 7.4 Radiogenic Methods – Luminescence Geochronology 7-17 7.5 Chemical and Biological Methods 7-88 7.6 Geomorphic Methods 7-88 7.7 Correlational Methods 7-95 8 Quaternary History 8-1 9 Geoarchaeology 9.1 Introduction 9-1 9.2 Survey of Major Archaeological Sites 9-6 9.3 Landscapes of Major Archaeological Sites 9-10 10 Geomorphosites: Recognition and Legal Framework for their Protection 10.1 Geomorphological Heritage Sites 10-1 10.2 Conceptual Framework for Recognition of Geomorphosites 10-2 10.3 Geological Criterion of the World Heritage Convention 10-4 10.4 Recognition of Cypriote Geomorphosites 10-6 10.5 Evaluation Process 10-7 11 References Cited 11-1 PART 2/3 Appendix 1.1 Literature Review Appendix 2.1 Physiography PART 3/3 Appendix 4.1 Hydrography Appendix 9.1 Geoarchaeology Appendix 10.1 Legal Framework Geomorphology of Cyprus - Final Technical Report 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 PRESENT INVESTIGATION The project for the Geomorphology of Cyprus begun in January of 2006 and ended in January of 2010. The project included field and laboratory work intended to produce a reconstruction of the Quaternary geologic history of the island with two sets of Maps: the geomorphology maps and the Quaternary geology maps, both at 1:50,000 scale. This report is the result of this research prepared by the MetaKron Consortium for the Cyprus Geological Survey. The MetaKron Consortium members and main contributors to this work and this report are: Oregon State University in the US (also having the overall project coordination with J. Noller), Geocratis Ltd in Cyprus (also acting as the authorized representative with G. Nikitas), the University of Wales Aberstwyth in the UK, Berkeley Geochronology Center in the US, the University of Toronto in Canada, Mansoura University in Egypt, Dr. Lisa Wells in the US, Dr. Costas Xenophontos and Dr. Tom Davis, both in Cyprus. 1.2 PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS Geomorphology of Cyprus has been the subject of numerous early studies, some of which predate modern Earth sciences (cf. Strabo, AD23; Kichener, 1883). After these early works, the early bibliography on the geology of Cyprus is very rich in publications on the geochemistry of the ophiolite rocks, copper and chromite deposits and the theory behind the age of the Troodos ophiolite, its emplacement and significance in its eastern Mediterranean tectonic framework. Any research or publications on the circum Troodos sedimentary cover and Quaternary geology are not considered significant since they make no contributions to mining geology or the island’s economy. Until the 1980’s geological mapping concentrates on the central Troodos Mountains usually lumping Quaternary sediments into one or two units, listing them as recent fluvial and/or marine terraces. 1-1 Geomorphology of Cyprus - Final Technical Report Figure 1-1. An early map of Cyprus by Ortelius (1584) shows its classic outline. Physiographic features include a few of the main rivers (e.g., Kouris and Pediaios draining the Troodos mountains, but no Keryneia Range is shown. The Kouris drains into Akrotiri Salt Lake, then out to sea through the area known today as Lady's Mile beach. Notable also is the representation of just four main woods. The landscape of the island is mostly explained as directly related to bedrock erosivity and geomorphological regions are still correlated with geological zones. De Vaumas, (1959a) makes the first geomorphological map of Cyprus, showing the principal geomorphological regions of Cyprus (Figure 1-2).. In his paper “Les grandes regions morphologiques de Chypre” (The great morphological regions of Cyprus) and a series of annual reports and extended abstracts (de Vaumas, 1959a, 1959b, 1959c, 1963b) recognizes two major geomorphic zones on Cyprus, the Keryneia range in the north (including the Karpasia peninsula) and the Troodos massif in the south. Rather than a separate unit, the intervening Mesaoria plain is formed by juxtaposition of the piedmonts associated with the two massifs; fluvial plains are developed at the west and east ends. Marine terraces, deformed ancient erosional surfaces, scarps, and other erosional landforms are described and discussed in relation to regional lithology and orogenic history. He presents a descriptive geomorphology of the broad surface across the Karpasia. It utilizes an outdated ‘erosion surface’ model of landscape evolution. De Vaumas' work ranged around the eastern Mediterranean region, including his seminal studies on uplifted marine terraces along the Levant shore (de Vaumas, 1963a). 1-2 Geomorphology of Cyprus - Final Technical Report Figure 1-2. Geomorphological map of Cyprus according to de Vaumas (1959c). 1-3 Geomorphology of Cyprus - Final Technical Report Contemporary with de Vaumas's work, Thrower (1960) performed a geomorphological study of the island. His focus was on hypsometry and landform relationships, which were only beginning to be defined by geomorphologists. His map (Fig. 1.3) contrasts with the European tradition of geomorphological maps by using dasymetric (area-class) representation of like landscapes features in a map. In this work, we see the landforms represented as plains, hillslopes and mountains, much like this report's presentation. He provides the first known analysis maps of terrain of Cyprus, including hypsometry, slope and relative relief (Fig. 1-4). Everard (1963) in his paper on the evolution of hillslopes of central Cyprus makes an important early reference on the geomorphology of Cyprus. Excellent observations and conclusions were made. Unfortunately, this work has been ignored by later workers. Work demonstrates the importance of kafkalla in landscape evolution in Cyprus. Kafkalla armors the landscape at different stages of the erosional and depositional cycle on hill slopes. Talus aprons and triangular hill slope facets are a response to the armoring capabilities of kafkalla and its fragments (Fig. 1-5). Interest in the geomorphology of Cyprus continued to be focused on the northern slope of the Troodos near Lefkosia with the mapping of Ducloz (1965). In this work, building on identification of the Fanglomerate Group, a broad bajada of fluvial fan deposits along the northern Troodos (Fig. 1-6). Field work by Pantazis (1967) and Turner (1971) builds a more detailed picture of flights of marine terraces and their significance in assessing Quaternary uplift of the island. Pantazis records the occurrence of the Strombus bubonius and Murex fossils between Moni and Zygi, indicative of warm Senegalese fauna of marine isotope stage 5e and correlates those marine terraces with other Strombus bubonius sites recorded in the Mediterranean mostly by Italian authors. We recognize in the work of Turner (1971) on the geology of the Polis-Kathikas area, a modern coverage of geomorphological and geological data, including maps, for the Polis basin. His tectonic interpretations still hold and his detailed mapping of calcarenites provide useful stratigraphic correlations. Geomorphological study in the northern part of Cyprus is rare, largely due to its partition and scientific isolation since the advent of modern Quaternary science. The descriptive work on landforms in the Keryneia Range (Dreghorn, 1978) is such a rare study. Dreghorn's is an invaluable document on the geomorphology of northern Cyprus. It provides important data on the occupied part of Cyprus which is not accessible for mapping. Interpretations of the landscape are largely timeless, hence of significance because of the excellent diagrams of landforms and their location (Fig. 1-7). The same author ends his career in 1981 with a paper on the Holocene uplift on the northern coasts of Cyprus. In this publication, marine terraces and beachrock formations are interpreted in light of tectonic and eustatic changes of relative sea level. A eustatic rise in sea level of 1m in last 1500 years (i.e., post Roman period) is suggested. 1-4 Geomorphology of Cyprus - Final Technical Report Figure 1-3. Geomorphological map of Cyprus according to Thrower (1960). 1-5 Geomorphology of Cyprus - Final Technical Report Figure 1-4. Geographic and terrain analysis maps of Cyprus (Thrower, 1960). Figure 1-5. Hillslope retreat was key to Everard's (1960) analysis of the eroded fluvial fan remnants west of Lefkosia. Here he demonstrates the armouring effect of collapsed kafkalla (petrocalcic soil) blocks. 1-6 Geomorphology of Cyprus - Final Technical Report Figure 1-6. Surficial geological map of the upper Pediaios river valley, north of Troodos mountain front (from Poole, 1990, after Ducloz, 1965).