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Sudan, Civil War and Terrorism, 1956–99 Also by Edgar O’Ballance and from the Same Publishers

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Sudan, Civil War and Terrorism, 1956–99 Also by Edgar O’Ballance and from the Same Publishers Sudan, Civil War and Terrorism, 1956–99 Also by Edgar O’Ballance and from the same publishers CIVIL WAR IN BOSNIA, 1992–94 THE KURDISH STRUGGLE WAR IN THE CAUCASUS, 1990–95 ISLAMIC FUNDAMENTALIST TERRORISM, 1979–95 CIVIL WAR IN LEBANON, 1975–92 THE CONGO–ZAIRE EXPERIENCE, 1960–98 Sudan, Civil War and Terrorism, 1956–99 Edgar O’Ballance First published in Great Britain 2000 by MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 978-1-349-42112-1 ISBN 978-0-230-59732-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9780230597327 First published in the United States of America 2000 by ST. MARTIN’S PRESS, LLC, Scholarly and Reference Division, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data O’Ballance, Edgar. Sudan, civil war and terrorism, 1956–99 / Edgar O’Ballance. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Sudan—Politics and government—1956–1985. 2. Sudan—Politics and government—1985– I. Title. DT157.3 O2 2000 962.404—dc21 00–022312 © Edgar O’Ballance 2000 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 0LP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. 109 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 Contents List of Maps vi Preface vii Acknowledgements ix Abbreviations x Chronology xii 1 Independence 1 2 The Rejected South 15 3 Southern Politics 27 4 The Anya-Nya 36 5 Numeiry to Power 51 6 Lagu Unites the South 68 7 Autonomy and Consolidation 82 8 Terrorism and Treachery 95 9 Fluctuating Friendships 109 10 The Sharia Law Experience 125 11 The Transitional Military Council 140 12 Premier Sadik Mahdi 156 13 The Bashir Regime 167 14 Negotiation and Hesitation 181 15 Stalemate 196 16 At the Crossroads 203 Bibliography 209 Index 210 v List of Maps 1 Sudan, 1956 xviii 2 Sudan railways, 1956 xix 3 South-east Sudan, combat area, 1983±99 xx vi Preface Until the nineteenth century the country we now know as Sudan, the largest country in Africa, had no political entity or defined frontiers. It is thought that in ancient times the Kingdom of Kush occupied an area on either side of the Nile river between Khartoum and Wadi Halfa, until it was eclipsed in the third century AD by early Christian kingdoms, which were eventually submerged by small Arab migrations, bringing Islam with them. The extreme south of the country reached into unknown Black Africa and was referred to as Bilad al-Sudan, loosely translated as the Land of the Blacks, the mystery of the source of the Nile remaining tantalisingly unsolved until the nineteenth century. Early that century Mohammed Ali, an Albanian soldier of fortune, was proclaimed Pasha of Egypt, then nominally part of the Ottoman Empire. Mohammed Ali began a military expansion into Sudan in search of fabled riches of gold and ivory, subduing in 1824 the once powerful Funj kingdom at Sennar, a notorious slave market town. Realising there were in fact no riches at the end of the rainbow, he established a fort near the confluence of the White Nile and the Blue Nile. He named the site Khartoum, said to mean `elephant's trunk', and took over the slave trading monopoly. His troops penetrated southwards, establishing a chain of forts along the riverside. The Congress of Berlin in 1886, which defined the spheres of influence of the colonising European powers in Africa, outlined Sudan's modern boundaries. The British remember Sudan for its colonial defeats and victory, the death of General Gordon and the sacking of Khartoum (1885), and the Battle of Omdurman (1898), when a small Anglo-Egyptian force, armed with rifles and machine guns, defeated the Mahdi's primitively armed Ansar hordes. The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium followed, with the British in the driving seat, which brought Sudan under its colonial administration. The British practised their `divide and administer pol- icy', separating the smaller black south, from the larger Muslim north and centre. In the completely undeveloped and neglected black south, Christian missionaries were encouraged to establish schools, convert animists and spread the English language as a barrier against encroach- ing Arabic-speaking Muslims. In January 1956 Sudan gained its independence by peaceful means, the British passing on its multiparty system of democratic government, vii viii Preface which staggered along briefly under corrupt and changing governments, bluntly neglecting the south and brushing aside its call for federalism. The first census, in 1956, showed the population to be just over ten million, about a quarter of whom lived in the south. There were some 572 tribes and 114 recognised languages. Discontent in the south devel- oped into guerrilla warfare, waged by the Land Freedom Army, known as the Anya-Nya (`snake bite'). The war became known as the `grass curtain war' because news of it was smothered by censorship, and sometimes as the first civil war. President Numeiry came to power in Khartoum by means of a military coup in 1969. Numeiry, realising the guerrilla war was unwinable ± it had already cost some 50 000 lives, no one knows the exact figure ± ended it in 1973 by granting autonomy to the South. Peace lasted until 1983, the intervening ten years being a disastrous period of northern neglect and southern mismanagement. In 1983 Numeiry introduced Sharia law, which included punishment by amputation. That year the second civil war began in the south, this time fought by the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA). The war is still in progress and has probably resulted in some 150 000 deaths, but again no one knows exactly how many. Numeiry was ousted by a blood- less coup in 1985. These followed a brief spell of partial democracy, which ended with a military takeover by General Bashir. The saga of Sudan has been one of continual coups, attempted coups, plots and government quarrels with adjoining countries, to the detriment of national development and ending Sudan's dream of becoming the gran- ary of that part of the world. Meanwhile the ongoing civil war devasted the south, which was also periodically afflicted with drought and fam- ine, its development hindered by SPLA action and blackmail. The unwin- nable second civil war has reached a rigid impasse, with peace still unable to break through The government has been involved in terrorist activity, and was placed on the US list of states assisting international terrorism, thus blocking the road to Western respectability. I first became familiar with Sudan during the Second World War, and I have visited it many times since as a journalist and author, charting its misfortunes. During the course of these visits I travelled widely, includ- ing in the south, and interviewed presidents and politicians, army com- manders and soldiers, and countless other Sudanese. I admire the patient fortitude of the Sudanese of all classes and tribes, and hope that the new millennium will bring the prosperity, peace and good government they have been denied for so long. EDGAR O'BALLANCE Acknowledgements The information contained in this book was mainly gathered during my visits to Sudan over the years. I attended numerous press conferences and briefings and interviewed several Sudanese leaders and many mid- dlemen, official and unofficial, and countless ordinary people, as well as accumulating sheaves of handouts from many sources. Where material was obtained from other sources, due credit is given in the text. All comments, deductions and opinions are my own, and at times may differ from the current perceived wisdom. Map sources are mainly Sudanese government publications and The Times Atlas. Copy from the following television and radio broadcasters, periodicals and news agencies was consulted, sometimes in translation. UK: BBC TV and Radio, Channel Four, ITN, ITV, Daily Telegraph, Financial Times, Guardian, Middle East, New African, The Sunday Times, The Times, Reuters. USA: CBS, CNN, Africa Watch, International Herald Tribune, News Week, New York Times, Time Magazine, Washington Post, USA Today. France: Le Monde. USSR: Pravda. Sudan: Radio Khartoum, Radio Omdurman, Radio SPLA, Radio Sudan, al-Sahafa, Grass Curtain, Nile Mirror, Vigilant, SUNA. Egypt: Al-Ahram. Libya: Radio Tripoli. ix Abbreviations ALF Azania Liberation Army ANAF Anya-Nya Armed Forces BSO Black September Organisation CCI Compagnie de Construction Internationale CIA Central Intelligence Agency (USA) CUSS Council for the Unity of South Sudan DUP Democratic Unionist Party FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation (USA) GUN General Union of Nubas HEC Higher Executive Council ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross IGADD Inter-Government Authority on Drought and Development IMF International Monetary Fund LFA Land Freedom Army NDF National Democratic
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