SUDAN ASSESSMENT

April 2000

Country Information and Policy Unit

CONTENTS

I INTRODUCTION 1.1 - 1.5

II GEOGRAPHY 2.1 III HISTORY 3.1 - 3.7 The Economy 3.8 - 3.10

IV INSTRUMENTS OF THE STATE Political System 4.1 - 4.12 The Judiciary 4.13 - 4.21

The Security Forces 4.22 - 4.24

V HUMAN RIGHTS

A Introduction A.1 - A.4 B General Assessment B.1 - B.5 Prison Conditions B.6 Use of Excessive Force and Violations of Humanitarian Law in B.7 - B.9

Internal Conflicts C Specific Groups Opposition Members C.1 - C.4 Religious Groups C.5 Christians C.6 - C.8 Islamic Sects C.9 - C.13 Ethnicity C.14 - C.18 Women C.19 - C.22 Children C.23 - C.26 Students C.27 - C.30

Conscripts C.31 - C.35

1 D Other Issues Civil War D.1 - D.17 Ceasefire/Peace Negotiations D.18 - D.24 Freedom of Political Association D.25 - D.31 Freedom of Assembly D.32 - D.35 Freedom of Speech and of the Press D.36 - D.45 Freedom of Religion D.46 - D.51 Freedom to Travel/Internal Flight D.52 - D.57

National Service and Popular Defence Forces D.58 - D.62

VI GENERAL ISSUES Foreign Relations 5.1 - 5.16 Attacks on US embassies and US Retaliation 5.17 - 5.23 Bombings 5.24 - 5.26 Assassination Attempts 5.27 Health 5.28 - 5.33 Slavery 5.34 - 5.35 Punishments 5.36 - 5.41 Elections 5.42 - 5.46 Miscellaneous 5.47 - 5.58

VII ANNEXES

A MAJOR POLITICAL ORGANISATIONS Pages 45 - 47

B SPLA FACTIONS Pages 48 - 49

C PROMINENT PEOPLE PAST AND PRESENT Pages 50 - 51

D CHRONOLOGY Pages 52 - 67

E BIBLIOGRAPHY Pages 68 - 75

I. INTRODUCTION

1.1 This assessment has been produced by the Country Information and Policy Unit, Immigration and Nationality Directorate, Home Office, from information obtained from a variety of sources.

1.2 The assessment has been prepared for background purposes for those involved in the asylum determination process. The information it contains is not exhaustive, nor is it intended to catalogue all human rights violations. It concentrates on the issues most commonly raised in asylum claims made in the United Kingdom.

1.3 The assessment is sourced throughout. It is intended to be used by caseworkers as a sign- post to the source material, which has been made available to them. The vast majority of the source material is readily available in the public domain.

1.4 It is intended to revise the assessment on a 6-monthly basis while the country remains within the top 35 asylum producing countries in the United Kingdom.

1.5 This country assessment has been placed on the Internet in the Home Office website:

2 http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/ind/cipu1.htm. An electronic copy of the assessment has been made available to:

Amnesty International UK Immigration Advisory Service Immigration Appellate Authority Immigration Law Practitioners' Association Joint Council for the Welfare of Immigrants JUSTICE Medical Foundation for the Care of Victims of Torture Refugee Council Refugee Legal Centre UN High Commissioner for Refugees

II. GEOGRAPHY

2.1 The Republic of Sudan has a landmass of some 2,505,813 sq km (967,500 sq miles), with the Nile waters entering Sudan just south of Juba, flowing 3,000 km until they reach Lake Nubia on the Egyptian border. [1b] Sudan lies in north-eastern Africa, and is the largest country in the Continent. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, by the Red Sea, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the East, by Kenya, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire) to the south, and by the Central African Republic, Chad and Libya to the west. The climate ranges from the desert of the north to the rainy equatorial south, with temperatures varying with altitude and latitude. [1b] The River Nile and its tributaries form the basis of much of Sudan's present economic activity. Sudan has a population of approximately 27.5 million, with the ethnic origin of the people mixed. It is still subject to significant immigration by groups from Nigeria and Chad, such as the Fulani. In the South the Nuer, the Dinka and the Shilluki are the most prominent of the Nilotic peoples. The Arab culture and language predominate in the north where the majority of the population are Muslims. In contrast the population in the south are mostly animist or Christian. [1b] Arabic is the official language, although other languages are spoken, and English is widely understood. [1b]

III. HISTORY

3.1 Sudan was placed under an Anglo-Egyptian administration in 1899 following the defeat of the Mahdist forces in 1898. Independence as a parliamentary republic was achieved on 1 January 1956. A military coup occurred in November 1958, led by Gen. Ibrahim Abboud. Although achieving some economic success for Sudan, Abboud became unpopular over the degree of military involvement in government, allegations of corruption and his military operations against the Anya Nya rebels in the south. The insurgence of the southern provinces, had begun in 1955 against rule from the north. In October 1964 police fired on student demonstrators in Khartoum and a general strike forced Abboud to hand power over to a civilian committee. A transitional Government, including the Sudanese Communist Party (SCP) and the Muslim Brotherhood, was formed. With internal splits in the government, failure to improve the economic situation, and a worsening of violence in the south, the Government was overthrown in a bloodless coup by Col. Gaafar Muhammad Nimeri in May 1969. [1a][1b]

3.2 During his first 2 years in power Nimeri adopted socialist policies, renaming Sudan the Democratic Republic of Sudan and creating a one party state under the Sudanese Socialist Union

3 (SSU), effectively abolishing all existing political institutions and organisations. Internal dissent was harshly put down. Regional administrative autonomy for the south was stated as a commitment. The announcement in 1970 by Nimeri, Qaddafi (Libya) and Sadat (Egypt) to unite their countries as a single federal state proved unacceptable to the SCP who staged a coup under Maj. Hashim al-Ata in July 1971.Within 3 days, with popular support, Nimeri returned to power and a purge of communists occurred. 14 were executed. Relations with the Eastern Bloc cooled and Nimeri's popularity rose, leading to him winning the Presidential elections in October 1971 by a landslide. The Addis Ababa Agreement signed in March 1972 between the Government and the Anya Nya rebels introduced regional autonomy for the 3 southern provinces with a regional People's Assembly in Juba. [1a][1b]

3.3 The establishment of a National Assembly and a political party widened the Government's power-base and policies introduced throughout 1977 reconciled Nimeri with several of his opponents. However, during 1983, the conflict with the south worsened. In September 1983 the Government adopted aspects of strict Islamic law, the Shari'a, with martial law being introduced after April 1984. This provoked the largely non-muslim south to retaliate and some southerners returned to armed conflict in what was commonly known as Anya Nya II. On this occasion the rebels were organised into the Sudanese People's Liberation Movement (SPLM), with its military wing the Sudanese People's Liberation Army (SPLA) [see Annex B]. A series of battles in Bahr al-Ghazal and Upper Nile occurred in 1983-4. Meanwhile, the economy deteriorated severely and by the end of February 1985 disillusionment with the regime was growing. Charging the leaders of the Muslim Brotherhood with sedition and failing to deal with the problems caused by the drought alienated the last vestiges of support for Nimeri. Adopting a conciliatory stance and performing a ministerial re-shuffle also failed to remedy the situation. A general strike occurred in March 1985 and on 6 April Nimeri was overthrown in a bloodless coup led by Lt. Gen. Swar al-Dahab. In December 1985 the country was renamed the Republic of Sudan. [1b]

3.4 A transitional Constitution was signed in October 1985 and numerous political groups emerged in preparation for the elections, which took place in April 1986. However, no single party won outright, and a coalition Government was formed between the Umma Party (UP), led by Sadiq al-Mahdi and the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), led by Osman al-Mirghani, with al-Mahdi becoming Prime Minister. Various attempts were made to negotiate a peace settlement with the southern groups, but all were unsuccessful and fighting continued. In late July 1987, amid growing internal instability, a 12 month state of emergency was declared. In January 1988 the Government and 17 political parties signed a transitional charter which aimed to move Sudan towards a multi-party democracy. It stipulated the Government would return to the 1972 system of administration in the south, and requested the replacement of shari'a law with a new legal code. [1a][1b]

3.5 Peace negotiations between the Government and the SPLM, began in Ethiopia in April 1988, but by mid-June were deadlocked. During 1988 reports of human rights abuse increased, particularly concerning the war zone. In late 1988 there were signs of widespread discontent in the army concerning the Government's continuing lack of progress in resolving the war. A coup by supporters of Nimeri was foiled in December 1988, but on 30 June 1989 a bloodless coup led by Brig. Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir removed al-Mahdi's government and replaced it with a 15 member Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation (RCC). Bashir abolished the Constitution, National Assembly, all political parties and trade unions. Civilian newspapers

4 were closed and a state of emergency declared. About 30 members of the former government were detained. A new 21 member cabinet was announced in early July including 16 civilians, 4 southerners and several members considered to be sympathetic to Islamic fundamentalism. Several attempts to negotiate a peace settlement to the civil war failed, mainly over the issue of shari'a. The new regime's proximity to the fundamentalist National Islamic Front (NIF) was apparent. [1a][1b]

3.6 In February 1991 the 18 administrative regions in Sudan were reorganised into 9 states which were in turn divided into 66 provinces and 281 local government areas. Each of the 9 states had its own Governor, Deputy Governor and Cabinet and was responsible for local administration and collection of some taxes. The central Government retained control over foreign policy, military affairs, the economy and other main areas of administration. These structures were intended to bring about an end to the civil war but the SPLM rejected these measures as unacceptable, because of the degree of power retained by the central Government. At the end of August 1991, splits were becoming evident in the leadership of the SPLA. The split caused the postponement of the first round of peace talks due to be held under the auspices of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) in October 1991, and fierce fighting broke out between rival factions in November 1991. (see Annex B & D) [1a][1b]

3.7 On 1 January 1992 al-Bashir set out plans for a return to democracy with an appointed 300 member Transitional Parliament with powers to propose and pass legislation, ratify treaties with foreign powers and veto decisions by the RCC. However, the intended popularity of the Parliament's apparent broad base did not prevent widespread political unrest caused by economic austerity measures. While declaring itself prepared for peace talks, the Government launched a military offensive against the SPLA in late February 1992. OAU sponsored peace negotiations in Abuja in May 1992, attended by Garang, Lam Akol and the government resulted in little but a declaration of Sudan as a "multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-cultural and multi-religious country" (see Annex D). A cabinet reshuffle in July 1993 was regarded to have strengthened the NIF in the Government. On 16 October 1993 the RCC was disbanded having appointed al-Bashir as President and head of a new civilian administration. On 19 October al-Bashir announced political reforms to pave the way for Presidential and Legislative elections to be held in 1994 and 1995 respectively. (see Annex D) [1a][1b]

The Economy

3.8 Civil war, economic mismanagement, over 4 million internally displaced persons, and to a lesser extent, the refugee influx from neighbouring countries have devastated the country's mostly agricultural economy. Approximately 80% of the labour force is engaged in agriculture. Exports of gum Arabic, livestock and meat accounted for more than 50% of export earnings. Private investment in the oil sector led to significant increases in oil production during 1999. Reforms beginning in the early 1990s aimed at privatising state-run firms and stimulating private investment failed to revive a moribund economy that has a huge foreign debt of approximately US$21.5 billion and a large military expenditure programme. [2c]

3.9 In February 1999 the International Monetary Fund (IMF) agreed to the reduction of Sudan’s monthly repayment instalments from five to three million dollars. [9ae] In early May the Sudanese Finance Minster, Dr Abd al-Wahhab Uthman met with IMF and World Bank (WB) officials to re-examine Sudan’s debt. A framework was put in place to allow technical assistance by the IMF and WB on issues such as the introduction of Value Added

5 Tax (VAT), on several goods in Sudan. This will be implemented at the start of next year. [9aj] On 3rd June the IMF said Sudan, over $1.5 billion behind on payments to the IMF, must stick to a repayments schedule in order to win the chance of new cash. Sudan came close to being kicked out of the IMF in 1997 because of persistent arrears, which stood at $1.54 billion in April 1998. This was slightly down from the $1.57 billion in April 1997. Inflation should fall below 5 percent by 2001, from 8 percent in 1998 and 32 percent in 1997. [4cm]

3.10 On 4th July 1999 it was announced that the Bank of Sudan had cancelled dealings in the Sudanese pound stating that the dinar should be considered as the official currency. Ten pounds was said to equal one dinar and that the dinar was divided into 100 units, called piastres. The public were urged to exchange their pounds at banks. The dinar has been the official currency of Sudan since 1993, although both currencies were in circulation together and the Sudanese used the pound in most of their dealings. President Bashir said the dinar was more appropriate to the current Islamic drive in the country. [4cw] On 31st July Sudan's banks were closed in preparation for the switch of currency from the pound to the dinar. The pound had been in circulation since the country's independence in 1956. [17ae] On 8th August difficulties were reported in adapting to the change in official currency. Traders reported problems dealing with bills in dinars and consumers felt their assets had decreased tenfold overnight. The Finance Minister Izz Eddin Ibrahim said that people had been given plenty of time to adapt given that the dinar had been circulated alongside the pound since 1993. [17af]

IV. INSTRUMENTS OF THE STATE

A. Political System

4.1 The current President is Lt. Gen. Omer Hassan al-Bashir who took power from the democratically elected Government in a coup on 30 June 1989. Political parties and non- governmental trade unions were banned following the coup. [1b] A new law effective from 1 January 1999 permitted the formation of political associations (see D.23 - D29 & Annex A).[4ag][37e] Although there is no such thing as a Government party, the power behind al- Bashir is the National Islamic Front (NIF) politico-religious group. [18] Sudan is an Islamic state with Shari'a Islamic law enshrined in the 1991 Criminal Act. The transitional Constitution of 1985 was suspended following the coup. [1a]

4.2 The first Legislative and Presidential elections to be held since 1989 took place during 6-17 March 1996. Lt-General Bashir appointed as President by the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) in October 1993, was elected for a five year term. The new National Assembly, which replaced the transitional legislature appointed in February 1992, comprised 400 seats, of which 275 were elective. The remaining 125 seats had been filled directly at a national conference in January 1996 by representatives of what were described as Sudan's 'modern forces'. [1b] Sixty of the elective seats were occupied by candidates who were unopposed. Elections were not held in 10 of the country's southern constituencies, owing to lack of security there. In October 1996 deputies were appointed to 8 of these 10 vacant seats. The term of the National Assembly is four years. [1b]

4.3 In January 1996 the UN Security Council unanimously approved Resolution 1044, demanding that Sudan immediately extradite three Islamists implicated in the attack on President Mubarak of Egypt. On 28 April 1996 the Security Council adopted Resolution 1054, imposing

6 sanctions on Sudan (effective from 10 May 1996) for Sudan's failure to comply with Resolution 1044. After a continuing failure to comply with the resolution, the Security Council adopted a further sanction (Resolution 1070) on 16 August 1996 banning all international flights operated by Sudan Airways. The Security Council declared that these sanctions would remain in force until Sudan ceased its support for terrorism and conducted its foreign relations in accordance with the UN and OAU charters (see Annex D). [1a]

4.4 Following the 1996 elections, the executive and legislative power of the states were expanded and southern states were expected to be exempted from shari'a law. The civil war continued and peace negotiations have remained in stalemate. The main opposition groups did not field any candidates in the 1996 elections, and alleged low turnout of voters, and electoral malpractice. Al-Bashir gained 75.7% of the vote and Dr Hassan al-Turabi, Secretary General of the NIF, was unanimously elected Speaker of the National Assembly. [1b] Claims by the Government that the elections represented a change in political direction were damaged by reports of an attempted coup in March 1996, serious unrest in Khartoum in April 1996, and the announcement that a Cabinet would not be appointed until it was clear whether the UN intended to impose sanctions on Sudan for failure to comply with Resolution 1044. [1a] The alleged coup plotters arrested in March 1996 were tried and given sentences of between 1 month and 15 years imprisonment. [4l]

4.5 On 10 April 1996 the Government, the South Sudan Independence Movement (SSIM) under Riak Machar, the SPLA-Bahr al-Ghazal faction under Kerubino Bol and a faction of the SPLA- United, signed what has become referred to as the Peace Charter. It pledged to preserve Sudan's national unity and to take action to develop those areas of the country affected by war. It stated that a referendum would be held as a means of realizing the aspirations of southerners and affirmed Shari'a law as the basis for future legislation. Other opposition groups dismissed the Peace Charter as a publicity stunt. [1a][4k] On 21 April 1996 the newly appointed Sudanese cabinet appeared to retain its previous military, and Islamic nature. The Sudanese opposition to the current regime has one of its main bases in the United Kingdom. [1b]

4.6 In mid-June 1996 the opposition presented the Government with a petition requesting it to cede power or face a popular uprising, a petition which Sadiq al-Mahdi, leader of the Umma Party characterised as a final ultimatum. [8a] Reports began to appear that the leader of the faction of the DUP not allied to the NDA, Sharif Zayn al-Abidin el-Hindi, had entered into discussions with the Government with a view to more substantive future negotiations. [9b] The main body of the Sudanese opposition denied any involvement in or knowledge of these moves, standing on its demands that the Government should cede power. [7b]

4.7 During May to July 1996 many of the foreign Muslims present in Sudan, including the `Afghan Arabs' and the Saudi national Usamah (Osama) Bin Ladin, were allegedly instructed to leave the country in a reported attempt by the Government to avoid further sanctions from the UN.[7a][13a][31a]This allegedly caused tension between the Government and the more extreme Islamic elements within Sudan but eased Sudan's strained relations with Saudi Arabia and Egypt. Relations with Egypt had been strained over the Halaib Triangle. [13a] Meanwhile international pressure remained on Sudan to produce the 3 Egyptian suspects in the Mubarak assassination attempt reportedly still in Sudan, an allegation which Sudan denied. [4nn][7a]

4.8 The announcement of steep rises in the prices of petrol and bread along with other austerity measures led to protests from the Sudan's largest union, the General Federation of Sudanese

7 Trade Unions, [a legal Government trade union since the 1989 coup] and a demonstration by students from Nilein University in Khartoum. [4b][5f,5g][6b] Further demonstrations spread through many of the main cities during late August 1996/early September, with mass demonstrations in Khartoum being broken up with tear gas. [6c] A clash between pro-opposition and pro-NIF students, in late July 1996, over the elections for the Omdurman Student's Union led to the Omdurman National University and Ahlia University being closed indefinitely in August 1996. [4d][5e][8b]

4.9 Between the 7-12 October 1996 the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) held a conference in Asmara and called on regional institutions and governments to topple the al-Bashir regime. [14a] Shortly afterwards a joint military command for the NDA's military forces was announced to co-ordinate military operations between the various factions of the opposition. [8c] In late October 1996 a further coup was reportedly foiled with 10-12 officers of rank of colonel or above being detained. [6d] In January 1997 President al-Bashir promised a referendum on the new Constitution which was being drafted, [11a] and in May 1997, Sharif Zayn al-Abidin el- Hindi, leader of the side of the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) not associated to the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), agreed to return to Sudan without conditions to explore the possibility of negotiations with the Government. [7d][8d][10h] He finally returned in mid June 1997, to a welcome by the Government, but, his actions led to him being disowned by the side of the DUP associated to the NDA. [7e] Claims of a possible return to Sudan by Sadiq al-Mahdi at the same time were quashed. [7c,7f]

4.10 In July 1997 the Government established a committee to look into drafting a Constitution under the leadership of widely respected legal figures. A 377 member commission to draft the constitution was subsequently formed in October 1997. [4n] In February 1998, Sudan's First Vice President, Lt-Gen Al-Zubeir Mohammad Saleh and several others were killed in a plane crash in Nasir south of Khartoum. Also amongst the dead was former rebel leader Arok Thon Arok. Sudan rebels initially claimed that they had shot down the plane but later withdrew this claim. Ali Osman Mohamed Taha, the former Foreign Minister was appointed First Vice- President to replace al-Zubeir. [4r,4s] On 18 February 1998 the National Congress elected Bashir President of the Republic and Chairman of the congress with Sharif Zayn al-Abidin el-Hindi (DUP leader) elected as Deputy Chairman. Dr Hassan al-Turabi was elected Secretary-General. [11d]

4.11 In March 1998, President Bashir reshuffled his cabinet, bringing in more former rebels, southerners and former members of the banned Ummah party, prior to the referendum on the new Constitution and the IGADD peace talks. [4u] Also in March 1998 a draft Constitution was ratified by the National Assembly, giving citizens the right to form political parties or groups, [9e,9g][10n,10o] and a national referendum held in May 1998, saw 96.7% of voters approving the new Constitution, and the Constitution was signed into law in June 1998. Also in June 1998 the authorities managed to abort a coup attempt hours before it was due to take place. More than 40 officers, belonging to the hard-line wing of the NIF, were arrested. [4x,4z,4bb,4cc]

4.12 In August 1998 10 people were jailed for between 5 and 10 years after being found guilty of attempting to topple the government. Five others were acquitted through lack of evidence and one 70 year old man because of his age. The arrests had taken place in September 1997. [4pp] In September 1998, President Bashir appointed two former rebels to the government. Mohamad Haroun Kafi, a former journalist, was appointed Minister of Tourism and the Environment, and Younis Domi Kalo, a school teacher was appointed as a Commissioner in Khartoum state. Both

8 men are prominent Nuba politicians and were members of the SPLA. [4yy] On 11 October 1998, the Council of Ministers, under the chairmanship of President Bashir endorsed a draft law permitting the formation of political associations. [6j][37e] Parliament would then have to approve the bill which allows a minimum of 100 Sudanese to form a political association and to secure financing from any source within the country, but the bill restricts who can lead the organisations. On 23 November 1998, the National Assembly unanimously approved the political associations bill after amendments were made to it by the MPs. [11r] The new legislation authorises political associations to be formed from 1 January 1999. [4aj] The opposition Umma Party, DUP and the Sudan Communist Party (SCP) have refused to cooperate in the government's initiative. [4ak] Mohamed Mahjoub Mohamed Ali, a leading member of the SCP, was arrested on 28 December 1998, three days before the enactment of the new law. [35c] Parliamentary leader Hassan al-Turabi said leaders of armed opposition groups could be eligible. [5u][11l]

B. The Judiciary

4.13 The judiciary is not independent and is largely subservient to the Government. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, formerly elected by sitting judges, is now appointed by the president. As the senior judge in the judicial service, the Chief Justice also controls the judiciary. On occasion, some courts display a degree of independence. Appeal courts on several occasions overturned decisions of lower courts in political cases, particularly public order courts. The judicial system includes four types of courts; regular courts, both civil and criminal; special mixed security courts; military courts; and tribal courts in rural areas to resolve disputes over land, water rights and family matters. In December 1998, Parliament passed a law to form a constitutional court and the court's seven members were named that month. Constitutional Court Justices are appointed by the president. Within the regular court system, there are civil and criminal courts, public order courts, which hear only minor public order issues, appeal courts and the Supreme Court. [2c]

4.14 The 1991 Criminal Act, based on an interpretation of Shari'a law, governs criminal cases, whereas the 1983 Civil Transactions Act still applies to most civil cases. Military trials, which are sometimes secret and brief, do not provide procedural safeguards. They have sometimes taken place with no advocate or counsel permitted, and no effective appeal for a death sentence. Other than for clemency, witnesses may be permitted. Trials in regular courts nominally meet international standards of legal protections, with the accused normally have the right to counsel. In the case of poor or needy defendants, legal counsel is provided free of charge in cases where the crimes are punishable by death or life imprisonment. In practice, however, these legal protections are unevenly applied. The law allows for bail, except for those accused of crimes punishable by death or life imprisonment. [2b]

4.15 In 1989 the Special Courts Act created unique three-person security courts to deal with a wide range of offences, including violations of constitutional decrees, emergency regulations, some sections of the penal code, as well as drug and currency offences. [2b] These courts were apparently disbanded in 1991. [18]

4.16 The Government dissolved the respected Sudanese Bar Association in 1989 and reinstated it with an NIF-controlled leadership. Lawyers who wish to practice in Sudan must maintain membership in the Bar Association. Human rights monitors report that the Government continued to harass, detain and torture members of the legal profession whom it viewed as

9 political opponents. Attorneys may advise defendants as "friends of the court" but normally may not address the court. Lawyers complain that they are sometimes granted access to court documents too late to prepare for an effective defence. Sentences are usually severe and implemented at once. [2b] Death sentences are referred to the Chief Justice and the Head of State. Defendants may file appellate briefs with the Chief Justice. [2b] The death penalty may be given for offences under the 1991 Criminal Act including some of the following:-

♦ Waging war against the state ♦ Espionage ♦ Homicide ♦ Rape ♦ Incest

According to the Criminal Procedures Act 1991, no death penalty can be executed without the consent of the head of state. Anyone sentenced to death or any lesser penalty has the right to seek commutation of the sentence. The head of state has the power to commute the sentence or pardon the defendant. The death penalty would not be executed if the accused or relatives of the accused are willing to pay blood money. [30a]

4.17 The 1991 Criminal Act, based on interpretation of Shari'a Law prescribes specific "hudud" punishments, including amputation, stoning, and lashing for some offences. The courts continued their informal suspension of the amputation and stoning penalties and did not impose sentences involving them during 1996 or 1997. The courts routinely meted out lashings, most often to persons convicted of brewing or consuming alcohol [2b] (arts 78-79).[24a] The Government officially exempts the 10 southern states whose population is mostly non-muslim, from parts of the Criminal Act. However, the Act permits the possible future application of Shari'a law in the south. There were no reports that hudud punishments, other than lashings, were carried out by the courts in government-controlled areas of the south. Fear of the imposition of Shari'a law remains a key issue in the rebellion. [2b]

4.18 Parts of the south and the Nuba Mountains fell outside the effective judicial procedures and other government functions. According to credible reports, government units summarily tried and punished those accused of crimes, especially for offences against civil order. Magistrates in SPLA-held areas follow a penal code roughly based on the 1925 Sudan Code. In rural areas outside effective SPLM control, tribal chiefs apply customary laws. The SPLM proclaimed a civilian structure to eliminate the secret and essentially political trials conducted by military commanders in previous years, but at the end of 1996 there was no evidence to indicate that any such civilian trials had been held. [2b]

4.19 Immediately after the June 1989 coup the Government dismissed 57 judges, who were purportedly replaced by judges sympathetic to the NIF. The number of allegedly pro-NIF judges appointed increased when more judges were needed following the increase in the number of states in February 1994. In July 1996, the Government brought to military court 31 persons alleged to have plotted a coup in March 1996. President Bashir, asked the Attorney General to approve, under the relevant provision of the law, that 10 of the civilians accused be tried in the military court. The Attorney General so approved. The accused were reportedly sentenced to between 1 month and 15 years imprisonment in mid-1997. Many defendants were acquitted. [4l]

10

4.20 On 29 October 1998, the National Assembly passed the constitutional court bill of 1998, which provides for the establishment of a constitutional court to operate outside the judiciary. [10t] Parliament passed the bill in November 1998 to form a constitutional court and the bill passed into law in December 1998. The new Constitution passed by referendum in June 1998 provides for fair and prompt trials. [2b] The bill's main feature is the protection of the rights and freedoms guaranteed by the constitution. The constitutional court will have the jurisdiction to hear cases of conflict of jurisdiction between federal and state authorities. [10t]

4.21 An independent general election commission would be established following the approval of the 1998 election bill by political sector ministers on 2nd November 1998. It will have a distinct legal entity and be able to prepare the electoral roll and lay down general guidelines for the holding of elections and referendums. The new election law outlines the procedures for candidature in presidential elections. The bill also grants Sudanese expatriates abroad the right to vote and allows the commission the opportunity to present the candidates to the public. [10v]

C. The Security Forces

4.22 There is a myriad of security agencies operating in Sudan, that cover both internal and external security, as well as the police force and military. The Sudan Police Force has a number of specialized police units some of which are, the Public Order Police, Customs Police, Prisons and Reformation Police, Civil Defence Police, Protection of Wildlife Police, Passport, Immigration, Nationality & Identity Police, Central Reserve Force and Supporting [Administrative] Units Police. A parallel force of the regular police force is the People's Police Force (PPF). This force is semi-regular, and recruits are nominated by neighbourhood committees. It includes the Public Order and Behaviour Police, which enforces the provisions of the Public Order Act. There is also a Deployment of Comprehensive Security Police, which together with the PPF and Public Order Police, has the combined task of ensuring a gradual tightening of religiously-based controls on Sudanese society. [2a][2b][2c]

4.23 Government-instituted neighbourhood "popular committees" - ostensibly a mechanism for political mobilisation - served as a means for monitoring households' activities, causing many citizens to be wary of neighbours. The committees also furnished or withheld documents essential for obtaining an exit visa. In high schools, students were sometimes pressured to join the pro-regime youth groups. [2b]

4.24 National service is compulsory for all men aged between 18 and 39 years. [4aq][17j] Service is for a minimum of 1 year and is essential for anyone hoping for government employment or, now, a place at a state university. Permanent exemptions are issued on medical grounds and in compassionate family circumstances (eg as regards an only son who is required to support the family after the death of his father). Temporary exemptions have been issued for full-time students and those with a valid reason for travelling outside Sudan. [20a] After the 1989 coup, the High Command and hundreds of other army officers were dismissed. The paramilitary Popular Defence Force (PDF) was created to provide a parallel military force. [18] (see also paras D.56 - D.60) & [4v,4w]

V. HUMAN RIGHTS

11 A. INTRODUCTION

A.1 The current regime's human rights record is extremely poor. Citizens do not have the right to change their government peacefully. Government forces were responsible for extrajudicial killings and disappearances. Security forces beat refugees, raped women and reportedly harassed and detained persons on the basis of their religion. The authorities do not ensure due process and military forces summarily tried and punished citizens. The government does not fully apply the laws of war to the southern insurgency and has taken few prisoners of war.The new Constitution, implemented in 1999, prohibits torture; however, the government's official and unofficial security forces continue to torture and beat suspected opponents of the government. The government reportedly harassed, detained and tortured lawyers whom they viewed as political opponents. Security forces also use excessive force to break up unapproved public demonstrations and are rarely held accountable for such abuses. [2c][47]

A.2 Some political prisoners, including Sadiq al-Mahdi, who had been arrested in May 1995, were released in a Government amnesty in August 1995. During September 1995 strict security measures were imposed in response to rioting in Khartoum. [24b] June and July 1996 saw a wave of detentions of trade unionists, [5a,5b,5c,5d] whilst two privately owned newspapers, who had earlier praised the recent increased freedom of press in Sudan, were closed for subversion. A further wave of arrests of Government oppositionists took place in November 1996, [5i] and following Sadiq al-Mahdi's flight from house arrest in Khartoum in mid-December 1996, several members of the Ansar order were detained. There are political prisoners in the country, although the Government maintains that it holds none. The Government usually charges political prisoners with a crime, allowing the Government to deny their status as political prisoners. Reports in October 1998 stated that the National Congress seeks to release the country's political prisoners in 1999. [2b]

A.3 Sudan was placed on the US State Department's list of states sponsoring terrorism on 18 August 1993 amid allegations that it provided desert training camps for various foreign and domestic terrorist groups. Current reports indicate that many of these groups have either left Sudan or drastically reduced their activities, following the imposition of sanctions by the UN on 10 May 1996 as a result of Sudan's implication in the attempt to assassinate President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt in Addis Ababa in June 1995. [1b] In September 1998 the Sudanese Government received a letter from the United States administration accusing it of hosting terrorist groups associated with Osama Bin Ladin [37c] (see also paras 5.17 - 5.24)

A.4 The lack of human rights provisions in the Sudan is acknowledged but the Government of Sudan has begun to implement international Conventions and basic human rights practices and has resolved its differences with the U.N. Special Rapporteur, Gaspar Biro, who visited the area twice during 1997. The Government also received a visit from the U.N. Special Rapporteur on Religious Intolerance and invited the Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression to visit the country. The Sudan Human Rights Advisory Council also took an increasing role in addressing human rights issues within the Government. During 1997 it published two reports, one detailing the inadequate results of a judicial commission inquiry into events in Juba in 1992 and the other reported on the allegations of slavery. [24c] Independent human rights activities operate in anonymity in Sudan, however, the Government invited Amnesty International to send a mission to Sudan in 1998.[30b] Mr Leonardo Franco was appointed as the new UN Special Rapporteur in August 1998 after the resignation of Gaspar Biro in April 1998. [4be][10ac] Mr Franco began his first visit to Sudan on 13 February 1999. He is expected to report his conclusions and

12 recommendations to the UN Commission for Human Rights at the annual session in Geneva being held from 22 March to 30 April 1999. [2c][38i] see also [9f][10m][33a] On 13th July the U.S. said it would be appointing a special envoy to revitalise regional efforts to end the war in Sudan. The envoy would also focus on reducing human rights abuses, although Khartoum has denied charges that it engages in human rights abuses and sponsors terrorism. [4cy]

B. HUMAN RIGHTS: GENERAL ASSESSMENT

B.1 In his reports dated 1 February 1994, [24a] and 30 January 1998 [24c] the UN Special Rapporteur, Gaspar Biro, detailed the following examples of torture and ill-treatment at the hands of the security forces which had been reported to him. Beatings, burnings, electric shocks on sensitive parts of the body, sexual assault including rape, threats of disappearance and mock executions. In the overwhelming majority of cases torture was reportedly used immediately after arrest in order to extract a confession. In some cases torture was applied as a punishment for alleged opposition. Ill-treatment in the form of deprivation of food, water, sleep and necessary medical care has also been reported as well as forced exercise, [24a] and made to stand in the sun for prolonged periods. [24c] The Government have stated to the UN International covenant on civil and political rights, Human Rights Committee that it did not deny that acts of torture do occur but whenever a complaint is received an inquiry is launched. The Government representative highlighted the case of six police officers, convicted of extracting confessions from individuals through torture, that had been sentenced to death and drew attention to a list of enforcement officers convicted of acts of torture. [30b] see also [18]

B.2 According to conflicting reports, police killed between 3 and 30 people during use of excessive force against demonstrators in September 1996. Deaths in detention in Khartoum are rare, and have an air of notoriety. There were continued allegations that the Government was responsible for the arrest and subsequent disappearance of those suspected of supporting rebels in Government-controlled zones of the south and the Nuba Mountains. The Government established a Committee to Investigate Slavery and Disappearances in the Nuba Mountains in response to a resolution passed by the 1995 UN General Assembly. The Committee reportedly interviewed or obtained reliable information on the whereabouts of all but about 3 dozen of the approximate 200 missing persons whose cases of disappearance the UN had cited. Access to the war zones is limited, but there are reports of beatings and other punishments being practised by all parties to the conflict. Scores of persons arrested by government forces in Juba in 1992 remain unaccounted for. Most are believed dead. [2b] see also [19c][24a]

B.3 The Government maintains that it holds no political prisoners, although credible reports persist that the Government holds several political detainees. Legal provisions under the 1992 and 1995 National Security Acts and Criminal Code effectively set a fairly simple process to detain anyone for 3 months, and an additional 3 months, with presidential determination, backed by a magistrate. Allegations continue that some individuals are detained indefinitely. [2a] (see also para C.1) & [30b]

B.4 In April 1996 the SPLA passed a resolution that persons should not be held in incommunicado detention without charge or trial. Despite this, in August 1996 a military officer of the SPLA, in charge at Akot, detained six missionaries without charge for 12 days. Calls for their release by the SPLM civil commissioner went unheeded by the military, which called into

13 serious question the powers of the civil authority. The six were released only when the more powerful SPLA authorities intervened. By the end of 1996, an investigation organised by the SPLM and the new Sudan Council for Churches, had taken no action against the perpetrators. The insurgent SPLM is not known to interfere with privacy, family, home or correspondence in areas it controls. [2b]

B.5 Security forces frequently conducted night searches without warrants. They targeted persons suspected of political crimes or, in northern Sudan, of distilling or consuming illegal alcohol. The Government razed the homes of thousands of squatters. During 1998 the Government continued to raze squatter dwellings in Khartoum. Many of those displaced were moved to "planned" settlement areas. In most cases those areas had no greater services than the squatter camps. In November 1998, the Government bulldozed a squatter village in Carton Kassala, leaving at least 3,000 people homeless. A wide network of government informants conducted pervasive surveillance in schools, universities, markets, workplaces and neighbourhoods. The Government continued to summarily dismiss military personnel and other government employees whose loyalty was suspect. However, the government committee set up in August 1995 to review cases of persons summarily dismissed since the 1989 coup continued to function. Press reports indicated that 124 government employees, had been reinstated and, on the recommendation of the committee, the pension status of 582 others was improved. Security personnel also routinely opened and read mail and monitored telephones. The new Constitution provides for the inviolability of communication and privacy. [2b]

Prison Conditions

B.6 Conditions in government prisons remain harsh, overcrowded and life threatening. Most Sudanese prisons are poorly maintained, and many lack basic facilities such as toilets or showers. Health care is primitive and food inadequate. Minors are often held with adults but female prisoners are housed separately from men; rape in prison is reportedly rare. While there are currently no independent Sudanese human rights organisations, international human rights officials have visited prisons in the past. [2b] The west wing of Khartoum's main Kober Prison remains under the supervision of the security services, having been removed from Prison Services' control in 1995.While other prison wardens are accountable to courts of law for abuses they perpetrate, security forces are not. Despite the widespread use of torture, the Government has never publicly disciplined any security official for employing it. Treatment in the areas of Kober that remain under the control of the prison services was reportedly better than the area under the control of the security services. Non-Muslim prison inmates were pressured to convert to Islam. Prisoners have reportedly died while in SPLA custody due to extremely poor prison conditions. [2b]

Use of Excessive Force and Violations of Humanitarian Law in Internal Conflicts

B.7 Since the civil war resumed in 1983, more than 1.5 million people have been killed and 4 million displaced internally as a result of fighting between the Government and insurgents in the south. Approximately 70,000 civilians died of war-related causes in the first half of 1998. The civil war continued unabated, and all sides involved in the fighting were responsible for abuses in violation of humanitarian norms. Government aircraft bombed civilian areas in the south. A

14 number of bombs targeted the town of Yei, the centre of the SPLM civil administration, causing numerous civilian casualties. [2b]

B.8 Government forces routinely killed rebel soldiers captured in battle. Only a small group of prisoners captured before the 1989 coup and a few soliders taken early in 1998 are reported as being held prisoners of war in Government controlled areas. The Government has not granted the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) access to these POW's. [2b] The Government did not detain nongovernmental organisation (NGO) workers in areas captured by its forces; however, allied Government forces did, and Government restrictions in practice limited or denied travel by relief NGO's to many areas long controlled by the insurgents. [2b] In February and March 1998, the government denied flight clearances to the Operation Lifeline Sudan (OLS), which exacerbated the humanitarian crisis sparked by the Febraury SPLA attacks on Wau town and resulted in the death and malnourishment of thousands of persons. In November 1998 the Government and the SPLM signed an accord in Rome that provided for greater protection for aid workers and greater access to the areas hit hardest by war and famine. Rape of women is committed by both parties to the conflict in the south. [2b] [3]

B.9 Both sides routinely displaced, and often killed civilians or destroyed property intentionally, during their offensive operations. Insurgent forces along the Eritrean border laid land mines which caused casualties to civilian travellers as well as to military forces. Insurgent shelling of Kassala town near the Eritrean border reportedly killed and displaced civilians. The SPLM has taken a number of prisoners over the years, many during its offensive from October to December 1995. The ICRC has publicly confirmed that it regularly visits more than 300 such detainees, but was refused permission to visit SPLA criminal and civil prisoners. The SPLM has returned some prisoners of war to the Government under parole. In 1998, the SPLM/SPLA stated that it released many prisoners during the year, but that many voluntarily chose to join the insurgent forces and not to return to the north. [2b]

C. HUMAN RIGHTS: SPECIFIC GROUPS

Opposition Members

C.1 Despite the announcement of the release, to celebrate independence day, of 249 prisoners in January 1997, [10e] mid-January, saw a further wave of detentions of oppositionists amid fears of a popular uprising timed to coincide with a military offensive. [6e] Towards the end of April 1997 there were reports that political detainees, held since the offensives began at the start of the year, were beginning to be released. [12a][20c] On 1 January 1999, the Presidential advisor for political and legal affairs said there were no political detainees in the country, stressing that the general amnesty was to be seen in the ratification of Political Association Law. The government had allegedly returned all properties of the political parties in the country. Also, that every registered political party had the right of complete competition, except in southern states, which are controlled by the 14th presidential decree and have their own procedures. [9y] On 4 February 1999 it was announced that the 41 detainees being held under the National Security Act had been released. [17v]

C.2 On 29 & 30 June 1998 several explosions occurred in Khartoum's suburbs, blowing up an oil reservoir. [4ee][5m] The government accused the opposition of being behind the explosions and several members of the DUP and UMMA Party were among the 26 opposition members arrested. [4ee,4ff,4hh]An emergency military court was set up to try those allegedly involved.

15 [4ii][11g] On 5 October 1998 the trial of 26 people, mostly southern Sudanese and Christians charged with the bombings and anti-state activities began. [4ad] Two opposition party members suspected of being involved were released in October 1998. One of these Abdel-Rahman Nugdalla, a senior member of the Umma Party told Reuters that the Umma Party would have nothing to do with Sudan's present leadership. [17h] see also [5a][35a,35b][38c]

C.3 Several leading members of the Umma Party joined the government in 1998. In October 1998, Sudan's Irrigation and Water Resources Minister, a leading member of the Ansar sect, linked to the Umma Party, resigned. Sharif al-Tuhami and another member of the Ansar religious sect, Mahdi Bobo Nimir (Health Minister) were appointed in March 1998, and the move was seen at the time as a step towards rapproachment between President Bashir's Islamist government and the Umma Party. [4al,4am][36a]

C.4 On 11th December the Sudan Alliance Forces (SAF), a rebel group fighting the Khartoum government, vowed to topple the Bashir regime soon for the good of the oppressed southern sudanese people. The SAF founded in 1994, supports the split of sudan into two so that the people in the south are protected and regain their human rights. [56a] On 14 February 1999 various rebel groups and opposition parties held a five day conference in Uganda. The conference accused the Sudanese Government forces of violating women's rights, freedom of worship and terrorising citizens in areas of insurgency. They vowed to continue their fight to oust the Islamic government of Gen. Bashir. [66a]

Religious Groups

C.5 The new Constitution, implemented early in 1999, provides for freedom of religion but states that Shari'a and custom are the sources of legislation. In practice, the government severely restricts freedom of religion in practice. The government treats Islam as the country's official religion and has declared that Islam must inspire the country's laws, institutions and policies. Religious organisations are subject to the 1994 Societies Registration Act, which replaced the controversial 1962 Missionary Societies Act. The 1994 legislation theoretically allows churches to engage in a wider range of activities than did the Missionary Act but churches are subject to the restrictions placed on non-religious corporations. Religious groups, like all other organisations, must be registered in order to be recognised or to gather legally. The government also requires that houses of worship be approved. Registered religious groups are exempt from most taxes. Non-registered religious groups find it impossible to construct a place of worship or to assemble legally. Registration is reportedly very difficult to obtain in practice and the government does not treat all groups equally. [2c]

Christians

C.6 Christians do suffer harassment in Sudan.The kinds of harassment experienced are official obstruction over permits to build churches, the razing of places of worship, friction with Islamic zealots (including junior security officials) and shari'a restrictions such as women's dress, eating during the day of Ramadan and alcohol. However, two of the most senior churchmen in Sudan, one foreign and one an outspoken critic of the current regime, have both told British officials that they do not consider that the problems faced by Sudanese Christians amount to persecution. [19b,19e] In April 1998 Brigadier George Arop, the second Vice-President, met with Christian clerics to discuss the peace process. [11e] In October 1998 Anglican priest, Philip Gabboush, founder of the Sudan National Party (SNP) and a Nuban, joined the National Congress.[4ao]

16 Also in October 1998, acting Archbishop of the Episcopal Church of Sudan was killed in a car accident near Kampala, Uganda. His death was a blow to the Church of Sudan. [49d] The government imposes less restrictions on Christian groups that historically have had a presence in Sudan like the Coptic Christians, Roman Catholics and members of the Greek Orthodox Church, and imposes more restrictions on the newer Christian groups.

C.7 Coptic Christians face the same problems that Christians, in general, face in Sudan. There are reports that Copts are only given nationality by naturalisation and that sometimes this is denied. There are restrictions on freedom of travel, trade and the exercise of political rights. [21a] see also [19b]

C.8 Non-Muslims may convert to Islam but Muslims are not allowed to convert to another religion. The 1991 Criminal Act makes apostasy (which includes conversion to another religion) by Muslims punishable by death. In 1998, the government began prosecution of an apostasy case against Faku Koko, a Nuban who was accused of converting from Islam. He was reportedly released in 1998 and allowed to leave the country for health reasons without charge or trial. His current status and location is not known. [2c]

Islamic Sects

C.9 The Ansar is the Islamic sect behind the Umma Party, but membership of the one, in no way necessarily indicates membership of the other. The internal leader of the Ansar is Ahmed Abdel Rahman el-Mahdi, and the spiritual leader is Sadiq al-Mahdi (the two have contested the leadership in the past). Relations between the two leaders had become strained following Ahmed giving evidence for the prosecution at the trial, in absentia, of Sadiq in 1976, but they have since improved slightly. While Sadiq al-Mahdi remained in Sudan he was frequently detained after acting as prayer leader of the Ansar at the Al Eid religious festivities, and in May 1995. Several imams who protested against these detentions were also detained. [3][24b]

C.10 In June 1996 the Minister of Information and Culture, after it was alleged he had been critical of the Ansar, praised them for their historical and current contribution to Islam in Sudan.[10a] A few days earlier the Secretary General of the Council for Ansar Affairs, which oversees the sect's matters, reported that he had been repeatedly summoned and interrogated by the security forces. [5a] 3 senior Ansar were also detained in October 1996 in connection with an Ansar-Umma Party attempt to mediate in the ethnic clashes between the Reizegat and Zagawa in Du'ayn Province. [5h] Following Sadiq al-Mahdi's flight to Eritrea in December 1996 several members of the Ansar were detained as a direct result and the escalation of the fighting in the east. However, sources advise that the vast majority of the Ansar continue their daily activities unhindered. [19d] In July 1998 a court in Omdurman West ordered the release on bail of four members of the Ansar sect, because investigations into allegations that their sermon had contravened parts of the 1991 Criminal act were incomplete. [5n]

C.11 A separate group to the Ansar, the Ansar al-Sunna, is a strict doctrinal Muslim sect with good relations with the Saudis. In mid-1993 the NIF attempted to replace the imams of Ansar al- Sunna mosques with its own imams. This campaign was abandoned after resistance from followers. [3] In 1994, one of the sect's mosques was the subject of a widely reported machine gun attack in which 16 were killed, and 19 seriously wounded. Those allegedly responsible were either killed in a gun battle with the security forces or were swiftly tried and executed. The cause of the attack remains unresolved. [26a] In November 1997 two people were killed and 10

17 wounded when suspected Muslim zealots attacked Ansar Sunna worshippers as they left a mosque. [4p] Muslim fanatic, Abdel-Halim Abdul-Razig was hanged on 17 June 1998 for the killings. He was unrepentant. [37a]

C.12 The Khatmiyyah is the Muslim sect on which the DUP is based and is purported to be the largest Sunni Muslim community in Sudan. The leader of the DUP, Mohamed Uthman al- Mirghani is also its spiritual leader. It was reported that the sect was dissolved on decree of the Government in 1992 and its assets, including mosques and shrines, became the property of the state. [26a] However, a subsequent report on the sect detailed a demonstration of the Khatmiyyah being peacefully broken up in April 1997. The demonstration was against a police order for them to postpone an anniversary commemoration of the death of Ali al-Mirghani, father of Mohamed Uthman al-Mirghani. [17a]

C.13 The most progressive, liberal and open-minded of Sudanese Islamic groups is the Republican Brothers. [21b] Its spiritual leader was Ustaz Mahmoud Mohamed Taha, who was executed for apostasy in 1985 under the Nimeri government. The treatment of members of the Republican Brothers is subject to debate, with the basic difficulty dependent on whether the group either faded away or went underground following the execution of their leader. There have been no recent reports of the death sentence for apostasy being carried out, nor any recently reported cases of harassment of members of the Republican Brothers. [19a][25a]

Ethnicity

C.14 At the end of September 1996 ethnic clashes between the Reizegat and Zagawa groups broke out in the northern Al-Da'ayn province [4e] and did not die down until late in October. [4h] Members of the Ansar religious order and Umma members who attempted to mediate in the dispute were arrested. [5h] There are also tensions between the Dinka and the Arab tribes, the Baggara, Reizegat and Miseriya in the form of disputes over cattle grazing and water. In December 1997 President Bashir declared a state of emergency in the western state of Darfur to combat armed robbery and tribal conflicts over scarce grazing and water. However, in March 1998 about 100 people were killed and 46 villages burned down in tribal clashes between Arab tribesmen and the Maselit tribe. [4t] A high-level military and security delegation were then dispatched to the area in an effort to resolve the situation. [43a] Over 200 people were also killed in the Darfur region in June 1998 when clashes broke out between the Fur and Maselit. The two tribes were reconciled and a tribunal was set up. [4aa]

C.15 Calm had reportedly returned to Western Darfur on 15 February 1999 after 3 weeks of tribal clashes in which 131 people were killed, 85 were wounded and 76 villages were completely or partly burned down. [4bf] The violence began on 19 January 1999, when a group of Arab nomad herdsman and African Masalit farmers fought over grazing rights on the outskirts of Geneina. [4ax] The local law allows the right of passage to the herdsman through the Masalit's land, southwards in the dry season and northwards in the rainy season. The herders started their southward journey too early and found the Masalit crops still unharvested. [55a] President Bashir issued two special emergency decrees to secure public order and security in the Western Darfur State. [10ab] see also [65a] On 10th March 1999 it was announced that an immediate cease-fire had been declared between the Dinka and Nuer tribesmen following the signing of a peace agreement on 7th March. It brought to an end clashes between the tribes that have lasted seven and a half years. [4bk]

18 C.16 In November 1998, President Bashir issued a republican decree declaring a state of emergency in the greater Darfur states, western Sudan and Northern Kordofan state, central sudan, to combat armed robbery. The declaration was a response to the wishes of the authorities and citizens in those states, to track down gangs of armed robbers. It was also in accordance with the powers bestowed on the president by Article 131 of the constitution. [10u] The National Assembly approved the decree on 3 November 1998. [11p] However, on 25 February 1999 3 people, including a five-year-old girl, were killed and several were wounded when armed robbers attacked their vehicles robbing them of their belongings. [17x]

C.17 On 22nd April 1999 the state of emergency in Western Darfur was extended by three months. It was decided that this extension, effective from 24th April, was needed to complete peace arrangements. [4bw] On 5th June 1999 the Masalit Africans and Arab tribal leaders, bringing to an end a feud between the two tribes signed an agreement. They agreed to meet twice a year to organise the distribution of grazing and water resources, whose scarcity led to clashes in the Western Darfur State killing 292 Masalits and 7 Arabs. They also agreed to release all those arrested during the clashes. [4co]

C.18 Members of two armed factions, belonging to the South Sudan Defence Forces (SSDF), were killed and wounded when they clashed in Juba on 10 January 1999. The fighting broke out with the hurling of a grenade into a gathering being held by one of the two factions, killing an unspecified number of people. The SSDF refused to confirm the report and said if such an incident had occurred it was a tribal clash and nothing to do with the SSDF. [17m]

Women

C.19 Despite their apparent retrogressive attitude to women, the Sudanese authorities have matched this with a boost to women's participation in public life. Women are numerous in the administration and the army, and even sit in the supreme court. There are 25 women members of the 400-member National Assembly, and one Cabinet member is a woman. [2c] The Sudanese Women's General Union (SWGU), is the only officially recognised Women's organisation in Sudan. [24a] A Muslim man may marry a non-Muslim, but a Muslim woman cannot marry a non-Muslim, unless he converts to Islam. However, this prohibition is not observed, or enforced universally, particularly in the south and amongst Nubans. [2c]

C.20 Women cannot travel abroad without the permission of their husbands or male guardians. Various government bodies have decreed on different occasions that women must dress according to modest Islamic standards. This, at the least, entails wearing a head covering. For example, in January 1999 the governor of Khartoum State announced that women in public places and government offices and female students and teachers would be required to conform to what is deemed an Islamic dress code. None of these decrees have been the subject of legislation and enforcement of the dress code regulations is not rigorously applied consistently. In June 1999, a Khartoum court ordered that 25 students from Ahlia University be flogged; they were charged with disturbances and "obscene acts". These "obscene acts" were the wearing of trousers by the female students [2c].

C.21 New transport regulations for women contained in the Public Order Law of 1993, and only introduced into law in 1997, are causing hostility amongst the public. The regulations allocate

19 which door a woman must enter by and sets out special seats on buses solely for women. In April 1998 a man from the rural area, who refused to vacate a women's seat was fined 10,000 Sudanese pounds and given 40 lashes. In another incident a policeman was nearly beaten to death whilst trying to separate a group of boys and girls on a bus at night. [39a] see also [24c]

C.22 Education authorities announced on 3rd June 1999, that female university students would be required to wear uniforms from October 1999. Students would choose between an extra-large blouse over a similarly large skirt or a single-piece-oversized gown. To complete the dress code their heads would be covered with a large scarf. Each university would be able to choose from four proposed colours. A survey was conducted among some 12,000 female students and 57 percent approved of the proposed uniform. [40j]

Children

C.23 The government provides free primary education from the ages of 6 to 13. Secondary education begins at the age of 14 and lasts up to three years. Boys and girls are treated similarly in the education system. A considerable number of children suffer from serious abuse, including enslavement and forced conscription in the war zones and forced labour. [2c]

C.24 The government has forcibly conscripted young men and boys into the military forces. The governemnt officially requires that young men, typically of ages 17 to19, must enter military service to be able to receive a certificate on leaving secondary school. Such a certificate is a requirement for rntry into a university and the decree effectively broadened the conscription base. [2c] In April 1999 it was reported, by the Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, that at least 120,000 under-18s were serving in government or rebel forces within conflicts in Africa. Sudan was one of the ten countries named were the situation is considered at its worst. [44c]

C.25 The government operates camps for vagrant children. Police typically send homeless children who have committed crimes to these camps, where they are detained for indefinite periods. Health care and schooling at the camps are generally poor and basic living conditions are often primitive. All the children in the camps, including non-Muslims, must study the Koran and there is pressure on non-Muslims to convert to Islam. [2c]

C.26 Female genital mutilation, which is widely condemned by international health experts as damaging to both physical and psychological health, is widespread, especially in the north. An estimated 90% or more of females in the north have been subjected to female genital mutilation, with consequences that have included severe urinary problems, infections and even death. Infibulation, the most severe type of FGM Is illegal under the Criminal Code; however, the health law forbids doctors and midwives from performing infibulation. Reportedly, women displaced from the south to the north increasingly are imposing FGM on their daughters, even if they themselves have not been subjected to it. The government has neither arrested nor prosecuted any persons for violating the health law against infibulation. [2c]

Students

C.27 In August 1998, students clashed with security forces in Khartoum during widespread demonstrations in protest at the imposition of additional fees for student accommodation, with anti-government slogans being chanted. One student died of head injuries following his arrest on

20 4 August 1998. The demonstrations started on 1 August 1998 and initially remained within Khartoum University campus until the death of the student when the demonstration spread to the streets. [8j] The police used tear gas to disperse them. An investigation has been ordered into the death. [4kk] see also [5p]

C.28 The confrontation continued between the students of the NDA and those of the NIF at Khartoum University. The NDA students had demanded that supporters of NIF be expelled and they had begun to implement the decision. Skirmishes took place in the surrounding streets. One student was killed following his arrest when he fell out of a high building belonging to a security body. [5q] Further clashes between student groups occurred at Gezira University, following the clashes at Khartoum University the previous week. 22 students were injured when police used tear gas to disperse them. Student politics were then banned there. [4mm]

C.29 Riot police used tear gas to break up clashes between Islamist and Secular Democratic Alliance students at the Sudan University for Science and Technology in Khartoum on 16 October 1998. The Alliance students were blamed for the violence over student union voting, as it was claimed they seized a ballot box and destroyed the voting papers in it. A number of people were injured in the fighting. [4as]

C.30 On 6 February 1999 fighting broke out at the University of Khartoum when a group of Muslim students attacked a bible fair exhibition organised by Christian students. More than 15,000 religious books on exhibition were burnt and numerous cassettes destroyed. Riot police were deployed to prevent any violent incidents. [39h] On 31st March 1999 Sudanese police stormed five student dormitories affiliated with the University of Khartoum and confiscated some firearms, knives and computers reportedly belonging to various political organisations. Police extensively searched the rooms of students and four students were arrested. Police sources said that necessary legal measures would be taken against those students in whose rooms weapons were found. [7i]

Conscripts

C.31 In April 1998 President Bashir ordered that students should not be forced into military service before finishing university, reversing a decree of more than two years.[4v] However, there are continued reports that extensive forcible conscription occurs. When those involved are over 18 this falls within Sudanese national service law. Young men are conscripted on graduation from secondary school. However, according to the Foreign & Commonwealth Office, there are many examples of boys under 18, still in school or without proper papers being taken for training. There is no national service for women. [19f] see also [4w][20c,20d][38b]

C.32 On 2nd April 1998 52 student conscripts were drowned whilst trying to flee from a military camp south of Khartoum. [9h] They had apparently asked for, and been refused, permission to leave the camp to join their families for the Id al-Adha muslim festival. [8i] The government claimed that their overcrowded boat capsized. [11f] The opposition claimed that more were killed and that they had not drowned but were shot. [8i] see also [4v]

C.33 More than 76 student recruits fled from the Ailafoon military training camp south of Khartoum on 12 June 1998 following riots protesting against Sudan's military training programme. [9i] Following calls for a general mobilization [4ae][46a] during which the government declared it needed 50,000 volunteers, in September 1998 Universities were closed in

21 Sudan in order to send students to the war front. Approximately 5,000 reinforcements were sent to the battlefields. [4ac][38e] The Universities reopened on October 31 1998. [7h] Student resistance escalated against this decision. Police dispersed a mass demonstration by students, on 7 October 1998, who stormed into streets near the Nilayn university. There were also clashes at the East Nile university and the Omdurman Ahliah university where 1 student was injured. [5s]

C.34 In September 1998 Khartoum's Islamic junta sent thousands of students & "holy warriors", or Mujahidin, to the war front to fight southern rebels and alleged invaders. Several thousand graduates & other conscripts are said to have gone to south Sudan. [17d] The government plans to induct 100,000 troops, drawn from the civil service & private business, over the next 3 years to fight rebels of the SPLA. Military service of 12 months is compulsory for university graduates, while employees of lower educational levels must serve for 18 months. Men aged between 18 to 39 are liable to be called up. [4aq] After completing two months of military training, the recruits are considered soldiers who may be sent to the war front. [17j] C.35 The SPLM urged the families of the students to put a stop to the massacre, as carried out by the authorities, responsible for sending them to the front. [5t]

D. HUMAN RIGHTS: OTHER ISSUES

The Civil War

D.1 In general, the war is between the Arab Muslim north and the Christian or Animist African south. However, some southerners are Muslim and there are conflicts between southern tribes, so any statement concerning alignment in the south is necessarily general. Broadly speaking, the alignment of ethnic groups in the south is as follows;

Dinka: SPLA mainstream Nuer: SSIM / government [32]

D.2 Fighting was reported between the SSIM and the SPLA in eastern Upper Nile in early June 1996. Within the SPLA a faction of the Central Committee of Nuba Mountains SPLA under Muhammad Harun Kafi split from Garang at the end of June 1996 [10b] and declared a cease- fire prior to negotiations with the Government. [9a] This faction of the Nuba SPLA signed up to the Peace Charter in mid-August 1996. [10c] In the meantime 240,000 people, displaced by the fighting in north east, came closer to famine. [4f]

D.3 Military tension in the east rose at the end of December 1996 and early January 1997.[8d][15a] In mid January the eastern offensive began with opposition forces making some quick gains. Several calls for increased mobilisation were made by the government and lectures at Khartoum University were suspended to allow students to join the Popular Defence Force (PDF). [4j] After the fighting had begun 4,000 refugees settled in Ethiopia. [23a] During February 1997 and the early part of March 1997, the situation on the eastern front calmed, but fighting in the south escalated. By the end of March 1997, Garang reported that his forces occupied the whole of White Nile and Western Equatoria states, as well as territories on the Red Sea border. [4i][6f][10f]

D.4 A peace initiative by the United Arab Emirates made little headway with either the Government or the opposition, the former reiterating that it regarded the attacks as external aggression, the later expressing a willingness only to negotiate on the Intergovernmental

22 Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD) principles set down in 1994. [8e][10j] The southern factions who had signed the Peace Charter early in 1996 finalised and signed the Peace Accord on 21 April 1997. Signatories were the SSIM, the SPLA - Bahr al-Ghazal faction, the Union of Sudan African Parties, the Bor independence group and the Equatoria Defence Force, with the faction of the Nuba Mountains SPLA under Muhammad Harun Kafi signing a separate agreement. [10g] In April 1997 forces of the SSIM began arriving to reinforce the Government garrison and southern capital of Juba. [4k]

D.5 In mid June 1997 reports emerged that a massacre by the SPLA had occurred in the Wun Rog area. [10i] However, a break-through in the civil war was declared when, at a meeting of the IGADD in Nairobi between 8-9 July 1997, al-Bashir accepted the 1994 IGADD declaration of principles as the basis for negotiations, effectively agreeing to the opposition's stated objective as a basis for talks. The development was warmly welcomed in opposition circles.[10j][16a] Meanwhile the Peace Accord already signed with the southern factions was passed into law by the National Assembly on 23 July 1997 as the 14th Constitutional Amendment. [10k] Claims by Riak Machar that he had recaptured areas held by the SPLA were denied by them in July 1997. [5j] In September 1997, the SPLM-United faction lead by Dr Lam Akol agreed to support the peace agreement of 21 April 1997 by signing the Fashoda Agreement. [9c][11b]

D.6 In August 1997 the possibility of negotiations on the IGADD principles reached a sticking point as the opposition insisted that the principles be extended to include discussions between the Government and all elements of the NDA, not just the SPLA. In the meantime the opposition agreed to escalate military action and start a diplomatic and civil disobedience campaign to precipitate the fall of the Government. Later in August 1997 the Government reported a build up of opposition troops on the Eritrean border.[4m] Government and SPLM/A delegations met with the IGADD again in September and October 1997 and participated in IGADD-mediated peace talks. [2b][11c] The October talks reached a disagreement over the SPLM's call for a two- state federation. [8h] However, both sides reaffirmed their commitment to the IGADD brokered peace initiative, and agreed to reconvene in April 1998. [4o][5k][16b] Further IGADD peace talks were held in Nairobi in May 1998 and Addis Ababa in August 1998. [2c] (see also para D.8) & [8g][9d][36a]

D.7 Having appointed Dr Riak Machar Chairman of the Southern States' Coordination Council in August 1997, [10l] in January 1998 President Bashir appointed Maj-Gen Kerubino Bol Deputy President and Minister for Local Government and Public Security in southern Sudan.[26c] However, in February 1998, Bol realigned himself with the SPLA and helped capture the Government-held town of Wau. [4q] On 15 July 1998 both the Government of Sudan and the rebels agreed to a three month cease-fire in Bahr el Ghazal Province in southern Sudan in order to assist the flow of humanitarian aid. [4jj] During his visit to Sudan starting on 11 August 1998 the UN Secretary-General's Special Envoy to Sudan, Tom Vraalsen proposed a six-month extension to the truce, which is being considered by the main warring sides. Fighting is continuing on the border with Eritrea,in Blue Nile state and in Eastern Equatoria, where in September 1998 and October 1998 the government bombed a displaced persons camp at Labone and a hospital in Yei killing three members of an aid agency. [8k] Both the government and the SPLA extended the ceasefire in Bahr el Ghazal by a further three months in October 1998. [4ab,4ai][42a]

D.8 IGAD Peace talks took place in Nairobi on 2 - 6 May 1998. Both sides agreed to facilitate the flow of humanitarian aid. [9j] Both sides also agreed to the holding of a referendum on self-

23 determination and possible succession, but disagreed over the relationship between state and religion. Following the talks the NDA met in Cairo. [5l][36a] The third round of IGADD peace talks held in August in Addis Ababa ended without agreement on several issues including the definition of South Sudan. [11h][17b][37b] On 3 August 1998 the Sudanese government announced a unilateral, full and comprehensive ceasefire in all parts of southern Sudan in order to facilitate relief operations. [44a] Leaders of the opposition NDA met in Cairo after the end of the IGADD talks. During the talks, John Garang stated that the only way to maintain unity in Sudan was by way of a confederation. [9o][15c][38d] see also [2c][9k,9l,][40a]

D.9 Fighting also broke out, in June and August 1998, between two pro-government factions in Unity State, 530 miles south west of Khartoum. Forces loyal to Riak Machar had been attacked by the forces of Paulino Matip. No casualties were reported. [4gg] The leader of the Sudanese People's Liberation Army - Bahr al-Ghazal group, Lawrence Lual Lual, split from Riak Machar's coalition United Democratic Salvation Front (UDSF) and joined forces with Matip. [4af] The Sudanese government also alleged that Eritrea and Uganda were assisting the rebels by supply servicemen to fight government forces in Sudan. The government also announced in September that it was closing University classes in order that students could take part in the fighting in Equatoria. [4ac] In October 1998 it was announced that Commander Philip Pavin, Matip's deputy and the higher commander of his forces, defected to the SPLA with 1,000 of Matip's forces. [4an] A meeting was held on 28 September 1998 with Unity State intellectuals to call for an immediate ceasefire in Unity State (between the South Sudan Independence Movement (SSIM) of Riak Machar Teny-Dhuroon & the South Sudan United Movement (SSUM) of Paulino Matip, both pro-government). [11k] The SSUM announced on 29 September that a ceasefire was taking place at Wahdah Unity State between them and forces of the South Sudan Defence forces. [9q][37c] see also [4zz]

D.10 In early October 1998, SPLA forces were reported to be fighting outside the Jabalayn garrison, in eastern equatoria. The NIF used students & members of the PDF in the fighting in which 65 government soldiers were killed. [5r]

D.11 Since 1 October 1998, fighting has intensified in Liria and continues in Ngangala, Jabal Milih, Khawr English, Liria, Jabal Qutun & other areas.[10s] On 9 October, the SPLA confirmed its withdrawal from Liria having captured Liria, Ngangala & other areas in eastern equatoria in mid September. The Khartoum army retook Ngangala some two weeks ago & announced the recapture of Liria. [17g] Ugandan forces admitted on 10 October 1998 that Sudanese government troops had killed 275 of their troops, including 4 senior commanders and 21 officers. 193 were considered missing, following defeats at Liria & Jabal Qutun. [9r] On 6 October 1998, President al-Bashir threatened to launch attacks in Uganda. He claimed that Ugandan troops were involved in clashes in south sudan and has repeatedly accused Ugandan forces of supporting the SPLA. Similar accusations have been levelled against Eritrea who were also accused of shelling sudanese villages near the border, leading to the displacement of more than 60,000 people. [17e] Uganda dismissed Bashir's threat to launch attacks, but warned that Kampala was more than ready to retaliate. Bashir's comments came just 2 days after a sudanese plane dropped 9 bombs on the northern Ugandan towns of Pakele & Adjumani, injuring between 3 & 6 people. 2 of the bombs fell just 100 metres from the UN World Food programme (WFP) and the UN High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) compounds. [17f]

D.12 On 5 November 1998, information was uncovered concerning a massacre perpetrated by the NIF government against its own forces in eastern equatoria. 6 officers of various ranks, 75

24 non-commissioned officers and soldiers were killed as a result of the mistaken shelling with artillery. The NDA, said this occurred on the outskirts of Liria in October, when the SPLA forces changed places with those of the regime, who withdrew. [5v]

D.13 In November 1998, the New Sudan Brigade operating under the Joint Military Command (JMC) ambushed a mobile patrol force of the NIF between the garrisons of Hafirah & Koraiteb, south of Kassala town. The JMC forces killed 5 soldiers. [5x] In December 1998 a land mine laid by the engineering unit of the Beja Congress, which is subordinate to the Joint Military Command (JMC), exploded on contact with one of the enemy's vehicles 2km away from telkuk garrison. The explosion killed 2 and 2 were seriously wounded. [5ab] On 10 January 1999 at 0500 sudanese time, units of the Ummah Army under the joint military command of the NDA, mounted a strong attack on the town of Shaqarab. 7 members of the Popular Defence Force and the National Service were captured and taken to the liberated territories. [5af]

D.14 SPLA forces in the Nuba mountains said on 11 November 1998 a government convoy, code-named 'Peace and Development Column', attacked their positions in the Tima area where fighting continued until 23 November. [5z] On 7 December 1998, they claimed a government convoy, code-named 'Leap of the Immortals', attempted to capture the Tajurah area with a view to securing the airstrip and using it as a military base. Fighting went on from 27 November to 1 December 1998. [5aa] On 8 January 1999 they said a government convoy code-named 'leap of the glorious' attacked them at Jaluud Karkarayah, in the Nuba mountains. [5ad] In total it is claimed that 3 SPLA and 70 NIF members were killed and 60 were wounded in the fighting. [6k]

D.15 On 1st December, at 5.00am Sudanese time, the NIF forces attacked and captured the 2 garrisons of takulk and togan, in the Kassala sector. One NIF member was killed and 8 were wounded. [11t]

D.16 On 7 September 1998 Southern Sudan Defence Force (SSDF) troops recaptured Bentiu, the chief town of Wihdah, and two other towns from a rival faction. For several months the United Southern Sudan Forces (USSF) (headed by Paulino Matip) and the SSDF factions (led by Riak Machar) have been battling for control of Wihdah state, whose capital was taken by Matip's forces. [17c]

D.17 The SPLA said they killed 48 government soldiers, including the commander and other top officers when they were attacked in the Gammam region, south of Blue Nile province, on 9th January 1999. [17n]

Ceasefire/Peace Negotiations

D.18 On 15 January 1999, the SPLA announced that from 1200 GMT their ceasefire in the Bahr el-Ghazal and western upper nile regions would be renewed for a further 3 months. It would also be extended to include the central upper nile regions. [17o] The sudanese government agreed to extend the ceasefire until at least 15th April 1999, while calling for a more comprehensive ceasefire in the south. The U.S. urged both sides to ensure their forces observed the truce and to extend the ceasefire beyond the 15th April. [4aw] The ceasefires have allowed aid agencies to cope with the effects of famine, floods and massive displacement of civilians in Bahr el-Ghazal. [17r]

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D.19 On 5th April 1999 President Bashir announced that his government were prepared to extend the partial cease-fire in Bahr al-Ghazal and Western Upper Nile to a comprehensive one in all states of Southern Sudan when the cease-fire expired on 15th April. [4bo][38j] Partial three-month cease-fires have been agreed in Bahr al-Ghazal since October 1998. [38j] On 9th April the SPLA/M dismissed the “comprehensive” cease-fire offer and announced instead a further three-month extension. [73a] On 13th April the government and the SPLA agreed to another partial three-month extension, effective from 15th. [50d]

D.20 On 18th April the government postponed the fourth round of peace talks with the SPLA, which were due to begin on 20th in the Kenyan capital, Nairobi. The postponement was reportedly due to the SPLA's 'obstinacy' in handing over the bodies of those Sudanese, which the government say were tortured and killed by the SPLA whilst on an International Committee for the Red Cross (ICRC) mission. The rebels maintain they were killed by crossfire during a failed rescue attempt by government troops. [4bu] On 19th July 1999 talks resumed in Nairobi. The SPLA declared a cease-fire in 70 per cent of the south except for Eastern Equatoria. In response the government urged the rebels to accept an all-out cease- fire in order to end the civil war. The SPLA were again asked to hand over the bodies of the killed relief workers. [38o]

D.21 On 22nd July the government and rebels agreed to set up a standing body to conduct peace negotiations. A special envoy would conduct diplomacy between rounds of peace talks in the hope of speeding up progress towards peace, rather than relying on periodic negotiations. The envoy would be chosen by the Kenyan President and be acceptable to both sides. At the end of the talks both sides remained deeply divided. [4cz] The Kenyan President stopped the talks on 23rd July and said they would resume within 60 days. [11af]

D.22 On 5th August 1999 the Sudanese government declared a two-month comprehensive cease-fire, calling on the rebels to do the same. The cease-fire would commence at midnight on 5th and end on 5th October. [38q] In response the SPLA rejected the government's cease- fire saying it was "not interested in a comprehensive cease-fire but a humanitarian cease- fire."[4df] SPLA leader John Garang dismissed the cease-fire as a ploy by the government to divert attention away from the chemical weapons issue. He went on to say that he had watched President Bashir on Sudanese state television presiding over the graduation of 70,000 secondary school leavers who would be going into the military. [4dg] On 7th August 1999 Foreign Minister, Mustafa Osman Ismail said the government would stand by its cease- fire even though the SPLA had dismissed it. The SPLA said it was observing its own limited cease-fire. [4dh]

D.23 On 12 December 1999, President Bashir dissolved Parliament and declared a three-month state of emergency, which he said was to preserve the unity of the country and its coherence. The declaration was thought to stem from frictions between Bashir and Hassan Turab. The move came just as Sudanese legislators were to consider amendments to the country's constitution that would have curbed the President's powers. Sudan's Defence Minister, General Sirrulkhatm, re- affirmed the support of the country's armed forces for moves taken by President Bashir to dissolve Parliament and declare a three-month state of emergency. [78a,b,c] The state of emergency has since been extended to the end of 2000. [78d]

26 D.24 In early 2000, there have been reports of fighting in violation of the ceasefire between the government forces and those supporting them and the rebel groups. There have been attempts by both of the warring parties to negotiate a peace deal but these were unsuccessful. [79a,b,c] [80a]

Freedom of Political Association

D.25 Following the coup of 30 June 1989 all political parties and trade unions were banned.[24a] Despite the banning, political parties and trade unions remain in de facto existence both inside the country and in exile and retain their structure and hierarchy. The political situation in Sudan has, somewhat perversely, led to a wide range of groups. In 1998 a new bill known as the "tawali bill" was launched which would create political associations effective as of 1 January 1999. The government established a committee to study the bill, consult politicians and report to parliament on it. All opposition leaders in Sudan had been invited to contribute towards the committee's proceedings, whilst all opposition leaders outside the country, including al-Mahdi, al-Mirghani and John Garang were invited to return to Sudan to discuss this legislation (Political Association Act). [37e] The registration process of political parties began on 6 January 1999. [11aa] Article 26 (2) of the constitution has guaranteed the right of freedom of political association. The associations shall be committed to the principles of the constitution, have their own name and reasonable headquarters. The law stipulates that the association shall have 100 founding members and that a member shall not be condemned in a crime that affects honesty and dignity in a 7 year period. [9z] In December 1998 the Government severely restricted freedom of association in implementing legislation linked to the new Constitution that in theory would allow the existence of political parties passed into law. However, the legislation included restrictions that apparently would effectively prohibit traditional political parties, which are linked to armed opposition to the Government. [1a] [1b] In March 2000, the Political Association Act was cancelled by the government to allow political parties more freedom to carry out political activities. [79d]

D.26 On 20 December 1998, The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), issued a statement which said the NIF regime was working towards the formation of a party that will call itself the DUP, but which will actually be a subsidiary of the National Congress and come under the authority of the National Salvation Front (NSF). It also said the regime would be forming a party to be named the Ummah party which will operate under the same rules. The DUP therefore stated its objection to the NSF regime and alerted its members and supporters that any party called the DUP, registered in accordance with the Political Association laws, will be an illegal party that will not be representative of the opposition's ideals.[5ac] The DUP said it will not abandon its title and described the issuance of the Tawali (political association) Law as the first step towards the return of democracy. [9aa] Political parties would practice their activities only after they register as political parties. [9u]

D.27 A politician who applied for registration of the International People's Friendship party warned that a multi-party system would not work without the participation of the two major parties, Umma and the DUP. Apart from the NIF, the basis for the now ruling NC, all the main outlawed parties, Umma, DUP and the Communist Party have rejected the law and constitutional changes underlying it. [17l] A party called the Ummah Party submitted an application for registration on 11 January 1999. [11ab]

D.28 The government has not announced a date for parliamentary elections, which would be the first contested by several parties since President Bashir took power in the 1989 coup.

27 Registration costs at least 5 million pounds and parties must finance themselves. Many of the parties registered are expected to disappear, even before they contest any elections, through lack of finance. [4av]

D.29 The United Democratic Salvation Front (UDSF), a group of southern sudanese former rebel factions, registered on 23rd January.[4ay] The new party will be made up of 5 of the 7 factions that signed a peace accord with khartoum's Islamist government in April 1997. Riek Machar is the UDSF leader. [17p] A top National Congress member urged Riek Machar and other politicians, who left the ruling NC to form their own party, to quit their government jobs. A spokesman for the new party insisted it would remain allied to the NC, pointing out that the political future of sudan would be decided by a referendum in 2001. [17q] The United sudanese african party and the bahr el-ghazal group have opted to remain in the NC ranks. [17p] Riek Machar tendered his resignation from the National Congress on 5 February 1999. [17w]

D.30 On 13th April 1999 the Free Sudanese National Party (FSNP) and the Islamic Ummah Party (IUP) received their final certificates of registration as political parties, allowing them to engage in political activities in conformity with the Political Association Act and the provisions of the constitution and the law. The chairman of the FSNP is Philip Abbas Ghabbush and for the IUP, Wali al-Din al-Hadi al-Mahdi. [11ad]

D.31 On 4th June 1999 members of the South Sudan Defence Force (SSDF) said they had deposed Riek Machar as leader of the SSDF and president of the co-ordinating council. Willis Wal, assistant sec-gen of the co-ordinating council said he had replaced Machar. [4cn]

Freedom of Assembly

D.32 The declaration of the state of emergency and of martial law on 30 June 1989, effectively eliminated the right of assembly. The only gatherings the authorities permit are those that have been approved by the government. Politically oriented gatherings are routinely denied permission or are dispersed. Islamic orders associated with opposition political parties, particularly the Ansar and Khatimia are regularly denied permission to hold large public gatherings. In April 1999, the Muslim Brotherhood, a registered political party, announced that it was denied permission to hold symposiums in Khartoum and Omdurman. In June 1999, 84 persons were detained in Omdurman at the inauguration of the Democratic Forces Front. Eleven politicians present were charged with illegal assembly, disturbing public order and causing a nuisance. They were released on bail and later acquitted. In November 1999, riot police broke up a press conference in the office of human rights activists Ghazi Suleiman. During 1999, the government dispersed several unapproved demonstration, often with force that included beatings and tear gas. [2c]

D.33 During demonstrations in September 1996, several protestors were killed (with varying reports as to the number, the Government claiming 3, the opposition claiming 30) and many were subsequently arrested. Some detainees were reportedly tortured and some received lashes. A dispute between the opposition and the Government as to how unruly the demonstrations became has ensued. Most allegations of misconduct on the part of the authorities were directed at the parallel law enforcement structures introduced by the NIF; the NIF security, the Popular Police Force (as distinct from the regular police force) and the various NIF militias. The regular police generally conduct themselves within the law. [2b][3]

28 D.34 Government Trade Union organisations are legal in Sudan, however, they were reorganised after the 1989 coup. A Trades Union Dialogue Conference of government appointed delegates was convened in August 1990, and declared its support for the Government, by condemning the use of strikes. In February 1992 the Conference recommendations became the Workers' Trade Unions Act which established a trade union regulator to be appointed by the head of state with extensive powers to intervene in internal union affairs. [18] The new 1998 Constitution provides for the right of organisation for economic or trade union purposes. The law does not prohibit antiunion discrimination by employers. [2b]

D.35 Dr Hassan al-Turabi resigned as leader of the National Assembly on 17 December 1998. [58a] The National Assembly accepted the resignation on 21 December, in accordance with the assembly's regulations, despite requests from many members that he should continue working in the legislative organ. [11x] On 23 December the National Assembly elected Dr Turabi speaker of the assembly for the remainder of the National Assembly's life. The nomination was unanimously endorsed by the assembly's MPs. Dr Turabi accepted the responsibility and the confidence bestowed on him by the MPs. The assembly then went into a 3 month recess. [10y]

Freedom of Speech and of the Press

D.36 Press censorship was imposed following the 1989 coup. [1b] However, the Press and Publications Act 1996, passed on 11 November 1996, was said to have enhanced the degree of justice available to a journalist. It also defined the duties of a journalist towards the value of truth, justice, integrity and commitment, and not to publish anything that would disclose specific secrets of the armed forces or affect justice, the judiciary and general standards of behaviour or violate professional codes of conduct. [10d] The new Constitution, implemented early in 1999, provides for freedom of thought and expression and freedom of the press "as regulated by law". In practice, however, the government severely restricts freedom of speech and of the press. Government suspensions of newspapers, intimidation and surveillance, facilitated in part by an informer network, continued to inhibit open, public discussion of political issues. Journalists practice self-censorship.

D.37 The government exercises control of news reporting, particularly of political topics and criticism of the government, through the National Press Council (formerly the National Council for Press and Publications). The NPC applies the Press Law and is directly responsible to the President, with the power to suspend any newspaper for two months and individual journalists for two weeks if it considers that they violated press guidelines. The Press Council consists of 21 members: 7 selected by the President, 5 from the National Assembly, 7 directly elected by journalists from the Journalists' Union and 2 selected by the Journalists' Union leadership. [2c]

D.38 The government maintains control of radio and television which reflect government and NIF policies. In spite of the restrictions on ownership of satellite dishes, citizens have access to foreign electronic media; the government does not jam foreign radio signals. [2c]

D.39 On 3 February 1999 State Minister for Culture and Information, Amin Hassan Omer, imposed a news blackout on opposition political parties. He told journalists that measures would be taken against those who interviewed opposition figures. He said that opposition leaders who refused to register their parties would have no access to the media. He denied the ban amounted to censorship but warned that any media institution who failed to toe the official line would be closed. [39g]

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D.40 On 8th April 1999 Ghazi Suleiman, leader of the opposition National Alliance for the Restoration of Democracy, was jailed for 15 days and fined 500,000 Sudanese pounds ($200) for disturbing the peace and trying to hold an illegal assembly. [4br] On 21st he was released two days before the end of his sentence, only to be promptly put back behind bars for refusing to sign a six months pledge of good behaviour. The appeals court would have waived the fine if he had signed the pledge. He refused on the grounds that it would be an admission of guilt and a violation of his rights. [4bv] On 23rd he was released after completing his 15-day sentence. [4bx]

D.41 On 19th April 1999 it was reported that 2 journalists, Maha Hasan Ali, a senior reporter with the Suna news agency and Abd al-Qadir Hafiz, a correspondent of a Saudi Arabian newspaper, had been arrested on 18th without explanation. This followed the arrest on 15th of Muhammad Abd al-Sid, a correspondent for a London based Arabic daily. [17aa] On 20th the Ministry of Culture and Information said that the three reporters were detained on charges of having contacts with foreign intelligence agencies. [38k] On 22nd April Amnesty International expressed its concern at the arrest of three journalists. Amnesty believe they were being held for political reasons and feared they may be subjected to torture or ill- treatment, including beatings and denial of medical treatment, while held in a secret detention centre. [35e] Amnesty reported that Maha Hassan Ali was released without charge on 23rd April, Abd Al-Gadir Hafiz was released the following day, but that Mohamed Abd Al-Seed remained in detention. [35f] On 27th May it was reported that Al-Seed had been released without charge or trial on 26th and that he required medical treatment for infected wounds on his arms and legs as a result of being tortured in detention. [35g]

D.42 On 22nd June 1999 the editors of three newspapers were charged with printing anti- government material. Amal Abbas editor of Al-Rai Al-Akher was charged for publishing a speech by the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) leader Mohamed Osman al-Mirghani, calling for resistance to the government. If convicted, Amal Abbas faces six months to three years in prison, a fine and lashing, or all three. [4cs]

D.43 On 6th July 1999 three independent daily newspapers were suspended by the National Press & Publication Council (NPPC), a government body responsible for the supervision of the press in Sudan, for "denigrating the profession." Al-Rai al-Akhar was suspended for five days, Alwan for two days and al-Bayan, barely one-month old, for one day. The NPPC did not give details of the mistakes committed but said that it had received complaints. [55b]

D.44 On 26th July 1999 the National Press Council ordered the suspension of the independent daily newspaper "Al-Rai Al-Akhar" because of articles critical of the government's policies. It was the fourth time that a suspension had been ordered since the beginning of the year. [69a]

D.45 On 10th August 1999 President Bashir suspended the independent newspaper, Al-Bayan, for three days following their publishing of a column critical of the ruling National Congress. The Human Rights group, Reporters Sans Frontieres protested and wrote to the President asking for a new law to be passed which ensured that newspapers were not the target of repression and that press freedom be guaranteed as a basic human right. They also asked for newspapers not to be suspended for being critical of the government or the ruling party. [17ag]

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Freedom of Religion

D.46 Islam is the state religion of Sudan and Muslim Shari'a law remains as the basis for law in the country through the provisions of the 1991 Criminal Act. There are over 15 million Muslims in Sudan, 2.4 million Roman Catholics and 1 million Anglicans. [1b] In April 1998, John Garang leader of the SPLA, reaffirmed his stand that religion should be separated from the state, asking the Khartoum government to accept this as a basic reality and principle.[38a] The new Constitution prohibits discrimination based on race, sex or religious creed. It also provides for freedom of religion but states that "Shari'a and custom are the sources of legislation". The Government have razed approximately 30 religious buildings by bulldozer since 1990. [2b]

D.47 The Muslim Brothers, has sometimes been used to refer to the National Islamic Front (NIF). However, the NIF split away from this group in 1985, and has become more political, whereas the Muslim Brothers have continued as a religious group. Although some leaders of the group have reportedly suffered some problems these do not amount to more than petty harassment. The difficulties between the NIF and the Muslim Brothers, surrounding the latter's criticism that the NIF is too political, has been characterised as "in the nature of family arguments". [22a] see also [3][37c]

D.48 On 24th March 1999 Sudanese prosecutors arrested and charged 40 members of an Islamic group for disturbing the peace, after they illegally assembled with loudspeakers outside the Two Martyrs Orthodox church in Khartoum. A church and parliament member described the event as "a clear attack on the rights of Christians in Sudan". They were all later released on bail. [4bn]

D.49 On 8th May 1999 the Muslim Brothers leader, Sadig Abdallah Abdel Magid, issued a statement rejecting Sudan's constitution. The group believe that the constitution placed Islamic laws on an equal footing with customary laws and has permitted non-Muslims to hold top political posts in the country. The group who split from the original Muslim Brotherhood, led by Hassan Abdalla al Turabi, are critical of several clauses in the constitution and said it lacks concrete principles found in Islamic Sharia Laws. [39j]

D.50 On 26th June 1999 the Al-Rai Al-Akher newspaper reported that the Ansar religious sect had accused government forces of arresting several of its leaders on 24th, the eve of Moslem celebrations of Prophet Mohammed's birth, at the Wad Nubawi mosque in Omdurman. The newspaper quoted Ansar sources as saying the arrests were due to "slogans" used by the sect during the celebrations. [4cu]

D.51 On 10th August 1999 local officials in Daroushab (12 miles north of Khartoum) banned a Muslim and a Christian group after stone-throwing clashes left several people injured. It was reported that the Muslim group had been warned not to provoke the Christians but began throwing stones during Sunday Mass. The majority of northern Sudanese are Muslims but thousands of Christians fleeing the civil war in the south have settled in the north. The authorities said they would not allow any activities in Daroushab by either group and were now looking to Khartoum to offer a final solution. [54d]

Freedom of Travel/Internal flight

31 D.52 Freedom of movement is arbitrarily restricted. Those persons detained by the security forces are, on their release, obliged to sign an undertaking not to leave the town or village where they live without written permission from the security organs. [24a] Movement was generally free for other citizens outside the war zones. Checkpoints are set up along main roads to verify the identity of travellers. For most of the locations outside Khartoum, especially those under government control in the south, travel permits are required for any person wishing to enter or to leave. [2c]

D.53 Most of the leading figures of the banned political parties who still live in Khartoum are in fact under house arrest and/or surveyed continuously, without any judicially approved mandate. [24a]

D.54 Difficult bureaucratic procedures are in place for foreign travel; approval depends mainly on political reasons. In several cases, political opponents or persons who were suspected of opposition activities were prevented from leaving by the security while already on the plane. [24a] The Government denies exit visas to certain categories of persons, such as doctors and policemen. The Government also maintained lists of political figures and other citizens not permitted to travel abroad. Because of tensions with Egypt, the authorities denied many requests to travel there. The new Constitution provides for freedom of movement and residence and exit from and entry into the country. [2b] see also [6g][20a]

D.55 There is, apparently, a security directive which provides for the detention and questioning of those Sudanese who have been absent from the country for over a year. However, this directive appears to largely have fallen into disuse. The belief is that the directive was to be applicable to ex-military officers, who had been warned not to leave the country for one year. A broad consensus is that those who may now attract detention and questioning on return to Sudan are persons who would previously have attracted the attention of the Sudanese authorities, through such things as opposition activity. It is acknowledged that southern Sudanese may face the additional risk of being suspected of sympathising with the SPLA. However, southerners do not appear to automatically face persecution on return [19b,19c] and with several southern groups (e.g. SSIM, SPLA-BEG) who openly assist the Government on a military basis, the suspicion of support for the SPLA may now be weakened further. In the wake of the US bombing of Khartoum (see paras 5.17 - 5.24) UNHCR have stated that albeit they have not changed there position on returning Sudanese nationals, they were concerned about rejected asylum seekers returning from the United States and its allies. They advised extreme caution. [27a,27b,27c] see also [53a]

D.56 There are over 4 million internally displaced persons in Sudan. Many southerners who fled to the north during the internal conflict live in squatter slums in the Khartoum area. The Government is planning to upgrade conditions in some camps and is in contact with foreign NGOs and U.N. agencies concerning this effort. [2b]

D.57 The OAU ministerial conference on refugees, the displaced and returnees was held from 13 to 15 December 1998. President al-bashir affirmed that the holding of such a conference showed that Africa's leadership were concerned with the refugee question and the impact of displaced people on the countries of the continent. The participants were from 42 countries, 21 international organisations and a number of organisations concerned with the problems of refugees. [11v] The OAU urged the government and the SPLA to seek a peaceful solution to their differences in the interest of their country. The crisis has forced some 200,000 Sudanese to

32 seek refuge abroad, 400,000 internally displaced, while Sudan hosts about one million other refugees. [40e] The OAU added that the best solution to the refugee problem was to encourage voluntary repatriation, by providing favourable conditions. [38h]

National Service and Popular Defence Forces

D.58 National service is compulsory for all males aged between 18 and 39. [4aq][17j] In 1994, policemen were apparently automatically exempt but it is unclear whether this remains the case. [20a] In August 1997 there was a countrywide recruitment drive for secondary school leavers, with the authorities claiming that over 90% of them were in training camps for an initial training period of 45 days. Southerners were also being encouraged to join in the wake of the Khartoum Peace Agreement. [20d] There is no national service for women. [19f] In April 1998 President Bashir announced that students who did well in the university entrance exam could suspend their compulsory military service until after graduation or finish it later in order to attend university. This was a reversal of the decree of 2 years ago. [4v][20a] (see also C.32 to C.36)

D.59 The Sudanese government announced on 26 October 1998 that it would be cracking down on people who failed to report for compulsory army service. Legal measures would be taken and offenders face suspension of wages. If this failed to assure compliance, campaigns for arresting the evaders, including home raids, to stand trial for a punishment of up to 3 years in jail would be carried out. [17j] A campaign was launched on 6th March 1999 to enrol those who tried to avoid doing their national service. A specially devised ID had been devised to show those who had completed their national service and those who had yet to do it. The new card would be provided to all concerned persons in the country. [9af]

D.60 The Popular Defence Force (PDF) grew out of the Murahaleen, a militia raised in Southern Darfur and Southern Kordofan in the mid-1980's. The Murahaleen was consolidated into the PDF under the current Government after the 1989 coup. [3] It is reported that service in the PDF is only legally compulsory for males or females who wish to take up government employment, or to study at government universities (there are now a large number of private universities and colleges). [20b] Apart from this, PDF service is generally voluntary. [20c,20d] Many people put themselves through the initial training, as PDF service is essential for promotion within all government organisations. Only those committed to the NIF cause volunteer for the second phase of intensive training before being sent to the battle front. [20d] Service in the south is on a voluntary basis, and attempts are almost certainly made to convert Christian PDF trainees to Islam however, they are allowed to practice Christianity during service. There are reports of State Security taking people (usually homeless or without papers) from the streets at night, [20b] and also underage boys for both army and PDF service, as well as illegal conscription to the PDF. There is also, apparent, evidence that some trainees are taken to the front against their will. [20d] The Foreign and Commonwealth Office have confirmed that extensive forcible conscription continues, but, when those concerned are eighteen or over, this comes within Sudanese national service law. There is no evidence to suggest women are forcibly conscripted into the PDF. [3][19f] see also [18][23b,23c][28a][29a]

D.61 On 9th March 1999 the Government sent at least 1,000 Popular Defence Force (PDF) recruits to war fronts to fight the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) and its allies in the opposition National Democratic Alliance (NDA). Many of the PDF fighters were volunteers but others were rounded up during a campaign to catch draft dodgers and unemployed men of fighting age. Roadblocks were set up in Khartoum to check the identity of the occupants of

33 vehicles. Any men found not to have done their compulsory national service or who could not prove they had jobs were seized on the spot and put into PDF lorries. [4bj]

D.62 In early June 1999, military training began for thousands of secondary school students who would be expected to fight rebels or defend the oil-rich Unity State before the country started its exports. Some 80,000 students were said to have reported to training camps by the last day for joining. Sudanese law requires secondary school graduates to take at least 18 months of military training, otherwise they are denied results of their end-of-year exams and university places. [4cj]

VI. GENERAL ISSUES

Foreign Relations

5.1 Owing to the strong influence of the NIF in the Al-Bashir government, foreign relations with Sudan have been largely determined by the attitude of nations to Sudan's determination to spread radical Islamic fundamentalism throughout eastern Africa and the Middle East. Sudan's closest allies include Iraq, Iran and France. Relations with Ethiopia, Eritrea, Uganda, Kenya and Egypt are related to the civil war in Southern Sudan. Relations with the United States are very poor due to alleged Sudanese involvement in international terrorism. The USA has actively sought the international isolation of the Al-Bashir regime. There is currently no American diplomatic representation in Sudan. [1b] see also [1a]

5.2 Sudan has enjoyed good relations with Iraq since it supported Iraq during the Gulf War. Although relations with Iraq were strengthened, this began Sudan's increasing international isolation. Relations with Iran were damaged owing to Sudan's support for Iraq during the War, but slowly improved from 1994. There are rumours that Iran has materially assisted Sudan in the civil war in the south. In October 1998 the Sudanese Justice Minister visit Iraq in order to boost bi-lateral relations. [1a] see also [1b]

5.3 Relations with France improved dramatically when in 1994 French security officials left Khartoum with the Venezuelan-born terrorist "Carlos the Jackal". France has reportedly interceded on Sudan's behalf in the UN and the IMF. Sudan's claim that its assistance to France over Carlos the Jackal proved that it did not sponsor terrorism, has not impressed the USA who has kept Sudan on its list of countries sponsoring terrorism. [1b] see also [1a]

5.4 Relations with Uganda, Eritrea and Ethiopia are poor. Uganda supports the SPLA, whilst several Ugandan rebel groups operate out of Sudan. [1b] Following previous Sudanese attacks on targets in Northern Uganda diplomatic links have been severed. Relations with Eritrea have also been affected by border incidents. The Eritrean Islamic Jihad (EIJ) has attacked Western Eritrea from bases in Eastern Sudan, and diplomatic relations have also been severed. In 1994 Eritrea sponsored a meeting of Sudanese opposition groups which supported the IGADD peace negotiations prompting a demand that they should withdraw from the IGADD peace committee. Accusations between the two countries have been made ever since. A similar relationship has existed with Ethiopia, since the attempted assassination of President Mubarak of Egypt. Ethiopia accused Sudan of harbouring three terrorists implicated in the assassination attempt. Diplomatic links were severed and allegations by Sudan that Ethiopia had invaded it's territory and was giving military assistance to rebel groups have continued to be exchanged. Following allegations by Sudan that both Eritrean and Ugandan forces were fighting alongside the rebels, Sudanese

34 government forces allegedly launched air raids on northern Uganda in early October 1998. The Sudanese government denied that it had launched the attacks. Diplomatic relations between the two countries remain frozen. In October 1998 the Sudanese government acknowledged it was supporting rebels fighting to overthrow the governments of Uganda and Eritrea. They also accused both countries of supporting Sudanese rebels and of invading southern Sudan in September 1998. On 7 December 1998, Sudan's ambassador to Ethiopia affirmed that Ethiopian/Sudanese relations were improving rapidly for the interest of the two nations. Joint efforts were also being made for reactivating the border trade and opening the joint borders. [9w] The Foreign minister however said on the 8th, rumours that Ethiopia and Sudan had restored relations were false. He said relations between the two countries would not improve until the Sudanese government handed over the terrorists allegedly involved in the assassination attempt on the life of the Egyptian president, in Addis Ababa in June 1995, a fact which led to the deterioration of relations between Ethiopia and Sudan. [62a]

5.5 Kenya has sought to maintain good relations with all the parties to the conflict in Sudan. President Daniel Arap Moi of Kenya is the Chairman of the IGADD's committee of heads of state which has played a major role in the ongoing peace negotiations. [1b] see also [1a][37c]

5.6 Relations between Sudan and Egypt have been troubled by a dispute over ownership of a wedge of land between the countries; the Halaib Triangle. Relations soured further following the assassination attempt on the President and Sudanese support for Egyptian Muslim fundamentalists. [1b] Visa and permit requirements on nationals visiting or resident in both countries remain in place. Sudan threatened to sever ties with Egypt over Cairo's alleged support for the rebels. In July 1998 Sudan officially asked Egypt to hand over persons they believed to be involved in the bombings in Khartoum in June 1998. [4dd][15b] Khartoum was particularly enraged by Cairo's move to host a Sudanese opposition meeting for the first time in Egypt. The meeting which began on 11 August 1998 brought together three of the key NDA leaders, Sadiq al Mahdi, Mohamed Osman Mirghani and John Garang. [39b] Tensions had also risen between the two countries again over the Halaib border triangle. However, relations between the countries improved in September 1998 with the arrival in Sudan of relief from Egypt and a team of doctors. [40b] In October 1998 Sudan's Foreign Minister said his country and Egypt had worked out plans for normalising relations. [38f] see also [1b][5o][9p]

5.7 Relations between Sudan and Libya have been traditionally close. The increasingly Islamic fundamentalist stance of Sudan has meant that Sudan and Libya are no longer natural allies, but Libya is reported to have acted as mediator with some of Sudan's more hostile neighbours. In May 1996 the two countries reiterated their March 1990 declaration of integration, providing for the eventual merging of Sudan and Libya. [1b] see also [1a]

5.8 President al-Bashir promoted bilateral relations between Sudan & Bahrain when he witnessed the opening of the Bahrain embassy in Khartoum for the first time on 4 October 1998. [10r]

5.9 On 10 November 1998, Sudan & Eritrea signed a memorandum of understanding in the Qatari capital, Doha, to normalise relations between the two countries and restore them to what they had been in the past. [11q]

5.10 On 3rd June 1999 the External Relations Minister Dr Mustafa Uthman Isma’il said relations between Sudan and Egypt were progressing steadily. A meeting in Cairo with the

35 Egyptian Foreign Minister resulted in defining of a context within which problems could be managed and relations could return to normal. [10af] The Egyptian-Sudanese relations became tense in 1995 after Cairo accused Khartoum of masterminding an assassination attempt on President Hosni Mubarak in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Egypt also blamed Sudan for harbouring Islamic militants who attempted to topple Mubarak’s secular government and install a strict Islamic rule in the country. Sudan denied both charges. [38l]

5.11 On 26th February 1999 Dr Isma’il reiterated Sudan’s readiness to return its relations with Britain to normal, which was prevalent before the destruction of the Shifa Pharmaceutical Plant in August 1998. He indicated that Sudan still regarded Britain as an important country, which can play a positive role in Sudan’s issues, such as peace in the south. [9ad]

5.12 On 25th June 1999 Britain announced its decision to send its ambassador back to Khartoum and to resume normal relations with Sudan. A foreign office spokesman said that British staff would return to the Embassy in Sudan in stages. [38m]

5.13 On 29th May 1999 a 30-year old Sudanese refugee, Aamir Ageeb, died on a Cairo- bound airliner following his deportation from Germany. It was reported that he struggled with police and resisted boarding the plane, at which point the police used force to secure him in his seat and put a motorcycle helmet on his head "for his own protection". After the flight had taken off the police noticed that Ageeb had stopped breathing. Physicians on board tried to revive him an investigation into the death of Mr Ageeb. [4cl]

5.14 On 17th June 1999 Amnesty International expressed concern for Fathelrahman Abdallah, a Sudanese asylum seeker in Germany. Amnesty feared he would be at risk of serious human rights violations, including arbitrary imprisonment and torture if returned. Abdalla fled Sudan after reportedly being imprisoned and tortured, on a number of occasions, as a result of his active membership of the opposition Democratic Unionist Party (DUP). He was expected to be deported to Sudan on 19th June. [35h] On 28th June Amnesty advised that the deportation had been postponed to the end of June following an appeal by Abdallah's lawyer. [35i] He was released on 30th June and his deportation postponed pending a later hearing, so that new evidence could be considered. [35j]

5.15 On 2nd May 1999 Sudan's President Bashir and Eritrean President Isayas Afewerki, signed a reconciliation agreement in Doha. This ended five years of estrangement between the two countries, [71a] when in December 1994 Eritrea accused Sudan of supporting Moslem militants and broke off diplomatic ties. On 5th May Sudan accused Eritrea of shelling a village along their border only days after the Doha agreement was signed. [4bz] On 14th June Sudanese External Relations Minister Dr Ismail and Eritrean foreign minister, Haile Woldetensae signed an agreement aimed at forming joint committees from the two countries to normalise relations. The committee will meet in the capitals of the two countries on a rotational basis. [11ae]

5.16 On 6th July 1999 Sudanese Foreign Minister Mustafa Osman Ismail said Sudan and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) had agreed to restore their diplomatic ties to ambassadorial level. Ties had been strained since Sudan sided with Iraq during the Gulf War in 1991. [38n] On 25th July Mr Ismail attended the re-opening of the Sudanese Embassy in Kuwait. The two countries agreed to restore full diplomatic relations which were frozen following the Gulf War. [38p]

36

Attacks on US Embassies and US Retaliation

5.17 Following the terrorist bomb attack on the morning of Friday 7 August 1998 against the USA embassies in Nairobi, Kenya and Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania, the Sudanese government joined in the international condemnation of the attack and offered to co-operate in the search for the perpetrators. [4ll,4oo] Several persons suspected of being involved were arrested in the aftermath. One of the suspects arrested had apparently admitted his involvement and that of Afghanistan-based Saudi dissident, Osama Bin Laden. [51a] On 8 August 1998 the US closed and sealed off its embassy in Khartoum, [4ll][9m] and on 20 August 1998 at about 7.30pm Sudanese time, the US launched simultaneous military strikes against terrorist bases in Afghanistan and an alleged chemical weapons factory in Sudan. [48a] see also [4ww][9n][37c][39c][49a]

5.18 In Sudan the El-Shifa Pharmaceutical's factory, situated in the Bahri industrial area 8 miles north of Khartoum city centre was destroyed. Bin Laden was alleged to have links with the plant.[4ww] The US Government claimed the plant was capable of producing part of the VX gas, nerve agent for use in chemical warfare. [4tt][23g,23h][52a] The Sudanese Government denied the claim alleging that the factory only produced medical drugs. [39c] They stated they would file an official complaint with the United Nations and called for both American and UN observers to visit the El Shifa factory. [50a] A complaint was made before the UN Security Council and Sudan continues to follow it up. [9ab] President Bashir, in an interview on 24 November 1998, reiterated Sudan's refusal to allow the reopening of the American embassy in Khartoum as long as the subject of the strike on the factory remained unsettled. He said they wanted an apology and compensation. [11s] see also [23f]

5.19 The US action received both backing and severe criticism. The attack was welcomed by Sudanese rebels and the opposition. The Khartoum bombing left the factory destroyed and 7 people injured. The American Embassy was attacked during a number of protest demonstrations against the attack. The following day Sudan recalled its diplomatic mission from Washington. [10p] President Clinton was accused of bombing a civilian target when tests ordered by him allegedly showed no trace of nerve gas. [52a] On 22 August 1998 the British Embassy in Khartoum was besieged by a 500 strong mob, protesting at British support for the US missile strike. Stones were thrown and about 50 windows shattered. [4qq,4rr] A Union flag was also torn up. [49c] Embassy staff protested to the Sudanese Government that police had failed to protect the mission. [4qq] The British ambassador was then ordered out of Khartoum by the Sudanese Government. All British Embassy staff were withdrawn from Khartoum shortly after, and Britons working in Sudan were advised to leave. [49b,49c] Sudan criticized Britain for withdrawing all of its diplomats. [4vv] A huge demonstration was staged in Khartoum on 17 December 1998 protesting against the U.S. & British aggression against Iraq. Demonstrators burnt the U.S. flag in protest. [11w,11y] On 27 January 1999 the sudanese state foreign minister said that the British diplomatic mission would be welcomed back in Khartoum. [17s] see also [4tt][6h,6i][11i,11j][[37c][39c][48b]

5.20 The UN rejected Sudan's request to investigate the US missile attack. [41a][45a] Sudan denied any links with Bin Laden. In September 1998, President Bashir formed a committee to investigate the ownership and financial background of the El-Shifa factory. [4xx] The committee's report concluded that there were no links between Osama Bin Laden and the Sudanese government with regard to ownership of the factory. Tests carried out on samples of

37 what remained of the factory confirmed that there were no ingredients for manufacturing nerve gas. Tests carried out on the raw materials used by the factory were found to be free of any ingredient that could be used in making chemical weapons. [10z] The owner of the factory, Saleh Idris, wants the US to apologise, to unfreeze his assets and compensate him for damage to the factory. [50b] see also [4ss][50a,50c]

5.21 On 4th March 1999 armed men were reported to have attacked the vacant US embassy building in Khartoum. Gunmen drove by the building at 4am (Sudanese time) and opened fire with machine guns. The embassy has been closed since 1996 for security reasons. [5ag] Sudan told the U.S. that it was not involved in the attack. It is thought that it could have been aimed at creating a disturbance and aggravating the discord between Washington and Khartoum. [17z]

5.22 In May 1999, the U.S. bank accounts of Saleh Idris, who owned the pharmaceutical factory destroyed by the United States in August 1998, were unfrozen. The U.S. admitted that the missile attack on the factory was a mistake and cleared Mr Idris of any links to terrorism. [50e] Mr Idris said he planned to seek compensation from the U.S. for the destruction of the factory. [74a] On 10th August 1999, Mr Idris filed a law suit against the US Administration demanding $30 million in compensation. [48d]

5.23 On 27th May 1999 Khartoum signed a treaty on banning chemical weapons, thus complying with one of the conditions laid down by Washington for a review of the policy of sanctions against Sudan. The U.S. accused Sudan of fuelling terrorism and seeking to purchase weapons of mass destruction which led to the bombing of the Shifa factory.[72a]

Bombings

5.24 On 5 November 1998, a Sudanese military aircraft reportedly dropped a number of bombs on the town of Yei, injuring citizens. It was the 5th time that Yei had been struck since it was captured by SPLA forces last year. [5w] The SPLA said on 24 January 1999 a Sudan Air Force plane dropped 10 bombs on Yei which narrowly missed the local hospital. 2 women were killed, one of whom was pregnant and a 4 year old child. [4az] On 26 January 5 more bombs were dropped on Yei for the second time within a week, nobody was injured. [4bc] The Khartoum government was accused of systematically bombing civilian hospitals in rebel areas. [57a] The latest target was in Kajo Keji, close to the Ugandan border, where 3 of 6 bombs hit the hospital causing extensive damage, although no-one was killed. Government aircraft have bombed civilian hospitals in Yei, Nimule, Labone & Chukudum within one and a half months. These areas are controlled by the SPLA [54a] but are not covered by the unilateral ceasefire. [57a]

5.25 On 10 November 1998 the military court in Khartoum sentenced suspects in the Wad Medani bombing case. The bombing took place last May and destroyed the Gezira state government premises and a gas station. Nobody was killed or hurt in the explosions. [40c] One suspect was sentenced to life imprisonment and two others to 4 years and 3 years imprisonment. Others were acquitted through lack of evidence. [10w]

5.26 Sudanese authorities released 2 opposition leaders on 14 October 1998, after jailing them for 100 days. The 2 members of the rebel Ummah Party were arrested in early July, the day after a bomb exploded in Khartoum. They were not charged but held in Debek prison near the capital. One of the detainees said they had received no explanation for their detention or release but that

38 they had not been badly treated in prison. They had however been denied access to newspapers, radio & television. [17h]

Assassination Attempts

5.27 The SPLM said that a group of followers of kerubino kuanyin bol acting in coordination with the sudanese embassy in Nairobi attacked the Nairobi residence of John Garang on 14 November 1998 in an attempt to assassinate him. [5y] Col Garang was in residence but escaped unhurt. [61b] The attack left one man dead and several wounded. [40d] Police from the Muthangari police station moved in to quell fighting. They arrested 6 people and confirmed that a supporter of Col. Garang died at a Nairobi hospital on 15 November. This is the first time the warring SPLA factions have brought their rivalry to Kenya's capital. [61b] Kerubino however claimed that the Muthangari police conspired with John Garang in a plot that would eventually lead to his assassination. He said the 2 rival factions fought at the police station on 14 November and not at the home of Col.Garang. [59a] He said the disagreement was due to Garang's attempt to integrate 12,000 of his troops into the SPLA. An SPLA official said that 20 of kerubino's supporters went to Garang's home to assassinate him & that the attack failed thanks to the intervention of the kenyan police. [8l] The National Congress denied any link between the sudanese government and the conflict between the rebel leaders and asserted that according to available information Garang planned to assassinate Kerubino and on his failure to do so fabricated a contrary story. [17k]

Health

5.28 In February 1999, it was reported that 175 people had died from meningitis since December 1998 when an outbreak began in North Darfur. [17y] Another 1,156 people are reported to be infected, [54c] with children accounting for 70 per cent of cases. [17y] The outbreak was unexpected as the epidemic season usually falls during the hot and dry seasons between March and September, [4bi] although many parts of Sudan are in the midst of a heatwave. The disease has spread to 18 of Sudan's 26 states. A vaccination campaign has been launched to target 7 million people between the ages of 3 and 35. [54c] Malaria was also reported to be on the rise this year. [4bi] A mysterious type of fever was reported to have hit a wide area of western sudan especially in Jebel Mara, Garsela and Genena. 40 cases were reported and 8 of the victims had died. [55a]

5.29 Ecologists in Sudan have warned against the use of pesticides which have caused the chemical DDT to be found in the milk of mothers. DDT was proved to cause cancer, infertility and neutralise calcium, a vital substance for the growth of bones. Most countries of the world have banned the use of this dangerous chemical. [40g]

5.30 According to health workers, more than 500,000 people are living with AIDS in Khartoum alone, which houses more than 8 million people. More than 2 million of which are displaced from the south. Health officials say AIDS will continue to spread in the country unless policy makers recognise the danger and declare the disease a national disaster. [39e]

5.31 An outbreak of an unidentified stomach disorder killed over 100 people in the first week of March 1999 in Malakal, Upper Nile state.[40h] Investigations during March and April identified the disease as louse-borne relapsing fever. Although about 20 percent of

39 untreated cases die, an effective treatment is a single dose of antibiotics. The disease, which usually lasts about 2-3 weeks, can be complicated by a bacterium that is transmitted by body lice. [76a]

5.32 An outbreak of meningitis began on 10th December 1998. By the end of May 1999 the disease had claimed more than 1,250 people and more than 17,000 were reported to be infected. The airborne disease began as a result of unusually high temperatures in December. Early summer rainfall helped recede the disease in many of the country’s regions, the worst of which being Northern Darfur, West Kordofan (both in the west) and Sennar (central Sudan). [40i]

5.33 On 1st August 1999 Sudan's army denied accusations made by rebels, that the government is using chemical or biological weapons against civilians in the south. The SPLA said on 23rd July that an aircraft had dropped 22 bombs on Lainya and Kaaya in Western Equatoria, which serve as relief centres. The SPLA reported that following the bombing people started to vomit blood, almost all pregnant women in the area miscarried and animals started dying in large numbers. [4db] On 4th August it was announced that the UN was to send investigators to southern Sudan, after locals and aid workers showed symptoms associated with chemical weapons poisoning. A diplomat at Sudan's mission to the UN said his country had recently signed the Chemical Weapons Convention and had nothing to hide. [50f] On 5th August the United Nations said that the Government bombed three towns, Yirol, Loka and Lainya, in the south of the country, just two weeks after dropping suspected chemical weapons on Lainya. [4de]

Slavery

5.34 In December 1998, The Christian Solidarity International (CSI), an anti-slavery organisation, petitioned the UN over the ever increasing cases of slavery in southern Sudan. This was yet another effort towards bringing international attention to slavery in Sudan where the predominant Christian inhabitants particularly the Dinka group are the target. The Sudanese government in its new constitution recognised slavery as a legitimate social institution and states that the targets of the Jihad are non-Muslims, who must first be invited to embrace Islam. If they refuse and decide to fight back, they and their families may be enslaved and all their property seized as booty. They have no rights whatsoever and become the property of the owner who is entitled to dispose of them by sale, gift, dowry or in other ways the owner wishes. Female slaves are available to their owner for purposes of concubinage, which is legitimate under the Shari'ah Law according to the 'shorter encyclopedia of Islam'. (Leiden 1953) [37f] The CSI said they had bought the freedom of 1,050 slaves, mainly women & children, in the southern Bahr el-Ghazal province this month, at a cost of $50 per person paid to the arab traders. [17t] Interviews with redeemed slaves revealed a consistent pattern of physical and physcological torture, such as throat slitting, death threats, female genital mutilation, forced conversions to Islam, beatings, lashings and unpaid labour. [4ba] In January 1999, the Sudanese government strongly denied the existence of slavery on territory held by pro-khartoum forces. It stated that the allegations by the CSI related to areas under the rebels control. [17u] On 13 February 1999 the Human Rights Advisory Council issued a statement which accused the CSI campaign, led by Baroness Cox, of having bribed mean-spirited people to kidnap children from the Dinka tribe. They would then bring them back to her in areas under rebellion control so she could allege to have liberated them and claim the government allowed a slave trade. [9ac] On 17 February the CSI alleged that government forces broke the UN-brokered ceasefire and seized hundreds of slaves in Northern

40 Bahr al-Ghazal. It also said that 409 women and children were abducted from the Warawar area on 4 February. [4bg] The CSI said some 5,066 slaves had been liberated through their programme since 1995. [4ba] The new 1998 Constitution prohibits slavery and forced labour. [2c]

5.35 On 24th May 1999 it was announced that the Sudanese government was to set up a high- powered committee to try and stamp out abductions of women and children for forced labour, referred to as slavery. A representative for the U.N. children's agency UNICEF in Khartoum said it was viewed as a positive step. Whilst there had been committees set up to look at this issue in the past, this one was different in that it would have extensive powers. Sudan rejected assertions by the U.N. investigator for Human Rights, Leonardo Franco, that Khartoum allowed Arab tribesmen to seize civilians in the war-torn south and sell them as slaves. The committee's mandate is to ensure the safe return of abducted women and children to their families, bring to trial suspected abductors and recommend ways to eradicate the practice. The committee would have the power to arrest, investigate, search and bring criminal cases to trial. The Khartoum government denies the existence of slavery in Sudan and accuses Christian Solidarity International, a non-governmental organisation, of creating a market for the abduction and ransoming of civilians by campaigning to buy the freedom of kidnapped victims. [4cf] see also [4bp]

Punishments

5.36 On 8th March 1999 it was revealed that 85 people sentenced to death were in prisons pending the approval of the Supreme Court to carry out the verdicts. Once the ruling is given by the Supreme Court, the prison authorities are obliged to carry out any sentence within twenty-four hours, except during official holidays, the fetes, religious occasions and the holy month of Ramadan. [9ag]

5.37 On 14th March 1999 a court in Nyala (southwest of Khartoum) sentenced eight people to death for armed robbery and waging war against the state. The eight are allowed to appeal to two higher courts. Three other men were sentenced to up to three years in prison, whilst one other was acquitted. The robbery took place last October when a gang dressed in army uniform and armed with grenades took employees at the Nyala branch of the Bank of Sudan hostage and stole about 1.2 billion Sudanese pounds ($480,000). The last time Sudan executed armed robbers was in 1993. [4bm] (see also 5.62)

5.38 On 14th April 1999 a Sudanese tribunal sentenced ten people to death by crucifixion, for their involvement in tribal clashes in the state of West Darfur in February. West Darfur was then placed under a state of emergency. They were all found guilty of initiating the clashes in which 131 people died and 85 were wounded. The sentences have yet to be approved by the Supreme Court. [4bs] (see also C.15) On 21st April 1999 Amnesty International expressed deep concern at the courts for having sentenced at least 18 people to death by hanging, cross amputation (right hand & left leg) and crucifixion. [35d]

5.39 On 20th May 1999 the families of 28 Sudan Army Officers executed in April 1990 after a failed coup attempt to overthrow President Bashir’s then 10 month old regime, petitioned the President to investigate what happened. They demanded that the officers’ places of burial are identified or any remains handed over for burial on family grounds. They also requested that authorities reveal the way in which the men were executed and their last wishes. [4cb]

41

5.40 On 8th June 1999 Parliament passed an amendment to the press law that allowed the administrative punishment of journalists. The amendment says that the Press Council can bar journalists from writing for 15 days. Previously such punishments could only be decided by a court. [4cq] (see also D.34-D.43)

5.41 On 15th June 1999 25 students were publicly flogged after a Public Order Tribunal judge ruled that a riverside picnic, at which some girls wore trousers, was immoral and riotous. Each of the 25, including the girls, were sentenced to 40 lashes and fined up to 50,000 Sudanese pounds (about $20). [17ab]

Elections

5.42 On 19th April 1999 the Southern States Co-ordination Council (SSCC) decided to postpone elections of legislative assemblies in all southern states until November. The decision came as the rainy season in the southern states had begun, making the process of registration and voting impossible. [10ad] Elections in all the northern states, as well as Upper Nile and Wahdah States in the south, would be held soon. This would exclude Buhayrat, Warab and Western Equatoria for compelling security reasons. [9ai]

5.43 On 7th May 1999 Sudan's belligerents agreed to hold a referendum to decide if the people of the south wanted unity or outright secession. At the end of two-day talks representatives of the government and the SPLA confirmed that they had reached a deadlock over the exact boundary of the south. The government insists the borders should remain as they stood at the time of independence in 1956, when the south consisted of 3 provinces, Equatoria, Bahr al Ghazal and Upper Nile. The SPLA demands that Abyei, Southern Blue Nile and Southern Kordofan, which were part of the south before independence, be involved in the referendum. [39i]

5.44 On 18th May 1999 only two of the 18 registered political parties had nominated candidates for the country’s first state parliament elections since 1988. The registered Umma party, which is not directly affiliated with the exiled opposition party of the same name, reversed its decision to boycott the elections. The other 16 parties did not propose candidates as they said there was not enough time to organise themselves and form state branches. [4ca] On 26th May the Umma Party pulled out of June’s elections for state legislatures, leaving the National Congress Party a clear run in what was supposed to be the first multi-party vote. The Umma Party gave no reason for its withdrawal. [4ci] On 15th June 1999 it was announced that the ruling National Congress won 62 of the 65 seats in the parliament of Khartoum State after opposition parties withdrew from the election. [4cr]

5.45 On 20th May 1999 President Bashir said that the new constitution granted freedom to every citizen to express his views, participate in the political organisation and make decisions on the important matters in the country through legislative assemblies, which would be elected next month. He also announced that the presidential election in Sudan would be held next year. [10ae]

5.46 On 30th June 1999 President Bashir offered a dialogue with his political opponents and renewed an amnesty offer to rebels. He confirmed his agreement to the holding of a comprehensive conference for national dialogue. The opposition National Democratic

42 Alliance (NDA) has been calling for a national conference to debate Sudan's future, but the government in the past rejected the demand for discussion of the new constitution enacted last year. President Bashir said he would be setting up an advisory council drawn from registered political parties to help shape policy. The mainstream opposition parties in the NDA have refused to register. Even the registered parties are at loggerheads with the ruling National Congress over the timetable for elections. [4cv]

Miscellaneous

5.47 It is reported that 5 sudanese refugees died and over 200 were seriously injured [60a] after violence between Sudanese Dinka and Didinga communities at the Kakuma refugee camp in northwest Kenya on 29 January 1999. Two refugee sites at Kakuma house some 70,000 refugees, mainly Sudanese. [4bd] More than 5,000 people have been displaced since the fighting broke out and over 300 houses belonging to the Dinka had been burnt in the fighting.[60a] The commission for Refugees recommended establishing refugee camps in secured areas a distance from border areas, in order to maintain safety of the refugees. [10q]

5.48 In his Independence day address on 31 December 1998, President Bashir announced the completion of the constitutional organs following the implementation of the permanent constitution as promised in his address last year. Its institutions were complete with a supreme constitutional court, which will act with justice on all constitutional affairs between the ruler and the ruled and between federal and state organs in order to protect freedom. He announced the dissolution of state legislative assemblies at the beginning of the new year to mark the start of the new stage of constitutional building with the election of state assemblies this year until the time comes for the election of a new National Assembly the year after that, followed by the new presidential elections. [11z]

5.49 On 3 January 1999, President Bashir endorsed the 1998 general elections law, which was formulated in accordance with the new political situation and would replace the 1995 general elections law, effective immediately. The official voting age was now 17, instead of 18. [10aa]

5.50 In an interview on 11 January 1999, published in the Qatari capital, Doha, for the first time ever in the history of Sudanese politics, Hassan al-Turabi said that the south is only a regional extension of Sudan. He also said that under the government's project of Islamisation, the inhabitants of the south should either accept these trends or choose separation. [5ae] On 21 February 1999 President Bashir said he was ready to let the south secede if it would end the country's 15 year-old civil war. [4bh]

5.51 The Dinka population is seeking to return to their original name "Jieng", which was spurned by European explorers and historians in the 18th century. The name Dinka was imposed by explorers to the upper nile region as the name Jieng was considered difficult to pronounce. The name Dinka was corrupted from the name of a chief the explorers met called Deng Kak. Since then Dinka is the only name to appear in text books, maps and public speeches. In reality there is no tribe called Dinka. [39d]

5.52 A US Committee for Refugees report issued in December 1998 blamed fighting and war- related famine and disease for the deaths in Sudan. The civilian death toll from the 15 year-old civil war was thought to have risen to at least 1.9 million, making it the most costly in human terms than any other ethnic or religious conflict since the Second World War. [44b]

43

5.53 On 15th April the SPLA claimed to have killed 107 sudanese soldiers and wounded more than 300 at the Samaa Ardieb garrison in the Blue Nile Province. They also claimed to have killed 128 soldiers during fighting in Samaa West and Adbrob. The Government denied the reports. [4bt]

5.54 On 11th March 1999 A senior U.N. diplomat said Sudan’s government and rebel armies had agreed to stop using landmines across southern Sudan. Khartoum apparently refused to accept a ban in eastern Sudan along the border with Eritrea. [4bl]

5.55 On 7th June 1999 Sudanese prosecutors charged 11 opposition politicians with holding an illegal meeting in Omdurman. Around 84 people were detained at the news conference to announce the formation of a new political party, the Democratic Forces Front (DFF). Among the 11 were Abdel Majid Imam the DFF's honorary president, human rights lawyer Ghazi Suleiman, veteran southern politician Toby Madut and Mohamed Ismail Al-Azhari, whose father was Sudan's first prime minister after independence. They were released on bail after six hours at Omdurman police station. [4cp]

5.56 On 7th April 1999 the senior commander of the Southern Sudan Defence Force (SSDF), David Oduho, accused his own men of trying to assassinate him for political reasons. Oduho said on 5th April he entered his house in Juba when shooting started and a grenade was lobbed into his house. Oduho said his relations with his SSDF colleagues had been shaky since he joined the ruling party, the National Congress. [4bq]

5.57 On 22nd May 1999 former President Jafaar Nimeiri returned to Sudan after 14 years in exile in Egypt, after his regime was ousted by a military coup in 1985. [4ce] On 29th May about 5,000 people, most of which belonged to the Ansar religious sect, took to the streets in Omdurman calling for the trial of Nimieri.They hold him responsible for a “massacre” in 1970 of 12,000 people in their stronghold of Aba Island. [4ch] The government granted Nimeiri Amnesty from prosecution on 9th May, for crimes or alleged crimes he committed between his coming to power on 25th May 1969 and his overthrow on 6th April 1985. [4cg] Nimeiri formed a new political party called the Alliance for People’s Working Forces, which registered under the political associations law and received its registration certificate on 11th May. [9ak]

5.58 On 23rd June 1999 Sudan's parliament amended a law to allow President Bashir to hold both military and political posts. Under the armed forces law, military men are not allowed to hold political posts. Lieutenant-General Bashir is exempted by the amendment. Bashir has said that presidential elections will be held next year, a year ahead of schedule.[4ct]

44

ANNEX A

MAJOR POLITICAL ORGANISATIONS

The following is a list of past and present political groups/parties:

Beja Congress Armed opposition group and part of the NDA. Leader - Shaykh/Imam Taha Ahmed Taha

Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) Leader - Mohammad Osman (Uthman) al-Mirghani. Conservative in political outlook. Formed in the late 1960s by a merger between the National Unionist Party and the People's Democratic Party. DUP has its base in the muslim Khatmiyyah sect. DUP is one of the founder members of the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) opposition umbrella group. However, the DUP contains a small faction which remains under the name DUP, but to most intents and purposes is a separate party. This faction is led by Zayn al-Abidin el-Hindi (also referred to respectfully as Sharif el-Hindi) and disagrees with the involvement of religion in the DUP and does not form a part of the NDA. The two factions enjoyed a certain degree of co-operation until the return of Sharif el-Hindi to Sudan in June 1997, following which the al-Mirghani DUP disowned him. Members of the al-Mirghani DUP involved in activities which the government regards as a threat to security run the risk of persecution. Since Sharif el-Hindi's return to Sudan none of the members of his faction of the DUP have been detained, and there have been no reports of members being threatened with detention.

Free Sudanese National Party (FSNP) Officially registered as a political party on 13th April 1999 Leader - Philip Abbas

Islamic Ummah Party (IUP) Officially registered as a political party on 13th April 1999 Leader - Wali al-Din al-Hadi al- Mahdi Liberation Front for Southern Sudan (LFSS) A rival faction to the original SPLM.

Legitimate Command of the Sudanese Armed Forces (LC-SAF) Formed from dissident military officers from Sudan. It is a part of the NDA. Leader - Lt-Gen Abd al-Rahman Sa'id. Its members are normally military or ex-military officers of some rank.

Movement of the New Sudanese Forces A very small group formed by 4 prominent Sudanese Communist Party (SCP) members in late 1995 / early 1996 from two groups; the Sudanese Movement for Democracy and Progress and the Democratic Forum.

Muslim Brotherhood Islamic fundamentalist. Leader - Dr Habir Nur ad-Din

45

Muslim Brothers This group split from the original Muslim Brotherhood Leader - Sadig Abdallah Abdel Magid

National Alliance for Salvation (NAS) Founded 1985. Group of professional associations, trade unions and political parties.

National Congress Party (NCP) Founded 1985. Leader - Dr Riyad Bayyumi.

National Democratic Alliance (NDA) Asmara based group of movements opposed to the government. Chairman - (Sayid) Mohammed Osman (Uthman) al-Mirghani [DUP]. It contains the SPLA, DUP (al-Mirghani side), SCP, LC- SAF, SAF, Beja Congress and the Trade Unions. This is not an exhaustive list but it includes the larger groups within it.

National Islamic Front (NIF) Khartoum. Secretary General - Dr Hassan al-Turabi. Politico-religious group. Widely regarded as the power behind the current government.

Sudan Alliance Forces (SAF) Small armed opposition group which appeared early in 1996, it operates out of camps in the Sudan-Eritrea border areas. Reportedly formed from muslims expelled from the Sudanese army. Leader is Brig. Abdul Aziz Khalid. The SAF is banned and active members may be at risk in the Sudan. The government clamped down heavily on officers and officials suspected of involvement with the SAF in 1996-97.

Sudan African National Union (SANU) Malakal; Southern Party; supports continuation of regional rule.

Sudanese African Congress (SAC) Juba.

Sudanese African People's Congress (SACPO) Juba.

Sudanese Communist Party (SCP) Secretary General - Mohamed Ibrahim Nugud - Although numerically smaller than the traditional Sudanese parties (DUP and Umma) it exercises its power through the trades unions and is seen as the main threat by the government. The Communist newsletter, banned in Sudan, was "Al-Maidan".

Sudan Human Rights Organisation (SHRO) A well known human rights group that campaigns on behalf of those detained or mistreated in Sudan. Believed to be part of the SCP.

46

Sudan Federal Democratic Alliance (SFDA) Very small group launched in London on 5 February 1994. Leader - former Umma Party politician, Ahmed Ibrahim Diraige. Liberal democrat in outlook. The government will almost certainly be aware of its existence due to the involvement of Diraige, but it is not regarded as a threat.

Sudanese National Party (SNP) Leader - Hasan al-Mahi - participates in NDA (see above)

Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) Opposition movement. Leader - John Garang

Southern Sudanese Political Association (SSPA) Juba; largest southern party; advocates unity of the Southern Region.

Umma Party (UP) Mahdist party based on the Koran and Islamic traditions based in the Ansar muslim sect. Leader - Sadiq al-Mahdi. The party was a member of the NDA until March 2000 when it withdrew its membership (see source 81 for further details).

United Democratic Salvation Front (USDF) Registered in January 1999. Comprises 5 of the 7 factions that signed the peace accord with Khartoum's government in April 1997. Leader - Riek Machar

Union of Sudan African Parties (USAP) Leading figure - Samuel Aro Bol. Sympathises with the SPLA.

47

ANNEX B

SPLA FACTIONS

Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) Opposition movement. Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) - Military wing of SPLM. Leader - Col. John Garang. It continues to form the main military force in opposition to the current government. Member organisation of the NDA. Predominantly Dinka.

SPLA - Bahr al-Ghazal faction (SPLA-BEG) Leader - Kerubino Bol. Signed the Peace Accord in April 1997 and formed part of the Southern Sudan Defence Force (SSDF) fighting on behalf of the government in the south. However, in February 1998 Bol realigned himself to the SPLA and tried to help take the government-held town of Wau. Lawrence Lual Lual then took over leadership of the SPLA - Bahr al-Ghazal group.

SPLA - United Led by Dr Lam Akol. Although a faction of this group signed the Peace Accord with the government in April 1997 the faction remaining under Dr Akol, has now also signed a peace agreement with the Government.

Nuba Mountains SPLA - Muhammed Harun Kafi Faction A faction of the Central Committee of the Nuba Mountains SPLA which split from the SPLA under Garang in late June 1996 and signed the Peace Charter with the Government. Led by Muhammad Harun Kafi.

Southern Sudan Defence Force/United Democratic Salvation Front for Southern Sudan A military group comprising the armed wings of the southern signatories to the Peace Charter. Led by Riak Machar and Kerubino Bol. Fighting broke out, in June and August 1998, between two pro-government factions in Unity State, 530 miles south west of Khartoum. Forces loyal to Riak Machar were attacked by the forces of Paulino Matip. The leader of the Sudanese People's Liberation Army - Bahr al-Ghazal group, Lawrence Lual Lual withdrew from Riak Machar's coalition United Democratic Salvation Front (UDSF) to protest at the actions of Machar. They joined forces with Matip. On 4th June 1999 members of the SSDF said Riak Machar had been deposed as leader of the SSDF and Willis Wal had replaced him.

South Sudan Independence Movement (SSIM) A rival faction to the original SPLM. Leader - Riak Machar Teny-Dhuroon. Evolved early 1995 from another faction, the SPLA-United (leader - Kerubino Bol and William Nyuon) The SSIM is now providing forces to reinforce the government garrison and southern capital of Juba. Forms part of the Southern Sudan Defence Force (SSDF).

The Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM), and its military wing, the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) was formed under the leadership of John Garang de Mabior in 1983.

48 The SPLA split in September 1991 into what for convenience is termed the SPLA mainstream which remained under Garang, and SPLA-Nasir under Riak Machar, Kerubino Bol and Lam Akol. In March 1993 SPLA-Nasir was re-named SPLA-United. The breakaway parties favour an independent southern Sudan.

In February 1994 Lam Akol was expelled from SPLA-United and formed another group which remained under the name SPLA-United. In November 1994 the part of SPLA-United which remained under Riak Machar re-named itself the South Sudan Independence Movement/Army (SSIM/A)

In June 1996, a faction of the Central Committee of the Nuba Mountains SPLA under Muhammad Harun Kafi split away from the Nuba Mountains SPLA mainstream and entered into peace negotiations with the government. The remaining faction of the Nuba Mountains SPLA under Yusuf Kuwah remained within SPLA mainstream under Garang.

In April 1996, the SSIM and the faction of the SPLA under Kerubino Bol signed a peace charter with the government. The final peace accord was signed on 21 April 1997, with the Nuba Mountains SPLA faction under Kafi signing a separate accord. The accord was passed into law by the National Assembly on 23 July 1997. Other signatories of the accord were the Bor Independence Group, the Equatoria Defence Force and a faction of SPLA-United. The faction of the SPLA-United still under Lam Akol and the faction of the Nuba Mountains SPLA under Yusuf Kuwah have not signed an agreement with the government. However, on 1 September 1997 Lam Akol's faction of the SPLA-United declared a cease-fire as a prelude to entering into negotiations with the government on the basis of the Peace Charter. Lam Akol has since signed a peace agreement.

49

ANNEX C

PROMINENT PEOPLE PAST AND PRESENT

Lt-General Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir - President of Sudan. Came to power in June 1989 after leading a coup.

Dr Hassan al-Turabi - Leader of the National Islamic Front (NIF) and Speaker of the National Assembly from 1996 until Parliament was dissolved in December 1999. Former deputy Prime Minister 1989.

Maj-Gen. Zubeir Mohammad Saleh - Former First Vice-President and Deputy Prime Minister. Died in a plane crash in February 1998.

Maj-Gen. George Kongor Arop - Currently Second Vice-President.

Ismail al-Azhari - First Sudanese Prime Minister

Abdallah Khalil - Former Prime Minister

Gen. Ibrahim Aboud - Led military coup November 1958.

Muhammed Ahmed Mahgoub - Prime Minister 1965-66 & 1967-68

Sadiq al-Mahdi - Prime Minister 1966-67, 1986-89, arrested on several occasions. Fled from house arrest to Eritrea December 1996. Leader of the Umma Party and spiritual leader of Ansar. Brother-in-law of Hassan al-Turabi (leader of NIF)

Col. Gaafar Muhammad Nimeri - Led coup May 1969, President from 1969 - 1985. Ousted from power for three days in July 1971.

Maj. Hashim al-Ata - Led coup July 1971.

Lt-Gen. Swar al-Dahab - Led coup April 1985.

Dr Gizuli Dafallah - Organiser of the general strike March 1985, appointed Prime Minister after April coup.

Ustaz Mahmoud Mohamed Taha - Spiritual leader of the Republican Brothers, executed for apostasy 1985.

Ramadan Martyrs - Group of 28 army officers executed April 1990 after an attempted coup.

Col. John Garang - Leader of the Sudanese People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) & SPLM military wing the SPLA.

50 Lt-Gen. Fatih Ahmed Ali - Former leader of the Legitimate Command of the Sudanese Armed Forces (LC-SAF), opposition government in exile with Garang. Died from a heart attack April 1997.

Riak Machar - Former member of the SPLA, broke away in 1991 and formed the South Sudan Independence Movement (SSIM). Signed peace agreement with the government.

Kerubino Kwanyin Bol - Leader of the SPLA-Bahr al-Ghazal faction.

Lam Akol - Leader of the SPLA (United) faction. Largely Nuer and Shillik based faction.

Muhammad Harun Kafi - Leader of the Nuba Mountains faction of the SPLA.

Sharif Zayn al-Abidin el-Hindi - Leader of the DUP faction not allied to the NDA. Returned to Sudan in 1997 and is now in the National Congress.

Brig. Abdul Aziz Khalid - Leader of Sudan Alliance Force (SAF)

Lt-Gen. Abdal-Rahman Sa'id - Took over leadership of the LC-SAF after Lt Gen Fathi Ahmad Ali's death.

Mohamed Ibrahim Nugud Mansour - Secretary-General of the Sudanese Communist Party (SCP)

Ahmed Abdel Rahman el-Mahdi - Internal leader of the Ansar Islamic sect.

Abdel Aziz Shido - Minister of Justice and Attorney General.

Abel Alier - Southern Statesman and former Vice-President 1971-78. Seen as close to the SPLA.

Ali Ahmed Sahloul - Sudanese Permanent Representative to UN in Geneva, former Minister of Foreign Affairs.

Mohammed Osman Ali al-Mirghani - Leader of the Khatmiyyah Sect and patron of the DUP. Head of the National Democratic Alliance since 1995.

51 ANNEX D

CHRONOLOGY

1899 - Sudan ruled as an Anglo-Egyptian condominium, following the defeat of the Mahdist forces.

1953 - British & Egyptian authorities set up a plan for independence and elections held. National Unionist Party (NUP) wins.

1/54 - Ismail al-Azhari becomes first Prime Minister (PM).

1955 - Rebellion against rule from the north occurs in southern Sudan.

19/12/55 - Parliament unanimously declares Sudan an independent republic.

1/1/56 - Sudan becomes formally independent.

1956 - Soon after independence Azhari's Government replaced by coalition of Umma Party (UP) and the People's Democratic Party (PDP). Abdallah Khalil becomes PM.

11/58 - Military coup, army takes control of the state. Gen. Ibrahim Abboud takes control.

10/64 - Police fire on student demonstrators in Khartoum. General strike follows and Abboud forced to hand over power to a civilian committee. Transitional government formed including members of Sudanese Communist Party (SCP) and Muslim Brotherhood.

3/65 - Conference in Khartoum fails to reach agreement on country's constitutional future.

6/65 - Elections result in UP-NUP coalition. Muhammad Mahgoub becomes PM. Serious rebel activity occurs in south.

11/65 - Government becomes increasingly right-wing and SCP is banned.

7/66 - After split in UP, and defeat on a vote of censure, Maghoub resigns and Sadiq al-Mahdi becomes PM.

5/67 - Al-Mahdi defeated in the Assembly and Maghoub becomes PM for second time.

1/68 - Assembly dissolved following neglect of domestic problems and a series of defeats in parliament.

4/68 - Elections lead to Democratic Unionist Party (DUP - formed from merger of PDP and NUP) winning most seats. Maghoub continues as PM.

52

5/69 - Government overthrown in a bloodless coup by Col. Gaafar Muhammad Nimeri. All existing political institutions and organisations abolished. Democratic Republic of Sudan proclaimed. Supreme authority in hands of Revolutionary Command Council (RCC). Nimeri adopts socialist policies and creates a one-party state under the Sudanese Socialist Union (SSU).

1970 - Announcement by Nimeri, Qaddafi (Libya) and Sadat (Egypt), to unite their countries into a single federal state.

7/71 - A single federal state proved unacceptable to the SCP who staged a coup under Maj. Hasim al-Ata.Within three days, with popular support, Nimeri returned to power, and a purge of communists takes place.

3/72 - Addis Ababa Agreement signed between Government and Anya Nya rebels, introducing regional autonomy for 3 southern provinces.

4/72 - High Executive Council (HEC) for Southern Region established.

4/73 - Permanent Constitution endorsed.

11/73 - Elections to Regional People's Assembly for southern Sudan take place.

4/74 - Elections for National People's Assembly

1976 - Diplomatic links severed with Libya after an unsuccessful coup attempt.

1977 - A policy of reconciliation was initiated, several of Nimeri's former opponents brought into the administration. Large numbers of political detainees released.

1/80 - Sudan divided into 5 regions in addition to the south and Khartoum which retained a special status and administrative structure.

11/81 - Entire Sudanese Government dismissed, however, many individuals later reinstated.

12/81 - Elections for National People's Assembly held.

4/82 - New Southern People's Assembly elected.

1983 - North-south conflict worsens.

4/83 - President Nimeri re-elected for a third term.

May/June 1983 - South divided into 3 smaller sub-regions, each with own assembly in order to quell unrest, and prevent Dinka domination.

53

9/83 - Government imposes aspects of strict islamic Shari'a Law, seen as a betrayal by the largely non-muslim south. Some southerners returned to armed conflict in what was commonly known as Anya Nya II. In the north discontent reflected by a series of strikes in the public sector.

4/84 - Nimeri declares a state of emergency and martial law is introduced.

5/84 - Nimeri replaces his Council of Ministers with a 64- member Presidential Council in accordance with the 'Shoura' (consultation) principle of Shari'a law.

7/84 - National People's Assembly rejects Nimeri's proposed constitutional amendments to make Sudan a formal Islamic state.

10/84 - State of emergency lifted.

1/85 - Ustaz Mahmoud Mohamed Taha, executed for apostasy, provoking international protest.

2/85 - Leaders of the Muslim Brotherhood charged with sedition.

3/85 - General strike takes place in protest at rise in food prices.

6/4/85 - Nimeri deposed in a bloodless military coup, Gen. Abdel-Rahman Swar al-Dahab becomes new leader. Dr Gizuli Dafallah, a prominent trade unionist, appointed PM. In response to coup the SPLM initially declared a cease-fire. However the SPLM refused to negotiate and fighting resumed.

9/85 - Mutiny in several army units in Khartoum North and Omdurman officially denounced as an attempted coup.

10/85 - Transitional Constitution introduced. Under its provisions numerous new political groupings begin to emerge in readiness for a general election.

12/85 - Name of country officially changed to 'the Republic of Sudan'.

3/86 - Conference held in Addis Ababa began negotiations between the SPLM and the National Alliance of Salvation (NAS), a semi official group of trade unionists and politicians, in an effort to resolve the civil war.

4/86 - Elections result in Sadiq al-Mahdi's Umma Party forming a coalition with the DUP. Sadiq al-Mahdi becomes PM.

7/86 - Sadiq al-Mahdi meets with the SPLM leader John Garang to find a peaceful solution to the conflict.

54 8/86 - All contacts between the government and SPLM discontinued after the SPLM shoots down a Sudan Airways aircraft killing 60 civilians. Later in month SPLM launch new offensive.

11/86 - Five senior military commanders dismissed, following rumours of unrest in the army.

5/87 - Following increased instability in the south a temporary Council for Southern Sudan (CSS) established. Al-Mahdi dissolves his coalition government.

6/87 - New, reconstructed, Council of Ministers differs little from its predecessor.

25/7/87 - Government imposes a 12-month state of emergency.

12/87 - Secret peace negotiations held in London. SPLM reported to have abandoned its demand for a total abrogation of Islamic law as a precondition for talks. No agreement reached.

1/88 - The Government and 17 political parties sign a transitional charter which stresses Sudan's commitment to multi-party democracy.

4/88 - Al-Mahdi dissolves his government and resigns as PM, but is returned as PM on 27 April.

5/88 - New "government of national unity" is formed comprising of DUP, UP, NIF and some southern parties.

11/88 - Representatives of SPLM meet senior DUP officials and agree to end the civil war if several conditions are met including the suspension of the Islamic code, and the lifting of the state of emergency.

12/88 - State of emergency declared amid reports of an attempted military coup. The DUP withdraw from the coalition after al-Mahdi causes political crisis by requesting a national constitutional conference whilst refusing to incorporate the agreement between the DUP and SPLM. Demonstrations and a national strike take place over increases in prices.

2/89 - Dr Hassan al-Turabi, leader of the National Islamic Front (NIF), becomes Deputy Prime Minister. Later in the month al-Mahdi threatens to resign after row with the army.

3/89 - Al-Mahdi agrees to form a new broad based government which would begin peace negotiations with the SPLM. Despite 30 political parties and 17 trade unions endorsing the DUP-SPLM agreement the NIF refuses to endorse the agreement and are excluded from the new government.

4/89 - Peace negotiations begin in Ethiopia.

55

5/89 - Col Garang proclaims a one-month cease-fire.

30/6/89 - Brigadier Omar Hassan Ahmed al-Bashir assumes power after a bloodless coup. A 15 member Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation (RCC) is formed. Al-Bashir rapidly dismantles the civilian ruling apparatus. Civilian newspapers are closed and a state of emergency declared. 30 members of the former government detained.

7/89 - Early in month a new 21 member Cabinet is announced, which includes 16 civilians, 4 southerners and several considered sympathetic to Islamic fundamentalism. Lt-Gen. al-Bashir declares a one-month unilateral cease- fire.

8/89 - Peace negotiations in Ethiopia collapse over Shari'a, after announcement for a national referendum on the issue alienates the SPLM.

9/89 - John Garang refuses to attend further negotiations in Khartoum.

10/89 - Hostilities resume at end of month, when SPLM capture the town of Kurmuk.

12/89 - Peace talks in Nairobi, mediated by former US President Jimmy Carter, again collapse over Shari'a.

1/90 - SPLM achieve considerable military success. An assault on Juba is prepared.

3/90 - 57 people, civilians and military arrested for allegedly attempting to seize control of the Government.

4/90 - A reshuffle of the Government strengthens the influence of Islamic fundamentalists.

23/4/90 - Claims that a further coup has been foiled, resulting in the execution of 28 army officers on 24 April.

5/90 - Attempt by senior US officials to revive the peace negotiations.

11/90 - Reports of a further coup attempt were denied by the Government after growing internal unrest.

1/91 - Reports that an opposition government in exile has been formed under Lt- Gen. Fatih Ahmed Ali and Col. Garang.

56 2/91 - The RCC enacts a decree which divides Sudan into nine states, which in turn are sub-divided into 66 provinces and 281 local government areas. Al-Bashir introduces a new penal code based on Shari'a law; the Criminal Act 1991. The three southern states appear exempt from the code, effective from 22 March 1991. The SPLM regarded the application of Shari'a law in the north unacceptable.

4/91 - 20 army officers are executed for an alleged coup attempt and 2 RCC members dismissed from their posts without explanation. At the end of the month al-Bashir announces the release of all political prisoners, including Sadiq al-Mahdi, who had been under house arrest, and SCP secretary Muhammad Ibrahim Nugud. A one-month amnesty for opponents to the regime is declared. A national conference is held in Khartoum from 29/4/91 -2/5/91 to decide Sudan's political future.

16/5/91 - Col. Garang invites the Government to participate in peace negotiations, but the offer is declined amid claims that the reforms already introduced represented considerable compromise.

21/5/91 - Haile Mariam Mengistu is overthrown in Ethiopia and the SPLA loses its main supporter. Armed clashes occur in Ethiopia between SPLA forces and those of the new government.

29/5/91 - The Sudanese Government recognises the new Ethiopian regime.

6/91 - SPLA fighters in western Ethiopia are given a deadline to either leave the country, disarm or to accept refugee status. The Government announces that it will consider US proposals for a partial withdrawal of its forces from the south, in exchange for the withdrawal of SPLA forces from government-held areas, and the declaration of Juba as an open city.

14/6/91 - SPLA declares its support of the Government's proposal that President Babangida of Nigeria should act as a mediator in the southern conflict, however the diplomatic progress made is negated by a new government offensive against the SPLA.

7/91 - John Garang is reported to be involved in unconditional peace negotiations, but the peace process is further damaged when a prominent Muslim fundamentalist is appointed as Governor of the southern province of Darfur.

8/91 - An alleged coup attempt results in the arrest of 10 army officers. The NDA and unnamed foreign powers blamed. 15 people are tried in a military court, and 10 death sentences, commuted to life imprisonment, are passed on the army officers. Late August sees a split in the SPLA. The new faction is favoured by the Nuer people, whilst the Dinka still support Garang.

57 10/91 - Sudan and Ethiopia sign a treaty of friendship and co-operation. Peace talks scheduled for early October under the auspices of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) are postponed by the split in the SPLA.

11/91 - Fierce fighting is reported between the two SPLA faction, with several thousand civilians massacred before a cease-fire is negotiated. At the end of the month the Government announces a one-month amnesty for rebels wishing to surrender.

24/2/92 - A 300 member, transitional National Assembly is created, comprising of members of the RCC, state Governors, army and police representatives, former DUP and UP members and former aides to Nimeri. The intended popularity of the new parliament does not prevent widespread political unrest, caused by economic austerity measures.

3/92 - Government forces launch a new offensive against the SPLA.

4/92 - Another alleged coup attempt is foiled.

5/92 - OAU sponsors peace negotiations in Abuja attended by Garang, Lam Akol and the Government. The Government refuse a referendum on self- determination for the south. All parties agree to continue negotiations.

12/7/92 - Government forces take Torit, last major town held by the SPLA. The two SPLA factions show signs of reconciliation by launching a counter-offensive. The inhabitants of Juba are left close to starvation after relief flights to the city are suspended.

11/92 - Relief flights resume to Juba.

12/92 - Ajuba peace negotiations abandoned due to increased fragmentation of SPLA, and disagreements over which factions should attend.

Early 1993 - Reports that the NIF are opposed to continued military character of government and they favour dissolution of the RCC.

1/93 - Mid-January, al-Bashir reshuffles the cabinet, but states there will be no change in policy and the RCC will remain.

2/93 - Contacts between the Government and the various factions of the SPLA continue.

3/93 - Reports that Garang's forces are engaged in fighting with the "Forces of Unity" faction of the SPLA under William Nyoun.

58 4/93 - Peace talks between the Government and Garang's faction of the SPLA resume in Ajuba. Meanwhile talks also take place in Nairobi between a government delegation and SPLA-United. The Ajuba talks result in failure, however, the Nairobi talks result in an agreement for a unified federal state with concessions to allow Shari'a law in the north but not in the south.

7/93 - The SPLA under Garang launch a major offensive after alleging it had been attacked by government forces aided by other SPLA factions. A Government reshuffle strengthens the NIF's position.

8/93 - The Government launches its own offensive attacking SPLA held towns near the Ugandan border. The Nuba people in central Sudan are reported to have been threatened by government forces. The US places Sudan on its list of countries supporting terrorism on 18 August.

9/93 - The SPLA are reported to have checked the Government forces' advance.

16/10/93 - The RCC is disbanded having appointed al-Bashir as President and head of a new civilian administration.

19/10/93 - Al-Bashir announces political reforms to pave the way for Presidential and Legislative elections to be held in 1994 and 1995.

1/94 - The two principal rival factions of the SPLA agree to a cease-fire. Government forces reported to have launched another offensive. Thousands of civilians flee to Uganda.

2/94 - Sudan is redivided into 26 states instead of nine. The executive and legislative power of the states is expanded. Southern states expected to be exempt from Shari'a law.

3/94 - Delegations representing the Government and two factions of the SPLA travel to Nairobi to participate in peace talks, held under the auspices of the Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD). All parties agree to allow the free passage of relief supplies to southern Sudan.

10/4/94 - Legislation adopted to provide an independent commission, appointed by the President, to supervise the election processes.

16/5/94 - The Government holds a conference in Juba province, that concludes with a declaration that urges national unity and appeals to the rebels to embrace conventional politics.

18/5/94 - A second round of IGADD sponsored talks take place in Nairobi.

59 20/6/94 - Sadiq al-Mahdi is arrested for allegedly having plotted to overthrow the government. No charges are brought against him and he is released on 3/7/94.

18/7/94 - Further IGADD talks begin in Nairobi.

23/7/94 - Government announces a unilateral cease-fire.

28/7/94 - Garang's faction of the SPLA responds with a cease-fire.

9/94 - Further peace negotiations end in deadlock, but later in month al-Bashir announces the creation of an 89-member peace council.

10/94 - A government offensive aimed at severing the SPLA's supply lines from Uganda and Zaire goes wrong. The army and PDF forces suffer defeats north of Juba.

12/94 - Diplomatic links are severed with Eritrea.

3/95 - Col. Garang announces that the faction under his command has joined forces with rebel groups in the north, under the title of the New Sudan Brigade. Hopes are that it will unite other insurgent groups against the Government.

27/3/95 - Reports that former US President Jimmy Carter has persuaded the Government to declare a unilateral cease-fire for two months. The SPLA and SSIM respond by declaring cease-fires of their own.

4/95 - Uganda severs diplomatic links with Sudan following Sudanese attacks on targets in northern Uganda.

27/4/95 - Riak Machar and Garang sign the Lafon declaration which provides for the reintegration of their forces.

27/5/95 - The Government extends its cease-fire for a further two months, however government violations of the cease-fire are reported. Mid-May Sadiq al- Mahdi was again arrested.

6/95 - Sudan implicated in the attempted assassination of President Mubarak of Egypt in Addis Ababa. Government strenuously deny any involvement.

15/6/95 - The NDA, including the SPLA, DUP, UP and SCP hold a conference in Asmara and announce plans for self-determination once the al-Bashir regime is ousted.

7/95 - Egypt imposes visa and permit requirements on Sudanese visitors and residents amid strained relations between the two countries.

60 8/95 - Al-Bashir announces that Legislative and Presidential elections will take place in 1996. Some political prisoners including Sadiq al-Mahdi are released.

9/95 - Riots in Khartoum, over the arrest of student demonstrators, lead to the imposition of strict security measures. Ethiopia accuses Sudan of harbouring three terrorists implicated in the assassination attempt on Mubarak of Egypt.

10/95 - A new SPLA offensive forces government troops to retreat.

1/96 - US withdraw their diplomatic personnel from Sudan amid fears for their safety. Prior to their withdrawal, the UN Security Council had unanimously adopted Resolution 1044, accusing Sudan of supporting terrorism, and condemning Sudan's role in the assassination attempt on President Mubarak. The resolution also demanded the extradition of three individuals implicated in the incident.

6-17/3/96 - First Legislative and Presidential elections since 1989 take place. Opposition groups do not field candidates and al-Bashir returned for further 5-year term. Dr al-Turabi (NIF) elected speaker of the National Assembly.

3/96 - Government claims that the elections represented a change in political direction are damaged by reports of an attempted coup.

4/96 - Serious unrest in Khartoum, and the decision not to appoint a cabinet until clarification surrounding the UN's possible imposition of sanctions for failing to comply with Resolution 1044, further damage the Government's earlier claims.

10/4/96 - Substantial breakthrough in the southern conflict achieved as Government, SSIM and SPLA-United sign a "political charter for peace". Other opposition groups dismiss the charter as a publicity stunt.

21/4/96 - A new Cabinet is announced which retains the military, Islamic character of its predecessor.

28/4/94 - The UN Security Council adopts Resolution 1054, imposing diplomatic sanctions on Sudan, for failing to comply with Resolution 1044.

5/96 - A second faction of SPLA concludes a peace agreement with the Government. May - July many foreign muslims present in Sudan, including the "Afghan Arabs" and the Saudi national "Usamah Bin Ladin" are allegedly instructed to leave.

61 6/96 - Fighting breaks out between the SSIM and the SPLA in eastern Upper Nile. Mid-June the NDA present the Government with a petition requesting it to cede power or face a popular uprising. Two privately owned newspapers are closed for subversion and there is a wave of detentions of trade unionists. A faction of the Nuba Mountains SPLA led by Muhammad Kafi splits from Garang, and signs up to the peace charter in mid-August.

7/96 - Pro-opposition and pro-NIF students clash during elections for the Omdurman Student Union leading to the closure of the Omdurman National and Ahlia Universities in August, for an indefinite period.

16/8/96 - The UN Security Council adopts Resolution 1070 banning all international flights operated by Sudan Airways. A steep rise in the price of bread and petrol is announced along with other austerity measures, bringing protests from the largest union, the Federation of Sudanese Trade Unions, and demonstrations by students at the Nilean University. Demonstrations spread through many of the main cities. Late-August opponents of the Government claim 11 military officers have been executed for taking part in a conspiracy to occupy facilities in Port Sudan.

9/96 - A mass demonstration in Khartoum is broken up with tear gas. Ethnic clashes between the Reizegat and Zagawa groups break out in Al-Da'ayn province in the north, only dying down a month later. Several members of the Ansar religious order and Umma, who attempt to mediate are arrested.

10/96 - The NDA hold a conference in Asmara, which calls on regional institutions to topple the Government. Al-Bashir appoints eight deputies to the National Assembly to represent constituencies in the south. Late- October another failed coup is reported, 10-12 officers are detained.

11/96 - A wave of arrests of oppositionists takes place.

12/96 - Sadiq al-Mahdi flees the country to Eritrea, several members of the Ansar order are detained.

1/97 - The President promises a referendum on the new Constitution, and releases 249 prisoners. Rebel forces make considerable gains and lectures at Khartoum University are suspended to allow students to join the PDF. Fearing a popular uprising timed to coincide with the military offensive, the authorities detain known oppositionists. Tensions rise between Sudan and its neighbours, Ethiopia, Eritrea and Uganda amid allegations that they had invaded Sudan.

2/97 - The situation on the eastern front calms but fighting in the south escalates.

62 3/97 - Opposition forces make substantial gains capturing the garrison town of Yei. At the end of the month Garang states he has control of the whole of White Nile and Western Equatoria.

21/4/97 - The southern factions who had signed the peace charter in early 1996 finalise and sign the Peace Accord. Signatories are, SSIM, SPLA-Bahr Al-Ghazal faction, Union of Sudan African Parties, Bor Independence Group and Equatoria Defence Force. The SPLA-Nuba Mountains faction under Muhammad Kafi signs a separate agreement. The SSIM forces start reinforcing the government garrison at Juba. Some political detainees held since early 1997 start to be released.

5/97 - The opposition makes large gains in the south and more modest gains in the north east. The National Security Council order the release of all political prisoners.

6/97 - Sharif Zayn al-Abidin el-Hindi, returns to Sudan, to negotiate with the Government. There are reports of a riot in Kober prison, the usual place of detention for political prisoners. The alleged coup plotters arrested in early 1996 are tried and given prison sentences of between 1 month and 15 years. Reports of a massacre by the SPLA in the Wun Rog area.

7/97 - At meeting of the IGADD in Nairobi, al-Bashir accepts the 1994 IGADD principles as a basis for peace negotiations, which is received warmly in opposition circles. The Peace Accord signed on 21 April is passed into law on 23 July as 14th constitutional amendment.

8/97 - Negotiations on the IGADD principles reach a sticking point as the opposition insist that principles be extended to include discussion between the Government and all elements of the NDA not just the SPLA. The opposition agrees to escalate military action. Riak Machar is appointed Chairman of the southern state's coordination council.

9/97 - UN Special Rapporteur, Gaspar Biro arrives in Khartoum and meets with government representatives. Former rebel Lam Akol, leader of the SPLM-United signs a peace agreement at Fashoda.

10/97 - President Bashir forms a 377-member commission to draft a new Constitution. Peace talks under the auspice of the IGADD open in Nairobi on 29 October 1997.

11/97 - IGADD Peace talks which began in October 1997 end. Both sides agree to reconvene talks in April 1998. Two people are killed when suspected muslim zealots attack worshippers at a mosque belonging to the Ansar Sunna sect in Wad Medani.

1/98 - Sadiq al-Mahdi agrees to talks with the government under certain conditions. Kerubino Bol is appointed Deputy President and Minister for local government and public security in southern Sudan.

63

2/98 - Former rebel leader Kerubino Bol, signatory of the April 1997 Peace Charter, returns to the SPLA. First Vice-President Al-Zubier Mohammad Saleh and at least 12 others, including former rebel Arok Thon Arok, are killed in a plane crash. Sudanese Foreign Minister Ali Osman Mohamed Taha is appointed to replace al-Zubier. DUP leader (not affiliated to the NDA) Sharif Zayn al-Abdin el-Hindi is elected Deputy Chairman of the National Congress.

3/98 - Tribal clashes occur in Darfur region, killing approximately 100. Bashir leavens his Islamist - dominated cabinet with former rebels and southerners.

4/98 - A man was fined 10,000 Sudanese pounds and given 40 lashes for not vacating a woman's seat on a bus. President Bashir orders that students should not be forced into military service before finishing university, reversing a decree of more than two years.

5/98 - Voting took place between 1 and 20 May in a referendum on the new constitution, results were expected at the end of June. Early May a further round of peace talks were held in Nairobi.

6/98 - 76 students flee the Ailafoon military training camp on 12 June, following riots protesting against the military programme. On 29 & 30 June several explosions occur in Khartoum's suburbs, blowing up an oil reservoir. 26 opposition members were arrested, accused of carrying out the explosions. Over 200 people are killed in tribal clashes between the Fur and Maselit tribes in Darfur.

8/98 - On 3rd the government announce a ceasefire in all parts of southern sudan to facilitate relief operations. 10 people were jailed after being found guilty of trying to topple the government. Students clash with government forces during widespread demonstrations over additional fees for student accommodation. On 8th the US closed its embassy. On 20th the US launched an attack on the Shifa factory in Sudan. Leonardo Franco was appointed UN Special Rapporteur for Sudan, to replace Gaspar Biro, who resigned in April 1998.

9/98 - President Bashir forms a committee on 1 September to investigate the ownership and financial background of the El-Shifa factory. Universities were closed in order to send students to the war front. 2 children were killed on 18 September when a refugee camp in Kassala state was shelled.

64

10/98 - The acting Archbishop of the Episcopal Church of Sudan was killed in a car accident in Kampala, Uganda. 1,000 Chadian soldiers were airlifted from Chad to Juba to support the NIF in the civil war. Islamic and Secular Democratic Alliance students clash on 16 November at a university in Khartoum, over student union voting. On 31st the universities reopened. The government and the SPLA renew the ceasefire in Bahr el Ghazal by 3 months. The age range for military service is changed to between 18 and 39 with the government announcing a crackdown on those who failed to report for service.

11/98 - President Bashir issues a republican decree on 2 November declaring a state of emergency in the greater Darfur states, western Sudan and Northern Kordofan. On 5th a sudanese military aircraft reportedly bombs the town of Yei, injuring citizens. On 10th suspects in the Wad Medani case are sentenced. On 20th civil servants were airlifted from Juba to Kapoeta.

12/98 - On 17th Dr Hasan al-Turabi resigned as speaker of the National Assembly only to be elected on the 23rd by the Assembly for the duration of the Assembly's life. On 25th the SPLA seize the town and airport of Koya in Jebel Nubia. The OAU conference on refugees, the displaced and returnees is held from 13th to 15th.

1/99 - The National Democratic Alliance holds a mass political rally on 1 January in Omdurman. The Political Association Law comes into effect. At least 30 people are killed in tribal clashes between the Maselit and a group of nomads. The ceasefire is renewed for a further 3 months on 15 January. The Sudan Alliance Forces claimed to have killed 53 soldiers in fighting from 17-28 January. 147 rebels are killed in fighting with government troops at Buny in the southern blue nile region on 28 January. The voting age is changed from 18 to 17.

2/99 - Sudan and Chad sign a protocol of cooperation. A new dress code for women is announced. The National Congress is the second party to be officially declared a political association, after the Democratic Unionist Party. A news blackout is imposed by the State Minister for Culture and Information. On 21st, President Bashir announces that he would be willing to let the south secede if it would end the civil war. Riek Machar resigns from the National Congress. The new UN Special Rapporteur Leonardo Franco makes his first visit to Sudan.

3/99 - On 4th the vacant US embassy in Khartoum was attacked by armed gunmen. On 6th a campaign was launched to enrol those people avoiding doing their National Service. On 7th a ceasefire was achieved between the Dinka and Nuer tribesmen. On 8th 85 people were reportedly in prison pending the approval of their death sentences. On 12th 3 of the Red Cross workers abducted by the SPLA in February were released. The

65 remaining 4 were executed. On 31st Sudanese police stormed the dormitories of students at the University of Khartoum.

4/99 - On 14th 10 people were sentenced to death by crucifixion for their involvement in tribal clashes in West Darfur. The fourth round of peace talks between the government and rebels were postponed on 18th. 3 journalists were arrested for reportedly having contacts with foreign intelligence agencies.

5/99 - On 4th the bank accounts of Mr Idris, Shifa factory owner bombed in August 1998, were unfrozen. On 27th Khartoum signed a treaty banning chemical weapons. On 24th the government announced the setting up of a committee aimed at stamping out abductions of women and children for forced labour. Meningitis had reportedly killed over 1,250 since December 1998.

6/99 - Education authorities announced on 3rd that female students would be requied to wear uniforms from October 1999. On 4th members of the SSDF said Riek Machar had been deposed as their leader. Willis Wal was said to have replaced Machar. On 8th Parliament passed an amendment to the press law which allowed the administrative punishment of journalists. On 15th 25 students were publically flogged. On 22nd 3 newspaper editors were charged with printing anti-government material. On 23rd a UN humanitarian mission visited the Nuba Mountains for the first time since the early 1980s.

7/99 - On 4th the National Currency is changed to the Dinar. Peace talks postponed in April are resumed. On 15th thousands of people fled Bentiu in the Unity State, following clashes between rival militias.

8/99 - On 1st Sudan's army denied reports that the government used chemical weapons against civilians in the south of the country. On 2nd floods swept through Omdurman killing 5 people and destroying homes, leaving thousands homeless. The government declared a two-month comprehensive ceasefire from 5th until 5th October. On 8th difficulties in changing to the new currency are reported.

10/99 - On 10 October 1999, Sudan's ruling National Congress elected President Bashir as its president and as its candidate for the 2001 Presidential elections. Hassan al-Turabi was re-elected as Secretary General and also as Parliament speaker.

11/99 - Hundreds of southern Sudanese fled to Kampala in Uganda to escape renewed factional fighting within the SPLA. The World Food Programme said that whilst there was no formal camp they were feeding refugees.

On 23 November, President Bashir ordered the release of political prisoners, decreed the return of confiscated property to opposition figures,

66 lifted travel bans on opponents and asked the central bank to unfreeze opposition bank accounts. Decrees were issued confirming that all those convicted of political crimes had been pardoned.

On 26 November, the Sudanese government and the opposition Umma Party signed a peace accord which was criticised by the National Democratic Alliance, the Sudan People's Liberation Army and the National Democratic Alliance.

12/99 - On 12 December, President Bashir dissolved Parliament and declared a three-month state of emergency, which he said was to preserve the unity of the country. Emergency laws took effect on 13 December with the promise of presidential decrees to follow.

1/00 - President Bashir appointed a new government, shortly after reaching agreement with his rival, Islamist Hassan al-Turabi, on proposals to end their power struggle. In the reshuffle, the four key ministers kept their posts. Most of the ministers who have retained their portfolios were Bashir's allies, as were five who were re-shuffled, as well as at least five of the 10 newcomers. It was reported that Uganda had released 72 Sudanese prisoners of war following a peace agreement signed by the presidents of both countries.

2/00 - Talks between the government and the rebels failed to make any progress. Government air force planes attacked a school in the rebel-held part of the Nuba Mountains.

3/00 - Eleven of the biggest aid agencies working in southern Sudan left the region because of a dispute with the main rebel group over their operations.

The Constitutional Court of Sudan turned down a petition demanding the annulment of President Bashir's decision on 12 December 1999 to declare a state of emergency, dissolve Parliament and freeze some articles of the constitution.

The government cancelled the Political Association Act which was a law that regulated party politics and imposed severe restrictions on political parties before they could be officially registered .

The Umma Party withdrew from the exiled Sudanese National Democratic Alliance opposition coalition during a meeting of NDA leaders in Asmara.

The government extended the state of emergency until the end of 2000.

67 ANNEX E

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] (a) EUROPA WORLD YEAR BOOK 1999 (b) AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAFARA 2000

[2] US DEPARTMENT OF STATE HUMAN RIGHTS REPORTS (a) 1998 covering 1997 (b) 1999 covering 1998 (c) 2000 covering 1999

[3] MEDICINS SANS FRONTIERES REPORT ON FAMINE RELIEF dated 20/10/99

[4] REUTERS NEWS SERVICE (a) 17/03/96 (ii) 08/07/98 (as) 16/12/98 (cb) 20/05/99 (b) 10/07/96 (jj) 16/07/98 (at) 05/01/99 (cd) 20/05/99 (c) 13/07/96 (kk) 06/08/98 (au) 07/01/99 (ce) 22/05/99 (d) 29/08/96 (ll) 11/08/98 (av) 11/01/99 (cf) 24/05/99 (e) 27/09/96 (mm) 14/08/98 (aw) 21/01/99 (cg) 25/05/99 (f) 12/10/96 (nn) 14/08/98 (ax) 23/01/99 (ch) 29/05/99 (g) 23/10/96 (oo) 21/08/98 (ay) 23/01/99 (ci) 30/05/99 (h) 26/10/96 (pp) 23/08/98 (az) 24/01/99 (cj) 30/05/99 (i) 12/01/97 (qq) 23/08/98 (ba) 28/01/99 (ck) 30/05/99 (j) 14/01/97 (rr) 24/08/98 (bc) 28/01/99 (cl) 02/06/99 (k) 24/04/97 (ss) 25/08/98 (bd) 29/01/99 (cm) 03/06/99 (l) 11/06/97 (tt) 26/08/98 (be) 12/02/99 (cn) 04/06/99 (m) 20/08/97 (uu) 27/08/98 (bf) 15/02/99 (co) 06/06/99 (n) 24/10/97 (vv) 28/08/98 (bg) 17/02/99 (cp) 07/06/99 (o) 01/11/97 (ww) 30/08/98 (bh) 21/02/99 (cq) 10/06/99 (p) 03/11/97 (xx) 01/09/98 (bi) 23/02/99 (cr) 15/06/99 (q) 06/02/98 (zz) 15/09/98 (bj) 09/03/99 (cs) 22/06/99 (r) 13/02/98 (ab) 22/09/98 (bk) 10/03/99 (ct) 23/06/99 (s) 17/02/98 (ac) 27/09/98 (bl) 11/03/99 (cu) 26/06/99 (t) 07/03/98 (ad) 05/10/98 (bm) 15/03/99 (cv) 30/06/99 (u) 10/03/98 (ae) 08/10/98 (bn) 24/03/99 (cw) 04/07/99 (v) 08/04/98 (af) 11/10/98 (bo) 05/04/99 (cx) 15/07/99 (w) 09/04/98 (ag) 12/10/98 (bp) 06/04/99 (cy) 16/07/99 (x) 08/05/98 (ah) 14/10/98 (bq) 07/04/99 (cz) 22/07/99 (y) 13/05/98 (ai) 14/10/98 (br) 09/04/99 (da) 27/07/99 (z) 20/05/98 (aj) 15/10/98 (bs) 14/04/99 (db) 01/08/99 (aa) 17/06/98 (ak) 17/10/98 (bt) 15/04/99 (dc) 04/08/99 (bb) 24/06/98 (al) 19/10/98 (bu) 19/04/99 (de) 05/08/99 (cc) 26/06/98 (am) 21/10/98 (bv) 22/04/99 (df) 05/08/99 (dd) 02/07/98 (an) 23/10/98 (bw) 22/04/99 (dg) 06/08/99 (ee) 02/07/98 (ao) 24/10/98 (bx) 23/04/99 (dh) 07/08/99 (ff) 05/07/98 (ap) Not Used (by) 04/05/99 (gg) 07/07/98 (aq) 02/11/98 (bz) 05/05/99

68 (hh) 07/07/98 (ar) 13/11/98 (ca) 18/05/99

[5] BBC WORLD MONITORING SERVICE - Voice of Sudan; Voice of NDA.

(a) 04/06/96 (j) 30/07/97 (s) 07/10/98 (ab) 11/12/98 (b) 07/06/96 (k) 21/03/98 (t) 10/10/98 (ac) 20/12/98 (c) 10/06/96 (l) 10/06/98 (u) 17/10/98 (ad) 08/01/99 (d) 05/07/96 (m) 05/07/98 (v) 05/11/98 (ae) 11/01/99 (e) 01/08/96 (n) 27/07/98 (w) 05/11/98 (af) 13/01/99 (f) 17/08/96 (o) 11/08/98 (x) 16/11/98 (ag) 09/03/99 (g) 27/08/96 (p) 11/08/98 (y) 19/11/98 (h) 20/10/96 (q) 12/08/98 (z) 30/11/98 (i) 29/11/96 (r) 03/10/98 (aa) 07/12/98

[6] BBC WORLD MONITORING SERVICE - Mena News Agency Cairo. (a) 19/05/96 (d) 26/10/96 (g) 16/08/97 (j) 12/10/98 (b) 09/07/96 (e) 14/01/97 (h) 21/08/98 (k) 07/12/98 (c) 10/08/96 (f) 03/03/97 (i) 22/08/98 (l) 27/12/98

[7] BBC WORLD MONITORING SERVICE - Al-Sharq al-Awsat, London (a) 05/06/96 (d) 19/05/97 (g) 12/08/98 (b) 27/07/96 (e) 21/05/97 (h) 26/10/98 (c) 18/05/97 (f) 22/05/97 (i) 02/04/99

[8] BBC WORLD MONITORING SERVICE - Al-Hayat, London (a) 11/06/96 (d) 16/12/96 (g) 29/07/97 (j) 06/08/98 (b) 24/07/96 (e) 25/03/97 (h) 07/11/97 (k) 18/08/98 (c) 25/10/96 (f) 13/06/97 (i) 12/04/98 (l) 19/11/98

[9] BBC WORLD MONITORING SERVICE - Suna News Agency (a) 02/07/96 (k) 20/07/98 (u) 28/11/98 (ae) 26/02/99 (b) 18/07/96 (l) 08/08/98 (v) 30/11/98 (af) 06/03/99 (c) 21/09/97 (m) 10/08/98 (w) 07/12/98 (ag) 08/03/99 (d) 07/10/97 (n) 13/08/98 (x) 29/12/98 (ah) 24/03/99 (e) 04/01/98 (o) 13/08/98 (y) 01/01/99 (ai) 01/05/99 (f) 21/03/98 (p) 18/08/98 (z) 02/01/99 (aj) 06/05/99 (g) 04/04/98 (q) 29/09/98 (aa) 01/01/99 (ak) 11/05/99 (h) 12/04/98 (r) 13/10/98 (ab) 12/01/99 (i) 13/06/98 (s) 09/11/98 (ac) 13/02/99 (j) 16/07/98 (t) 12/11/98 (ad) 26/02/99

[10] BBC WORLD MONITORING SERVICE - Republic of Sudan Radio (a) 10/06/96 (i) 14/06/97 (q) 25/09/98 (y) 23/12/98 (b) 29/06/96 (j) 09/07/97 (r) 04/10/98 (z) 28/12/98 (c) 11/08/96 (k) 23/07/97 (s) 09/10/98 (aa) 03/01/99 (d) 11/11/96 (l) 07/08/97 (t) 29/10/98 (ab) 01/02/99 (e) 01/01/97 (m) 08/09/97 (u) 02/11/98 (ac) 14/02/99 (f) 13/01/97 (n) 28/03/98 (v) 02/11/98 (ad) 19/04/99

69 (g) 20/04/97 (o) 29/03/98 (w) 10/11/98 (ae) 20/05/99 (h) 20/05/97 (p) 21/08/98 (x) 20/11/98 (af) 03/06/99

[11] BBC WORLD MONITORING SERVICE - Sudan TV

(a) 01/01/97 (i) 20/08/98 (q) 10/11/98 (y) 21/12/98 (b) 23/09/97 (j) 21/08/98 (r) 23/11/98 (z) 31/12/98 (c) 29/10/97 (k) 28/09/98 (s) 24/11/98 (aa) 06/01/99 (d) 18/02/98 (l) 11/10/98 (t) 01/12/98 (ab) 11/01/99 (e) 02/04/98 (m) 14/10/98 (u) 11/12/98 (ac) 02/04/99 (f) 14/04/98 (n) 20/10/98 (v) 13/12/98 (ad) 13/04/99 (g) 23/07/98 (o) 29/10/98 (w) 17/12/98 (ae) 14/06/99 (h) 07/08/98 (p) 03/11/98 (x) 21/12/98 (af) 24/07/99

[12] BBC WORLD MONITORING SERVICE - IRNA News Agency, Tehran (a) 23/04/97

[13] BBC WORLD MONITORING SERVICE - Al-Quds al-Arabi, London (a) 22/07/96

[14] BBC WORLD MONITORING SERVICE - Voice of the Broad Masses of Eritrea (a) 14/10/96

[15] BBC WORLD MONITORING SERVICE - Radio Monte Carlo (a) 06/01/97 (b) 15/07/98 (c) 16/08/98 (d) 19/08/98

[16] BBC WORLD MONITORING SERVICE - KBC Radio, Nairobi (a) 09/07/97 (b) 11/11/97

[17] BBC WORLD MONITORING SERVICE - Agence France Presse

(a) 04/04/97 (j) 26/10/98 (s) 27/01/99 (ab) 15/06/99 (b) 06/08/98 (k) 19/11/98 (t) 28/01/99 (ac) 23/06/99 (c) 07/09/98 (l) 09/01/99 (u) 31/01/99 (ad) 28/07/99 (d) 29/09/98 (m) 12/01/99 (v) 04/02/99 (ae) 31/07/99 (e) 06/10/98 (n) 12/01/99 (w) 05/02/99 (af) 08/08/99 (f) 06/10/98 (o) 15/01/99 (x) 25/02/99 (ag) 11/08/99 (g) 09/10/98 (p) 23/01/99 (y) 26/02/99 (h) 14/10/98 (q) 24/01/99 (z) 07/03/99 (i) 20/10/98 (r) 26/01/99 (aa) 19/04/99

[18] SUDAN: The Tears of Orphans - No future without human rights. Amnesty International 1995.

[19] FOREIGN & COMMONWEALTH OFFICE LETTER. (a) 05/06/96 (c) 03/07/96 (e) 03/06/97 (b) 18/06/96 (d) 20/02/97 (f) 02/09/98

70 [20] BRITISH EMBASSY LETTER. (a) 11/05/94 (b) 18/12/96 (c) 27/05/97 (d) 03/08/97

[21] LETTER FROM PETER VERNEY/ZAKI el-HASSAN (a) 18/09/95 (b) 01/03/96 (Verney only)

[22] LETTER FROM JEMERA RONE - Human Rights Watch (a) 20/12/96

[23] GUARDIAN NEWSPAPER REPORT (a) 11/01/97 (d) 03/01/98 (g) 25/08/98 (b) 26/05/97 (e) 23/02/98 (h) 26/08/98 (c) 27/05/97 (f) 21/08/98 (i) 05/12/98

[24] UN SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR'S REPORT ON SUDAN (a) 1994 (b) 1996/7 (c) 30 January 1998

[25] LETTER FROM CENTRE FOR INTERNATIONAL & COMPARATIVE STUDIES (a) 17/03/97

[26] SUDAN UPDATE quoting SUDAN DEMOCRATIC GAZETTE (a) 04/11/92 (b) 13/01/98 (c) 26/01/98

[27] UNHCR CORRESPONDENCE (a) 10/06/96 (b) 22/05/97 (c) 25/08/98

[28] SUDAN HUMAN RIGHTS VOICE (a) January 1993

[29] THE ECONOMIST (a) 07/08/93

[30] UN INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION on CIVIL & POLITICAL RIGHTS, HUMAN RIGHTS COMMITTEE, Second periodic report on Sudan (a) Addendum 13/03/97 (b) Geneva, 28/10/97

[31] AL-AHRAM EGYPTIAN NEWSPAPER (a) 28/05/96

[32] HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH WORLD REPORT 1997

[33] UNITED NATIONS HUMAN RIGHTS INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS (a) CHART OF RATIFICATIONS DECEMBER 1996.

[34] BBC WORLD MONITORING SERVICE - Radio Uganda (a) 22/07/96

71 [35] AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL URGENT ACTION REPORT (a) 16/07/98 (d) 21/04/99 (g) 27/05/99 (j) 02/07/99 (b) 11/09/98 (e) 22/04/99 (h) 17/06/99 (c) 05/01/99 (f) 18/05/99 (i) 28/06/99

[36] NEW AFRICAN MAGAZINE (a) War without end - July/August 1998

[37] ALL AFRICA NEWS AGENCY (AANA) (a) 26/06/98 (c) 12/10/98 (e) 26/10/98 (g) 21/12/98 (b) 11/08/98 (d) 19/10/98 (f) 14/12/98 (h) 01/02/99

[38] XINHUA NEWS AGENCY (a) 06/04/98 (f) 06/10/98 (k) 20/04/99 (p) 25/07/99 (b) 08/04/98 (g) 25/10/98 (l) 27/05/99 (q) 05/08/99 (c) 04/07/98 (h) 14/12/98 (m) 25/06/99 (d) 11/08/98 (i) 01/02/99 (n) 06/07/99 (e) 28/09/98 (j) 06/04/99 (o) 19/07/99

[39] INTER PRESS SERVICE (IPS) (a) 21/04/98 (d) 23/12/98 (g) 03/02/99 (j) 08/05/99 (b) 18/08/98 (e) 13/01/99 (h) 09/02/99 (c) 21/08/98 (f) 20/01/99 (i) 07/05/99

[40] PAN AFRICAN NEWS AGENCY (PANA) (a) 05/08/98 (d) 17/11/98 (g) 24/01/99 (j) 06/03/99 (b) 14/09/98 (e) 14/12/98 (h) 24/03/99 (c) 11/11/98 (f) 16/12/98 (i) 27/05/99

[41] FINANCIAL POST (a) 25/08/98

[42] UK GOVERNMENT PRESS RELEASE (a) 13/10/98

[43] BBC WORLD MONITORING SERIVE - AL SHARI al- SIYASI (SUDAN) (a) 28/03/98

[44] JANES DEFENCE WEEKLY (a) 12/08/98 (b) 06/01/99 (c) 28/04/99

[45] M2 PRESSWIRE (a) 31/08/98 (b) 06/04/99

[46] BBC WORLD MONITORING SERVICE - ITAR TASS NEWS AGENCY (a) 28/09/98

[47] HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH 1999 REPORT ON SUDAN

72 [48] THE TIMES (a) 21/08/98 (b) 24/08/98 (c) 25/08/98 (d) 10/08/99

[49] THE DAILY TELEGRAPH (a) 21/08/98 (b) 25/08/98 (c) 28/08/98 (d) 22/10/98

[50] THE INDEPENDENT (a) 24/08/98 (c) 15/02/99 (e) 05/04/99 (b) 05/02/99 (d) 14/04/99 (f) 04/08/99

[51] THE SUNDAY TELEGRAPH (a) 16/08/98

[52] THE OBSERVER (a) 23/08/98

[53] IND LETTER TO IMMIGRATION APPEALS TRIBUNAL (a) 19/01/98

[54] ASSOCIATED PRESS (AP) (a) 14/01/99 (b) 12/02/99 (c) 25/02/99 (d) 10/08/99

[55] DPA (a) 08/02/99 (b) 06/07/99

[56] THE MONITOR (a) 11/12/98

[57] BBC WORLD SERVICE NEWSROOM (a) 14/01/99

[58] AL-RA'Y AL-AM KHARTOUM NEWSPAPER (a) 29/11/98

[59] KTN TV, NAIROBI (a) 17/11/98

[60] AFRICA NEWS SERVICE (ANS) (a) 30/01/99

[61] DAILY NATION NAIROBI - KENYAN NEWSPAPER (a) 14/11/98 (b) 17/11/98

73 [62] RADIO ETHIOPIA, ADDIS ABABA (a) 08/12/98

[63] MIDDLE EAST ECONOMIC DIGEST (a) 15/01/99

[64] AUSTRALIAN (a) 25/01/99

[65] ARABIC NEWS (ANEWS) (a) 27/01/99

[66] THE SUNDAY VISION - UGANDAN NEWSPAPER (a) 14/02/99

[67] LLOYD'S INFORMATION CASUALTY REPORT (a) 06/04/99

[68] KBC TV, NAIROBI (a) 07/06/99

[69] INTERNATIONAL FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION EXCHANGE, TORONTO (a) 28/07/99

[70] BUSINESS WIRE, WASHINGTON (a) 04/05/99

[71] AL-JAZEERA TV, DOHA (a) 02/05/99

[72] LA STAMPA, TURIN - ITALIAN NEWSPAPER (a) 01/06/99

[73] UN INTEGRATED REGIONAL INFORMATION NETWORK REPORT (IRIN) (a) 09/04/99

[74] MIDDLE EAST NEWSFILE, ARAB NEWS (a) 06/05/99

[75] AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL REPORT (a) 22/02/99

[76] MIDDLE EAST INTELLIGENCE WIRE - ALL AFRICA PRESS SERVICE (a) 10/05/99

[77] AGENCE EUROPE (a) 13/04/99

74

[78] AFRICA NEWS ONLINE REPORTS (a) 15/12/99 (b) 15/12/99 (c) 17/12/99 (d) 13/3/00

[79] SUDAN NET NEWS ONLINE REPORTS (a) 20/3/00 (b) 21/3/00 (c) 26/2/00 (d) 11/3/00

[80] CNN News Online news report dated 2/2/00

[81] BBC News Online news report dated 17/3/00

75