Panorama Socioeconómico Y Político De La Población Afrocolombiana

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Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera Population

Challenges for the design of public policies

2 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera Population

Álvaro Uribe Vélez President of the Republic of Colombia

Francisco Santos Calderón Vice-president of the Republic of Colombia

MINISTRY OF INTERIOR AND JUSTICE

Fabio Valencia Cossio Minister of Interior and Justice

Pastor Murillo Director of Ethnics

MINISTRY OF CULTURE

Paula Marcela Moreno Zapata Minister of Culture

Martha Elena Bedoya Rendón Vice-minister of Culture

Enzo Rafael Ariza Secretary General

Moisés Medrano Bohórquez Director of Populations

UNIVERSIDAD DE LOS ANDES

Carlos Angulo Head Master

Eduardo Uribe Faculty of Economy

Christian Jaramillo Faculty of Economy

3 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera Population

4 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera Population

CONTENTS

MINISTER OF CULTURE’S PRESENTATION………………………………………………10

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 12

INTRODUCTION ...... 19

CURRENT SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC SITUATION ...... 21

1. Demography ...... 21 1.1. Historical background ...... 21 1.2. The Afro-Colombian peoples today...... 22 1.3. Violence impact ...... 30

2. Social and economic indicators ...... 32 2.1. Income and economic activity ...... 32 2.1.1. Illicit Crops ...... 35 2.1.2. Economic activity in collective territories ...... 37 2.1.3. Labor Market ...... 39 2.2. Poverty ...... 41 2.2.1. Housing ...... 41 2.2.2. Quality of life ...... 43 2.2.3. Public utility services ...... 45 2.3. Health ...... 48 2.3.1. Coverage in security and health ...... 48 2.3.2. Health results ...... 51 1.1. Education ...... 53 1.1.1. Illiteracy ...... 54 1.1.2. Schooling ...... 56 1.1.3. Access to upper education ...... 58

2. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION...... 61

5 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera Population

2.1. Evolution of Afro Colombian Social Movements...... 62

2.2. New political action space ...... 66

2.3. Quality of public administration ...... 67

3. PUBLIC POLICIES ORIENTED TOWARDS AFRO DESCENDANT POPULATIONS ………………………………………………………………………………………………...69

3.1. Congress ...... 69

3.2. National Government ...... 70 CONPES 2589 de 1992 “Pacific Plan: A new Sustainable Development Strategy for the Colombian Pacific Coast” ...... 71 CONPES 2909 of 1997 “Support program for the development and ethnic recognition of black communities” ...... 71 CONPES 3058 of 1999 “National Government strategy to support development in the department of Archipiélago de San Andrés, Providencia y Santa Catalina” ...... 71 CONPES 3169 of 2002 “Policy for Afro Colombian peoples” and its enlargement (CONPES 3180 of 2002) ...... 72 CONPES 3310 of 2004 “Affirmative Action Policy for Black or Afro Colombian peoples” ...... 73 CONPES 3410 of 2006 “State Policy to Improve Life Conditions of Buenaventura Population”73 CONPES 3553 of 2008 “Social and Economic Promotion Policy for the department of Chocó” 74

4. FINAL COMMENTS ...... 75

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 77

ANNEXES ...... 81

Glossary of Terms ...... 81

Supporting tables ...... 82

6 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera Population

TABLES TABLE 1: MAIN SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC INDICATORS ...... 12 TABLE 2: AVAILABILITY OF INFORMATION ON AFRO-COLOMBIANS ...... 18 TABLE 3: THE 86 MUNICIPALITIES THAT HAVE A HIGHER CONCENTRATION OF AFRO-COLOMBIAN PEOPLES (GATHER NEARLY 80% OF THE AFRO-COLOMBIAN PEOPLES) ...... 24 TABLE 4: AVERAGE SIZE OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND FEMALE LEADERSHIP RATE FOR MUNICIPALITIES THAT HAVE AFRO-DESCENDANT MAJORITIES ...... 28 TABLE 5: LABOR MARKET INDICATORS PER ZONE AND ETHNIC RECOGNITION ...... 40 TABLE 6: POOR POPULATION ACCORDING TO HOUSEHOLDREPORTS TYPES, REGIONS AND NATIONAL TOTAL (URBAN, RURAL) ...... 44 TABLE 7: AFFILIATED TO THE GENERAL SOCIAL SECURITY SYSTEM IN HEALTH (SGSSS) IN SUBSIDIZED REGIME ...... 48 TABLE 8: NUMBER OF PUBLIC HOSPITALS PER REGION ACCORDING TO NATURE, LEVEL AND IF STATE’S SOCIAL INSTITUTION (2003-2006) ...... 49 TABLE 9: NUMBER OF CENTERS PER EACH KM2 AND ONE HUNDRED THOUSAND PEOPLE ACCORDING TO COMPLEXITY LEVEL ...... 50 TABLE 10: SCHOOL ABSENTEEISM RATE PER SCHOOL AGE AND AVERAGE EDUCATION YEARS (FOR OLDER THAN 15), REGION FOR AFRO COLOMBIAN AND NON AFRO COLOMBIAN POPULATION ...... 56 TABLE 11: DISTRIBUTION OF AFRO COLOMBIAN PEOPLES BY DEPARTMENT AND PLACE OF RESIDENCE ...... 82 TABLE 12: POPULATION STRUCTURE BY GENDER AND ETHNIC GROUP AND AGE GROUPS AND ETHNIC RECOGNITION ...... 84 TABLE 13: DEPENDENCE RATE FOR AFRO COLOMBIANS, NON ETHNICS AND TOTAL ACCORDING TO THE ZONE (URBAN, RURAL) ...... 85 TABLE 14: MUNICIPALITIES WITH MOSTLY AFRO COLOMBIAN PEOPLES...... 86 TABLE 15: SPECIFIC MORTALITY RATES (PER 1.000 INHABITANTS) ACCORDING TO SEX AND ETHNIA ...... 90 TABLE 16: MUNICIPAL AND REGIONAL HOUSING SHORTAGE ...... 91 TABLE 17: PERCENTAGE OF PEOPLE IN NBI ACCORDING TO REGION AND ZONE ...... 91 TABLE 18: INCIDENCE OF FASTING BY REGION AND ETHNIC RECOGNITION ...... 91 TABLE 19: PERCENTAGE OF HOUSES WITH ACCESS TO PUBLIC UTILITIES ...... 91

7 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera Population

TABLE 20: PUBLIC UTILITIES COVERAGE BY REGION AND ETHNIC SELF- AWARENESS ...... 92 TABLE 21: CHILD MORTALITY BY 1.000 VIABLE BIRTHS BY GENDER AND BY REGION ...... 92 TABLE 22: CHILD MORTALITY BY 1.000 VIABLE BIRTHS BY GENDER AND IF IT IS A MUNICIPALITY WITH MOSTLY AFRO DESCENDANT POPULATION ...... 93 TABLE 23: IMMUNIZATION ENLARGED PROGRAM COVERAGE (PAI), 2005 ...... 94 TABLE 24: ILLITERACY RATE FOR OLDER THEN 15 ...... 95 TABLE 25: MAXIMUM EDUCATIONAL LEVEL REACHED FOR POPULATION OVER 18 YEARS OF AGE ACCORDING TO GENDER AND ETHNIC GROUP ...... 96 TABLE 26: REGISTRATION PERCENTAGE OF AFRO COLOMBIAN ORIGIN, ACCORDING TO REGION AND IES TYPE ...... 96 TABLE 27: MAXIMUM EDUCATIONAL LEVEL REACHED FOR ECONOMICALLY ACTIVE POPULATION ACCORDING TO GENDER AND ETHNIC GROUP ...... 97 TABLE 28: GROWTH RATES OF REGIONS WITH MOSTLY AFRO DESCENDANT POPULATION ...... 98 TABLE 29: MAIN ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AT DEPARTMENTAL LEVEL (PERCENTAGE IN PARENTHESIS) ...... 98 TABLE 30: REGIONAL AND NATIONAL PER CAPITA GROSS INTERNAL PRODUCT (GIP) (1990 – 2005) ...... 100 TABLE 31: REGIONAL AND NATIONAL GIP GROWTH RATE ...... 101 TABLE 32: PARTICIPATION IN GIP OF ACTIVITY BRANCHES FOR 2005 ...... 102

CHARTS

CHART 1: POVERTY INCIDENCE IN COLOMBIAN HOUSEHOLDS ...... 14 CHART 2: VULNERABILITY OF THE HOUSEHOLDS ACCORDING TO ETHNIA ...... 15 CHART 3: PROVISION OF UTILITY SERVICES ACCORDING TO ETHNIA ...... 16 CHART 4: EDUCATION PER ETHNIC GROUP AND GENDER ...... 17 CHART 5: DISTRIBUTION OF THE AFRO-COLOMBIAN PEOPLES PER DEPARTMENT . 23 CHART 6: COLLECTIVE TERRITORIES OF AFRO-COLOMBIANS COMMUNITIES ...... 27 CHART 7: POPULATION STRUCTURE BY GENRE AND AGE AND ETHNIC SELF- RECOGNITION ...... 28 GRAPH 8 DEPENDANCE RATE FOR AFRO-COLOMBIANS, NON-ETHNIC ACCORDING TO AREA (URBAN, RURAL) ...... 29 CHART 9: MORTALITY RATE PER GENRE AND ETHNIC SELF-RECOGNITION ...... 30 CHART 10: HOMICIDES PER THOUSAND INHABITANTS ...... 31 CHART 11: INTENSITY OF DISPLACEMENT PER THOUSAND INHABITANTS WITH AN AFRO-COLOMBIAN PEOPLES MAJORITY ...... 32 CHART 12: EVOLUTION OF GDP PER CAPITA AT REGIONAL AND NATIONAL LEVEL 33 CHART 13: AVERAGE GROWTH RATE IN THE LAST 10 YEARS AT REGIONAL AND NATIONAL LEVEL ...... 34 CHART 14: NUMBER OF HECTARS CULTIVATED WITH COCA LEAVE IN COLOMBIA AT NATIONAL LEVEL 1999-2007 ...... 36 CHART 15: DISTRIBUTION OF COCA CROPS PER AFRO-COLOMBIAN AND NON AFRO- COLOMBIAN MUNICIPALITIES ...... 37 CHART 16: MUNICIPAL HOUSING SHORTAGE RATE ...... 42 CHART 17: PERCENTAGE OF PEOPLE IN NBI ACCORDING TO REGION AND AREA ..... 43 CHART 18: FASTING INCIDENCE PER REGION AND ACCORDING TO ETHNIC RECOGNITION ...... 45 CHART 19: PERCENTAGE OF HOUSINGS WITH ACCESS TO UTILITY SERVICES ...... 46 CHART 20: UTILITY SERVICES COVERAGE PER REGION AND ETHNIC SELF- RECOGNITION ...... 47 CHART 21: EXTENDED IMMUNIZATION PROGRAM COVERAGE (PAI), 2005 ...... 51 CHART 22: INFANT MORTALITY RATE PER REGION (2001-2006) ...... 52 CHART 23: INFANT MORTALITY RATE FOR AFRO-COLOMBIANS AND NON AFRO- COLOMBIAN MUNICIPALITIES (2001-2006) ...... 53 9 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

CHART 24: ILLITERACY RATE FOR OLDER TAN 15, ORGANIZED ACCORDING TO HIGHER RURAL DYNAMICS OF AFRO COLOMBIANS ...... 55 CHART 25: DISTRIBUTION OF OLDER THAN 18 POPULATIONS BY GENDER, ETHNIC GROUP, ACCORDING TO MAXIMUM EDUCATIONAL LEVEL REACHED...... 58 CHART 26: DISTRIBUTION OF ECONOMICALLY ACTIVE POPULATION BY GENDER, ETHNIC GROUP, ACCORDING TO MAXIMUM EDUCATIONAL LEVEL...... 58 CHART 27: RESULTS OF ICFES TESTS BY KNOWLEDGE AREA (AVERAGE 2001-2005) 59 CHART 28: PERCENTAGE OF THE AFRO COLOMBIAN ORIGIN REGISTRATION, ACCORDING TO REGION AND IES TYPE...... 60 CHART 29: UNIVERSITIES ACCORDING TO PERCENTAGE OF AFRO COLOMBIANS AND DESERTION RATE ...... 61 CHART 30: BLACK COMMUNITIES PROCESS FLOWCHART ...... 65 CHART 31: MUNICIPALITIES ACCORDING TO FISCAL BEHAVIOR AND PERCENTAGE OF AFRO COLOMBIANS IN THE MUNICIPALITY ...... 68

10 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Minister of Culture’s Presentation

The Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal, and Palenquera Population: Challenges for the Design of Public Policy represents an effort to analyze in an objective way the challenges faced by the Colombian State and society to overcome the factors of poverty and social exclusion that affect Afrodescendant population.

It is a study done for the Inter-sectorial Commission for Afro-Colombian, and Raizal and Palenquera Population, in which the Ministry of Culture has been involved understanding that culture is a fundamental dimension of development. The Colombian government has undertaken an inter-institutional approach to design and implement public policy oriented towards the improvement of the quality of life of these communities. This is a major, long-term national challenge and this document sheds light on the information, arguments and data to qualify the decision-making process to achieve that goal.

Although the historical marginalization from the socioeconomic, political and intellectual mainstream, the Afro Colombian population offers a potential for building a more fair, plural and inclusive country. The richness of their cultural expressions, the contribution of their intellectuals and artists, their creativity and effort demonstrated in the historical process of occupation of forests, the inter-Andean valleys and the coastlines are, among many other things, evidence of their impact to the construction of the Colombian nationality.

The report notes that Afrodescendant leaders have not succeeded in promoting action to change this situation of economic stagnation. The authors suggest that in order to achieve sustainable change, they must, above all, encourage the Afro-Colombian communities to develop their collective action capacity at the local and national levels.

The document points out that the regions where Afro-Colombians are settled have a higher incidence of unmet basic needs than the national total. From the data in the study, it is concluded that the vulnerability of this population persists since there is an increase of poverty and secular obstacles to their development and welfare. It also notes that the homes of Afrodescendants are in a worse economic situation than the rest of the Colombian households, that the trend is not improving and that state action to build physical and human capital is not sufficient to accelerate the process of improvement in their socioeconomic situation.

11 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

The axis of reflection is the gap between the Afrodescendant people and the rest of the Colombian population. After reading the study, it is noted that the poverty of Afrodescendant families is associated not only to a historical lag, but also to factors of severe social exclusion.

The report encourages us to make specific decisions which, together with the universal public policies under the National Development Plan, should place the foundations of an effective long- term policy to overcome, systematically and steadily, the gap of inequity that exists. This is a fundamental task to be undertaken by the government institutions at all territorial levels, as well as the Colombian private sector and civil society. A joint commitment to reduce the structural gaps that still remain will hopefully be reflected in an improvement of the development indicators of the Afro Colombian population.

 Paula Marcela Moreno Z. Minister of Culture

12 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Executive Summary

The majority of the Afro-Colombian people, today estimated to be between 10% and 26% of the total population1, are descendents from the slave labor force that arrived to the country during the Spanish colonial times. Slavery was abolished in the country in 1851. The National Political Constitution of 1991 (hereafter NPC) stipulates Colombian nationality as a condition that encompasses and considers cultural and ethnic diversity within the national territory. However, both the standard of living of the Afro-Colombian peoples, as well as their social and economic conditions are lower than that of the rest of the population. Table 1 gathers the main indicators and shows the great gap between Afro-Colombians and other Colombians.

Table 1: Main Social and economic Indicators

Afro- Other

Colombian Colombians Illiteracy 11.7% 7.0% Average years of 6.9 8.1 Education education (men) Average years of 6.4 8.2 education (women) Unmet Basic Needs 53.7% 47.2% Poverty Poverty 9.5% 7.4% Unemployment rate 6.3 3.4 Labor Market Employment rate 40.4% 44.3% Displacement intensity 6.31 3.42 (Aver. 2000-2002) Displacement Migration due to 6.78 3.74 violence Infant Mortality Rate Health 23.5 16.5 (Average 2001 - 2006)

1 The 2005 census reports that the total population that identified itself as Afro-Colombian is 10%. However, several sources such as Agudelo (no year) indicates that based on Urrea, Ramírez and Viáfara’s (2001) works and those of Barbary, Urrea (2004) it is understood that the black population in Colombia is between 18% and 22%. In turn, Escobar (2005) states that this percentage is more in the order of 26%, which is the view shared by some Afro-Colombian movements. For some members of the PCN, the percentage is 30%. 12

13 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

In order to eliminate the barriers that have traditionally maintained the black communities in isolation, the NPC recognizes as one of the fundamental principles that Colombia is a multi-ethnic and multicultural nation. At the same time it stipulates that it is the State’s responsibility to protect that diversity. It also recognizes the need to generate favorable policies to eliminate those barriers that hinder the real and effective exercise of the fundamental right of equality2.

The constitutional mandate of cultural diversity protection – in this case of the Afro-descendant groups – materialized with the issuance of Law 70 of 19933. To complement that, the State has created scenarios for Afro-Colombian communities’ participation in planning, discussing and decision making processes in public policies4, within the scope of positive differentiation.

In spite the constitutional and legal changes carried out, several studies confirm that the Afro- Colombian peoples still hold a social, economic and political lag when compared to the rest of the country. This report summarizes those studies and presents a view that is not particularly optimistic, which in turn demands urgent implementation of adequate public policies: 1. Afro-Colombian households are in a far worse social and economic situation than the rest of Colombian households, as reflected in their income, their health and their basic needs indicators. 2. The trend for Afro-Colombian households is not one of improvement. Investments that could generate development – in physical and human capital (education) – are just not being carried out. 3. The lack of opportunities in generating a legal income has made that in the regions inhabited by these communities there has been an increase in illicit crops, particularly those of coca leaves. 4. The territorial dispute of illegal armed groups has generated more forced displacement among Afro-descendant municipalities than any other. 5. The political dynamics of Afro-Colombian peoples suggest that their leaders have been incapable of promoting actions to change their social and economic stagnation.

2 Art. 13 of Colombia’s Political Constitution 3 This law is the result of provisional article 55 of the NPC, which ordered the National Government to constitute a Commission formed by members of the government and the black communities to develop a Bill that would formalize the recognition of the cultural and territorial rights of these communities. Law 70 of 1993 formalized the recognition of the ownership collective rights on the land traditionally occupied by the black communities. However, its scope is much larger than what is related to the ownership collective rights. For a more complete discussion, see section Political Organization, page. 25 and ss. Of this report. 4 For a more complete discussion, see section of Public Policies, page. 33 and ss. Of this report. 13

14 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

6. State driven change requires generating information and setting public policy priorities. However, for such change to be sustainable, it must above all be geared towards building capacity among Afro-Colombian communities to act collectively, whether at the local or national level.

The Afro-Colombian households have, in average, lower income. Viáfara (2007) states that Afro- Colombians are relegated to work in the primary sectors of the economy where salaries are very low. He also finds that in the cities of Cali and Cartagena the Afro-Colombian peoples earn – in the same jobs – less salary than the white population, and that such difference is especially high among women. Chart 1 shows that the Cali and Cartagena cases are more than anecdotic and that there is no doubt that poverty hits this population the hardest.

Chart 1: Poverty incidence in Colombian households

The highest poverty indexes reflect that Afro-descendant households are much more vulnerable when faced with adversity. They fall with greater ease into poverty and they suffer much more the effects of violence. On average, an Afro-Colombian household is 10% bigger than a non Afro- Colombian household, and it is much younger (Chart 2). Consequently, the members of an Afro- Colombian household that work have a much bigger load when covering the needs of the young population that should not work.

15 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Chart 2: Vulnerability of the households according to ethnic group

The gap of indicators is not just present in indicators of income or purchase of goods and services: health indicators also show a lag of the Afro-Colombian peoples compared with the rest of the country. The infant mortality rates are much higher in the municipalities with a majority of Afro- descendant population5, and in the regions where the majority of Afro-Colombians are found.

The utility services infrastructure does not reach sufficiently the Afro-Colombian peoples. The coverage gap for services associated with public health and basic sanitation – water and sewage services system – is greater than 20%. Consequently, the associated risk of getting certain diseases (like, for example, cholera or Acute Diarrheic Illness - ADI), is higher (UNICEF, 2005). This poor satisfaction of the basic needs is partly the result of an ill efficient presence of the State.

5 On the document, terms such as Afro-Colombians, black people or Afro-descendant shall be used, this not being a judgment of any race. 15

16 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Chart 3: Provision of utility services according to ethnic group

The economic literature prescribes investing in human capital as an element that generates a virtuous circle for development. Unfortunately, there is also a gap in education in terms of Afro- Colombian peoples. Negro-Colombians present illiteracy rates in the order of 11% which should be compare to 7% of non Afro-Colombians. Their average education level is lower (Chart 4). Their school non-attendance rate is higher, their access to higher education is lower and their drop-out rates in higher education are higher.

17 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Chart 4: Education per ethnic group and gender

It is not easy to foresee an internal leadership that gathers together the Afro-Colombian peoples and allows the generation of these virtuous circles for development. Their political organization is still fragile. Such fragility is partly due to a high dispersion of political groups–both those that work in rural communities as well as the urban ones–and partly to the different political discourses they hold. Consequently, the votes of this population have been captured by political parties with a larger record but with a broader spectrum as the Liberal Party.

Finally– and as an indication of the long way there is to go–, the data presented in this document are not always suitable for the design and priorization of public policies for Afro-Colombian peoples. Of the gap dimension that this document describes, only on education there is information available per ethnic group (Table 2). Only until recently instruments were created to identify the ethnic dimension of the population, which enable the adequate characterization of the social and economic differences per ethnic group and the focus in the actions of the State. An urgent step is to generate such information very quickly and make it sustainable in time.

18 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 2: Availability of information on Afro-Colombians

Category Level of information Afro-Colombian/ Municipalities Per Departamentos Non- Afro Colombians

Income X X

Health X X

Housing X X

Education X X Utility X services Economic X activity

Except from education, the gap showed by the indicators is calculated based on data per municipalities or departments, and the percentage of Afro-Colombian peoples in these municipalities and departments.

19 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Introduction

The majority of Afro-Colombian peoples, which today is estimated between 10% and 26% of the country’s total number of inhabitants6, are slave labor force descendants from the Spanish colony. Slavery was abolished in Colombia in the year 1851. The National Political Constitution of 1991 (hereafter NPC) stipulates the Colombian nationality as a condition that encompasses and considers the cultural and ethnic diversity of the territory. However, both the standard of living of the Afro- Colombian peoples, as well as their social and economic conditions are lower than that of the rest of the population. Table 1 gathers the main indicators and shows the great gap between Afro- Colombians and other Colombians.

For years, Colombia’s official history did not recognize adequately and sufficiently the effort, relevancy and contribution of black communities in creating the Colombian “nationality” i.e. “Colombianess" if you will. The many generations of Colombians that were educated with the official History text, i.e. History of Colombia by Henao and Arrubla7 omitted the existence of black people. This oblivion punished the regions with high concentration of Afro-Colombian peoples who find themselves today lagging in several aspects, among them the provision of public services such as education, health, basic sanitation, telecommunications, justice and security. That is how, for example, the education and health services supply is scarce and poor in the regions and villages inhabited by black communities; and those communities are, in average, more illiterate and have higher mortality indexes than the non-ethnic group.

6 The 2005 census reports that the total population that identified itself as Afro-Colombian is 10%. However, several sources such as Agudelo (no year) indicates that based on Urrea, Ramírez and Viáfara’s (2001) works and those of Barbary, Urrea (2004) it is understood that the black population in Colombia is between 18% and 22%. In turn, Escobar (2005) states that this percentage is more in the order of 26%, which is the view shared by some Afro-Colombian movements. For some members of the PCN, the percentage is 30%. 7 Henao, J. M. and Arrubla, G. (1911) "History of Colombia". The Colombian Academy of History. This book was declared the official text by the Ministry of Education to lecture history at schools in the first half of the XX Century. http://www.lablaa.org/blaavirtual/biografias/arrugera.htm 19

20 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population that diversity. It also recognizes the need to generate favorable policies to eliminate those barriers that hinder the real and effective exercise of the fundamental right to equality8.

The constitutional mandate of cultural diversity protection – in this case of the Afro-descendant groups – materialized with the issuance of Law 70 of 19939. To complement that, the State has created scenarios for Afro-Colombian communities’ participation in the planning, discussion and decision making processes in public policies10, within the scope of positive differentiation.

1. Afro-Colombian households are in a far worse social and economic situation than the rest of Colombian households, as reflected in their income, their health and their basic needs indicators. 2. The trend for Afro-Colombian households is not one of improvement. Investments that could generate development – in physical and human capital (education) – are just not being carried out. 3. The lack of opportunities in generating a legal income has made that in the regions inhabited by these communities there has been an increase in illicit crops, particularly those of coca leaves. 4. The territorial dispute of illegal armed groups has generated more forced displacement among Afro-descendant municipalities than any other. 5. The political dynamics of Afro-Colombian peoples suggest that their leaders have been incapable of promoting actions to change their social and economic stagnation. 6. State driven change requires generating information and setting public policy priorities. However, for such change to be sustainable, it must above all be geared towards building

8 Art. 13 of Colombia’s Political Constitution 9 This law is the result of provisional article 55 of the NPC, which ordered the National Government to constitute a Commission formed by members of the government and the black communities to develop a Bill that would formalize the recognition of the cultural and territorial rights of these communities. Law 70 of 1993 formalized the recognition of the ownership collective rights on the land traditionally occupied by the black communities. However, its scope is much larger than what is related to the ownership collective rights. For a more complete discussion, see section Political Organization, page. 25 and ss. Of this report. 10 For a more complete discussion, see section of Public Policies, page. 33 and ss. Of this report. 20

21 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

capacity among Afro-Colombian communities to act collectively, whether at the local or national level.

Then the document gathers and presents the quantitative information available on the current situation of the Afro-Colombian, Palenquera and Raizal peoples in the country. Illustrating in this way the gap and lag that remain, and the dimension of the challenge faced by the possible public policies geared towards closing them. The following sections present demographic and social and economic indicators of the Afro-Colombian peoples (or of the regions with a predominant Afro- Colombian population). Subsequently, there is a description of their political organization. The third section describes the public policies geared at this group and their current status. The document ends with general comments on the public policies priorities to face the gap among Afro- descendants and the rest of the population.

Current social and economic situation

1. Demography

1.1. Historical background

The current settling pattern of Afro-Colombians in the national territory is explained by the historical dynamics associated with the slave labor force. From 1533 until 1850 the slave labor force demand came from certain economic activities in specific regions, which determined the geographic distribution of the black groups. For example, during the first gold cycle the Nus, Nechí and Magdalena Medio rivers, currently located in the departments of Antioquia and Magdalena, were inhabited by African slaves who were used in the gold industry (Maya, 1995).

As of 1640 the slave demand generated by the Second Gold Mining Cycle led to the settlement of black people in the districts of Citará, Nóvita and Barbacoas located in the current departments of Antioquia, Chocó and Nariño. During this same period, the expansion of sugar cane crops and livestock activities in the Cauca Valley increased the demand of Afro-descendant labor force. At the same time, slave smuggling introduced African people through Buenaventura, Chirambirá, Gorgona and Barbacoas on the Pacific Coast; and through Riohacha, Santa Marta, Tolú and el Darién on the Atlantic Coast.

22 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

The black population was then concentrated in the Caribbean plains, the Pacific Coast and the current territories of the departments of Antioquia and Valle del Cauca (Arocha, 1998). In addition, the self-manumission processes11, the independence wars12, the civil wars in the XIX century and the abolitionist legislation13 generated an Afro-descendant Diaspora throughout the national territory, whose result shall be discussed later.

1.2. The Afro-Colombian peoples today

Currently, the black communities are present in the entire country with a settling factor similar to that recorded in the XIX century.

Chart 5 shows the distribution of this population at departmental level. According to the 2005 census, 4.311.381 people –who account for 10.4% of the country’s total population – identified itself as Afro-Colombian14.

75% of the Afro-Colombian peoples are settled in 7 departments: Valle del Cauca (25.3% of the black population), Antioquia (13.8%), Bolívar (11.5%), Chocó (6.6%), Nariño (6.3%), Cauca (5.9%) and Atlántico (5.3%). In addition, except from Antioquia, in these departments, the participation of the Afro-Colombian peoples is much higher than the national average, meaning that “… their connotation as one ethnic-racial minority for the national total looses relevancy…”. Viáfara (2007).

11 Self-manumission is the term used for the slaves that proclaimed themselves free. Arocha (1998) states that this process became stronger towards 1770, although for the departamento of Chocó, this dates back to the decade of 1690. 12 Tovar (2008) mentions that both the country’s army and the realist troops promised freedom to any slave that would join their causes. The objective of the creole troops was to increase their manpower strength, meanwhile the motivation of the Spanish troops consisted in weakening financially the creole elite taking away their slave work force. 13 Tovar (2008) makes reference to the Law of the Free Womb (Ley de Vientres Libres) of 1821 that would provide freedom to the slaves’ children when turning 18 years of age, and the Manumission Law or Freedom of Slaves of 1851 that stipulates the freedom of slaves as of 1 January 1852. 14 This criterion includes those who had been recognized as Raizal from San Andrés and Providencia Ilands , Palenquero or Black, mulatto, Afro-Colombian. 22

23 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Afro-Colombians live more in rural areas than the Colombian population average: 27.3% compared to national 24%. However, the trend is not followed in the departments with a higher concentration such as Valle del Cauca, Bolívar and Atlántico. In these departments the population presents more urban characteristics.

Table 3 shows that the main urban centers of these departments –Santiago de Cali, Buenaventura, Cartagena, and Barranquilla– absorb nearly 30% of this population.

This geographic location patterns allow the grouping of the Afro-Colombian peoples in two big regions. The Pacific Region –Cauca, Chocó, Nariño and Valle del Cauca– holds 44.2% of the Afro- Colombian peoples (1.904.732 Afro-Colombians). The Atlantic Region –Atlántico, Bolívar, Córdoba, La Guajira, Magdalena and Sucre– holds 31.2% (1.345.865 Afro-Colombians). These two regions together present more similar rural patterns than those observed at the national level (26.4% and 28.1% respectively).

Chart 5: Distribution of the Afro-Colombian people per departament

24 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Participation of the Afro-Colombian population ( with regard to the departamento population) ( with regard to total of Afro-Colombians)

Percentage 0 - 1% Percentage 1 - 5% 0 - 1% 5 - 10% 1 - 5% 10 - 15% 5 - 10% 15 - 20% 10 - 15% >20% >20% Source: 2005 census. Surveying System REDATAM, DANE. CEDE calculation 1/ Percentages are calculated on the population that answered the self-awareness question

The corresponding figures are found on Table 11 of annex.

Table 3: The 86 municipalities that have a higher concentration of Afro-Colombian peoples (gather nearly 80% of the Afro-Colombian peoples) Percentage of Percentage of Afro-Colombian Afro- Municipalit Departamen peoples Municipalit Departamen Colombian With With With With y t y t peoples regard regard to regard regard to municipal to to Afro pop. Afro munici Valle Del total Puerto total pal Cali 12.6% 26.22% Cauca 1.0% 97.49% Cauca Tejada pop.

Buenaventur Valle Del 6.3% 88.54% Santander de Cauca 0.6% 33.25%

25 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population a Cauca Quilichao

Valle Del Jamundí 1.3% 60.67% Guapi Cauca 0.6% 97.28% Cauca Valle Del Palmira 0.9% 14.52% Caloto Cauca 0.5% 62.40% Cauca Valle Del Candelaria 0.8% 53.01% Miranda Cauca 0.4% 52.66% Cauca Valle Del Zarzal 0.4% 47.75% Buenos Aires Cauca 0.4% 68.51% Cauca Valle Del Florida 0.4% 31.17% Patía Cauca 0.3% 70.14% Cauca Valle Del Tuluá 0.4% 9.05% Villa Rica Cauca 0.3% 96.91% Cauca Valle Del El Cerrito 0.4% 30.55% Timbiquí Cauca 0.3% 86.13% Cauca Valle Del Pradera 0.3% 31.28% Suárez Cauca 0.3% 58.18% Cauca Valle Del Dagua 0.3% 39.03% López Cauca 0.2% 97.91% Cauca Valle Del Yumbo 0.3% 14.42% Barranquilla Atlántico 3.4% 13.21% Cauca Medellín Antioquia 3.2% 6.48% Luruaco Atlántico 0.5% 94.67% Turbo Antioquia 2.3% 81.32% Soledad Atlántico 0.4% 3.79% Apartado Antioquia 1.3% 42.64% Malambo Atlántico 0.3% 12.62% San Bernardo Girardota Antioquia 0.7% 73.26% Córdoba 0.5% 68.12% Del Viento Necoclí Antioquia 0.7% 58.96% Tierralta Córdoba 0.5% 26.71% Bello Antioquia 0.7% 7.67% Lorica Córdoba 0.5% 18.19% Puerto Chigorodó Antioquia 0.5% 38.10% Córdoba 0.4% 83.12% Escondido San Juan De Antioquia 0.4% 86.51% Moñitos Córdoba 0.4% 74.51% Urabá

26 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Itagüí Antioquia 0.3% 6.09% San Antero Córdoba 0.4% 63.00% Carepa Antioquia 0.3% 34.14% Montería Córdoba 0.3% 3.77% Arboletes Antioquia 0.2% 34.00% Montelíbano Córdoba 0.3% 18.89% Zaragoza Antioquia 0.2% 38.77% Ayapel Córdoba 0.2% 24.26% Cartagena Bolívar 7.4% 36.47% San Onofre Sucre 1.0% 94.37% Maria La Bolívar 1.0% 97.34% Sincelejo Sucre 0.5% 9.38% Baja Santiago De San Pablo Bolívar 0.4% 73.66% Sucre 0.5% 73.20% Tolú San Benito Magangué Bolívar 0.4% 15.42% Sucre 0.4% 70.09% Abad Turbaco Bolívar 0.3% 20.86% Santa Marta Magdalena 0.7% 7.58% Zona Mahates Bolívar 0.2% 41.86% Magdalena 0.3% 25.11% Bananera Quibdo Choco 2.3% 95.32% Ciénaga Magdalena 0.3% 13.92% Istmina Choco 0.5% 91.08% El Banco Magdalena 0.3% 21.50% Alto Baudó Choco 0.3% 60.94% Valledupar Cesar 1.0% 12.22% Tadó Choco 0.3% 85.54% El Copey Cesar 0.4% 71.14% Condoto Choco 0.3% 95.63% Bogotá Bogotá 2.3% 1.49% Riosucio Choco 0.3% 81.13% Riohacha La Guajira 1.0% 28.33% Bajo Baudó Choco 0.2% 67.39% Maicao La Guajira 0.4% 17.07% Cundinamarc Tumaco Nariño 3.0% 88.82% Girardot 0.8% 38.89% a Barrancaber Barbacoas Nariño 0.5% 78.31% Santander 0.7% 16.25% meja Olaya Bucaramang Nariño 0.5% 94.84% Santander 0.3% 2.92% Herrera a El Charco Nariño 0.5% 94.68% Pereira Risaralda 0.6% 5.71% Archipiélago Roberto Nariño 0.3% 91.35% San Andrés de San 0.7% 54.42% Payan Andrés Magüi Nariño 0.3% 96.97%

27 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Francisco Nariño 0.2% 94.30% Pizarro Source: 2005 census. REDATAM, DANE Surveying system.

Collective territories of the Afro-Colombian communities are found in the Pacific Region, in agreement with the high traditional concentrations of Afro-Colombians in the area Chart 6). These are in total 955.360 hectares which are responsibility of 44 communities and community councils.

Chart 6: Collective territories of Afro-Colombians communities

Source: DANE.

Afro-Colombians in the census are younger than the rest of the population (see Chart 7). This characteristic is consistent with the average size of the Afro-Colombian household, higher than the non-ethnic households (see Table 4 and Viáfara 2007). Unfortunately, young people are not an advantage in this context. Larger households, with higher young dependence rates, emphasize the conditions of vulnerability of the Afro-Colombian peoples. These are also households whose rate of feminine leadership is 4%

28 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population higher, judging by the comparison of statistics in the municipalities with Afro-Colombian majorities and of the rest of the municipalities (see Table 4). Consequently, public interventions geared towards closing the gaps between Afro- Colombian peoples and the rest of Colombians should be focused primarily towards the young people, in a way that they can effectively access the means that should enable their social mobility.

Chart 7: Population structure by genre and age and ethnic self-awareness

Population Structure 80 or more 70 a 74 60 a 64 50 a 54 40 a 44 30 a 34 20 a 24 10 a 14 0 a 4 12.5 10.0 7.5 5.0 2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 Men Women Non-ethnic Afro-Colombian

Source: 2005 census. REDATAM, DANE Surveying system. The figures are reported on

29 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

30 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 12 of Annex. The non-ethnic category corresponds to those that did not recognize themselves in any group.

Table 4: Average size of the household and female leadership rate for municipalities that have Afro-descendant majorities Average size of household Female leadership rate Afro Afro femenina Mun. Non-Afro mun Mun. Non-Afro Mun. National Urban 4.3 3.8 36.4% 32.7% Total per Rural 4.0 4.2 22.4% 19.5% municipali ty Total 4.2 3.9 30.1% 29.9% Source: 2005 census. Surveying system REDATAM, DANE. The figures are reported on

31 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 12 of annex.

Graph 8 Dependence rate for Afro-Colombians, non-ethnic according to area (urban, rural)

Source: 2005 census. REDATAM, DANE Survey system. The figures are reported on

32 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

33 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 12 of Annex.

The mortality rates of Afro-Colombians are in general similar to those of non-ethnic groups in the same regions. Similar but not identical: are comparatively high for Afro-Colombian women older than 45 years of age and for men between 15 and 30 years of age.

There is no conclusive evidence that explains the difference of female mortality rates. A possible explanation is the exposure to diseases related to the reproduction activity, such as cervix cancer and breast cancer15. However, the role of other differential factors– for example, education and access to health services– still require research.

For the segment of males between 15 and 30 years of age, a traditional hypothesis that has explained the mortality peak is the incidence of the armed conflict. According to this interpretation, the Afro-Colombian male population would be more vulnerable to the consequences of the armed conflict or violence in general.

Chart 9: Mortality rate per genre and ethnic self-awareness

Males Females 14 12 12 10 10 8 8 6 6 4 4

por mil habitantes 2 por mil habitantes 2 0 0

0 a 4 5 a 9 0 a 4 5 a 9 10 a 14 15 a 19 20 a 24 25 a 29 30 a 34 35 a 39 40 a 44 45 a 49 50 a 54 55 a 59 60 a 64 10 a 14 15 a 19 20 a 24 25 a 29 30 a 34 35 a 39 40 a 44 45 a 49 50 a 54 55 a 59 60 a 64 Afro-colombians Non-ethnic Afro-Colombians Non-ethnic

Source: 2005 census. REDATAM, DANE Surveying system. The figures are reported on

15 For the United States, several studies indicate that Afro-descendant women, in this age range, have a higher risk of contracting cardiovascular disease and suffer from high blood pressure. These findings remain stable even when variables are included such as the body mass index that controls overweight. 33

34 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

35 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 12 of Annex.

1.3. Violence impact

The conflict and the violence in general have affected especially Afro-Colombian peoples in the past years. As we saw in the previous section, male mortality rate may be showing a higher level of vulnerability to the conflict.

36 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Chart 10 shows that municipalities with an Afro-descendant population majority suffered a violence increase, measured by homicide rates that reached a peak in the year 2003.

37 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Chart 10: Homicides per thousand inhabitants

Source: Ibáñez (no year), CEDE.

Additional to the homicide rate, the conflict has characterized itself by generating displacement of population towards urban areas. Between the years 1996 to 2002, the displacement intensity in Afro-descendant municipalities has been higher than that of other municipalities and with a growing tendency, as Chart 11 shows. These figures are consistent with the results of the 2005 Census, in which when asked The main reason for changing of domicile? 6.78% of Afro-Colombians indicated that the reason was the imminent threat to their lives –forced displacement. In contrast, only 3.74% of the non-ethnic population reported to be victim of forced displacement.

Violence and forced displacement are important poverty traps generators (Ibañez 2008). Displaced families suffer uprooting of their social and labor environment which translates into sudden income reduction. Besides, they lack a family support network that enables them to cushion the economic effects of income reduction. These are often one-parent families whose head is a woman, and this increases their vulnerability. This violence effect on households is similar among ethnic groups. However, the violence effect frequency is higher among Afro-descendant households.

38 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Chart 11: Intensity of displacement per thousand inhabitants with an Afro-Colombian peoples majority

Source: Ibáñez (no year), CEDE.

In summary, Afro-descendant population presents a clear pattern in its geographic location, showing concentrations in the Pacific and Atlantic regions. In general, Afro-descendants present higher conditions of vulnerability than the rest of the population, which is evidenced in indicators such as the average household size, higher rates of female leadership and higher dependence rates, both at urban and rural level. Additionally, the Afro-Colombian peoples are more vulnerable to the consequences of the armed conflict (which is particularly strong in their regions), both force displacement and homicides.

2. Social and economic indicators

2.1. Income and economic activity

The aggregates of the economic activity do not provide a clear vision of the differences between Afro-descendants and the rest of the population, because the sum of the regions includes zones of very irregular behavior. The Atlantic and Pacific regions include important urban centers and at the same time isolated rural zones.

39 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

In the year 2005, Colombia’s GDP per capita was USD 1.06916. Among the regions with a high Afro-Colombian proportion, San Andrés Archipelago has the highest GDP per capita with USD2.011, followed by the Pacific Region with USD945 and the Atlantic Region with USD808. The growth of the GDP in the Atlantic and Pacific regions follows the same pattern as the average national GDP rate in the period 1990-2005, while the growth rate in the San Andres Archipelago, although it has had a comparable average, has shown stronger fluctuations. Chart 12: Evolution of GDP per capita at regional and national level

Source: DANE. Provincial Accounts 1990 – 2005, Provincial demographic indicators 1985 2005. Figures reported on

16 The exchange rate used was the Market Representative Rate of January 2008 which was 1978.88 per dollar 39

40 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 30 29 Chart 13: Average growth rate in the last 10 years at regional and national level

Source: DANE. Provincial Accounts 1990-2005, provincial demographic indicators 1985-2005. Figures reported on

41 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 31.

The breakdown of the economic activity in big sectors does not show sufficient detail to capture the particularities of Afro-Colombian peoples. In the Atlantic region, the economic activity is concentrated in the area of social, community and personal services (19.22%), agricultural and forestry (16.29%), industry (14.12%) commerce and hotel businesses (12.97%), reaching together a total weight in the regional GDP of 62.6% (see

42 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 32). In a more disaggregated way, the most important activities are those related to public administration (7.6%), livestock and animal products (9%), industry different from food and beverages (9.9%) and commerce (8.5%).

For the Pacific region, the most important activity areas are the financial institutions, insurances and real estate (20.0%), social, community and personal services (19.3%), industry (17.5%) and agriculture and forestry (13.5%) those together weight nearly 70.3% of the total production. By disaggregating, we find that the most important activities correspond to real state (13.19%), public administration (8.04%), and industries different from food and beverage (11.01%), production of agricultural products different from coffee (6.17%).

The San Andrés archipelago is characterized mainly by the influence of commerce and hotel business sectors, which has historically participated with 50% of the production of the region. Followed in order of importance are social, community and personal services (19.1%) and transport, storage and communication (16.1%).

Given the little resolution of the macro-economic information, it is necessary to investigate in specific markets to obtain a more precise idea of the most important economic aspects of Afro- descendant populations. Below, one finds a closer exploration of the labor market and illegal crops that suggest that Afro-descendants are over-represented in informal and illegal sectors, and in formal sectors with lower remuneration. That is to say, they have lower quality jobs.

2.1.1. Illicit Crops

Although the information on illicit crops is not included directly in the official economic activity accounts, these do have an indirect impact on the licit activity. Although the coca leaf growing is mainly located in the departments of Orinoquía and Amazonía, the regions mainly inhabited by Afro-Colombian peoples have recorded an increase in number of hectares. As shown on Chart 14, as of 2001 the number hectares cultivated in the Pacific region have been increasing, and showing an upturn in 2007.

43 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Chart 14: Number of hectares cultivated with coca leave in Colombia at national level 1999- 2007

In those municipalities where the population is mainly Afro-Colombian, the importance of the illicit crops has increased to reach approximately 20% of the total coca fields in Colombia (see Chart 15). This phenomenon is an important obstacle to design productive programs in these regions, since they have to compete with an activity whose profitability is generally higher than that of licit activities, and that makes the labor force more expensive. This participation in the illegal economy, along with low human capital investment (education section), are the main difficulties to insert the Afro-descendant population into the economy.

44 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Chart 15: Distribution of coca leaves per Afro-Colombian and non Afro-Colombian municipalities

Source: Illegal Crops Integrated Monitoring System (SIMCI for its initials in Spanish).

2.1.2. Economic activity in collective territories

The importance of collective territories is mainly related with the historical, cultural, social, natural and political values that it holds. It is also related with its extension and valuable contribution to Colombia’s nationality and diversity. In spite of the foregoing, with exception of some areas in the Low Atrato and the town of Tumaco, the communities that live in collective territories are generally poor. These communities face challenges particularly difficult when undertaking sustainable productive economic activities that generate surpluses for the market. Among the factors that limit the development of said activities are the wooded nature of these territories, their ecologic value, the fragile nature of the soils, the weather conditions, and the lack of transport and telecommunications infrastructure and the low offer level of some public services. These territories coincide with the sites of major biologic diversity of the planet, and their use should insure the protection of those resources. Additionally, this is one of the wettest regions of the world which seriously restricts the development of traditional agricultural activities.

The collective territories have a clear conservation mission. And the conservation generates environmental services that are globally relevant and that have an economic value. However, in spite their economic value, these environmental services are not tradable in the market; or they are

45 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population only in occasions and marginally. In spite the foregoing, at international level there is the perception for a growing interest in the creation of markets in which said environmental services can be traded. Methodologies, markets and institutional arrangements are starting to be developed which should enable the financial valuation of said services and their possible transaction. The foregoing may generate opportunities to create sustainable sources of income for the black communities that have traditionally inhabited and preserved the collective territories. These opportunities can become clear in the measure that the communities, through their collective action, and using their community organizations, undertake agreement, coordination, control, supervising and monitoring processes that should serve to stop the deforestation and change of land use to measure the effectiveness of their interventions.

Some voluntary CO2 markets that operate in Europe and that are now operating in the United States could be the perfect scenario to sell environmental services of a global reach that are generated by the conservation of collective territories of the black communities. If the markets that value the “avoided deforestation” are strengthened and developed as a global environmental service, the communities that inhabit said territories would have an economic activity– the conservation- which would not only be in harmony with the natural vocation of these territories but , also, it would be culturally feasible.

The successful development of conservation and “avoided deforestation” projects by the black communities in their collective territories require the fulfillment of a series of conditions. It is required, in first instance, the decision and formal commitment of these communities and their organizations to stop the deforestation processes to a clearly determined area. Another requirement is the strengthening of these community organizations to exercise and coordinate control, supervising and monitoring activities of the changes in the canopy coverage. The communities shall also require technical support to develop methodologies to estimate the avoided emissions of CO2 and to design and operate the supervising and monitoring systems. Also the communities, through their organizations, shall have to come to agreements to manage, invest and distribute the financial profits generated by the project of conservation and “avoided emissions” of CO2.

On the other hand, developing of the projects of conservation and “avoided deforestation” in these collective territories shall require the identification of a market in which the CO2 emission reductions can be traded, or in any case, of a buyer that is willing to pay for them. In the absence of

46 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population a developed market that assigns a price to these avoided emissions, the setting of the price shall depend on the agreement between the communities and the possible buyer. Matters such as the opportunity cost assigned to the conservation shall become part of the information to be taken into account when setting of the price. In any case, for the project to be financially feasible, the amount regularly obtained for the sale of avoided emissions shall have to be sufficient to compensate and remunerate the costs incurred by the communities to preserve the forests and carry out the control, supervising and monitoring activities.

There are numerous cases where, given the absence of sustainable and productive economic alternatives in those territories, the communities have been forced to cut down the forests to sell timber and to transform forests in land for agricultural use. In occasions, faced with the pressure exercised by illegal armed groups, they have seen the growing of illegal crops in their ancestral and collective territories. Developing projects of conservation and “avoided deforestation” would create economic incentives for the communities to commit to stopping these deforestation and deterioration processes. Some black communities in Colombia have already expressed interest in the developing of this type of projects.

Other economic activities such as the production of forest non-timber yielding products based on the sustainable use of biodiversity could also offer interesting options to these communities. Developing these activities would require an important effort in the field of research and an intensive job on the marketing area. Now, developing these productive projects based on the production of forest non-timber yielding products is perfectly compatible with the development of projects of conservation and “avoided deforestation”. In fact, besides being compatible they complement each other.

2.1.3. Labor Market

Table 5 shows the labor market basic indicators. The unemployment rate for Afro-descendants is higher than that of other Colombians, both in urban and rural areas. An interesting finding has to do with the global participation rate17. Viáfara (2007) finds that the global participation rate is higher

17 The global participation rate measures the relative size of the labor force with respect to productive age persons. This rate calculates the number of persons of 12 years of age that want or are already working, this is to say that participate in the labor market. 46

47 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population for Afro-descendant peoples. The difference in participation –of something more than 2%– reflects a strategy to reduce the risk to fall into poverty situations due to income.

Table 5: Labor market indicators per zone and ethnic awareness18 Urban Rural National Afro- Non Afro- Non Afro- Non Col. Ethnic Total Col. Ethnic Total Col. Ethnic Total % PET 74.5% 77.1% 76.8% 74.6% 77.4% 75.9% 74.5% 77.1% 76.6% TGP 47.5% 50.0% 48.8% 37.0% 39.7% 37.9% 44.7% 47.8% 46.2% TD 10.9% 8.2% 8.4% 4.7% 3.6% 3.7% 9.5% 7.4% 7.5% TO 42.4% 45.9% 44.7% 35.2% 38.3% 36.5% 40.4% 44.3% 42.7% Source: 2005 Census. REDATAM, DANE Surveying system.

Distribution of Afro-Colombian employees per occupational profile and sector also differs from the distribution of non-ethnic population. Viáfara (2007), using the Continuous Households Survey (ECH) of 2004, finds that at urban level, Afro-descendant peoples weights more in remunerated employment occupations, both among men and women. Besides, the percentage of Afro-Colombian women that are employed in the domestic service is higher than the percentage corresponding to non other Colombian women.

Additionally, Viáfara finds that self-employment is the category that groups the Afro-descendant population the most (it excludes boss and employer) with 45% in men and 39.3% for women (compared to 39.3% men and 33.8% non Afro-Colombian women respectively). He attributes this to less options to access remunerated employment in the private sector and a higher level of competition for jobs which forces this population to accept jobs that generate less income and have no access to social security.

18 %PET: percentage of the total population in a productive age; TGP: global participation rate, proportion of the population in a productive age that participates in the labor force or population economically active; TD: Unemployment rate; TO: Occupation rate. 47

48 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Finally, only 6% of Afro-Colombians fall under the category boss or employer, compared to 9% of other Colombians. This makes one think that Afro-descendant population has less possibilities to access the credit markets, necessary to develop business activities.

Viáfara indicates that, at urban level, Afro-Colombian men have a larger participation in the primary sector (agriculture, fishery) and construction that other Colombian males (26.6% compared to 17.1%); while women work mainly in domestic services. It is important to point out that both men and women have a lower level of participation in the financial services sector–typically a sector of higher remuneration.

The primary sector is the one that concentrates more employment for both Afro-Colombians as well as other Colombians in rural areas. For the rest, the distribution of labor force confirms the trends recorded at urban level. Afro-Colombians participate less in paid employments and domestic service is the main source of female employment. Afro-Colombians in rural areas are bosses or employers in a higher proportion than the other Colombians. However, Viáfara (2007) argues that this can be caused by “a larger number of farmers among Afro-Colombians in the Pacific and Atlantic Region, and in general for the Total rural at national level..., it is possible that this is about small rural owners in individual farming units and collective territories of Law 70”.

In summary, Afro-descendant peoples face a labor situation comparatively unfavorable. Their income is, on average less. It is possible that this can be partly explained by their discrimination in the labor market. However, the direct and quantitative evidence of discrimination is difficult to obtain. The economic research tends to document several indirect effects of discrimination that admit alternative explanations. Among them we find: segregation of labor markets, salary differentials, differentials in participation and differentials in unemployment rates. Although each one of the effects could originate in several acceptable economic causes, in any case racial discrimination could explain them both.

2.2. Poverty

2.2.1. Housing

According to 2005 census, municipalities with a large Afro-descendant population have a lower housing shortage rate than the rest of municipalities in the country (see Chart 16). This good

49 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population indicator should be interpreted with some reservations: the housing shortage more a urban phenomenon than a rural one (See Table 14 of annex).

More than the housing shortage, the relevant question would then be about the quality of housing; especially in rural areas where the housing standards are lower than in urban areas, the quality of housing is better reflected on the basic needs indexes described below.

Chart 16: Municipal housing shortage rate

Source: 2005 Census. REDATAM, DANE Surveying system. Figures are reported on table

50 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 16

2.2.2. Quality of life

The regions where Afro-Colombians live have a higher incidence of unsatisfied basic needs than the national total (see Chart 17). However, regional indexes of unsatisfied basic needs (NBI) probably underestimate the poverty incidence on Afro-Colombians, and the difference among these and the other Colombian population. The regional NBI average tends to hide disparities between urban and rural areas: at national level, the NBI is systematically lower in departments with higher urban dynamics. For example, Cali –the country’s third largest urban center – makes the results of the Pacific Region to be similar to the national figure. Afro-Colombian peoples are more rural than other Colombians; a higher poverty incidence on Afro-Colombian households would explain the higher poverty incidence in rural areas.

Chart 17: Percentage of people in NBI according to region and area

Source: 2005 Census. REDATAM, DANE Surveying system. Figures are reported on

51 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 16

This NBI gap becomes evident when one compares Afro-Colombian households with other Colombian households based on the Quality of Life Survey 2003.

Table 6 shows a systematic difference both by poverty line and by NBI. The Table does not present the disaggregated information rural-urban per regions, but it does at national level. As anticipated by the census data, the poverty differential between Afro-descendants and other Colombians is higher in rural than in urban areas.

Table 6: Poor Population according to household types, regions and National Total (urban, rural) Poverty LP-LI Poverty NBI Afro- Non Afro- Afro- Non Afro- Region Colombian Colombian Colombian Colombian Household Household Household Household Atlantic Total 62,2 54,1 48,4 45,4 Pacific Total 59,0 62,8 54,0 50,8 Valle Total 50,0 33,8 32,2 16,4 San Andrés Total 18,2 21,5 14,9 20,2 National Urba 48,4 42,4 30,0 21,5 Rural 66,0 62,7 69,2 57,1 Total Totaln 53,7 47,2 41,8 29,9 Source: Viáfara (2007). Calculus based on ECV 2003

The precarious life conditions and income level of Afro-descendants are reflected also on fasting incidence19 at national level: 14.3% of black population, compared to 6.1% of other Colombians. In the rural zones, the proportion of afro-descendant population that fasted is much higher, the Pacific region standing out with 24.4%. At urban level, the results for the ethnic group behave similarly to those described at national level; although this time the Atlantic Region suffers more this problem. Viloria De La Hoz (2007) indicates that having suffered malnutrition or serious nutrition shortage

19 The fasting incidence corresponds to the proportion of people within a group that due to lack of income, dit not consume any of the three meals during one or more days of the week 51

52 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population can generate limitations in the learning capacity, additionally, it generates nutritional disorders that have effect on the workers’ productivity.

Chart 18: Fasting incidence per region and according to ethnic recognition

Source: 2005 census. REDATAM, DANE Surveying system. Figures are reported on Table 18 of annex.

2.2.3. Public utility services

Indicators pertaining to public services coverage have improved in Colombia since the NPC of 1991. As shown on

53 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Chart 19, there is a growing trend, even in the regions with an Afro-Colombian peoples majority. However, one observes that the gap between the regions and the national are far from having reverted into water and sewage services. Only, in the electric power service there has been a reduction in the existing differential between regions and the national total.

54 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Chart 19: Percentage of housings with access to utility services

Source: Socio-Demographic Indicators System for Colombia. National Planning Departament. Figures are reported on Table 19 of annex.

For the year 2005,

Chart 20 shows public utility services coverage levels in Colombia, differentiating between Afro- Colombians and non Afro-Colombian households. The national electric power coverage, around 90%, is nearly 5% higher in non Afro-Colombians. For the other services, whose coverage are lower, the difference is of 10% to 20% in favor of non Afro-Colombian households –and the largest differences are given in the Pacific region.

Chart 20 shows that the national gap is particularly big for water services (72% for Afro- Colombians compared to 82% for non Afro-Colombians) and sewage (56% compared to 75%). The lack or scarcity of water and sewage services, is related to the higher incidence of diseases such as cholera and acute diarrheic illness (ADI), being these diseases the main causes of mortality among infant population (UNICEF, 2005).

55 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

On the provision of water services, the Pacific region shows a gap of 21% (68% compared to 89%). Sewage, the gap of this region is 22% (57% compared to 79%). In the Atlantic Region the gap in water services is lower: 4%. The corresponding difference in coverage of sewage is also lower but the coverage is lower: 44% of Afro-Colombians have access to sewage services, compared to 51% on non Afro-Colombians.

In Colombia, water services coverage tends to be higher than that of sewage. However, the difference between both is higher for Afro-Colombian households than for those that did not recognize themselves among an ethnic group: 20% compare to 10%. The Pacific Region presents lower water services coverage rates for black households: 68% compared to 71.6% for the national total of Afro-Colombians.

Chart 20: Utility services coverage per region and ethnic self-awareness

Source: 2005 census. REDATAM, DANE Surveying System. Figures are reported on Table 20 of annex.

Summarizing, the social and economic indicators record a gap between Afro-Colombian and the rest of the population. Afro-Colombians suffer a higher incidence of poverty –measured by both NBI as for income– situation that becomes worst in rural areas, where the incidence is 40 percentage points higher than that of urban centers. They have higher fasting rates, with qualitative results similar to those of poverty. Utility services coverage is even lower in afro-descendant 55

56 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population households, compared with the rest. In the case of services associated to health and basic sanitation–water services and sewage– the difference is higher than 20%. 2.3. Health

2.3.1. Coverage in security and health

In agreement with the high poverty incidence in the municipalities with Afro-Colombian predominance – which according to NBI is 50% – the percentage of population affiliated to the General Social Security System in Health (SGSSS) in a subsidized regime is comparatively high (49.82%). This proportion is higher than the rest of the municipalities in Colombia (22.04%).

Table 7: Affiliated to the General Social Security System in Health (SGSSS) in subsidized regime20 Affiliated to health % of population Subsidized under subsidized (2005) regime Afro-Col. Municipality 1.055.791 49.82% Rest 8.672.506 22.04% National 9.728.297 23.46% Source: Ministry of Social Protection

The SGSSS leans mainly on the hospital public network. The public network of hospitals located in the three regions inhabited by Afro-Colombians –Atlantic, Pacific and San Andres– corresponds to a total of 315 assistance centers. 64.1% of which are attached to a State’s Social Institution.

The 315 centers are 29% of the total of the national network; the population of the regions they cover is 36.3% of the national population. Their distribution among the three regions responds to the relative population among them: the majority of assistance centers is located in the Atlantic

20 As an Afro-Colombian municipality is considered that one that has more than 50% of the population in this group. (See Table 14 in annex.) 56

57 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Region, followed by the Pacific Region and San Andrés – the Atlantic Region assembles 19.2% of the country’s total population, compared to 17.1% of the Pacific region.

88% of assistance centers are of complexity level 1 21 and are located mainly in municipalities. 10.4% is level 2. However, the complexity level patterns are different in each region. The Pacific Region has more than 93% in the first level, nearly 10% above those of the public network in the Atlantic Region. This difference moves to the second level of complexity: in the Pacific Region only 5% of the centers are level 2, compared to 14% of the Atlantic Region.

The concentration of first level assistance centers is higher than that observed at national level in something more than 3%. The foregoing results in a lower relative number of hospitals of higher complexity–specially of level 2 health assistance centers. It is important to highlight that the regions with a Afro-descendant population majority are below the national total in third level hospitals and clinics.

Table 8: Number of public hospitals per region according to nature, level and if State’s Social Institution (2003-2006) Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Tota ES Region Prov Distr Mun Nal Distr Mun Distr Mun l E i . Indig. . . Prov.. . . Prov. . . Nal. Atlantic 178 161 34 3 0 113 0 23 2 0 3 0 0 0 Pacific 135 40 33 0 7 86 0 6 0 1 1 0 1 0 San Andrés 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 - - - - National Total 1086 821 185 13 9 711 2 119 9 11 17 5 3 2

21 Level 1: corresponds to the local health centers and health facilities and hospitals. These should have a doctor, nursing supervisor and assistant. These should attend urgent situations such as women in labor. Level 2: these assistance centers, such as regional or local hospitals, should have basic medical specialties such as, gynecology, internal medicine, surgery, intensive and anesthetic care. Additionally, they should have a gynecology and surgery room. In these minor surgery is carried out such as appendices, hernias and varices. Level 3: Until recently this was the maximum complexity level where minor and major procedures could be carried out. They include specialties and subspecialties such as orthopedics, cardiology, pneumology, ophthalmology and plastic surgery and should have specialized care rooms such as neonate rooms, intensive care units (ICU) both pediatric and adult ones. Recently level 3 was disaggregated and a higher level was included namely Level 4, which includes dialysis and transplants. 57

58 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Source: Taborda (2006)

Table 9 shines more light on how close is for a person to access these health assistance centers and the number of centers available to attend the universe of possible users in each region (potential users). The access facilities of the Atlantic and Pacific region are below the national total22. With regard to the Pacific Region, the Atlantic Region presents better access facilities to the hospital public network in all levels of complexity: It has a larger number of centers to respond to the potential users, and more hospitals per square kilometer.

The difference in access facility originates in the lower complexity levels. It is easier for the health system users to access the primary and secondary health assistance network in the Atlantic Region than in the Pacific Region. The difference in access facilities decreases in the measure that the complexity level increases. This shows that the objective is for third level hospitals to cover similar areas and towns and to be reference points around which the system turns.

Table 9: Number of centers per each Km2 and one hundred thousand people according to complexity level Total level 1 level 2 level 3 # # # # # centers # centers # centers # centers centers centers centers centers Region 100 100 100 100 per per per per thousand thousand thousand thousand thousan thousan thou. thou. people people people people d Km2 d Km2 Km2 Km2 Atlantic 1.63 2.23 1.37 1.88 0.23 0.31 0.03 0.04 Pacific 1.03 1.90 0.96 1.77 0.05 0.10 0.02 0.03 San 38.46 3.36 19.23 1.68 19.23 1.68 0.00 0.00 Andrés Nationa 0.95 2.62 0.81 2.22 0.12 0.34 0.02 0.07 l Source: Taborda (2006), 2005 census. REDATAM, DANE Surveying system

22 The indicators used are not an adequate comparison base for San Andrés. Due to its insular condition, it requires having all assistance levels. Its low population and extension, result in that indicators show high levels in all cases.

59 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Finally, Chart 21 presents the vaccination program to prevent disease among infant population. The difference in infant mortality does not emerge from differences in the coverage of this program. On the contrary, for the municipalities with an Afro-Colombian majority, the vaccination coverage is higher than for the national total–except in reference to the TBC vaccination. The average difference in the coverage among Afro-Colombian municipalities and the rest is 2.4%.

Chart 21: Extended Immunization Program Coverage (PAI), 2005 23

Source: Ministry of Social Protection. Figures are reported on Table 23 of annex

2.3.2. Health results

The higher access facility in the Atlantic region has not always been accompanied by good results in health indicators. In the period 2001-2005, Chart 22 evidences that the infant mortality rate for this region has been higher among regions where the Afro-descendant population is concentrated, even above the national infant mortality rate. However, this indicator has improved and in 2006 the national average was reached, better than the one observed for San Andrés and the Pacific Region.

The infant mortality rate in the Pacific Region has also shown a decreasing trend. It is currently 1.4% above the national average–which has also decreased.

23 The vaccination abbreviations are: VOP polio vaccine; DTP Diphtheria and Tetanus Toxoids and Pertussis; BCG is the TBC vaccine; HIB Haemophilus Influenzae type B 59

60 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

In San Andrés, the evolution of infant mortality has been different from that observed in other regions. In the year 2002 it presented a strong improvement with respect to that observed in 2001, but it has had an increasing tendency since 2002. In 2006, it was the region with the highest infant mortality rate among the three Afro-Colombian regions, with levels above the national total.

Chart 22: Infant mortality rate per region (2001-2006)

Infant Mortality Rate 30 25 20 15 10

vivos 5 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

defunciones <1 año por mil nacimientos Atlantic Pacific San Andrés National

Source: Vital statistics at municipal level according to mother’s domicile, DANE. Figures are reported on Table 21 of annex.

These results per regions are consistent with those of the municipalities with an Afro-descendant majority. For the group of municipalities with an Afro-Colombian peoples majority, infant mortality has been significantly higher than for the rest of the municipalities. In 2001, first year of which municipalities’ samples are available, 29 deaths on average of children under one year of age were recorded per each 1000 births in Afro-Colombian municipalities. Fortunately, this indicator has shown a decreasing trend for the groups of municipalities. In the Afro-Colombian municipalities it has stabilized around 21, and the gap among Afro-Colombian and the rest has shown a slight recovery.

61 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Chart 23: Infant mortality rate for Afro-Colombians and non Afro-Colombian municipalities (2001-2006)

Source: Vital statistics at municipal level according to mother’s domicile, DANE. Figures are reported on Table 22 of annex.

In matters of health, the indicators presented show ups and downs. On the one hand, the population affiliated to the Social Security System in Health in the subsidized regime is higher in the municipalities with a black population majority– possibly related with a higher poverty incidence in these municipalities – and better coverage rates of the Extended Immunization Plan. The foregoing indicates that, effectively, the government has carried out an important job in assisting the poor population. In spite the aforementioned, the largest coverage is not translated into lower infant mortality rates. These rates are higher in the municipalities with an Afro-descendant population majority than the rest.

In summary, although and evidently the Colombian State has carried out an important job as to improving health services coverage for Afro-descendant population, in any case all resulting indicators continue to be unfavorable compared with those of the rest of the population. This is the case, notably, for the infant mortality rates and for the female post partum mortality rates.

1.1. Education

62 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

One of the usual economic variables to explain poverty and social mobility dynamics is the accumulation of human capital. Skills and abilities acquired by people during their lives, either at school or at work are a source of growth and insurance in terms of income as well as a means for social improvement. Education is a productive asset; the absence of education anticipates a future of low income and low development for a region.

1.1.1. Illiteracy

An early indicator of the precariousness in human capital accumulation is the illiteracy rate24. As seen in Chart 24, the probability for an Afro descendant to be illiterate is one and a half times higher than that of other Colombian: 11.15% of Afro Colombians cannot read or write, while only 7% of non ethnical other Colombians are illiterate. The difference is due to rural living of the population: both absolute illiteracy levels and the gap are greater in departments where Afro descendant population register lower urban dynamics.

The Atlantic region presents illiteracy rates higher than the remaining regions. This difference is in both groups, with 13.4% illiteracy among Afro descendants and 11.6% among non Afro descendant population. In the Pacific region’s case, even though rates are below national totals, unevenness between Afro Colombians and non ethnic population are higher than 4%. Thus, in this region less than 11% of Afro Colombian are illiterate, while only 6% of the non ethnic population is illiterate.

24 As its average level has decreased, the illiteracy rate has been replaced by average education level and school attendance rates as informative indicators. Nevertheless, illiteracy rate still reflects the prevalence of lower education levels and allows comparisons against historical data. 62

63 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Chart 24: Illiteracy rate for older than 15, organized according to higher rural dynamics of Afro Colombians

Source: 2005 Census. REDATAM, DANE Surveying system. Figures are reported in Table 24 of the annex

Consistent with greater illiteracy – and with the largest gaps – in regions of larger Afro Colombian rural communities, illiteracy rate for Afro Colombians is higher in rural areas (21.2%) than in urban areas (7.6%). In the urban regions, the illiteracy gap is 3%; there are higher differences in departments like Nariño (8.7%), Guaviare (5.2%), Cauca (4.8%), Chocó (4%) and Norte de Santander (3.48%). In the rural zone, the differential reaches 4.7%. Differentials in the departments of Vaupés (55.4%), Nariño (15.8%), Chocó (10.2%), Guaviare (6.5%) and Sucre (4.9%) stand out.

Illiteracy affects Afro Colombian men and women evenly. Difference in rates (11.3% men, against 11.1% women) is not significant. (In contrast, there are differences by gender in non ethnic

64 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

population.) Nevertheless, when comparing Afro Colombian women against non ethnic groups, the gap reaches 4.3% in favor of the latter. Departments with greater differences in female illiteracy rate are Nariño (11.8%), Chocó (7.3%) and Sucre (5.5%). As illiteracy is a strong barrier for insertion into the formal labor market, female Afro Colombian population is in a disadvantageous position against non Afro Colombian females.

1.1.2. Schooling

It does not seem realistic to expect improvements in the education gap, either in the mid or in the long term. As it can be seen in

Table 10, school absenteeism rates are higher for the Afro Colombian peoples in all age groups, irrelevant of regions. This differential is greater for earlier ages and for those associated to upper education and lower for school ages associated to primary and secondary education. This can be related to “… a higher opportunity cost of joining the work market and to discrimination factors in the educational system” Viáfara (2007). Differences in indicators are much more noticeable in the rural regions, which means that even if the national illiteracy rate decreased, it would still be very high in those departments with a greater rural dynamics.

Table 10: School absenteeism rate per school age and average education years (for older than 15), region for Afro Colombian and non Afro Colombian population School absenteeism rate Average education years Region 5 a 6 7 a11 12 a 17 18 a 24 Afro Col Home Non Afro Col Home. Afro No afro Afro No afro Afro No afro Afro No afro Man Woman Man Woman Urban 16.5% 15.7% 7.1% 5.9% 18.7% 17.0% 72.6% 68.4% 7.5 6.9 8.9 8.3 Atlantic Rural 25.8% 28.5% 13.2% 11.0% 30.6% 36.5% 83.1% 86.7% 5.2 4.7 5.4 5.2 Total 19.5% 19.1% 8.9% 7.1% 22.0% 21.5% 75.3% 72.0% 6.6 6.2 7.9 7.7 Urban 15.2% 10.2% 6.5% 4.5% 18.6% 18.2% 72.6% 70.1% 8.0 7.1 9.1 9.0 Pacific Rural 35.1% 28.7% 16.7% 9.5% 34.2% 42.1% 81.8% 88.8% 4.7 4.0 6.0 5.2 Total 20.9% 15.6% 9.2% 5.9% 22.5% 24.8% 74.9% 74.8% 6.7 6.1 8.3 8.3 Urban 17.3% 17.1% 7.1% 5.9% 18.7% 17.0% 72.6% 68.4% 8.2 7.4 9.3 8.8 Total Rural 32.2% 32.6% 13.2% 11.0% 30.6% 36.5% 83.1% 86.7% 4.7 4.0 5.0 4.9 National Total 21.9% 20.9% 8.9% 7.1% 22.0% 21.5% 75.3% 72.0% 6.9 6.4 8.1 8.2

65 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Source: 2005 Census. REDATAM, DANE Surveying System. Viáfara (2007) for average schooling

High school absenteeism rates, especially the one associated to upper education, illustrate the barriers in human capital accumulation. Afro-Colombians have, in general, a lower educational level than other Colombians (Chart 26). This is surely associated to differences in income and, as previously stated, with higher poverty levels in black communities. Afro Colombian peoples older than 15 have, on average, less schooling years (6.6 years compared to 8.1 years among non Afro Colombian households). This situation is accentuated for women: in this case the average difference between Afro Colombian and non Afro Colombian households is closer to two years of education.

Population in rural areas has a lesser average education of four years when compared to the population in urban areas. Human capital heritage in rural areas is similar for Afro Colombians and non Afro-Colombians; the difference on average schooling between these two groups is then originated in the differences in urban areas.

Chart 25 shows the educational profile for people older than 18. There are differences associated with race, but there are also differences in gender – both for Afro-Colombians as well as for non Afro Colombians –. The percentage of Afro-Colombians with completed high school and with upper education is around 6% lower in both genders. Besides, women have a higher percentage of their population with completed high school and with upper education than men in the corresponding ethnic group. This may be associated to the earlier incorporation of men into the labor market. Nevertheless, the gender gap is equal for Afro Colombians and for non Afro Colombians in this educational level.

66 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Chart 25: Distribution of population older than 18 by gender, ethnic Group, according to maximum educational level attained.

Source: 2005 Census . REDATAM, DANE surveying system. Figures are reported in Table 25 of the annex.

Differences between Afro Colombians and the rest of the population are accentuated much more when we refer to the economically active population. The lower educational level of Afro Colombians forces this population to have less access to the labor market. Thus, their unemployment rates are higher and that forces them to be relegated to perform in primary sectors of economy where salaries are much lower (Viáfara 2007).

Chart 26: Distribution of economically active population by gender, ethnic Group, according to maximum educational level.

Source: 2005 Census. REDATAM, DANE surveying system. Figures are reported in Table 27

1.1.3. Access to upper education

Particularly interesting in the educational achievements profile is access to upper education, generator par excellence of higher income and of social mobility. In this regards, Afro descendant

67 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population population still faces three large limiting factors: bad quality of education prior to university access, ineffective insertion into Upper Education Institutions (IES) and consequently high desertion rates for Afro Colombians.

Regarding the first limiting factor, Chart 27 is quite illustrative. In all areas of knowledge evaluated by ICFES tests, results of students from mostly Afro descendant municipalities have a lower score. Thus, those willing to enter upper education are at a disadvantage when competing for the openings at the IESs.

Chart 27: Results of ICFES tests by knowledge area (average 2001-2005)

Source: ICFES.

Regarding University access, the State is the main supplier of upper education services for Afro Colombian peoples (Chart 28), but still in official upper education institutions Afro Colombians’ marks are much lower than their relative weight in the total population in each region. In the case of top class private universities that situation is much more evident and critical. The very low insertion into top class upper education limits Afro-descendant poeples’ capability to escape from the traps set by poverty. Improving the access to high quality upper education should be a priority for policy makers in negro populations.

68 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Chart 28: Percentage of Afro-Colombian origin registration, according to region and IES type.

Source: SPADIES, 2002. Figures are reported in Table 26

Access to upper education, to be successful requires obtaining a title. Drop out rates are higher in universities with higher percentages of Afro-Colombians (Chart 29), showing that they have not been properly prepared at school or that their personal circumstances make academic efforts more difficult. Dropping out implies, of course, that the costs incurred by households to send their family members to school is lost.

69 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Chart 29: Universities according to percentage of Afro-Colombians and drop out rate

Source: SPADIES. Each spot corresponds to one university.

In educational terms, perspectives are then discouraging. High illiteracy rates; greater rates of school absenteeism (at all levels) leading to a lower average number of years of education and to a labor force that has less human capital, households with lower income and higher unemployment incidence.

2. Political Organization

Political expressions of Afro Colombians have been framed within two clear forms of participation. The first one, creation of social movements that have worked closely with Afro-descendant communities at rural and urban levels, aimed at the “vindication of Afro Colombian people, differentiated not only racially, but mainly culturally from the rest of society” (Agudelo, no year). On the other hand, there is the Afro-Colombian participation in democratic instances existing in the country, first in Congress and after that in the popular election of mayors and governors. As we will see later, the first ones have entered into the second ones’ sphere, first indirectly and later on directly through spaces provided by Law 70 of 1993.

70 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

2.1. Evolution of Afro-Colombian Social Movements.

International movements in the second half of the 20th century in the United States25, the Caribbean and South Africa seeking vindication of Afro-descendant communities’ rights led to the rising of collective ethnic identities in the national territory. Grueso (2000) poses that these movements have their origins in the sixties boosted by religious movements such as the Golconda, precursor of the Theology of Liberation in Colombia, led by the pastoral action of Monsignor Gerardo Valencia Cano of the city of Buenaventura. This movement highlighted the particularities of “the social and cultural reality of the region (South Pacific) criticizing frontally the abandonment and misery to which black population was submitted by economic power groups and the political class with influence in the region”.

For the 70s, HEMERA Foundation states that groups emerged such as "Black Populations (Poblaciones Negras)", "Negritudes", "Black Culture (Cultura Negra)"; Tabalá in Tunja; Black Panthers (Panteras Negras), La Olla and Black Muslims (Musulmanes Negros) in Buenaventura; Cimarrón in Popayán. In the mid 70s two organizations became visible, the Center for Research on Black Culture (CIDCUN) and the Circle of Studies on Black Population Soweto in Pereira. These initiatives of organizations corresponded mainly to urban expressions created by intellectuals and Afro-descendant students.

In the 80s, the members of the Soweto Circle founded the National Movement for Human Rights of the Black Population (Cimarrón) led by Juan de Dios Mosquera. Nevertheless, this decade opened the way to the presence of organizations in rural areas, mainly in the departament of Chocó, replicating the experience obtained with indigenous people in this region, whose fight went beyond the fight against discrimination and included ethnic territorial elements in their claims of land titles and their integral relation with their environment. Thus, the Church, through the Afro-Colombian Pastoral becomes the companion for newborn movements fighting for land ownership in the departments of Cauca, Chocó and Nariño. Agudelo (no year) states that several organizations of farmers from the river banks in Choco come from there, such as the Integral Farmers’ Association of Atrato (Asociación Campesina Integral del

25 Movements led by evangelic pastor Martin Luther King, Malcom X and Stockely Carmichel stand out. There is a brief summary of the international influences in Agudelo (no year) and in Wade (1995). 70

71 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Atrato, ACIA), Farmers’ Association of San Juan River (Asociación de campesinos del rio San Juan, Acadesan), Farmers’ Association of Baudó (Asociación de campesinos del Baudó, ACABA), Farmers’ Organizationof the Low Atrato (Organización de Campesinos del Bajo Atrato, OCABA), Popular Organization of the Upper Baudó (Organización popular del Alto Baudó, OPCA) and the Farmers’ Association of Upper San Juan (Asociación campesina del Alto San Juan, ASOCASAN). Additionally, the Organization of Working Class Districts (Organización de Barrios Populares, OBAPO) is born in Quibdó spreading its scope throughout the country. This search had in the OIT Agreement N. 169 an international legal framework for the recognition of ownership titles over the lands historically occupied by this ethnic group.

This way, and previous to the Constituent Assembly in 1991, about 135 organizations had been created in the Pacific with two clear orientations. In the South, religious-cultural type organizations with no defined structure and in the North, social-farming workers type organizations with common views regarding collective Afro-descendant awareness and specific life styles in economic and social spheres (Grueso, 2000).

For the beginning of the nineties and previous to the calling of a National Constituent Assembly for 1991, different initiatives of Afro-descendants with an equal number of political orientations agree on carrying out in August 1990 the Pre-Constituent Congress of Black Communities (Congreso Pre-constituyente de Comunidades Negras). There were people and communities connected to Christian communities, traditional parties, governmental programs and NGOs among them, with the objective of working on joint proposals for action before the National Constituent Assembly. From this Congress, the National Coordinator for Black Communities (Coordinadora National de Comunidades Negras, CNCN) is born as a coordination mechanism for the proposals agreed, such as the strengthening of organizations expressive of communities and to look for representation at the Constituent Assembly. From this process, the National Movement Cimarrón (Movimiento National Cimarrón), among others, splits out due to “differences in vindications and conceptions regarding the rights of the black community (…and) they decide to go in joint lists with traditional sectors of the left and other expressions of popular character”26 (Grueso, 2000).

26 Agudelo (no year) highlights that the Cimarron Movement recognizes the mistake of having moved apart from the constitutional juncture and they have even included within their discussion subjects the defense of Law 70 as an achievement and demanding its normative development. 71

72 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Grueso, Rocero and Escobar (1998) argued that due to the deep división due to diverging political orientations, this movement had a short life, translating this into non direct representation of their objectives in the National Constituent Assembly. In order not to leave aside the work carried out at the CNCN, some movements such as the Organization of Working Class Districts (Organización de los Barrios Populares, OBAPO) and the Integral Farming Workers Association of the Atrato (Asociación Campesina Integral del Atrato, ACIA) supported the candidacy of the indigenous Francisco Rojas Birry, elected as Constituent.

Finally, the objectives of black communities were reflected in Transitory Article 5527 of the Constitution, which expresses the mandatory character of issuing a “law recognizing black communities which have been occupying waste lands in rural areas on the river Banks of the Pacific Basin, according to their traditional production practices, the right to collective property" (NPC, 1991). This article is materialized in Law 70 of 1993.

From the CNCN, in September 1993 during the III National Assembly of Black Communities carried out in Tumaco, the movement Organizational Process of Black Communities (PCN) arises. Grueso (2000) states that the birth of this movement seeks a discourse unity in response to the different political orientations of the delegates to the Assembly and to the rejection to the political opportunism of the black factions of traditional parties. This movement describes itself as:

“Black Communities Social movement for the reconstruction and affirmation of the cultural identity which will lead to an autonomous organization strategy for the achievement of cultural, social, political and territorial rights and for the defense of natural resources and environment” (Grueso, Rocero and Escobar, 1998)

Agudelo (no year) states that the PCN became at that time the group with the greatest discursive coherence, also its proposal was limited within world thinking currents of the time. This programmatic discourse in which a hard work with black communities is included allows constant discussion in its basic Palenques structure (see Chart 30). These organizations were promoted on

27 Wade (1995) and Grueso (2000) pose that the process through which this article was included went through several difficulties as the declaration of ethnic group and the rights over territories were not considered as apartheid aspirations and separatist. 72

73 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population the river banks of rivers Cauca, Valle, Nariño and Caribeean Cost, where the PCN acts as negotiator.

Chart 30: Black Communities Process Flowchart

Technical teams:  Environmental  Ethno-educatión  Development  Financial  Work groups in Bogotá, Armenia and other cities

Source: Grueso (2000)

Agudelo (no year) poses that leadership generated and promoted in those regions caused criticisms against the PCN’s negotiator role and the language used with river banks’ black communities28, in such a way that in the mid 90s there was a division within the movement with some organizations from the river banks assumed a voice of their own. Despite the loss of rural space and thanks to the coherence in discourse, PCN has earned negotiation spaces at a national level29 and even visibility and negotiation at an international level as it became part of the international anti-globalization networks with recognition from NGOs.

28 The author affirms that the language used in his political career with river Banks communities generated a breaking point in the movement’s unity because it was unintelligible for those communities. 29 The PCN director Carlos Rocero was part of the national direction of the democratic left hand movement Social and Political Front. Later on, this movement joined other left hand movements conforming the current Polo Democrático Alternativo (Alternative Democratic Pole). 73

74 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

2.2. New political action space

Law 70/ 1993 generates a new dynamic in political organizations process. On the one hand, at a national level Article 66 of the said Law established a special constituency for black communities with two places in the House of Representatives. Agudelo (no year) points out that for 1994 Congress elections there was an explosion of black movements of different type who were initially looking for spaces and benefits existing in the current regulation, which ended up reflecting more personal interests tan the group’s. This would determine the disappearance of several of these groups. Even after the 2003 political reform, the number of political movements participating in 2006 elections is a lot bigger, for example, the number of political movements registered for another ethnic Group such as indigenous (27 registered to represent black communities against 6 movements seeking the representation of indigenous). Besides, the number of lists to participate in the election went up from 23 in 2002 to 2730 in 2006.

Thus, in 1994 Representatives for black communities Agustín Valencia (for the Movement Afro Colombian Palenque) and Zulia Mena (for the movement OBAPO) were elected for the 1994 – 1998 period. Nevertheless, Grueso (2000) points out that the regulations of this special district opened way for traditional parties to obtain those seats s the definition of black community given by Law 70 was not preserved and it was allowed that “every black person could go for the seat attending the pressure to black parties from traditional parties”.31

At a local organizations level, Law 70 established that for the awarding or awardable land, each black community should form a Community Council with the function of: “demarcate and assign areas within awarded lands; watch over the conservation and protection of cultural identity and for the conservation of natural resources; choose the legal representative of the respective community as legal person and to impersonate friendly mediators in internal conflicts that could be conciliated” (Art. 5, Law 70 / 1993).

Agudelo (no year and 2002) poses that the election results for the House of Representatives have been far from reflecting the Afro Colombian peoples of Pacific communities and of the groups

30 27 parties or movements finally participated in this election. Originally, 29 parties had been registered 31 Law 649 of 2001 regulates candidates to these seats to be part of the respective community and it should be endorsed by the Direction of Black Communities Issues of the Ministry of Interior.

75 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population which have worked directly with them, continuing an election tradition towards the Liberal Party. Watching the election results of 2002 and 2006, it is found that the special district has dropped both in the number of valid votes (210.572 in 2002 to 136.01232 in 2006) as well as in the participation for the House of Representatives (2.09% in 2002 to 1.54% in 2006).

Despite these bottle necks of representation of this ethnic minority, associations have been generated among municipalities with a high ratio of Afro descendant population in order to promote joint development programs to benefit this population. That is the case of the National Association of Afro Descendent Population Municipalities’ Mayors (Asociación Nacional de Alcaldes de Municipalities con Población Afrodescendiente – AMUNAFRO) – constituted in 2004 and which groups a total of 61 municipalities located on the Pacific coast, Urabá and the Caribbean coast who jointly manage resources for development. There are others not as formal associations such as the one formed by Afro Colombian congressmen known as the Afro Colombian Caucus (Bancada Afrocolombiana) in which they describe themselves as an “accidental legislative cell” aimed at defending and promoting the group’s interests from the Congress through bills.

Thus, the high dispersion of movements competing for votes and a partisan tradition in these regions have caused the not consolidation of a discourse capable of attracting new voters – seen in a low election participation – and that it may be possible to reflect the needs of an important population in the legislative cell. Additionally, the growing distance between programmatic discourses as the one exercised by AMUNAFRO and those advocating for the recognition of diversity (PCN and Cimarron) has not generated advancements in the discussion of generating programs for black population advancement or in achieving common objectives to fight for at a political level.

2.3. Quality of public administration

The last two sections have explored the political organizational capacity of Afro Colombians at a national level. Law 70 offered a space for participation at a national level through seats for black communities in the House of Representatives. Nevertheless, political organization should not be

32 A total of 84.569 votes were valid and there were 51.443 blank votes 75

76 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population contemplated at a national level only. Quality of local administration is crucial to establish improvement perspectives through decentralized public expense and through public management.

In municipalities with a population mostly Afro descendant, it is this population who access popular election positions. A mechanism to assess municipal management, and governors, is the evaluation of the municipality’s fiscal performance. As it can be seen in Chart 31, management is poor in these municipalities, reflecting poor local institutions, or officers’ lack of preparation.

So, results are not positive in this field either. Primary cause for the poor public management in Afro Colombian regions is susceptible to debate, but problems of access and results in upper education described above may play an important role. In any case, a poor public administration creates a State illegitimacy vicious circle and little efficacy from public policies.

Chart 31: Municipalities according to fiscal behavior and percentage of Afro Colombians in the municipality

Municipalitie according to tax performance and % of Afro-Colombians Tax performance (average 2003-2004) 80

20 0 20 40 60 80 100 % of Afro-Col population

Trend Convianza interval 95%

Source: Ibáñez (no date)

77 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

3. Public Policies geared towards Afro descendant populations It is worth mentioning that there are several levels through which public policies have been formulated for this ethnic minority. The first one is through agreements at the Congress through the issue of laws; the second mechanism is the formulation of policies by the central government through special governmental programs, which are at CONPES level, or specific ministerial programs; and finally, programs formulated by governments of the territorial entities which will not be discussed due to their wide range. Now, we will talk about policies and programs since 1990.

3.1. Congress

Without a doubt, the most important advancement in public policies has been the issuing of Law 70 of 1993, which consecrates recognition of collective property to black communities in the framework of principles of protection of ethnic and cultural diversity, regarding institutional elements particular to these communities. From the issuing of Decree 1745 of 1995, regulating land titles for waste lands under the figure of collective property, the Colombian State, through INCODER – former INCORA, has titled from 1996 until 2006 a territory equivalent to 5.177.602 Hectares, to benefit a total of 2.219 black communities comprising 62.590 families for a total of 318.000 inhabitants. It is important to clarify that these lands do not include urban land, which cannot be awarded33. According to Social Action (2008), these lands are located mainly in the Pacific Coast, in the departments of Chocó (approximately 2.9 million hectares), Nariño (1.07 million), Cauca (approximately 574 thousand hectares), Valle del Cauca (339 thousand), Antioquia (240 thousand) and a small proportion in Risaralda (4800 hectares). Currently, INCODER is in the process of titling 21 thousand hectares in Chocó and 39 requests have been filed for collective titling for a total of 285.358 hectares, to the benefit of 6.099 new families.

Additional to the respect for the territory concept expressed in this Law, two more objectives have been developed: political participation – explained in the Section Political Organization - and education. Decree 1627 of 1996 develops Article 40 of Law 70 and creates a special fund for assistantships for low income students from black communities managed by the Credit and Technical Studies Abroad Colombian Institute (Instituto Colombiano de Crédito y Estudios Técnicos en el Exterior, ICETEX). Between 1996 and 2001 2550 Afro Colombians were benefited

33 Art. 19, Paragraph 2, Decree 1745 of 1995 77

78 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population with economic support to finish technical, technological and university studies (CONPES 2002). For the 2004 to 2007 period this fund had resources for almost 12.000 million pesos, with support from Phelps Stockes Fund (Social Action 2008).

Additionally, Decree 2249 of 1995 gives the responsibility to the Ministry of Education to formulate and implement ethno education policies for Afro descendant communities and to design the corresponding curriculums to provide ethno educational services according to the needs, interests and expectations of this population. For 1998, the Professorship of Afro Colombian Studies is created, which should be included into the Institutional Educational Projects, PEI, of every educational institution regardless their private or state origin. For 2001, this professorship was already being implemented in schools in Bogotá and workshops were carried out in 15 departments with teachers and other agents involved for training and broadcasting of the curricular contents.

3.2. National Government

National Government, through the National Planning Departament, has formulated a set of plans to benefit regions with the largest black population and in general Afro descendant population listed in the following CONPES Documents (DNP 2005 and Social Action 2008):  CONPES 2589 of 1992 “Pacific Plan: A new Sustainable Development Strategy for the Colombian Pacific Coast”  CONPES 2909 of 1997 “Support Program for the Development and Ethnic Recognition of Black Communities”  CONPES 3058 of 1999 “National Government Strategy to Support the Development of the Departament of Archipiélago de San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina”  CONPES 3169 of 2002 “Policy for Afro Colombian peoples” and its enlargement (CONPES 3180 of 2002)  CONPES 3310 of 2004 “Affirmative Action Policy for Black or Afro Colombian peoples”  CONPES 3410 of 2006 “State Policy to Improve Life Conditions of Buenaventura Population”  CONPES 3553 of 200 “Social and Economic Promotion Policy for the Departament of Chocó”

79 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

CONPES 2589 de 1992 “Pacific Plan: A new Sustainable Development Strategy for the Colombian Pacific Coast”

This program was aimed at promoting human development in the Pacific, designing investment strategies in transportation, energy, telecommunications and environmental policies. This program is directed to 40 municipalities of the Pacific, among which there are Quibdó, Tumaco and Buenaventura. This program had initial resources for US$71.4 million34 of which US$40 million had already been invested by the end of 2001 in the development of the government capacity and territorial order, basic sanitation services, health and in the development of productive activities (CONPES, 2002). Nevertheless, DNP (2005) states that an evaluation of the impact of this program has not been performed due to lack of information and it has not been possible to compare it with its initial goals either.

CONPES 2909 of 1997 “Support program for the development and ethnic recognition of black communities”

This document was aimed at the organization and coordination of different governmental institutions and NGOs in charge of promoting development among black communities; as well as strengthening those communities’ organizations; promote their social and economic development and finally, carry out actions geared towards the protection, promotion, broadcasting and defense of their rights (Córdoba, 2007). As main actions we can highlight technical assistance to territorial institutions in the departments of Antioquia, Atlántico, Bolívar, Cauca, Cesar, Córdoba, and Chocó for a sum of US$1.1 million, co-financed by the BID (DNP, 2005).

CONPES 3058 of 1999 “National Government strategy to support development in the departament of Archipiélago de San Andrés, Providencia y Santa Catalina”

This policy’s goals were to promote development and improve wellbeing in the departament Archipiélago San Andrés, Providencia y Santa Catalina, in a joint effort of departamental authorities and the national government. In 2001, a total of $41.121 million pesos had been invested

34 Contributions to this fund comprise US$21.4 million from the national government, a US$40 million loan from the BID and a US$10 million non-refundable contribution from the BID (CONPES, 2002) 79

80 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population in education, health, housing, and coexistence (Córdoba, 2007), reaching a high level of fulfillment with 89% (DNP, 2005).

CONPES 3169 of 2002 “Policy for Afro Colombian peoples” and its enlargement (CONPES 3180 of 2002)

As pointed out by CONPES (2002) goals stated in this document were primarily aimed at “generating more social equity and to contribute with the strengthening of the ethnic identity, organizational processes and participation in development policies and development plans”. To that end, the following 6 strategies were designed: i. Know, know ourselves and let others know us: looked for a reliable information system on black population – finally, the inclusion of the ethnic question in 2005 Census – as well as fostering the ethnic and cultural reaffirmation stimulating broadcasting and recognition of contributions through supporting research on this ethnic minority. ii. Living better: strategy headed to improvement of socio economic variables such as health, access to and quality of education, development of productive activities according to this population’s traditions through the establishment of specific activities to be implemented by the Ministries of Social Protection, Education, Environment and Agriculture. iii. Complete the rights catalogue: Primarily its objective consisted in developing chapters IV, V, VI of Law 70 of 1993, regarding use of land and natural resources. iv. Participate: v. Contribute to decreasing the effects of violence: Municipalities of Acandí, Atrato, Boguilla, El Cantón de San Pablo, Medio Atrato and Nóvita were included in the program “Social infrastructure and community management for peace” which seeks rebuilding the physical and social infrastructure attacked by violence. Initially, $5.000 million were assigned to assist these municipalities, of which $2.500 million were given by the DNP in support to the reconstruction and relocation programs of Bojayá and for the design of a sustainable development program for the Antioquian and Chocoan Urabá and for the middle and low Atrato (DNP, 2005 and Córdoba, 2007). vi. Institutional Strengthening: Strategy aimed at strengthening the management capacity of territorial institutions in the Colombian Pacific. To achieve this, DNP, the Ministry of Interior and the Superior School of Public Administration (Escuela Superior de

81 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Administración Pública ESAP) were instructed for the definition of programs to train mayors, community leaders and collegiate bodies.

CONPES 3310 of 2004 “Affirmative Action Policy for Black or Afro Colombian peoples”

This document was presented as a mechanism to generate more opportunities tending to obtain the benefits from development and to improve this population’s life conditions through positive discrimination. To do this it is necessary to identify – as well as with CONPES 3169 –, increase and focus social programs to this population (Social Action, 2008 and DNP, 2005). This document poses the need for the design of the Long Term Integral Plan for Black, Afro descendant, Raizal and Palenquera Population. It also pretends to improve indexes which would be enlarging the social gap, such as education, health and communications coverage. Even though issues approached are similar to those posed by CONPES 3169, it strictly points at affirmative policies in favor of Afro descendants. The main results of this document are:  Increase in coverage on basic and secondary education (Social Action 2008).  Inclusion of ethnic membership question in the 2005 Census and in vital statistics made by DANE, and in statistics from the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Social Protection.  Increase in coverage and enlargement of co-financing of subsidized regime (Social Action 2008).  Publishing and socialization of documents from the Long Term Integral Plan for Black, Afro descendant, Raizal and Palenquera Population.

CONPES 3410 of 2006 “State Policy to Improve Life Conditions of Buenaventura Population”

A State policy for the main port on the Pacific is posed to improve life conditions for its population (Buenaventura concentrates more than 6% of all Afro Colombians in the country) and boost its location comparative advantage consolidating it as port and industrial axis. To achieve this, objectives of the millennium in social terms are pursued, as well as the improvement in economic and institutional conditions.

Social Action (2008) points out advancement in port, railroad and highways infrastructure, improving the city’s connectivity with the rest of the country. Additionally, regarding social issues, 81

82 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

priority has been given to programs such as Families in Action, (Familias en Acción), Together Hetwork Program (Programa Red Juntos), school lunch and community households. In terms of basic sanitation, the nation offered funds for works for around $45.000 million.

CONPES 3553 of 2008 “Social and Economic Promotion Policy for the Departament of Chocó”

This document structures action plans at national government level (Ministries and attached institutions) in order to solve three structural problems of Chocó, where 82.12% of the population are Afro descendents, identified in the document, which can be summarized as follows: 1. Reduction in poverty and improvement of life conditions, strengthening the offer of state services in education (basic and technical and superior), health (coverage for SISBEN families, children food and sexual planning), and housing shortage. 2. Generation of conditions for the diversification of the productive structure to offer greater economic opportunities to inhabitants in Chocó, through improvements in communication infrastructure (roads, rivers and connectivity); electric inter-connection; productive support, security conditions; reduction in illicit crops and environmental management. 3. Strengthening of departamental and municipal administrations’ management capacity.

In sum, resources assigned to the different action plans to be executed between 2008 and 2013 are equal to more than 2.3 billion pesos of 2008, which are summarized in the following table.

TOTAL

2008-2013 1. DEMOCRATIC SECURITY WITH INTEGRAL SOCIAL ACCOMPANIMENT 250,326 Strengthening of Public Force in the Pacific 194,609 Eradication of illegal crops 33,076 Displacement, DH, DIH and Reconciliation 22,641 2. REDUCTION OF POVERTY AND PROMOTION OF EMPLOYMENT AND EQUITY 1,621,472 Education 575,418 Health 647,295 Social Protection 157,333 Friendly cities 241,427 3. HIGH AND SUSTAINED GROWTH 476,997 Transportation infrastructure 438,321 Energy 21,447 Connectivity (includes computers for 399 schools) 13,033 Agricultural development 3,215 Competitiveness 981 4. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2,412 82

83 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Attention and prevention of risks 770 Sustainable Development 1,183 Utría National Park 459 5. SPECIAL DEVELOPMENT DIMENSIONS 9,974 Culture 9,771 Institutional strengthening 203 TOTAL 2,361,182

4. Final Comments

The image shown in this report regarding the Afro Colombian peoples demands a resounding action from the State. Backwardness in development of the Afro descendant population is not acceptable in the light of the National Political Constitution, which gathers and praises cultural and ethnic diversity in the territory. It is imperative to generate immediate action plans to eliminate disarticulation among the different governmental levels, which has hindered this population’s advancement.

Afro descendant population presents a clear pattern in its geographic location, concentrated in the Pacific and Atlantic regions. In general, Afro descendants are more vulnerable to adverse events tan the rest of the population: they have a larger average home size, higher rates of a female home head and higher rates of dependence, both at urban as well as at rural levels. Additionally, there is evidence showing that the Afro Colombian peoples is more vulnerable to the armed conflict consequences (accented in those regions), both in the incidence of forced displacement as well as in mortality rates, specifically in men.

Socio economic indexes also show a gap against the rest of the population: there is a higher poverty incidence –measured by NBI as well as by income– situation aggravated in rural areas with an incidence higher in 40 percent against that recorded in urban centers. Coverage of public services for Afro Colombian households is lower. In the particular case of services associated to basic health and sanitation – water and sewage – disparity is higher than 20%.

There are mixed results in health indexes. On the one hand, population affiliated to the Social Security System in Health in the subsidized regime is higher in municipalities whose population is mostly black –possibly due to the higher incidence of poverty in these municipalities. On the other hand, the Immunization Enlarged Plan has a greater coverage than in other regions. Nevertheless,

84 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population higher coverage is not reflected in better results in terms of children mortality rates, which are higher in these municipalities than in the rest of them.

In educational terms, perspectives are discouraging. Illiteracy rates of more tan 11%; higher school absenteeism rates (at all levels) which lead to less years of education and to a labor force with less human capital, households with less income and a higher incidence of unemployment. Particularly noticeable id the difficult for a successful access to upper education, source of human mobility.

Political organization of Afro Colombians, palenqueros and raizales is still fragile. This is partly due to highly scattered groups, both of those working in rural communities as well as of those in urban ones; and partly to the political discourse managed by each group. Participation spaces granted by Law 70 in the Congress are an example of this: movements aspiring to these special seats are too many compared to other ethnic minorities, but votes for these movements are very far from the whole Afro Colombian peoples. Afro Colombian votes are attracted by political parties with a greater tradition such as the Liberal Party.

Local public administration of Afro Colombian regions is in not better condition than the national political organization. Fiscal results of Afro Colombian municipalities are lower than those of the other municipalities.

Existing public policies are aimed at facing all those social gaps. Issuing of Law 70 of 1993 was a huge advancement in recognizing and granting rights to this population. From that moment on, the National government has recognized (by its own choice, or because its mandatory character) the need of designing differential policies in favor of Afro descendants, on educational, socio economic and institutional issues. Particularly, formulation of the Long Term Integral Plan for Black, Afro Colombian, Palenquera and Raizal Population 2007-2019 constitutes a reference framework of where should governmental programs be aimed at: improvement of quality of life of this population is and should be a State Policy.

85 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

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89 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Annexes

Glossary of Terms

Dependence rate: defined as the proportion of dependent people under 15 and older than 65 regarding economically active population (people over 15 and under 65). Thus, juvenile dependence rate shall be the relation between the population under 15 regarding population in productive age. Similarly, senile dependence rate shall be the relation of the number of persons older than 65 and population in productive age.

Fasting Incidence: corresponds to the proportion of people who due to lack of income did not have any of the three meals for one or more days in a week, regarding the total population.

90 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Supporting tables

Table 11: Distribution of Afro Colombian peoples by departament and place of residence % Afro % of total Afro Colombians % of Afro Afro Departament Colombian in Colombians Colombian peoples departamental in rural areas peoples population Valle del Cauca 1.092.169 27,0% 25,3% 11,5% Antioquia 593.726 10,6% 13,8% 29,2% Bolívar 497.667 27,1% 11,5% 23,6% Choco 286.011 73,6% 6,6% 35,8% Nariño 270.530 18,1% 6,3% 53,5% Cauca 256.022 21,7% 5,9% 50,6% Atlántico 227.251 10,8% 5,3% 9,9% Córdoba 192.051 13,1% 4,5% 53,1% Sucre 121.738 16,0% 2,8% 45,7% Magdalena 110.349 9,7% 2,6% 37,1% Cesar 105.411 12,0% 2,4% 41,3% Bogotá D.C. 97.885 1,4% 2,3% 0,0% La Guajira 91.398 13,9% 2,1% 11,1% Cundinamarca 73.651 3,3% 1,7% 21,8% Santander 60.008 3,1% 1,4% 32,7% Risaralda 43.562 5,1% 1,0% 20,3% Archipiélago 33.861 56,8% 0,8% 38,9% de San Andrés Caldas 22.659 2,5% 0,5% 43,3% Norte de 22.123 1,8% 0,5% 16,4% Santander Meta 17.983 2,5% 0,4% 25,5% Boyacá 16.646 1,4% 0,4% 45,5% Tolima 15.831 1,2% 0,4% 28,8%

91 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Quindío 12.744 2,5% 0,3% 10,4% Caquetá 11.670 3,5% 0,3% 47,6% Putumayo 11.630 4,9% 0,3% 46,6% Huila 11.544 1,2% 0,3% 49,6% Arauca 5.925 3,9% 0,1% 19,0% Casanare 4.004 1,4% 0,1% 18,6% Guaviare 2.883 5,1% 0,1% 19,0% Vichada 1.126 2,5% 0,0% 29,6% Amazonas 868 1,8% 0,0% 6,5% Vaupés 270 1,4% 0,0% 4,1% Guainía 185 1,0% 0,0% 4,3% Total 4.311.381 10,4% 100,0% 27,3% Source: 2005 Census. REDATAM, DANE surveying system.

92 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 12: Population structure by gender and ethnic group and age groups and ethnic recognition Age Afro Colombian Non ethnic groups Man Woman Man Woman 0 a 4 11.59 10.85 9.95 9.03 5 a 9 11.37 10.69 10.65 9.72 10 a 14 11.50 10.82 10.77 9.88 15 a 19 10.39 10.04 9.66 9.17 20 a 24 9.15 9.22 8.79 8.80 25 a 29 7.92 8.20 7.88 8.03 30 a 34 6.88 7.22 6.95 7.23 35 a 39 6.59 6.91 6.93 7.33 40 a 44 5.91 6.18 6.58 6.93 45 a 49 4.86 5.10 5.46 5.83 50 a 54 3.78 3.95 4.39 4.64 55 a 59 2.91 2.99 3.45 3.65 60 a 64 2.16 2.21 2.59 2.78 65 a 69 1.87 2.00 2.12 2.36 70 a 74 1.31 1.47 1.59 1.82 75 a 79 0.93 1.04 1.17 1.37 80 o más 0.87 1.10 1.06 1.39 Source: 2005 Census. REDATAM, DANE surveying system.

93 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 13: Dependence rate for Afro Colombians, non-ethnic groups and total according to the zone (urban, rural) Urban Rural National Dependence Non Non Non rate Afro. Total Afro. Total Afro. Total ethnic ethnic ethnic 51.1 45.1 62.0 54.5 Juvenile % 44.5% % 64.5% 57.9% % % 47.1% 48.8% 11.5 Senile 8.2% 9.7% 9.6% 9.9% 11.9% % 8.6% 10.1% 10.0% 59.3 54.7 73.5 63.1 Total % 54.2% % 74.4% 69.8% % % 57.3% 58.8% Source: 2005 Census. REDATAM, DANE surveying system.

94 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 14: Municipalities with Afro Colombian peoples majorities % Afro % of % Afro % of Afro Colombians people in Colombian people in Departament Municipality Colombian in the NBI in s in Urban NBI in peoples municipal urban area rural area population area Antioquia Girardota 30587 73.26% 50.16% 7.7 26.6 Antioquia La Pintada 3923 56.32% 84.43% 38.4 33.3 Antioquia Necoclí 28584 58.96% 32.60% 47.0 87.2 San Juan De Antioquia Urabá 18033 86.51% 31.40% 57.6 83.9 Antioquia Turbo 99274 81.32% 41.76% 57.5 73.7 Vigía Del Antioquia Fuerte 2529 85.90% 49.74% 56.1 73.9 Atlántico Luruaco 21595 94.67% 48.28% 56.4 45.2 Atlántico Suan 5845 62.62% 92.99% 56.0 43.8 Altos Del Bolívar Rosario 8818 87.51% 52.76% 51.6 87.9 Bolívar Cicuco 7095 64.66% 87.40% 56.4 69.3 Bolívar Maria La Baja 43961 97.34% 39.61% 61.6 58.9 Bolívar San Pablo 18628 73.66% 99.84% 62.4 79.7 Boyacá San Eduardo 1392 74.92% 50.72% 23.0 35.2 Caldas Marmato 4580 56.29% 12.99% 77.8 29.3 Cauca Buenos Aires 15564 68.51% 4.79% 25.9 60.8 Cauca Caloto 22645 62.40% 8.02% 14.0 41.0 Cauca Guapi 24102 97.28% 66.68% 97.5 71.5 Cauca Lopez 10301 97.91% 34.03% 57.0 38.9 Cauca Miranda 16432 52.66% 80.34% 51.2 47.6 Cauca Padilla 7741 96.94% 45.69% 18.7 25.4 Cauca Patía 14267 70.14% 46.86% 26.7 45.8 Cauca Puerto Tejada 43015 97.49% 88.15% 18.5 14.6 Cauca Suarez 11007 58.18% 29.25% 28.4 69.1

95 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Cauca Timbiquí 13115 86.13% 17.96% 59.3 74.8 Cauca Villa Rica 13805 96.91% 73.82% 34.3 19.8 Cesar El Copey 17309 71.14% 70.68% 45.9 65.7 Cesar Tamalameque 8383 63.08% 27.46% 54.4 65.3 Córdoba Moñitos 17535 74.51% 26.19% 54.0 86.5 Puerto Córdoba Escondido 18191 83.12% 16.45% 58.4 89.5 Córdoba San Antero 16614 63.00% 72.35% 61.7 72.0 San Bernardo Córdoba Del Viento 21349 68.12% 22.31% 46.9 79.7 Cundinamarca Ricaurte 7484 93.84% 43.09% 29.8 41.6 Chocó Quibdo 100007 95.32% 94.40% 90.5 78.2 Chocó Acandí 7573 87.21% 52.83% 31.9 64.6 Chocó Alto Baudó 14623 60.94% 30.50% 99.9 96.2 Chocó Atrato 3500 98.45% 35.63% 97.5 70.8 Chocó Bahía Solano 7345 86.67% 47.94% 27.6 30.4 Chocó Bajo Baudó 10035 67.39% 21.84% 43.4 83.3 Belén De Chocó Bajirá 8187 72.57% 33.24% 80.4 86.7 Chocó Bojayá 4421 53.39% 95.05% 96.9 94.6 El Cantón Del Chocó San Pablo 2632 96.23% 42.40% 52.9 51.9 Carmen Del Chocó Darién 1726 66.93% 28.39% 88.5 91.4 Chocó Certegui 5349 95.28% 51.86% 92.7 78.4 Chocó Condoto 11464 95.63% 70.32% 65.4 54.2 Chocó Istmina 20093 91.08% 80.35% 92.3 73.0 Chocó Lloro 5631 73.64% 36.03% 40.5 80.6 Chocó Medio Atrato 5453 92.58% 3.19% 100.0 100.0 Chocó Medio Baudó 6993 80.09% 0.14% 100.0 100.0 Medio San Chocó Juan 8432 92.82% 32.55% 61.8 49.6

96 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Chocó Novita 3651 93.11% 30.10% 53.4 72.8 Chocó Nuquí 4500 77.49% 40.00% 37.4 44.5 Chocó Rio Iro 4942 91.30% 18.90% 83.5 82.4 Chocó Rio Quito 5264 90.17% 97.47% 99.4 93.8 Chocó Riosucio 10979 81.13% 63.41% 99.7 94.7 Chocó Sipi 2513 94.76% 2.03% 24.6 47.6 Chocó Tadó 13387 85.54% 73.32% 89.3 82.4 Chocó Unguia 6048 84.84% 30.64% 41.0 68.1 Unión Chocó Panamericana 3458 92.34% 37.07% 69.1 43.1 Magdalena Pedraza 5019 64.13% 13.79% 73.3 66.6 Nariño Barbacoas 23126 78.31% 48.00% 57.6 83.9 Nariño El Charco 19633 94.68% 22.17% 86.5 78.2 Nariño La Tola 8284 98.12% 68.37% 99.1 74.4 Nariño Magüí 11827 96.97% 18.73% 53.3 90.4 Nariño Mosquera 8907 96.96% 39.56% 97.8 77.4 Nariño Olaya Herrera 22747 94.84% 9.14% 34.6 69.0 Francisco Nariño Pizarro 10071 94.30% 49.48% 73.3 64.6 Roberto Nariño Payan 13204 91.35% 2.95% 49.6 73.6 Nariño Santa Bárbara 7606 94.19% 30.83% 100.0 100.0 Nariño Tumaco 129491 88.82% 62.23% 48.8 47.9 Palmas Del Santander Socorro 1459 61.12% 25.57% 26.5 30.1 San Benito Sucre Abad 15791 70.09% 21.28% 52.8 71.6 Sucre San Onofre 42812 94.37% 38.16% 65.1 66.9 Santiago De Sucre Tolú 20309 73.20% 80.74% 43.0 64.8 Valle Del Cauca Buenaventura 271141 88.54% 91.70% 34.5 44.1

97 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Valle Del Cauca Candelaria 36369 53.01% 30.79% 17.9 12.1 Valle Del Cauca Jamundí 55620 60.67% 57.43% 8.5 31.8 Archipiélago de San Andrés San Andres 30110 54.42% 63.49% 52.0 15.0 Archipiélago de San Andrés Providencia 3751 91.71% 41.86% 23.8 17.0

98 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 15: Specific mortality rates (per 1.000 inhabitants) according to sex and ethnic group Age Afro Colombian Non ethnic groups Man Woman Total Man Woman Total 0 a 4 2.67 1.93 2.31 2.59 2.04 2.32 5 a 9 0.55 0.42 0.49 0.46 0.36 0.41 10 a 14 0.60 0.35 0.48 0.47 0.31 0.39 15 a 19 2.56 0.68 1.63 1.89 0.61 1.25 20 a 24 4.67 1.04 2.84 3.59 0.79 2.15 25 a 29 4.27 0.92 2.55 3.63 0.72 2.12 30 a 34 3.89 1.08 2.44 3.59 0.90 2.19 35 a 39 3.77 1.56 2.63 3.47 1.15 2.25 40 a 44 3.57 1.66 2.59 3.39 1.54 2.42 45 a 49 4.28 2.99 3.62 4.20 2.14 3.11 50 a 54 5.52 4.19 4.84 5.78 3.59 4.63 55 a 59 7.07 5.69 6.37 7.54 4.83 6.11 60 a 64 11.54 10.44 10.98 12.87 8.85 10.74 65 a 69 16.07 13.01 14.48 17.51 12.04 14.56 70 a 74 26.83 20.30 23.35 29.07 19.42 23.80 75 a 79 38.46 31.38 34.70 40.28 27.68 33.35 80 o más 78.11 74.91 76.31 89.69 74.66 80.99 Total 4.76 3.25 4.00 5.19 3.46 4.30 Source: 2005 Census. REDATAM, DANE surveying system.

99 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 16: Municipal and Regional housing shortage Total Urban Rural Afro Colombian -5.64% -6.71% -2.67% Municipal Rest -7.94% -8.76% -3.81% Atlantic -7.00% -7.70% -3.00% Pacific -8.65% -9.39% -5.92% Regional San Andrés -3.73% -4.05% -1.66% National -7.83% -8.68% -3.73% Source: 2005 Census. REDATAM, DANE surveying system.

Table 17: Percentage of people in NBI according to region and zone Seat of municipal Region REST TOTAL government Pacific 19.64% 53.20% 30.08% Atlantic 35.33% 72.36% 45.53% National 19.51% 53.30% 27.63% Source: 2005 Census. REDATAM, DANE surveying system.

Table 18: Incidence of fasting by region and ethnic recognition Urban Rural National Region Afrocol. Non ethnic Afrocol. Non ethnic Afrocol. Non ethnic Atlantic 14.76% 9.34% 17.94% 13.08% 15.65% 10.20% Pacific 13.51% 4.42% 24.43% 7.74% 16.39% 5.28% National 12.77% 5.83% 18.27% 7.16% 14.27% 6.11% Source: 2005 Census. REDATAM, DANE surveying system.

Table 19: Percentage of houses with access to public utilities Water Sewer system Energy Region 1985 1993 2000 1985 1993 2000 1985 1993 2000 Atlantic 53.3 66.3 79.5 26.5 35.8 48.0 70.5 78.1 92.4 Pacific 52.7 58.7 69.4 39.5 40.6 54.1 60.1 65.4 83.3 Total National 70.5 79.7 85.7 59.5 63.0 73.3 78.5 85.8 95.2 Source: System of Socio-Demographic Indicators for Colombia. National Planning Departament.

100 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 20: Public utilities coverage by region and ethnic self-awareness (autoreconocimiento) Energy Sewer system Water Gas Telephone Afrocol. Non ethnic Afrocol. Non ethnic Afrocol. Non ethnic Afrocol. Non ethnic Afrocol. Non ethnic Atlantic 93.81% 93.15% 43.70% 50.82% 71.05% 74.78% 51.94% 57.59% 26.51% 31.63% Pacific 85.94% 96.18% 57.69% 79.09% 68.21% 89.45% 23.52% 32.41% 39.95% 54.28% National 89.65% 95.44% 56.39% 75.31% 71.60% 85.72% 31.02% 43.99% 38.80% 55.67% Source: 2005 Census. REDATAM, DANE surveying system.

Table 21: Child mortality by 1.000 viable births by gender and by region San Year Gender Atlantic Pacific Andrés National Total 26.3 19.6 16.5 19.7 2001 Men 29.1 21.8 22.7 21.8 Women 23.4 17.3 10.3 17.4 Total 22.9 18.8 11.0 17.8 2002 Men 25.3 20.8 13.8 19.5 Women 20.4 16.7 8.1 15.9 Total 21.1 16.3 12.1 17.0 2003 Men 23.6 17.2 17.2 18.7 Women 18.5 15.2 6.4 15.1 Total 18.1 16.6 12.7 16.1 2004 Men 19.8 18.1 8.4 17.7 Women 16.4 15.0 17.0 14.3 Total 18.9 14.9 14.3 15.7 2005 Men 21.0 16.3 19.5 17.3 Women 16.6 13.5 8.6 14.0 Total 16.1 16.1 16.3 14.9 2006 Men 18.0 18.5 21.2 16.4 Women 14.1 13.6 11.2 13.3 Source: Vital statistics at municipal level according to mother’s residence, DANE.

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101 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 22: Infant mortality by 1.000 viable births by gender and whether it is a municipality with Afro-descendant peoples majority Year Afro Colombian Non ethnic Total Total 29.12 19.29 19.92 2001 Men 33.05 21.36 22.09 Women 24.88 17.12 17.63 Total 25.18 17.47 18.03 2002 Men 28.60 19.15 19.80 Women 21.50 15.71 16.17 Total 22.60 16.70 17.17 2003 Men 23.80 18.47 18.94 Women 21.33 14.84 15.30 Total 21.20 15.83 16.28 2004 Men 21.55 17.56 17.94 Women 20.83 14.01 14.53 Total 21.12 15.42 15.88 2005 Men 23.28 16.98 17.41 Women 18.82 13.77 14.27 Total 21.64 14.54 15.07 2006 Men 24.22 16.04 16.63 Women 18.94 12.97 13.42 Source: Vital statistics at municipal level according to mother’s residence, DANE.

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Table 23: Immunization Extended Program Coverage (PAI), 2005 35 Afro Colombian Rest National Municipality Population under 1 year of 50,819 867,165 917,984 age VOP (dose) 45,397 751,201 796,598 % VOP 89.3% 86.6% 86.8% DPT (dose) 44,960 751,880 796,840 %DPT 88.5% 86.7% 86.8% BCG (dose) 42,126 760,087 802,213 %BCG 82.9% 87.7% 87.4% Hepatitis B (dose) 44,655 752,010 796,665 %HEP B 87.9% 86.7% 86.8% HIB (dose) 44,776 750,860 795,636 %HIB 88.1% 86.6% 86.7% Population 1 year of age 50,783 858,547 909,330 MMR Vaccine (dose) 46,593 763,779 810,372 % TV 91.7% 89.0% 89.1% Source: Ministry of Social Protection

35 Abbreviation for vaccines are: VOP poliomyelitis; DTP Diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus; BCG is anti-tuberculosis vaccine; HIB Haemophilus Influenzae type B 102

103 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 24: Illiteracy rate for older then 15

Afrocolombianos Población no étnica Nacional Departamento Total Urbano Rural Hombre Mujer Total Urbano Rural Hombre Mujer Total Urbano Rural Hombre Mujer Bogotá 2.0% 2.0% 5.0% 1.5% 2.5% 2.0% 2.0% 7.7% 1.6% 2.4% 5.3% 5.3% 10.3% 5.1% 5.5% Vaupés 4.1% 1.7% 60.0% 6.7% 0.0% 1.8% 1.7% 4.6% 2.1% 1.3% 25.9% 24.4% 30.5% 23.7% 28.3% ruralidad afrocol. Guainía 2.3% 2.5% 0.0% 1.4% 3.5% 6.5% 6.4% 7.7% 6.1% 7.0% 18.8% 13.1% 27.2% 12.6% 25.5% <=10% Amazonas 1.4% 0.7% 10.8% 1.1% 1.6% 3.7% 3.0% 10.6% 2.8% 4.7% 11.0% 4.7% 20.2% 9.6% 12.5% Atlántico 8.0% 6.8% 19.9% 8.4% 7.7% 5.6% 5.0% 19.5% 5.9% 5.3% 6.5% 5.9% 19.8% 6.9% 6.2% Quindío 7.0% 6.4% 11.6% 7.3% 6.7% 6.2% 5.6% 10.5% 7.0% 5.5% 6.3% 5.7% 10.7% 7.1% 5.7% La Guajira 8.4% 7.0% 18.5% 8.9% 7.8% 9.6% 6.8% 24.7% 10.2% 9.0% 35.9% 16.0% 61.9% 35.3% 36.5% Valle 6.3% 5.6% 11.9% 5.7% 6.9% 4.3% 3.5% 10.1% 4.4% 4.2% 5.5% 4.6% 12.1% 5.5% 5.6% ruralidad afrocol. Nte. Santander 12.4% 10.6% 22.4% 12.6% 12.1% 10.2% 7.1% 22.7% 10.7% 9.7% 10.9% 7.5% 24.1% 11.4% 10.4% <=20% Casanare 6.7% 5.4% 12.6% 6.2% 7.3% 8.2% 5.9% 13.7% 7.3% 9.1% 9.1% 6.2% 15.9% 8.2% 10.0% Arauca 10.0% 8.4% 16.4% 10.7% 9.1% 8.1% 7.5% 15.0% 7.5% 8.8% 12.6% 11.4% 21.9% 11.9% 13.4% Guaviare 14.3% 12.7% 20.1% 15.6% 12.7% 8.7% 7.5% 13.7% 8.7% 8.7% 20.7% 21.0% 19.5% 20.4% 21.0% Risaralda 6.8% 5.1% 14.0% 7.0% 6.5% 5.9% 4.4% 12.0% 6.5% 5.3% 6.6% 4.6% 14.1% 7.2% 6.0% C/marca 6.9% 5.4% 12.3% 6.9% 6.9% 6.4% 3.8% 11.0% 6.2% 6.5% 8.0% 5.6% 12.4% 7.9% 8.1% Bolívar 11.8% 8.6% 23.4% 12.7% 11.0% 12.6% 8.9% 26.3% 14.3% 11.0% 14.2% 10.8% 26.6% 15.6% 12.8% ruralidad afrocol. Meta 8.5% 6.4% 15.3% 8.2% 8.9% 6.5% 5.3% 11.8% 6.6% 6.4% 7.9% 6.3% 14.6% 8.0% 7.8% <=30% Tolima 8.5% 5.7% 16.4% 9.1% 7.7% 9.7% 6.6% 17.5% 10.7% 8.8% 11.1% 7.8% 18.7% 12.1% 10.2% Antioquia 10.0% 7.3% 17.7% 10.2% 9.9% 6.5% 4.4% 15.2% 7.4% 5.7% 9.3% 7.3% 17.0% 10.2% 8.4% Vichada 5.9% 5.5% 6.9% 6.1% 5.8% 7.8% 6.0% 10.9% 7.2% 8.4% 24.2% 17.5% 29.8% 21.2% 27.5% Santander 8.5% 5.8% 14.5% 8.5% 8.4% 7.4% 4.7% 15.8% 7.6% 7.3% 7.8% 5.0% 16.2% 7.9% 7.6% ruralidad afrocol. Chocó 18.7% 12.7% 30.0% 17.4% 19.9% 13.0% 8.7% 19.8% 13.2% 12.6% 24.7% 14.7% 38.5% 22.9% 26.3% <=40% Magdalena 15.8% 11.3% 24.0% 17.5% 13.9% 14.2% 9.6% 26.0% 16.8% 11.7% 15.6% 10.7% 27.7% 18.1% 13.2% San Andrés 1.3% 1.4% 1.3% 1.2% 1.4% 1.3% 1.4% 1.2% 1.2% 1.4% 1.5% 1.4% 1.5% 1.4% 1.5% Cesar 16.5% 11.1% 24.9% 18.1% 14.8% 13.7% 10.2% 26.1% 15.2% 12.2% 15.8% 10.8% 29.6% 17.2% 14.5% Caldas 8.9% 7.2% 11.4% 10.1% 7.7% 6.6% 4.7% 13.0% 7.8% 5.6% 7.3% 5.1% 13.6% 8.4% 6.3% Boyacá 12.5% 8.2% 17.1% 11.3% 13.8% 10.0% 4.8% 15.8% 8.6% 11.3% 11.2% 5.9% 17.0% 9.9% 12.4% ruralidad afrocol. Sucre 23.2% 15.7% 32.9% 24.6% 21.6% 17.4% 12.9% 28.1% 18.7% 16.2% 19.5% 13.7% 30.6% 20.7% 18.4% <=50% Putumayo 11.0% 8.3% 14.3% 10.6% 11.5% 8.6% 6.3% 12.1% 8.1% 9.2% 11.5% 8.7% 14.8% 10.8% 12.2% Caquetá 12.1% 10.5% 14.1% 12.2% 12.0% 10.6% 9.1% 14.2% 11.2% 10.0% 14.9% 13.2% 18.4% 15.5% 14.3% Huila 9.9% 7.1% 13.1% 9.8% 10.1% 9.0% 6.5% 13.1% 9.7% 8.3% 10.5% 7.7% 14.9% 11.2% 9.8% Cauca 12.3% 9.2% 15.3% 11.5% 13.0% 9.5% 4.4% 15.3% 8.4% 10.5% 13.1% 6.4% 18.2% 11.6% 14.6% ruralidad afrocol. Córdoba 19.0% 12.4% 25.4% 19.3% 18.8% 16.2% 9.8% 24.7% 16.7% 15.8% 18.6% 10.9% 27.4% 18.9% 18.4% <=60% Nariño 22.5% 13.7% 30.4% 22.5% 22.5% 9.5% 5.1% 14.6% 8.1% 10.7% 14.2% 8.3% 19.8% 13.0% 15.3% Nacional 11.2% 7.7% 21.2% 11.3% 11.1% 7.1% 4.7% 16.5% 7.4% 6.7% 9.8% 6.8% 20.2% 10.1% 9.5%

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Table 25: Maximum educational level reached for population over 18 years of age according to gender and ethnic group Afro Colombian Non ethnic Maximum educational level Men Women Total Men Women Total None 11.3% 11.2% 11.3% 8.2% 7.5% 7.8% Incomplete Primary 19.1% 19.4% 19.2% 18.5% 17.5% 18.0% Complete Primary 14.8% 14.7% 14.7% 16.4% 16.1% 16.2% Incomplete Secondary (1 - 3) 13.8% 13.2% 13.5% 12.0% 11.9% 12.0% Complete Secondary (1 – 3) 5.0% 5.0% 5.0% 4.5% 4.9% 4.7% Incomplete Secondary (3 - 6) 2.6% 2.5% 2.5% 2.3% 2.2% 2.2% Complete Secondary (3 – 6) 19.0% 19.2% 19.1% 19.9% 20.3% 20.1% Superior and Post Graduate 11.3% 13.0% 12.2% 17.6% 19.2% 18.5% No report 3.2% 1.8% 2.5% 0.5% 0.3% 0.4% Total 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Source: 2005 Census. REDATAM, DANE surveying system.

Table 26: Registration percentage of Afro Colombian origin, according to region and IES type Total Non Official Official Region Afro Colombian Others Afro Colombian Others Afro Colombian Others Atlantic 2.25% 97.46% 2.31% 97.41% 2.17% 97.51% Pacific 4.24% 95.32% 2.36% 97.29% 5.70% 93.78% National 1.21% 98.42% 1.06% 98.64% 1.38% 98.19% Source: SPADIES, 2002

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Table 27: Maximum educational level reached for economically active population according to gender and ethnic group Afro Colombian Non Ethnic Maximum Educational Level Men Women Total Men Women Total None 9.8% 5.5% 8.3% 6.4% 2.5% 5.0% Incomplete Primary 20.3% 15.0% 18.5% 18.5% 9.6% 15.3% Complete Primary 15.8% 12.6% 14.7% 17.3% 12.2% 15.5% Incomplete Secondary (1 - 3) 15.3% 13.6% 14.7% 13.4% 11.6% 12.7% Complete Secondary (1 – 3) 5.1% 5.2% 5.1% 4.7% 5.0% 4.8% Incomplete Secondary (3 - 6) 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.0% 2.0% 2.0% Complete Secondary (3 – 6) 19.8% 23.8% 21.2% 20.7% 25.6% 22.5% Superior and Post Graduate 10.9% 21.4% 14.5% 16.8% 31.2% 22.0% No report 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% Total 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Source: 2005 Census. REDATAM, DANE surveying system

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106 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 28: Growth rates of regions with Afro-descendant peoples majority Year San Andrés Atlantic Pacific National 1991 13% 2% 3% 2% 1992 10% 7% 5% 4% 1993 -12% 3% 7% 6% 1994 8% 9% 1% 5% 1995 -7% 5% 8% 5% 1996 14% 3% 2% 2% 1997 0% 4% 0% 3% 1998 5% 4% 1% 1% 1999 -3% -5% -3% -4% 2000 11% 3% 2% 3% 2001 -18% 1% 3% 1% 2002 12% 2% 1% 2% 2003 7% 7% 2% 4% 2004 3% 7% 4% 5% 2005 5% 4% 5% 5% Source: National Provincial Accounts, DANE. CEDE calculations

Table 29: Main economic activities at provincial level (percentage in parenthesis) Departament Main Activity Secondary Activity Tertiary Activity Valle Financial establishments (23.7) Industry (20.4) Social Services (16.9) Antioquia Industry (19.2) Financial establishments (19) Social Services (16.8) Bolívar Industry (22.5) Social Services (17.4) Agricultural (12.2) Chocó Social Services (34.4) Agricultural (30.2) Mines and quarries (9.9) Nariño Agricultural (31.9) Social Services (25.7) Commerce, restaurants and hotels (12.1) Cauca Social Services (26.7) Agricultural (26.6) Industry (14.9) Atlantic Industry (21.9) Social Services (18.1) Financial establishments (16.3) Córdoba Agricultural (31.2) Social Services (21.4) Mines and quarries (12.5) Sucre Agricultural (35.2) Social Services (28.6) Commerce, restaurants and hotels (13.7) Magdalena Agricultural (34) Social Services (23.1) Commerce, restaurants and hotels (14.3) Cesar Agricultural (34.3) Social Services (18) Mines and quarries (15) Bogotá D. C. Financial establishments (31.7) Industry (17.8) Social Services (17.4) La Guajira Mines and quarries (43.3) Social Services (13.7) Agricultural (10.8) Cundinamarca Agricultural (28.9) Industry (19.2) Social Services (18.9)

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107 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Santander Industry (17.2) Financial establishments (16) Social Services (15) Risaralda Social Services (21.1) Industry (15.5) Commerce, restaurants and hotels (14.6) San Andrés Commerce, restaurants and hotels (50.5) Social Services (19.1) Transportation (16.2) Caldas Agricultural (22.8) Social Services (20.4) Commerce, restaurants and hotels (13.7) Norte Santander Social Services (26.3) Agricultural (18.3) Financial establishments (14.7) Meta Agricultural (35) Social Services (14.9) Mines and quarries (11.4) Boyacá Social Services (21.1) Agricultural (20.4) Industry (10.2) Tolima Agricultural (30.7) Social Services (20.3) Commerce, restaurants and hotels (12.8)

Quindío Agricultural (26.2) Social Services (22.6) Commerce, restaurants and hotels (13.9)

Caquetá Agricultural (54.9) Social Services (21.7) Commerce, restaurants and hotels (8.2) Putumayo Agricultural (43.9) Social Services (21.8) Mines and quarries (12.7) Huila Agricultural (25.6) Social Services (20.9) Mines and quarries (12.6)

Arauca Mines and quarries (48.6) Agricultural (23.8) Social Services (10.6)

Casanare Mines and quarries (47.8) Agricultural (28.4) Construction (9.9) Guaviare Agricultural (76.9) Social Services (13.5) Commerce, restaurants and hotels (3.1) Vichada Agricultural (60.4) Social Services (24.8) Commerce, restaurants and hotels (5.8) Amazonas Social Services (38.6) Agricultural (29.8) Commerce, restaurants and hotels (12.8) Vaupés Agricultural (59.2) Social Services (29.1) Construction (4.2) Guainía Social Services (42.6) Agricultural (34.8) Commerce, restaurants and hotels (6.6) National Social Services (18.1) Financial establishments (17.4) Industry (15.1) Source: National Departamental Accounts, DANE.

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108 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 30: Regional and national per capita Gross Internal Product (GIP) (1990 – 2005) Region Year San Andrés Atlantic Pacific National 1990 3.036.679 1.164.902 1.447.386 1.666.658 1991 3.313.223 1.169.053 1.470.818 1.674.705 1992 3.508.567 1.227.121 1.514.537 1.715.361 1993 2.968.929 1.240.848 1.585.870 1.779.849 1994 3.072.276 1.322.360 1.579.486 1.836.930 1995 2.737.319 1.363.046 1.673.193 1.895.088 1996 3.078.802 1.379.905 1.687.695 1.906.593 1997 3.029.921 1.417.726 1.675.723 1.944.002 1998 3.148.347 1.445.836 1.678.553 1.927.325 1999 3.006.374 1.359.570 1.615.534 1.820.090 2000 3.293.356 1.377.486 1.625.167 1.846.071 2001 2.675.321 1.365.478 1.661.488 1.850.110 2002 2.984.505 1.377.633 1.661.905 1.862.602 2003 3.160.122 1.447.503 1.684.449 1.910.575 2004 3.226.693 1.533.213 1.731.298 1.978.826 2005 3.360.972 1.569.178 1.792.656 2.045.484 Source: DANE. Departamental accounts 1990 – 2005, departamental demographic indicators 1985 2005.

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109 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 31: Regional and national GIP growth rate Region Year San Andrés Atlantic Pacific National 1991 13.4% 2.3% 3.4% 2.4% 1992 10.1% 7.0% 4.8% 4.4% 1993 -12.1% 3.1% 6.6% 5.7% 1994 7.5% 8.6% 1.4% 5.1% 1995 -7.0% 5.2% 7.9% 5.2% 1996 13.7% 2.8% 2.0% 2.1% 1997 -0.5% 4.3% 0.5% 3.4% 1998 5.1% 3.5% 1.3% 0.6% 1999 -3.4% -4.5% -2.6% -4.2% 2000 10.8% 2.9% 1.8% 2.9% 2001 -18.1% 0.5% 3.3% 1.5% 2002 12.5% 2.3% 1.1% 1.9% 2003 6.8% 6.6% 2.4% 3.9% 2004 3.0% 7.4% 3.9% 4.9% 2005 5.1% 3.9% 4.7% 4.7% Average 1995 - 2005 2.52% 3.17% 2.39% 2.44% Source: DANE. Departamental accounts 1990 – 2005

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110 Socioeconomic and Political Outlook of the Afro-Colombian, Raizal and Palenquera population

Table 32: Participation in GIP of activity branches for 2005 ACTIVITY San Andrés Atlantic Pacific Total Agricultural, forestry, hunting and fishing 3.558 14.211 13.228 12.868 Mines and quarries exploitation 0.011 7.581 0.894 5.007 Electricity, gas and wáter 0.189 3.29 2.62 2.769 Manufacturing Industry 0.601 14.402 16.106 14.057 Construction 1.29 4.113 4.597 5.299 Commerce, repairs, restaurants and hotels 58.996 12.155 10.597 12.904 Transportation, storage and communication 13.177 7.952 8.106 8.549 Financial establishments, insurances, real estate and services to companies 3.619 11.101 20.016 16.778 Social, community and personal services 15.443 20.319 20.557 18.889 Financial intermediation services indirectly measured -2.041 -2.197 -3.1 -4.51 Duties and taxes 5.156 7.074 6.38 7.389 Total 100 100 100 100 Source: National Departamental accounts, DANE. CEDE calculations.

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