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University of California Santa Cruz Cross UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA CRUZ CROSS-POLLINATING AGRICULTURE, ECOSYSTEMS AND FOOD: HUMAN/BEE RELATIONSHIPS IN ANOLAIMA, COLOMBIA A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES by Marcela Cely-Santos March 2018 This dissertation of Marcela Cely-Santos is approved: _________________________________ Professor Stacy Philpott, Chair _________________________________ Professor Flora Lu _________________________________ Professor Andrew Mathews _________________________________ Tyrus Miller Vice Provost and Dean of Graduate Studies Copyright by Marcela Cely-Santos 2018 ii Table of Contents List of Figures…………………………………………………..………….. iv List of Tables…………………………………………………………..…... vi Abstract…………………………………………………………..………… vii Acknowledgements………………………………………………………... ix Introduction……………………………………………………..…………. 1 The little –and big– things that run the world Chapter 1…………………………………………………………..………. 23 Anolaima: A territory emerging from multi-scale ecologies. Chapter 2…………………………………………………………..………. 109 Intersections between rural livelihood security and animal pollination in Anolaima, Colombia. Chapter 3………………………………………………………………....... 159 Local and landscape habitat influences on bee diversity in agricultural landscapes in Anolaima, Colombia. Conclusions……………………………………………………………....... 209 iii List of figures Figure 1. Representation of the coat of arms of Anolaima made with 28 fruits during the Corpus Christi 2015 festivities. Figure 2. Modern crop of tomatoes in La Laguna village, Anolaima, 68 March 2016. Figure 3. Displacement of the local market in Anolaima. 74 Figure 4. Vegetables rejected by food brokers. 77 Figure 5. Little angels nesting next to a power outlet at Doña 81 Blanquita's house. Figure 6. Timeline describing major socio-political processes, systems 86 of agricultural production, land use change, livelihoods and agricultural exchange, and major events involving bees in Anolaima. Figure 7. Rank-abundance graphs for crops grown for self-subsistence 138 and commercial purposes across farms in Anolaima. Figure 8. Contribution of animal pollination to foods grown in 139 Anolaiman households. Figure 9. Socio-economic factors influencing the richness of 140 subsistence crops in Anolaiman households. Figure 10. Seasonal contribution of animal pollination to foods 141 consumed by households in Anolaima. iv Figure 11. Factors influencing the richness of foods consumed in 142 Anolaiman households. Figure 12. Distribution of livelihood activities across Anolaiman 145 households. Figure 13. Socio-economic drivers of income in Anolaiman households. 146 Figure 14. Map of Anolaima showing the seventeen study sites and land 198 cover types in the study region. Figure 15. Diagram of the experimental design of the study. 199 Figure 16. Local and landscape drivers of bee abundance in 200 agroecosystems in Anolaima. Figure 17. Local and landscape drivers of bee richness in 201 agroecosystems in Anolaima. Figure 18. Local and landscape drivers of bee evenness and dominance. 202 Figure 19. Relative abundance of bee tribes in different land use types, 203 and of land use types sampled across study sites within 25 m x 25m quadrants. Figure 20. Rank abundance of bee genera registered across 17 farms in 207 Anolaima, Colombia. Figure 21. Diversity profiles of bees captured across our study sites. 208 v List of Tables Table 1. Foods grown in Anolaima in the recent past (twenty 91 years ago) and in the present, according to elder women trading foods in the public market. Table 2. Socio-economic characteristics and variables regarding 136 crop and dietary diversity across Anolaima. Table 3. Correlations among socio-economic characteristics of 137 sixteen focus households in Anolaima. Table 4. General linear models (GLM) predicting the bee 196 abundance, richness and evenness of local bee assemblages. Table 5. Bee generic and tribal richness across land use types. 197 Table 6. Variables measured and used in the ecological study. 206 Table 7. Variables selected for data analysis, and results of 208 Pearson’s correlations with correlated variables. vi Abstract Cross-Pollinating Agriculture, Ecosystems and Food: Human/Bee Relationships in Anolaima, Colombia Marcela Cely-Santos Behind every cup of coffee, chocolate bar and fruit salad there are hundreds of insects and smallholders in the tropics linking forests, agricultural fields and food. Insects, especially bees, mediate the production of about 75% of crop plants consumed worldwide, and smallholders in the tropics produce about 40% of the world’s food. Both bees and traditional small-scale production systems are threatened because of the expansion of industrial agriculture. In this dissertation I aim to understand how agrarian change – the transformation from traditional to industrial agriculture– has influenced the relationships between humans and bees through effects on Anolaiman livelihoods and landscapes. In doing so, I re-construct the environmental history of the region and describe socio-economic, cultural and ecological drivers and trajectories of socio-ecological change shaping the current state of Anolaima. To evaluate the interdependence between humans and bees, I evaluate the contribution of animal pollinators to rural livelihood security. I find that local socio-economic asymmetries associated with agrarian change influenced food access in Anolaima in such a way that pollination deficits could disproportionately affect poor households, while nutrient-rich, animal-pollinated crops become luxury foods. To understand the effects of environmental change on bees, I assess the influence of agricultural management and habitat factors at the local and landscape scales on bee diversity, and vii find that bee communities are undergoing a process of biotic homogenization associated with environmental change. This empirical and interdisciplinary study represents a holistic understanding of bee declines and its emergence from multiple layers of socio-cultural, economic, political and environmental dynamics associated with agrarian change, an urgent issue with important implications for food security throughout the world. viii Acknowledgements Ithaka C.P. Cavafy (Translated by Edmund Keely) As you set out for Ithaka hope your road is a long one, full of adventure, full of discovery. Laistrygonians, Cyclops, angry Poseidon—don’t be afraid of them: you’ll never find things like that on your way as long as you keep your thoughts raised high, as long as a rare excitement stirs your spirit and your body. Laistrygonians, Cyclops, wild Poseidon—you won’t encounter them unless you bring them along inside your soul, unless your soul sets them up in front of you. Hope your road is a long one. May there be many summer mornings when, with what pleasure, what joy, you enter harbors you’re seeing for the first time; ix may you stop at Phoenician trading stations to buy fine things, mother of pearl and coral, amber and ebony, sensual perfume of every kind— as many sensual perfumes as you can; and may you visit many Egyptian cities to learn and go on learning from their scholars. Keep Ithaka always in your mind. Arriving there is what you’re destined for. But don’t hurry the journey at all. Better if it lasts for years, so you’re old by the time you reach the island, wealthy with all you’ve gained on the way, not expecting Ithaka to make you rich. Ithaka gave you the marvelous journey. Without her you wouldn't have set out. She has nothing left to give you now. And if you find her poor, Ithaka won’t have fooled you. Wise as you will have become, so full of experience, you’ll have understood by then what these Ithakas mean. x When I decided to leave Colombia to study abroad, I did not contemplate the many ways in which my life would change. All the challenges, beautiful people, celebrations, refusals, and achievements have been opportunities to learn. I am grateful that life has given me so many opportunities. I truly hope I can share the privileges of experiencing all what has come to my life with others, especially with those less privileged, many times forgotten. After I left to conduct fieldwork in Anolaima, I asked myself whether it was a good idea to renounce to the expectations of “my world” for two years. Experiencing a different reality with all its challenges and opportunities was a great gift brought by this dissertation. My fieldwork season was the best–and perhaps the only–way to learn about the infinite generosity, warmth and great sense of humor of peasants; the deep reasons for their supposed irrationality; the wonder and potential of a child holding a camera; and the wisdom and strength of spirit someone develops after a lifetime of apparent failure and indisputable marginalization. I learned about hope, joy, collaboration, and life priorities with farmers; and faced fears, reflected about the limits and consistency of my practices as a scientist, and re-learned how my family is “my team.” I have uncountable and unforgettable lessons; all of it was worth it. To all the farmers, beekeepers and people in Anolaima who shared pieces of their lives with me: I have no words to define my immense and absolute gratitude. You helped me grow as a person in ways I could have not imagined, and made me dream – xi now realistically– about building a reality in which we all can coexist. To Ceineth Murcia, Angelita, Santi and Simón: thanks so much for your friendship and trust, and for letting me stay with you during the first months
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