DOCSLIB.ORG

The Impacts and Management Implications of Climate Change for the Australian Government's Protected Areas

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Impacts and Management Implications of Climate Change for the Australian Government's Protected Areas The Impacts and Management Implications of Climate Change for the Australian Government's Protected Areas Discussion Paper March 2008 Final Report A report to the DEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT, WATER, HERITAGE AND THE ARTS and the DEPARTMENT OF CLIMATE CHANGE © Commonwealth of Australia 2008 ISBN 978-1-921298-06-6 This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without prior written permission from the Commonwealth, available from the Department of Climate Change. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to: Assistant Secretary Adaptation and Science Branch Department of Climate Change GPO Box 854 CANBERRA ACT 2601 Disclaimer The views and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Australian Government or the Minister for Climate Change and Water and the Minister for the Environment, Heritage and the Arts. Note on the names of Departments referred to in this report Name changes to the Australian Government’s environment department have occurred over the past several years. This report refers to: • The Department of the Environment and Heritage (DEH); • The Department of the Environment and Water Resources (DEW); • The Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (DEWHA) – current name; and • The Department of Climate Change – current name (formerly the Australian Greenhouse Office in DEW) Page i The Impacts and Management Implications of Climate Change for the Australian Hyder Consulting Pty Ltd Government's Protected Areas ABN 76 104 485 289 NS03532 The Impacts and Management Implications of Climate Change for the Australian Government's Protected Areas Discussion Paper This report has been prepared for the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts and the Department of Climate Change in accordance with the terms and conditions of appointment for The Impacts and Management Implications of Climate Change for the Australian Government's Protected Areas. Hyder Consulting Pty Ltd (ABN 76 104 485 289) cannot accept any responsibility for any use of or reliance on the contents of this report by any third party. Hyder Consulting Pty Ltd ABN 76 104 485 289 Level 5, 141 Walker Street, North Sydney NSW 2060, Australia Tel: +61 2 8907 9000 Fax: +61 2 8907 9001 www.hyderconsulting.com Acknowledgements Hyder Consulting wishes to acknowledge the contribution of time, expertise, insights and efforts of the following individuals and organisations: Professor Lesley Hughes, Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University; Dr Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, Centre for Marine Studies, University of Queensland; Tony Charters, Tony Charters and Associates; and Dr Tom Okey, Bamfield Marine Sciences Centre, Canada (formerly CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research). Extensive stakeholder consultation was a key source of information in the preparation of this report. Hyder Consulting would in particular like to acknowledge the contributions to this report made by protected area managers and staff within the Commonwealth Government. Page ii Hyder Consulting Pty Ltd The Impacts and Management Implications of Climate Change for the Australian ABN 76 104 485 289 Government's Protected Areas NS03532 Contents Acronyms Used ..................................................................................................................xii Executive Summary...........................................................................................................xiv 1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................1 1.1 Report Scope................................................................................................................1 1.2 Methodology .................................................................................................................3 1.3 Uncertainty Surrounding Climate Change ....................................................................3 1.4 Report Structure ...........................................................................................................5 2 Protected Area Management....................................................................................6 2.1 Background...................................................................................................................6 2.2 Terrestrial Protected Areas...........................................................................................7 2.3 Marine Protected Areas................................................................................................8 2.4 Botanic Gardens...........................................................................................................9 3 Global and Australian Climate Trends ..................................................................11 3.1 An Introduction to Climate Change.............................................................................11 3.2 Observed Changes in Climate....................................................................................12 3.3 Projected Changes in Australian Climate and Second Order Effects.........................14 3.4 Protected Areas outside Regions Covered by CSIRO Scenarios ..............................17 3.5 Regional Climate Scenarios (2030 and 2070)............................................................18 4 Climate Change Impacts on the Values of Protected Areas................................24 4.1 Factors Influencing the Australian Biota .....................................................................24 4.2 Climate Change Influences on Biota ..........................................................................26 4.3 Potential Responses of biota to Climate Change .......................................................31 4.4 Constraints on Adaptation by Australian Biota ...........................................................34 4.5 How Biodiversity is Responding to Climate Change...................................................35 4.6 Impacts of Climate Change on Recreational Values ..................................................37 4.7 Impacts of Climate Change on Socio-cultural Values.................................................38 5 Introduction to Part 2 of the Report.......................................................................39 5.1 Background.................................................................................................................39 6 Booderee National Park..........................................................................................40 6.1 Bioregional Setting......................................................................................................40 6.2 Management Arrangements .......................................................................................41 6.3 Climate........................................................................................................................41 6.4 Natural Values ............................................................................................................41 6.5 Cultural Values ...........................................................................................................43 6.6 Recreational and Visitation Values.............................................................................44 6.7 Current Management Approaches..............................................................................45 Page iii The Impacts and Management Implications of Climate Change for the Australian Hyder Consulting Pty Ltd Government's Protected Areas ABN 76 104 485 289 NS03532 6.8 Climate Change Scenarios.........................................................................................46 6.9 Summary of Potential Climate Change Impacts and Secondary Effects....................47 6.10 Principal Management Implications............................................................................50 7 Christmas Island National Park..............................................................................53 7.1 Bioregional Setting......................................................................................................53 7.2 Management Arrangements .......................................................................................53 7.3 Climate........................................................................................................................53 7.4 Natural Values ............................................................................................................53 7.5 Recreational and Visitation Values.............................................................................57 7.6 Cultural Values ...........................................................................................................57 7.7 Current Management Approaches..............................................................................58 7.8 Climate Change Scenarios.........................................................................................59 7.9 Summary of Potential Climate Change Impacts.........................................................60 7.10 Principal Management Implications............................................................................61 8 Kakadu National Park..............................................................................................64 8.1 Bioregional Setting......................................................................................................64
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Wave Data Recording Program
    Wave data recording program Weipa Region 1978–2004 Coastal Sciences data report No. W2004.5 ISSN 1449–7611 Abstract This report provides summaries of primary analysis of wave data recorded in water depths of approximately 5.2m relative to lowest astronomical tide, 10km west of Evans Landing in Albatross Bay, west of Weipa. Data was recorded using a Datawell Waverider buoy, and covers the periods from 22 December, 1978 to 31 January, 2004. The data was divided into seasonal groupings for analysis. No estimations of wave direction data have been provided. This report has been prepared by the EPA’s Coastal Sciences Unit, Environmental Sciences Division. The EPA acknowledges the following team members who contributed their time and effort to the preparation of this report: John Mohoupt; Vince Cunningham; Gary Hart; Jeff Shortell; Daniel Conwell; Colin Newport; Darren Hanis; Martin Hansen; Jim Waldron and Emily Christoffels. Wave data recording program Weipa Region 1978–2004 Disclaimer While reasonable care and attention have been exercised in the collection, processing and compilation of the wave data included in this report, the Coastal Sciences Unit does not guarantee the accuracy and reliability of this information in any way. The Environmental Protection Agency accepts no responsibility for the use of this information in any way. Environmental Protection Agency PO Box 15155 CITY EAST QLD 4002. Copyright Copyright © Queensland Government 2004. Copyright protects this publication. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of study, research, criticism or review as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part of this report can be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without having prior written permission.
    [Show full text]
  • Unsustainable Food Systems Threaten Wild Crop and Dolphin Species
    INTERNATIONAL PRESS RELEASE Embargoed until: 07:00 GMT (16:00 JST) 5 December 2017 Elaine Paterson, IUCN Media Relations, t+44 1223 331128, email [email protected] Goska Bonnaveira, IUCN Media Relations, m +41 792760185, email [email protected] [In Japan] Cheryl-Samantha MacSharry, IUCN Media Relations, t+44 1223 331128, email [email protected] Download photographs here Download summary statistics here Unsustainable food systems threaten wild crop and dolphin species Tokyo, Japan, 5 December 2017 (IUCN) – Species of wild rice, wheat and yam are threatened by overly intensive agricultural production and urban expansion, whilst poor fishing practices have caused steep declines in the Irrawaddy Dolphin and Finless Porpoise, according to the latest update of The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™. Today’s Red List update also reveals that a drying climate is pushing the Ringtail Possum to the brink of extinction. Three reptile species found only on an Australian island – the Christmas Island Whiptail-skink, the Blue- tailed Skink (Cryptoblepharus egeriae) and the Lister’s Gecko – have gone extinct, according to the update. But in New Zealand, conservation efforts have improved the situation for two species of Kiwi. “Healthy, species-rich ecosystems are fundamental to our ability to feed the world’s growing population and achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goal 2 – to end hunger by 2030,” says IUCN Director General Inger Andersen. “Wild crop species, for example, maintain genetic diversity of agricultural crops
    [Show full text]
  • Known Impacts of Tropical Cyclones, East Coast, 1858 – 2008 by Mr Jeff Callaghan Retired Senior Severe Weather Forecaster, Bureau of Meteorology, Brisbane
    ARCHIVE: Known Impacts of Tropical Cyclones, East Coast, 1858 – 2008 By Mr Jeff Callaghan Retired Senior Severe Weather Forecaster, Bureau of Meteorology, Brisbane The date of the cyclone refers to the day of landfall or the day of the major impact if it is not a cyclone making landfall from the Coral Sea. The first number after the date is the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) for that month followed by the three month running mean of the SOI centred on that month. This is followed by information on the equatorial eastern Pacific sea surface temperatures where: W means a warm episode i.e. sea surface temperature (SST) was above normal; C means a cool episode and Av means average SST Date Impact January 1858 From the Sydney Morning Herald 26/2/1866: an article featuring a cruise inside the Barrier Reef describes an expedition’s stay at Green Island near Cairns. “The wind throughout our stay was principally from the south-east, but in January we had two or three hard blows from the N to NW with rain; one gale uprooted some of the trees and wrung the heads off others. The sea also rose one night very high, nearly covering the island, leaving but a small spot of about twenty feet square free of water.” Middle to late Feb A tropical cyclone (TC) brought damaging winds and seas to region between Rockhampton and 1863 Hervey Bay. Houses unroofed in several centres with many trees blown down. Ketch driven onto rocks near Rockhampton. Severe erosion along shores of Hervey Bay with 10 metres lost to sea along a 32 km stretch of the coast.
    [Show full text]
  • 6. Annual Review and Significant Events
    6. Annual Review and Significant Events January-April: wet in the tropics and WA, very hot in central to eastern Australia For northern Australia, the tropical wet season (October 2005 – April 2006) was the fifth wettest on record, with an average of 674 mm falling over the period. The monsoon trough was somewhat late in arriving over the Top End (mid-January as opposed to the average of late December), but once it had become established, widespread heavy rain featured for the next four months, except over the NT and Queensland in February. One particularly noteworthy event occurred towards the end of January when an intense low (central pressure near 990 hPa) on the monsoon trough, drifted slowly westward across the central NT generating large quantities of rain. A two-day deluge of 482 mm fell at Supplejack in the Tanami Desert (NT), resulting in major flooding over the Victoria River catchment. A large part of the central NT had its wettest January on record. Widespread areas of above average rain in WA were mainly due to the passages of several decaying tropical cyclones, and to a lesser extent southward incursions of tropical moisture interacting with mid-latitude systems. Severe tropical cyclone Clare crossed the Pilbara coast on 9t h January and then moved on a southerly track across the western fringes of WA as a rain depression. Significant flooding occurred around Lake Grace where 226 mm of rain fell in a 24-hour period from 12 t h to 13 t h January. Tropical cyclone Emma crossed the Pilbara coast on 28 th February and moved on a southerly track; very heavy rain fell in the headwaters of the Murchison River on 1s t March causing this river’s highest flood on record.
    [Show full text]
  • National Recovery Plan for Threatened Albatrosses and Giant Petrels 2011-2016
    National recovery plan for threatened albatrosses and giant petrels 2011-2016 National recovery plan for threatened albatrosses and giant petrels 2011-2016 © Commonwealth Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities This work is copyright. It may be reproduced for study, research or training purposes subject to an acknowledgment of the sources but no commercial usage or sale. Requests and enquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to: Strategies Branch Australian Antarctic Division Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities 203 Channel Highway KINGSTON TAS 7050 Citation Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities (2011), National recovery plan for threatened albatrosses and giant petrels 2011-2016, Commonwealth of Australia, Hobart Acknowledgements This Plan was developed by the Australian Antarctic Division (AAD) of the Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. The AAD is grateful for the support of a wide range of organisations and individuals, who provided valuable information and assistance during the preparation of this Plan. Particular thanks to: - Ms Rachael Alderman and Dr Rosemary Gales from the Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment, Tasmania; and - Mr Ian Hay, Ms Tara Hewitt, Dr Graham Robertson and Dr Mike Double of the AAD. Cover photograph: Light mantled albatross and chick, North Head, Macquarie Island, 2010; photographer Sarah Way, Tasmanian Department of Primary Industry, Parks, Water and Environment. i Introduction The first Recovery Plan for albatrosses and giant petrels was released in October 2001 in recognition of the need to develop a co-ordinated conservation strategy for albatrosses and giant petrels listed threatened under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act).
    [Show full text]
  • Jervis Bay Territory Page 1 of 50 21-Jan-11 Species List for NRM Region (Blank), Jervis Bay Territory
    Biodiversity Summary for NRM Regions Species List What is the summary for and where does it come from? This list has been produced by the Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities (SEWPC) for the Natural Resource Management Spatial Information System. The list was produced using the AustralianAustralian Natural Natural Heritage Heritage Assessment Assessment Tool Tool (ANHAT), which analyses data from a range of plant and animal surveys and collections from across Australia to automatically generate a report for each NRM region. Data sources (Appendix 2) include national and state herbaria, museums, state governments, CSIRO, Birds Australia and a range of surveys conducted by or for DEWHA. For each family of plant and animal covered by ANHAT (Appendix 1), this document gives the number of species in the country and how many of them are found in the region. It also identifies species listed as Vulnerable, Critically Endangered, Endangered or Conservation Dependent under the EPBC Act. A biodiversity summary for this region is also available. For more information please see: www.environment.gov.au/heritage/anhat/index.html Limitations • ANHAT currently contains information on the distribution of over 30,000 Australian taxa. This includes all mammals, birds, reptiles, frogs and fish, 137 families of vascular plants (over 15,000 species) and a range of invertebrate groups. Groups notnot yet yet covered covered in inANHAT ANHAT are notnot included included in in the the list. list. • The data used come from authoritative sources, but they are not perfect. All species names have been confirmed as valid species names, but it is not possible to confirm all species locations.
    [Show full text]
  • Pollination Ecology and Evolution of Epacrids
    Pollination Ecology and Evolution of Epacrids by Karen A. Johnson BSc (Hons) Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Tasmania February 2012 ii Declaration of originality This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma by the University or any other institution, except by way of background information and duly acknowledged in the thesis, and to the best of my knowledge and belief no material previously published or written by another person except where due acknowledgement is made in the text of the thesis, nor does the thesis contain any material that infringes copyright. Karen A. Johnson Statement of authority of access This thesis may be made available for copying. Copying of any part of this thesis is prohibited for two years from the date this statement was signed; after that time limited copying is permitted in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968. Karen A. Johnson iii iv Abstract Relationships between plants and their pollinators are thought to have played a major role in the morphological diversification of angiosperms. The epacrids (subfamily Styphelioideae) comprise more than 550 species of woody plants ranging from small prostrate shrubs to temperate rainforest emergents. Their range extends from SE Asia through Oceania to Tierra del Fuego with their highest diversity in Australia. The overall aim of the thesis is to determine the relationships between epacrid floral features and potential pollinators, and assess the evolutionary status of any pollination syndromes. The main hypotheses were that flower characteristics relate to pollinators in predictable ways; and that there is convergent evolution in the development of pollination syndromes.
    [Show full text]
  • A Diagnostic Study of the Intensity of Three Tropical Cyclones in the Australian Region
    22 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW VOLUME 138 A Diagnostic Study of the Intensity of Three Tropical Cyclones in the Australian Region. Part II: An Analytic Method for Determining the Time Variation of the Intensity of a Tropical Cyclone* FRANCE LAJOIE AND KEVIN WALSH School of Earth Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia (Manuscript received 20 November 2008, in final form 14 May 2009) ABSTRACT The observed features discussed in Part I of this paper, regarding the intensification and dissipation of Tropical Cyclone Kathy, have been integrated in a simple mathematical model that can produce a reliable 15– 30-h forecast of (i) the central surface pressure of a tropical cyclone, (ii) the sustained maximum surface wind and gust around the cyclone, (iii) the radial distribution of the sustained mean surface wind along different directions, and (iv) the time variation of the three intensity parameters previously mentioned. For three tropical cyclones in the Australian region that have some reliable ground truth data, the computed central surface pressure, the predicted maximum mean surface wind, and maximum gust were, respectively, within 63 hPa and 62ms21 of the observations. Since the model is only based on the circulation in the boundary layer and on the variation of the cloud structure in and around the cyclone, its accuracy strongly suggests that (i) the maximum wind is partly dependent on the large-scale environmental circulation within the boundary layer and partly on the size of the radius of maximum wind and (ii) that all factors that contribute one way or another to the intensity of a tropical cyclone act together to control the size of the eye radius and the central surface pressure.
    [Show full text]
  • A New Record of the Christmas Island Blind Snake, Ramphotyphlops Exocoeti (Reptilia: Squamata: Typhlopidae)
    RECORDS OF THE WESTERN AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM 27 156–160 (2012) A new record of the Christmas Island Blind Snake, Ramphotyphlops exocoeti (Reptilia: Squamata: Typhlopidae). Dion J. Maple1, Rachel Barr, Michael J. Smith 1 Christmas Island National Park, Christmas Island, Western Australia, Indian Ocean, 6798, Email: [email protected] ABSTRACT – The endemic Christmas Island Blind Snake Ramphotyphlops exocoeti is a species rarely collected since initial faunal collections were conducted on Christmas Island in 1887. Twenty-three years after the last record in 1986, an individual was collected on 31 July 2009. Here we catalogue historical collection records of this animal. We also describe the habitat and conditions in which the recent collection occurred and provide a brief morphological description of the animal including a diagnostic feature that may assist in future identifi cations. This account provides the fi rst accurate spatial record and detailed description of habitat utilised by this species. KEYWORDS: Indian Ocean, Yellow Crazy Ant, recovery plan INTRODUCTION ‘fairly common’ and could be found under the trunks Christmas Island is located in the Indian Ocean of fallen trees. In 1975 a specimen collected from (10°25'S, 105°40'E), approximately 360 km south of the Stewart Hill, located in the central west of the island western head of Java, Indonesia (Geoscience Australia in a mine lease known as Field 22, was deposited in 2011). This geographically remote, rugged and thickly the Australian Museum (Cogger and Sadlier 1981). A vegetated island is the exposed summit of a large specimen was caught by N. Dunlop in 1984 while pit mountain.
    [Show full text]
  • Christmas Island Biodiversity Monitoring Program: December 2003 to April 2007
    Christmas Island Biodiversity Monitoring Program: December 2003 to April 2007 Report to the Department of Finance and Deregulation, from the Director of National Parks September 2008 2 Christmas Island Biodiversity Monitoring Program Project Contributions Project coordination: D.J. James; Field survey: D.J. James, K. Retallick; Data management, GIS: D.J. James, K. Retallick; Analyses and reporting: D.J. James Citation This document can be cited as: Christmas Island Biodiversity Monitoring Program: December 2003 to April 2007. Report to the Department of Finance and Deregulation from the Director of National Parks © Director of National Parks 2008 Christmas Island Biodiversity Monitoring Program 3 Contents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................7 1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................9 1.1 Checklist of flora and fauna of Christmas Island.....................................................................9 1.2 Christmas Island biodiversity inventory database.................................................................10 2. CHRISTMAS ISLAND PIPISTRELLE ........................................................................................11 2.1 Summary of the results .........................................................................................................11 2.2 Research and monitoring methods .......................................................................................12
    [Show full text]
  • Endemic Species of Christmas Island, Indian Ocean D.J
    RECORDS OF THE WESTERN AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM 34 055–114 (2019) DOI: 10.18195/issn.0312-3162.34(2).2019.055-114 Endemic species of Christmas Island, Indian Ocean D.J. James1, P.T. Green2, W.F. Humphreys3,4 and J.C.Z. Woinarski5 1 73 Pozieres Ave, Milperra, New South Wales 2214, Australia. 2 Department of Ecology, Environment and Evolution, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria 3083, Australia. 3 Western Australian Museum, Locked Bag 49, Welshpool DC, Western Australia 6986, Australia. 4 School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia. 5 NESP Threatened Species Recovery Hub, Charles Darwin University, Casuarina, Northern Territory 0909, Australia, Corresponding author: [email protected] ABSTRACT – Many oceanic islands have high levels of endemism, but also high rates of extinction, such that island species constitute a markedly disproportionate share of the world’s extinctions. One important foundation for the conservation of biodiversity on islands is an inventory of endemic species. In the absence of a comprehensive inventory, conservation effort often defaults to a focus on the better-known and more conspicuous species (typically mammals and birds). Although this component of island biota often needs such conservation attention, such focus may mean that less conspicuous endemic species (especially invertebrates) are neglected and suffer high rates of loss. In this paper, we review the available literature and online resources to compile a list of endemic species that is as comprehensive as possible for the 137 km2 oceanic Christmas Island, an Australian territory in the north-eastern Indian Ocean.
    [Show full text]
  • Annual Report 2018
    ANNUAL REPORT 2018 ANNUAL REPORT 2018 1 ANNUAL REPORT 2018 Vision, Aims 2 Article: Tiny Coral Paradise in the Great Barrier Reef Reckons 37 with Climate Change Mission 3 National Priority Case Study: Impacts of Climate Change on Overview 3 World Heritage Coral Reefs 38 Director’s Report 4 Article: Shark Bay: A World Heritage Site at Catastrophic Risk 40 2018 Research Impact and Engagement 6 Graduate and Early Career Training 43 Centre Expertise Contributes to Latest IPCC Report Calling for 8 Graduate Profile: Claire Ross 51 Swift Response to Climate Change Digital Data: Managed, Connected, Discoverable, Reusable 52 Global Recognition of Coral Reef Scientist 9 National and International Linkages 54 Recognition of Excellence of Centre Researchers 10 Communication, Media and Public Outreach 59 CONTENTS Centre Researchers Recognised in Young Tall Poppy Awards 11 Governance 64 Research Program 1: People and Ecosystems 12 Honorary Doctorate Punctuates an Extraordinary Career 67 Research Profile: Michele Barnes 18 Membership 68 Article: The Majority of People Who See Poaching in Marine Parks 20 Say Nothing Publications 71 Research Program 2: Ecosystem Dynamics: Past, Present and Future 22 2019 Activity Plan 84 Research Profile: Nils Krueck 28 Financial Statement 85 Article: Jurassic-Era Piranha is World’s Earliest Flesh-Eating Fish 29 Financial Outlook 86 Research Program 3: Responding to a Changing World 30 Key Performance Indicators 87 Research Profile: Malcolm McCulloch 36 Acknowledgements 89 At the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies we acknowledge the Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples of this nation. We acknowledge the Traditional Owners of the lands and sea where we conduct our business.
    [Show full text]