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Download Download The Complexity of Modernization: How theGenbunitchi and Kokugo Movements Changed Japanese by Mark Laaninen In 1914, the novelist Natsume Soseki published Of the many linguistic crusades of the Meiji his novel Kokoro. Incorporating themes of isolation Period, the genbunitchi and kokugo movements had and detachment into the tragedy of the main the largest and most vocal following. Genbunitchi character Sensei, Kokoro solidified Soseki as one focuses on unifying written and spoken Japanese of Japan’s earliest and greatest modern Japanese into one easily learnable language.2 Advocates writers.1 Yet more than their themes made Soseki’s of genbunitchi argued that the old Tokugawa novels modern. By 1914, writers like Soseki used a wakankonkobun, kanbun, and sorobun were far simple, colloquial style of writing which radically too complicated for anyone without huge amounts differed from the more complex character-based of time to learn. Instead, they wanted a simplified, system used by writers even thirty years prior. What colloquial style that allowed for greater literacy and ease of communication.3 The desired form of writing fueled this change? Many point to the language varied among genbunitchi advocates, however. Some, reform movements of the Meiji Era, especially the like Fukuzawa Yukichi, simply reduced the number genbunitchi and kokugo movements. These language of kanji, or Chinese-style characters, in their writing, reforms attempted to pioneer a new Japanese, one while others like Nishi Amane wanted a wholesale united and tailored for a modern world. Although adoption of romaji, or a Latin alphabet.4 Yet for many they had a far-reaching effect in their own period, reformers, changing written Japanese could only be the long-term impact of these movements is more useful after spoken Japanese had been united. The difficult to assess. Academics and politicians were kokugo, or “national language” movement, pushed to most receptive to the calls for change, often leading eliminate the dialectical variance that had existed in the campaigns themselves. However, those in other Japan for so long.5 Men like Ueda Kazutoshi wished circles had different, occasionally hostile attitudes to “exterminate” the dialects of Japan by imposing towards the movements. Those involved in literature Tokyogo, or Tokyo dialect, over the entire country.6 usually disliked the idea of script reform that would render their mastery of old styles obsolete. Educators 2 Nanette Twine, “The Genbunitchi Movement. Its Origin, in rural regions, though open to Western influence, Development, and Conclusion,” Monumenta Nipponica resisted the attempted suppression of their local 33, no. 3 (1978): 333. 3 dialects. Due to the debates in academia, politics, Twine, “The Genbunitchi Movement. Its Origin, literature, and education, the general public ended Development, and Conclusion,” 337. 4 Nanette Twine, “Toward Simplicity: Script Reform up accepting some of the ideas of the movements Movements in the Meiji Period,” Monumenta Nipponica while rejecting others. Despite the attempts of the 38, no. 2 (1983): 121-132; Nishi Amane, “Writing Japanese intellectuals and politicians to impose their language in the Western Alphabet,” in Meiroku Zasshi: Journal of the reforms upon the populace, the genbunitchi and Japanese Enlightenment, ed. and trans. William Reynolds kokugo movements only successfully modernized Braisted (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, language once writers, educators and, most 1976), 1. importantly, the general public adopted some 5 Hiraku Shimoda, “Tongues-Tied: The Making of a of the reforms and drove a bottom-up linguistic ‘National Language’ and the Discovery of Dialects in Meiji modernization. Japan,” American Historical Review 115, no. 3 (2010): 720- 721. 1 David Pollack, “Framing the Self. The Philosophical 6 Shimoda, “Tongues-Tied: The Making of a ‘National Dimensions of Human Nature in Kokoro,” Monumenta Language’ and the Discovery of Dialects in Meiji Japan,” Nipponica 43, no. 4 (1988): 417. 723. Aisthesis 31 Volume 9, 2018 The Complexity of Modernization To understand the extent to which the genbunitchi of rapid modernization.12 Scholar-officials like and kokugo movements actually changed language Ueda Kazutoshi, a linguistics professor and Head in Japan long term, one must first analyze whom of the Ministry of Education, described a national adopted the recommendations of reform. language as the “spiritual lifeblood” of Japan if it Academics and politicians often led the charge wished to unite and compete with the West.13 The for linguistic change, probably because they stood kokugo movement reached a fever pitch after the the most to gain from the reforms. Academics, Sino-Japanese War, and the government seriously 14 especially those in Western studies, had to grapple began to implement policies to promote kokugo. with introducing new ideas into Japanese. Scholars Clearly, the ideas of linguistic reforms took great struggled to find translations for Western ideas that hold of those in academic and political circles in the had not previously existed in Japan, such as liberty, Meiji Era. civilization, and even separations between fields Literature had a far more lukewarm response to the Meiji Era language movements. Most of those such as religion and philosophy.7 The genbunitchi involved in literature held the traditional Tokugawa movement often found its most passionate leaders period style of writing in the highest regard and from this group, as these scholars saw a clear need therefore resisted linguistic change.15 This meant to make dissemination of Western thought easier.8 a considerable number of writers continued with Although scholars held differing ideas, a majority Tokugawa-style fiction well into the end of the of the advocates wanted a full-scale conversion to nineteenth century. To start, political novels of the 9 romaji. Academics used the new and extremely early Meiji period relied heavily on Tokugawa story popular newspapers as their main platform, structures to introduce new Western ideas and 10 publishing articles and sparking debates. While terms in a familiar way.16 Even the old Tokugawa politicians could also see the benefits for script style booksellers survived through the Meiji reform in terms of aiding mass communication, they period.17 In fact, P.F. Kornicki argues literature showed much less enthusiasm for the movement changed more in the Tokugawa period due the than the academics.11 Politicians more vehemently introduction of the modern printing press than the fought for kokugo, or the national language. This Restoration and related movements.18 Many writers idea posed a clear political advantage as uniting used their works to criticize the unabashed and the nation under one dialect would help promote rapid devotion to material progress that colloquial a sense of “Japanese-ness” and patriotism that language represented, and by the 1890’s, a strong would help hold the country together in the face 12 Shimoda, “Tongues-Tied: The Making of a ‘National 7 Douglas Howland, “Translating Liberty in Nineteenth- Language’ and the Discovery of Dialects in Meiji Japan,” 717. Century Japan,” Journal of the History of Ideas 62, no. 1 13 (2001): 161-181; Nishimura Shigeki, “An Explanation Ueda Kazutoshi, “Kokugo to kokka to,” cited in Hiraku Shimoda, 721. of Twelve Western Words: Part One” in Meiroku Zasshi: 14 Journal of the Japanese Enlightenment, ed. and trans. Neriko Musha Doerr, “Standardization and Paradoxical William Reynolds Braisted (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Highlighting of Linguistic Diversity in Japan,” in Japanese University Press, 1976), 446-449; Gerard Clinton Godart, Language and Literature 49, no. 2 (2015): 393. ‘“Philosophy’ or ‘Religion?’ The Confrontation with 15 Twine, “The Genbunitchi Movement. Its Origin, Foreign Categories in Late Nineteenth Century Japan,” Development, and Conclusion,” 350. Journal of the History of Ideas 69, no. 1 (2008): 71-91. 16 Christopher Hill, “How to Write a Second Restoration: 8 Nanette Twine, “Standardizing Written Japanese. A The Political Novel and Meiji Historiography,” The Journal Factor in Modernization,” Monumenta Nipponica 43, no. of Japanese Studies 33, no. 2 (2007): 337-356. 4 (1998): 429-454. 17 P. F. Kornicki, “The Publisher’s Go-Between: Kashihonya 9 Twine, “The Genbunitchi Movement. Its Origin, in the Meiji Period,” Modern Asian Studies 14, no. 2 (1980): Development, and Conclusion,” 341-356. 331-344. 10 Twine, 341-356. 18 P. F. Kornicki, “The Survival of Tokugawa Fiction in The 11 Twine, “Standardizing Written Japanese. A Factor in Meiji Period,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 41, no. 2 Modernization,” 429-454. (1981): 461-470. Aisthesis 32 Volume 9, 2018 The Complexity of Modernization literary backlash against the genbunitchi and related Western acculturation was not unusual to Sapporo, movements formed.19 This is not to say literature did but present in many places throughout the nation.24 not change, only that the rapidity with which large Despite their openness to westernization, education political and academic movements adopted language often resisted language reform. Well into the 1880’s, reform had a markedly slower response from the schools continued to only teach the Tokugawa literary community. For example, the genbunitchi scripts of kanbun and sorobun, partly because no movement did successfully convert literature to a age-appropriate textbooks in the colloquial style more colloquial style of writing. However, it would be 1908 before 100 percent
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