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The Atmaan Beja of North-Eastern Sudan RESPONSIBLE MAN

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The Atmaan Beja of North-Eastern Sudan RESPONSIBLE MAN Anders Hjort af Ornäs Gudrun Dahl ~-PONSIBLE the Atmaan Beja of North-eastern Sudan RESPONSIBLE MAN the Atmaan Beja of North-eastern Sudan Anders~jortaf Ornäs Guilrun Dahl NORDISKA AFRIKAINSTITUTET j~!:ll -09- 1 6 UPPSALA Published by Stockholm Studies in Social Anthropology, SSSA in cooperation with Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, Uppsala 1991 Cover: The top of a wooden Beja comb, used by men to embellish their Afro­ style hair. The figure in the upper section is a man's head. The middle section shows a number ofutensils used in the coffee ceremony: fan, stove and set ofjabana pot and cups. To the right ofthe rine in the bottom section is a pack-sack for a camel. Drawings by Gudrun Dahl Typesetting: Kerstin Edlund, Uppsala University, Uppsala ISBN 91-7146-905-2 © Anders Hjort afOrnäs, Gudrun Dahl, 1991 Printed in Sweden by Reklam & Katalagtryck, Uppsala universitet, 1991 Contents Preface viii Some terms used in the text ix 1. The Atmaan Amar'ar and their country The area and its inhabitants l An outline of the study 8 2. From the Red Sea to the Nile Valley: An historical background to the Beja's resource situation 13 The origins ofBeja economy 15 Desert routes, harbours and early trade 20 The Beja and the Hadariba 22 Beja groups in the 19th century 29 Egyptian rule 31 Harbours and routes during the Turko-Egyptian era 33 Osman Digna and the Beja: slave trade religion and wars 35 The British impact on the Atmaan and other Beja 38 Conc!usion 41 3. Territory, resource controi and solidarity among the Atmaan 45 The lineage system, a folk model ofhistoricaliinks 49 Diwab ideology and livestock property 55 Physical and social territory 57 Urban resources and diwab structure 62 Territoriality, kinship and neighbourhood 64 4. The responsible man 69 Key male virtues 70 Honour as a col1ective resource 75 Leadership and arbitration 82 Management of honour in a mixed cultural environment 84 Reflections dn hospitality, al1iance and hierarchy 88 v 5 . Gender roles, marriage and brother-sister relations 91 _ Inside and outside 91 Brotherhood and marriage 92 Gender and work 98 Womanhood and marriage 102 The limited significance ofmarriage 107 6 . Getting grain 109 Farm land and the question of ownership 112 The cu1tivation process 117 The local grain trade versus the world market 122 7 . Family herds 127 The came1 in loca1life 128 The came1 population 132 Three pattems of came1 pastoralism 134 Aririit came1 pastoralism in Aulib 134 Matiaat came1 pastoralism in the khors 136 Shallageea came1 pastoralism on the coast 137 Small stock herding 139 Shepherding: production and vu1nerability 142 Change and constraints 146 8. The dwindIing resource base 151 The modern history of drought in Beja lands 152 The Sanasita period 1888-89 154 Environmental hazards during the post-Sanasha period 156 A summary of general trends in land controi by the Beja 162 The scope of local observation 164 Trees and poverty 168 Talking about disaster 172 God and the Beja's new neighbours 173 Unification and division 175 Appendix: Early Heja history 177 Beja country <Uld Nubia in ancient times 177 The Beja in Ear1y Arab times 180 HibIiography 185 vi Maps 1. North-eastem Sudan 6 2. The Beja and other Cushitic groups 16 3. The Red Sea in c1assical times, and some places mentioned in the text 19 4. Caravan routes of significance for the Beja 24 5. The core area of Atmaan traditional rights and settlements 47 6. Catehment areas in Red Sea Province 113 7. Natural vegetation in north-eastem Sudan 114 Figures 1. Amar'ar groups and subdivisions 48 2. Genealogies of the Atmaan recorded in 1935 and 1980 51 vii Preface This study is based on fieldwork carried out during different periods. The authors spent five months each in Red Sea Province in 1980. Hjort af Ornäs returned for a two-month period later that year. Dahl spent two months there in 1986/87. In view of the methodological problems involved in studying the Beja, we would have preferred to have spent more time in the field than has for personal reasons been possible for us. As a consequence, the present volume is as much built on reviewing the available written sources on the Beja as on field data, and it is more exploratory in nature than conc1usive. Nevertheless, we hope that the present volume will contribute to identifying interesting fields for further research among the Beja. Our fieldwork was carried out mainly among the Atmaan, who constitute the major part of the Atmaan-Amar'ar, with families centered on Waheda (outside Port Sudan), Musmar and Ariaab. Our own field data apply to them but, particularly in the chapters on history and on recent changes in the resource basis, we have had an eye to the broader region of the northern Beja in general. It is difficult for us to judge the extent to which the people we have been dealing with are more Arabicized than the Beja living at greater distances from the main routes, but our impression is that various groups of Hadendowa, Atmaan-Amar'ar and Bishariin have enough in common to be treated as one single culture. The work has been financed by SAREC (the Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation with Developing Countries) and by the Swedish Academy of Science. Their contribution is gratefully appreciated, as is also the assistance of many Beja friends. This has to be a collective acknowledgement. Among individuals we wish to thank are Waffa Osman and Ali Salah of Sudan Central Records Archives, Safia of the Anthropology and Sociology Department, Peter Walker, Nicholas Meadows, Penny Nestle and Suzanne Quinney. Thanks also to MA Mohamed Salih for his comments on the early draft of this book. The language editing was done by Tim Caudery and the maps were drawn by Peter van Gylswyck. Typesetting, finally, was executed by Kerstin Edlund. Anders Hjort af Ornäs and Gudrun Dahl viii Some Beja terms used in the text Please note that this list is primarily prepared to help the reader with tenns used in the text. This means not least that many tuBedawiet words are listed here with the masculine or feminine prefix. Ababda the most northem of the Beja groups adarharob red durra 'adlib Suaeda fruticosa Forsk., a bush amab Tamarix aphylla for making wooden poles angareb rope bed aririit type of camel: fair milk producers. Main advantage is endurance asl customary title to land Atmaan a Beja group ayb taboo balat' harob durra which is identical with himeisi, Stapf variety balbal weeds Bedawiet Beja Beni Amer (Khasa) ethnic group with links to the Beja and the Tigre, but ethnically distinct from both billtub dukhn (Ar.); finger millet Bishariin a Beja group dameini to cover dayb ground pits for durra dekab a shelter of timber for giving hospitality and holding councils diwab major clan group dukhn (Ar.) finger millet durareit honour (n) feddan measure ofland area. l feddan = 1.038 acres gangar durra cob gefareeb Salsola baryosma a bush, camel fodder gudamantib development gwadabb symbolic recognition of land ownership; front leg of animal hadara civilization hadarenini to be hospitable Hadendowa a Beja group halagen bride-wealth ix harob durra (Ar.); sorghurn hedareb hospitable people i'damar the permanent home place i'mara rights; the rights obtained in exchange for the gwadabb jabana Turkish coffee jawal 90 kg sack of durra kantar l small kantar is 44.928 kg. For cotton, a big kantar is 141.523 kg. kirrab a water catchment kurai the grazing territory to which a Beja c1aims customary rights matiaat the fastest and most slender of the Atmaan camels mish'ariib camel herder mugud a durra type mushuk date residue from wine production nandab shade tree o'di smoke-bath o'mkir the act of consulting an elder of one of the property-holding diwab o'slif customary law o'tam durra porridge omda lower level "headmen" qalla work gang in port qole the distance a land-owner can throw his walking stick rafig (Ar.), a sponsor to vouch for one's good faith rattel 1 rattel is approximately 0,45 kg (various sources indicate 7.25 rattel = 3.5 kg; 100 rattel =44.928 kg, and 1 kg = 2.25 rattel) safiia 1 safiia = 15.14 litres Sanasita 1888-89 drought disaster shallageea type of camel: the sturdiest and the best milk producers sheikh leader in the kinship system but also a Quranic teacher shetariit (Ar. fetarita); see harob shuush Panicum turgidum perennial grass; excellent camel fodder si/sila a lineal chain of religious succession suganneit insult, provocation against collective honour sulh property rights to land sumatu individual reputation t'angash (Ar. saluka) a digging stick t' anna sheep tajjer compensation in gold or money x ti' hibqualda see matiaat ti' sagane Acacia spirocarpa ti' smaya namegiving Tu' Durarey or synonymously o' rya: honour tubahala the (dry) period lasting from November to March TuBedawiye the Beja language tuhoobi rainy period wahalas the afterbirth yategaab shepherd yomiia a day's work in port xi 1 / The Atmaan Amar'ar and their country The area and its inhabitants In the Red Sea Hill region of north-eastern Sudan live a people referred to as the Beja, but who in their own language call themselves Bedawiet. The ancestors of the present Beja have been exploiting the semi-deserts of Egypt, Eastern Sudan and possibly Eritrea for thousands of years. They were probably among the first African peoples to breed camels, around the time of Christ. Controlling the desert route from Red Sea ports to the upper Nile Valley, the Beja have since that time made good use of this beast, both for nourishment l and as a riding or transport animal when acting as caravan traders or guides.
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