Sudan, Imperialism, and the Mahdi's Holy

Home , Camel cavalry, Khedive, Mahdist State, Mahdist War, Muhammad Ahmad, Omdurman

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treaties with European countries, giv- through a khedive (viceroy). He and Wikimedia Commons in February 1884, he found it well ing them the sole right to trade along most of the top government and mil- ‘I Am the Mahdi’ Muhammad Ahmad (1844–1885), an Islamic fortified with a defense force of The Mahdi, or the “Expected One,” religious leader, led a rebellion in Sudan 7,000 soldiers. But advance units of major rivers. In 1884–85, 13 European itary leaders were Turks, but they in- against colonial rule. nations with ambitions for their em- creasingly identified themselves with is part of the traditions of Islam. Ac- the Mahdi’s army had already begun pires met in Berlin to discuss Africa. an independent Egypt rather than the cording to these traditions, a figure will and other “corrupted” Muslims. “I to arrive. Gordon soon found him- The Berlin Conference agreement Ottoman Empire. be sent by God at the end of times to am the Mahdi,” he proclaimed in self besieged. He could have evacu- dealt mainly with opening up free The Suez Canal, connecting the rule the world in preparation for the 1881, “the Successor of the Prophet ated himself earlier by steamboat, trade along West African rivers and Red Sea with the Mediterranean, was messiah. Jesus will return and together of Allah. Cease to pay taxes to the in- but declared he would not abandon outlawing the slave trade. The agree- completed by a French company in with the Mahdi defeat the false mes- fidel [unbeliever] Turks and let every- the others. ment also recognized the idea of Eu- 1869. For the first time, Britain began siah and bring justice to the world be- one who finds a Turk kill him, for the Back in London, pressure grew ropean powers carving Africa into to take a strategic interest in Egypt. fore Judgment Day. Turks are infidels.” on the government to “save Gordon.” territorial zones, in which each could The British viewed the Suez Canal as Born on a White Nile island in The Mahdi appointed three kalifas, The British did not know that they pursue colonization by treaty with a vital link to its empire in Asia, es- Sudan, Muhammad Ahmad grew up to or lieutenants. The most important were up against not just a political re- tribal chiefs or by conquest. pecially India. be known as a deeply religious Muslim. was Kalifa Abdallahi who became the volt against Egypt but a fanatical re- The Europeans who signed the At this time, the khedive of He studied the Quran in Khartoum and Mahdi’s military commander. Abdal- ligious movement. agreement saw little chance of signif- Egypt’s economic program had preached a pure form of Islam. lahi organized an Arab army of horse- Finally, the British sent a relief icant African resistance. But as the driven the country deeply into debt. By the 1870s, Ahmad had be- men and infantry that defeated expedition from Cairo up the Nile to Berlin Conference met, a Muslim re- Fearing that a financially unstable come a popular religious figure in numerous Egyptian garrisons of sol- Khartoum, a distance of more than ligious leader in Sudan had assem- Egypt could endanger the Suez Arab Sudan. In 1881, he declared diers and captured their firearms. 1,000 miles. The commander took bled a huge army that proved how Canal, Britain and France jointly took himself the long-awaited Mahdi. He In 1883, the khedive sent an expe- his time building boats for infantry wrong the Europeans were. control of the country’s finances. claimed he was chosen by God to lib- dition of nearly 10,000 Egyptian troops transport and training a brand-new In the 1870s, the khedive wanted to erate Sudan from Egypt’s tyranny, led by British Col. William Hicks and camel cavalry. Ottoman Egypt and Sudan suppress the Arab slave trade in Sudan. sweep away the modern ways of a dozen European officers to smash The siege of Khartoum lasted al- By 1800, Egypt was part of the He appointed a British army officer, Wikimedia Commons “corrupted” Muslims, and restore the the Mahdi’s army. But Abdallahi’s most a year. Food ran short. Starva- Muslim Ottoman Empire, ruled by the Col. Charles Gordon, as governor-gen- Arab slave traders bribed Egyptian of- pure Islam practiced by the Prophet fighters killed nearly every man in the tion and disease weakened the sultan in Istanbul, Turkey. In 1805, eral of Sudan to take on this job. ficials not to interfere with their prof- Muhammad. Ahmad’s declaration Egyptian force, including Hicks. soldiers and civilians. The Mahdi’s Muhammad Ali, an Ottoman military Gordon enthusiastically pursued itable business. drew many new followers to him. The Egyptian governor-general officer, seized power in Egypt. crushing Sudan’s widespread slave In Egypt a year later, native An Imperialist’s Dream Ali sent his son up the Nile River trade, which Britain had outlawed in its Egyptian army officers led a patriotic in Khartoum sent soldiers to arrest Imperialism is the practice of nations’ building empires and holding other nations as to conquer northern Sudan in 1821. A Ahmad, but he and his supporters empire. He sent Egyptian troops headed revolt and overthrew the khedive, colonies or dependent states. Cecil Rhodes was a British businessman and diamond desert area, it was inhabited by Mus- by European officers to track down who still technically ruled in the defeated them with clubs, swords, and spears. He then led about mining baron in South Africa. In the following statement made in 1891, he described lim Arabs who were mainly nomadic Arab slave traders. In the process, Gor- name of the Ottoman Turk sultan. British imperialism. herders. Further south was a wetter don and his forces rescued thousands They then attempted to break away 10,000 followers to a remote area south of Khartoum. I contend that we are the first race in the world, and that the more of the world we region populated by black Africans of black African slaves. from both the Ottoman Turks and Eu- inhabit the better it is for the human race. . . . Added to this, the absorption of the who were Christians or followers of Appalled by the brutal living con- ropean powers. Ahmad took advantage of the widespread hatred of Egypt’s brutal greater portion of the world under our rule simply means the end of all wars. . . . The native religions. Arabs took advantage ditions he saw in Sudan, Gordon Worried that the Egyptian rebels furtherance of the British Empire [is] for the bringing of the whole uncivilized world of tribal warfare in southern Sudan to blamed Egypt’s heavy taxes and cor- would seize control of the Suez Canal, colonial rule and announced a jihad, or under British rule, for the recovery of the United States, for making the Anglo-Saxon buy and sell black captives in a highly rupt officials. When Gordon finally Britain and France each sent a fleet of holy war, against the “Turks,” a term race but one Empire. What a dream but yet it is probable. he used for the Ottomans, Egyptians, profitable slave trade. resigned as governor-general in 1880, warships to Alexandria to intimidate What was Cecil Rhodes’ point of view about British imperialism?

6 WORLD HISTORY WORLD HISTORY 7

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the rebels. Enraged mobs rioted in the Believing these victories proved city and killed about 50 Europeans. that Allah had blessed the jihad, huge SUDAN, IMPERIALISM, The French withdrew their fleet, but numbers of fighters from Arab tribes the British opened fire on Alexandria swarmed to the Mahdi. They joined AND THE MAHDI’SHOLYWAR and leveled many buildings. Later in his cause of liberating Sudan and DURING THE AGE OF IMPERIALISM, EUROPEAN POWERS SCRAMBLED TO DIVIDE UP the year, Britain sent 25,000 troops to bringing Islam to the entire world. AFRICA. IN SUDAN, HOWEVER, A MUSLIM RELIGIOUS FIGURE KNOWN AS THE MAHDI Egypt and easily defeated the rebel The worried Egyptian khedive and LED A SUCCESSFUL JIHAD (HOLY WAR) THAT FOR A TIME DROVE OUT THE BRITISH Egyptian army. Britain then returned British government decided to send AND EGYPTIANS. the government to the khedive, who Charles Gordon, the former governor- In the late 1800s, many European Ali established Sudan’s colonial now was little more than a British general of Sudan, to Khartoum. His nations tried to stake out pieces of capital at Khartoum, where the White puppet. Thus began the British occu- mission was to organize the evacua- Africa to colonize. In what is known and Blue Nile rivers join to form the pation of Egypt. tion of all Egyptian soldiers and gov- as the “scramble for Africa,” coun- main Nile River, which flows north to While these dramatic events were ernment personnel from Sudan. tries sought to acquire territories with the Mediterranean Sea. Khartoum happening in Egypt, a spellbinding British Prime Minister William Glad- valuable resources and to control grew into a major trading center. religious figure, calling himself the stone did not want to get entangled in economically strategic rivers. By the 1860s, a weakened Ot- Mahdi, was stirring up rebellion another colonial war. Many African tribal chiefs signed toman Empire ruled Egypt indirectly against Egyptian rule in Sudan. When Gordon got to Khartoum treaties with European countries, giv- through a khedive (viceroy). He and Wikimedia Commons in February 1884, he found it well ing them the sole right to trade along most of the top government and mil- ‘I Am the Mahdi’ Muhammad Ahmad (1844–1885), an Islamic fortified with a defense force of The Mahdi, or the “Expected One,” religious leader, led a rebellion in Sudan 7,000 soldiers. But advance units of major rivers. In 1884–85, 13 European itary leaders were Turks, but they in- against colonial rule. nations with ambitions for their em- creasingly identified themselves with is part of the traditions of Islam. Ac- the Mahdi’s army had already begun pires met in Berlin to discuss Africa. an independent Egypt rather than the cording to these traditions, a figure will and other “corrupted” Muslims. “I to arrive. Gordon soon found him- The Berlin Conference agreement Ottoman Empire. be sent by God at the end of times to am the Mahdi,” he proclaimed in self besieged. He could have evacu- dealt mainly with opening up free The Suez Canal, connecting the rule the world in preparation for the 1881, “the Successor of the Prophet ated himself earlier by steamboat, trade along West African rivers and Red Sea with the Mediterranean, was messiah. Jesus will return and together of Allah. Cease to pay taxes to the in- but declared he would not abandon outlawing the slave trade. The agree- completed by a French company in with the Mahdi defeat the false mes- fidel [unbeliever] Turks and let every- the others. ment also recognized the idea of Eu- 1869. For the first time, Britain began siah and bring justice to the world be- one who finds a Turk kill him, for the Back in London, pressure grew ropean powers carving Africa into to take a strategic interest in Egypt. fore Judgment Day. Turks are infidels.” on the government to “save Gordon.” territorial zones, in which each could The British viewed the Suez Canal as Born on a White Nile island in The Mahdi appointed three kalifas, The British did not know that they pursue colonization by treaty with a vital link to its empire in Asia, es- Sudan, Muhammad Ahmad grew up to or lieutenants. The most important were up against not just a political re- tribal chiefs or by conquest. pecially India. be known as a deeply religious Muslim. was Kalifa Abdallahi who became the volt against Egypt but a fanatical re- The Europeans who signed the At this time, the khedive of He studied the Quran in Khartoum and Mahdi’s military commander. Abdal- ligious movement. agreement saw little chance of signif- Egypt’s economic program had preached a pure form of Islam. lahi organized an Arab army of horse- Finally, the British sent a relief icant African resistance. But as the driven the country deeply into debt. By the 1870s, Ahmad had be- men and infantry that defeated expedition from Cairo up the Nile to Berlin Conference met, a Muslim re- Fearing that a financially unstable come a popular religious figure in numerous Egyptian garrisons of sol- Khartoum, a distance of more than ligious leader in Sudan had assem- Egypt could endanger the Suez Arab Sudan. In 1881, he declared diers and captured their firearms. 1,000 miles. The commander took bled a huge army that proved how Canal, Britain and France jointly took himself the long-awaited Mahdi. He In 1883, the khedive sent an expe- his time building boats for infantry wrong the Europeans were. control of the country’s finances. claimed he was chosen by God to lib- dition of nearly 10,000 Egyptian troops transport and training a brand-new In the 1870s, the khedive wanted to erate Sudan from Egypt’s tyranny, led by British Col. William Hicks and camel cavalry. Ottoman Egypt and Sudan suppress the Arab slave trade in Sudan. sweep away the modern ways of a dozen European officers to smash The siege of Khartoum lasted al- By 1800, Egypt was part of the He appointed a British army officer, Wikimedia Commons “corrupted” Muslims, and restore the the Mahdi’s army. But Abdallahi’s most a year. Food ran short. Starva- Muslim Ottoman Empire, ruled by the Col. Charles Gordon, as governor-gen- Arab slave traders bribed Egyptian of- pure Islam practiced by the Prophet fighters killed nearly every man in the tion and disease weakened the sultan in Istanbul, Turkey. In 1805, eral of Sudan to take on this job. ficials not to interfere with their prof- Muhammad. Ahmad’s declaration Egyptian force, including Hicks. soldiers and civilians. The Mahdi’s Muhammad Ali, an Ottoman military Gordon enthusiastically pursued itable business. drew many new followers to him. The Egyptian governor-general officer, seized power in Egypt. crushing Sudan’s widespread slave In Egypt a year later, native An Imperialist’s Dream Ali sent his son up the Nile River trade, which Britain had outlawed in its Egyptian army officers led a patriotic in Khartoum sent soldiers to arrest Imperialism is the practice of nations’ building empires and holding other nations as to conquer northern Sudan in 1821. A Ahmad, but he and his supporters empire. He sent Egyptian troops headed revolt and overthrew the khedive, colonies or dependent states. Cecil Rhodes was a British businessman and diamond desert area, it was inhabited by Mus- by European officers to track down who still technically ruled in the defeated them with clubs, swords, and spears. He then led about mining baron in South Africa. In the following statement made in 1891, he described lim Arabs who were mainly nomadic Arab slave traders. In the process, Gor- name of the Ottoman Turk sultan. British imperialism. herders. Further south was a wetter don and his forces rescued thousands They then attempted to break away 10,000 followers to a remote area south of Khartoum. I contend that we are the first race in the world, and that the more of the world we region populated by black Africans of black African slaves. from both the Ottoman Turks and Eu- inhabit the better it is for the human race. . . . Added to this, the absorption of the who were Christians or followers of Appalled by the brutal living con- ropean powers. Ahmad took advantage of the widespread hatred of Egypt’s brutal greater portion of the world under our rule simply means the end of all wars. . . . The native religions. Arabs took advantage ditions he saw in Sudan, Gordon Worried that the Egyptian rebels furtherance of the British Empire [is] for the bringing of the whole uncivilized world of tribal warfare in southern Sudan to blamed Egypt’s heavy taxes and cor- would seize control of the Suez Canal, colonial rule and announced a jihad, or under British rule, for the recovery of the United States, for making the Anglo-Saxon buy and sell black captives in a highly rupt officials. When Gordon finally Britain and France each sent a fleet of holy war, against the “Turks,” a term race but one Empire. What a dream but yet it is probable. he used for the Ottomans, Egyptians, profitable slave trade. resigned as governor-general in 1880, warships to Alexandria to intimidate What was Cecil Rhodes’ point of view about British imperialism?

6 WORLD HISTORY WORLD HISTORY 7

bria_29_3.indd 7 3/17/14 9:34 AM bria_29_3:Layout 1 3/14/2014 6:41 PM Page 8 bria_29_3:Layout 1 3/14/2014 6:41 PM Page 9 iiei Conmmons Wikimedia Muhammad Ahmed and the ‘Turks’ (now Ethiopia). His attempt to in- The Sira, the first biography of Muhammad Ahmad, was written in 1888 by one of his Sudan achieved independence in vade Muslim Egypt failed. followers, Ismail ibn ’Abd al-Qadir.Ismail described Ahmed in heroic terms as the true 1956. But since gaining independ- Abdallahi put on a show of reli- Mahdi. The following is an excerpt from the Sira about the rule of the “Turks” in Sudan. ence, the nation has suffered famines, gious devotion. He built a great mosque [The land] was filled with oppression and tyranny by the Turks, who profaned the military takeovers, civil wars, and and a huge domed tomb for the Mahdi [sacredness] of the Religion and imposed the [per person] tax of the Muslims. Fal- genocide. Persecution by Sudan’s in Omdurman. But he became little sity, and infamy spread among them, and they obeyed Satan and rebelled against Muslim Arabs against the largely more than a traditional Arab tribal king, the Merciful [God]. They hastened to obliterate the traces of Islam and they did not Christian black African Sudanese fi- ruling by military force. fear Allah in the [Muslim] Community of the Lord of Mankind. nally resulted in the country’s divi- What was Ismail’s purpose in describing the “Turks” in this way? sion into Sudan and South Sudan in The River War 2011. Seven years after the fall of Khar- toum, a different British government To transport supplies, Kitchener’s In the meantime, Kalifa Abdallahi DISCUSSION & WRITING men constructed a “Desert Railway,” escaped south with his surviving sol- decided to reconquer Sudan. Britain 1. Why did Britain occupy Egypt sometimes laying three miles of diers and refugee families. He at- declared the Nile River from the and later Sudan? tracks in a day. Resupplied daily by tempted to reorganize his army. But Mediterranean to its source, a distance 2. Why were so many Arab Sudanese rail, Kitchener’s invasion force slowly after evading British troops for a year, of more than 2,000 miles, as a British drawn to the Mahdi’s jihad? moved southward toward Kalifa Ab- he was finally trapped and killed in a This 19th-century wood engraving depicts the expedition down the Nile to rescue General zone for occupation under the Berlin 3. What were the strengths and dallahi’s capital at Omdurman. battle on November 25, 1899. On that Gordon, which arrived at Khartoum too late. Conference agreement. weaknesses of Kalifa Abdallahi’s Maj. Gen. Herbert Kitchener was Beginning from Cairo in March day, the independent Mahdist state in men continually raked the city with The Mahdi demanded his followers army at the Battle of Omdurman? appointed to plan and lead a massive 1896, Kitchener’s army took two and a Sudan ended. rifle and cannon fire. strictly follow the Quran and avoid Why did Abdallahi lose? invasion force, consisting of British, half years to work its way more than Britain and Egypt signed an Camped near Omdurman, a town worldly pleasures like drinking, danc- Egyptian, and black African Sudanese 1,000 miles to Omdurman. When agreement to jointly rule Sudan, with directly across the river from Khartoum, ing, smoking, and fancy clothes. Common Core Short Written troops, all commanded by British offi- Kitchener reached the Mahdist capital, Britain as the senior partner. The ap- the Mahdi finally decided to take the Under the Mahdi’s laws, women Research Report Questions cers. Their mission was to move up the he created a half-circle battle line with pointed governor-general of Sudan city and defend it against the ap- could not own property or divorce. In addition to the article, research Nile, destroy Kalifa Abdallahi’s army, the Nile at his back. Meanwhile, his headed the military and made all the proaching British. On January 26, Girls were barred from schooling. He at least one print and digital source and occupy all of Sudan. gunboats shelled the city, damaging laws. The agreement also outlawed 1885, his army stormed the city. The permitted trading and owning slaves, and write a 1–2 page response to one Winston Churchill, who much the dome atop the Mahdi’s tomb. the slave trade. slaughter of the weakened defenders as did the Quran, but called for hu- of the following questions. later became Britain’s prime minister The Battle of Omdurman took Kitchener became the governor- was followed by the mass murder and mane treatment of them. 1. What are the similarities and differ- during World War II, was a young of- place on September 2, 1898. More general of Sudan for a short period. rape of civilians. Gordon was hacked Punishments were harsh. They ences between the Taliban of ficer in Kitchener’s army. He wrote a than 50,000 Arab fighters faced In one of his reports, he wrote, “The to death by swords while defending included confiscation of property, Afghanistan/Pakistan today and the book, titled The River War, about Kitchener’s army of 25,000. Kalifa country has at last been finally himself at the governor’s palace. His flogging, cutting off a hand or foot, Mahdists of Sudan 130 years ago? Kitchener’s epic campaign. Churchill Abdallahi’s men fought on foot, relieved of the military tyranny attackers cut off his head as a trophy. and beheading. But the Mahdi him- 2. What events led to the division of justified the reconquest of Sudan horse, and camel, but less than half which started in a movement of wild Altogether, about 10,000 soldiers and self, now 40, increasingly enjoyed Sudan into two countries in 2011? mostly in economic terms. He said it had guns of any kind. The rest car- religious fanaticism.” Sudan remained civilians were massacred. luxuries such as fine clothes and a would economically unify Egypt and ried swords and spears. for nearly 60 years a Muslim land con- Two days later, an advance British large harem. Sudan while strengthening Britain’s Kalifa Abdallahi had a smart battle trolled by a Christian European nation. gunboat under heavy enemy fire Shortly after naming Kalifa Ab- trading position along the Nile. plan, but his men never broke through reached Khartoum. The British saw that dallahi his successor, the Mahdi sud- ***** By this time, the British realized Kitchener’s battle line. Chanting reli- the city had fallen and presumed Gor- denly died of typhus only a few that Kalifa Abdallahi’s Arab fighters gious phrases and carrying flags with don was dead. Since his rescue was im- months after the sack of Khartoum. ACTIVITY were among the most fierce and quotations from the Quran, the Arab possible, the entire expedition withdrew Ismail, one of his followers who courageous in the world. They were fighters were torn to pieces by intense back to Cairo. The Mahdi was now the wrote his biography three years later, Board of Inquiry — The Fall of Khartoum driven by the belief that being mar- rifle, machine gun, artillery, and gun- master of Sudan. Egyptians were fright- explained the Mahdi’s death this The fall of Khartoum and the killing of Gordon in January 1885 was tyrs in battle guaranteed their place boat firepower. Still, they kept charging ened. The British were shocked. way: “The Mahdi’s period — as indi- a disaster for the British. In this activity, students role play members of a in Paradise. until they covered the battlefield with cated in the Tradition — came to an Board of Inquiry, investigating for the British government to find out who Kitchener assembled an invasion mounds of dead and dying. An esti- The Mahdist State end. Therefore God transferred the was responsible for what went wrong in Khartoum. force of about 25,000 well-trained mated 10,000 of Abdallahi’s men were The Mahdi established his capital Mahdi to himself.” 1. Form small groups, each will role play a Board of Inquiry. men. His “grand army of the Nile,” as killed. Kitchener lost 48. at Omdurman. He sent a letter to the Muhammad Ahmad remained a sa- 2. Each group should: Churchill called it, included infantry, At the end of the bloody day, Kitch- khedive in Cairo, demanding that he cred and heroic figure among Sudan’s a. Examine the article and discuss who might possibly bear the horse cavalry, a camel corps, and ener entered Omdurman. He ordered join the jihad against the unbelievers Arabs for years. They celebrated him for responsibility for the fall of Khartoum. steamboat transports. He equipped the Mahdi’s tomb destroyed and his or suffer an invasion of Egypt. The preaching the true Islam, uniting b. Decide on who, if anyone, was responsible. his men with the most modern bolt- bones cast into the Nile. Kitchener, Mahdi, however, did not live long Sudan’s Arab tribes, and driving foreign c. Be prepared to report to the class, citing your conclusions, action repeating rifles, heavy artillery, however, kept the skull. Later, he con- enough to carry out his threat. imperialists from their soil. reasons for them, and evidence from the article. and machine guns. ducted a memorial at Khartoum for The Mahdi began to organize a gov- Kalifa Abdallahi tried to continue Charles Gordon who had been be- 3. Call on a member of each group to come to the front of the room. ernment for his Mahdist state. At its the Mahdi’s jihad. He fought a headed there 13 years earlier. (The Each member will report its groups’ ¤ndings to the class. Members core were the laws of Islam as practiced bloody but indecisive war against Visit us online: Mahdi’s skull was eventually buried in of the class can ask questions following the reports. in the time of the Prophet Muhammad. neighboring Christian Abyssinia www.crf-usa.org a Muslim cemetery near Cairo.) 4. Ask students to vote on which conclusion they agree with.

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bria_29_3.indd 8 3/17/14 9:34 AM bria_29_3:Layout 1 3/14/2014 6:41 PM Page 8 bria_29_3:Layout 1 3/14/2014 6:41 PM Page 9 iiei Conmmons Wikimedia Muhammad Ahmed and the ‘Turks’ (now Ethiopia). His attempt to in- The Sira, the first biography of Muhammad Ahmad, was written in 1888 by one of his Sudan achieved independence in vade Muslim Egypt failed. followers, Ismail ibn ’Abd al-Qadir.Ismail described Ahmed in heroic terms as the true 1956. But since gaining independ- Abdallahi put on a show of reli- Mahdi. The following is an excerpt from the Sira about the rule of the “Turks” in Sudan. ence, the nation has suffered famines, gious devotion. He built a great mosque [The land] was filled with oppression and tyranny by the Turks, who profaned the military takeovers, civil wars, and and a huge domed tomb for the Mahdi [sacredness] of the Religion and imposed the [per person] tax of the Muslims. Fal- genocide. Persecution by Sudan’s in Omdurman. But he became little sity, and infamy spread among them, and they obeyed Satan and rebelled against Muslim Arabs against the largely more than a traditional Arab tribal king, the Merciful [God]. They hastened to obliterate the traces of Islam and they did not Christian black African Sudanese fi- ruling by military force. fear Allah in the [Muslim] Community of the Lord of Mankind. nally resulted in the country’s divi- What was Ismail’s purpose in describing the “Turks” in this way? sion into Sudan and South Sudan in The River War 2011. Seven years after the fall of Khar- toum, a different British government To transport supplies, Kitchener’s In the meantime, Kalifa Abdallahi DISCUSSION & WRITING men constructed a “Desert Railway,” escaped south with his surviving sol- decided to reconquer Sudan. Britain 1. Why did Britain occupy Egypt sometimes laying three miles of diers and refugee families. He at- declared the Nile River from the and later Sudan? tracks in a day. Resupplied daily by tempted to reorganize his army. But Mediterranean to its source, a distance 2. Why were so many Arab Sudanese rail, Kitchener’s invasion force slowly after evading British troops for a year, of more than 2,000 miles, as a British drawn to the Mahdi’s jihad? moved southward toward Kalifa Ab- he was finally trapped and killed in a This 19th-century wood engraving depicts the expedition down the Nile to rescue General zone for occupation under the Berlin 3. What were the strengths and dallahi’s capital at Omdurman. battle on November 25, 1899. On that Gordon, which arrived at Khartoum too late. Conference agreement. weaknesses of Kalifa Abdallahi’s Maj. Gen. Herbert Kitchener was Beginning from Cairo in March day, the independent Mahdist state in men continually raked the city with The Mahdi demanded his followers army at the Battle of Omdurman? appointed to plan and lead a massive 1896, Kitchener’s army took two and a Sudan ended. rifle and cannon fire. strictly follow the Quran and avoid Why did Abdallahi lose? invasion force, consisting of British, half years to work its way more than Britain and Egypt signed an Camped near Omdurman, a town worldly pleasures like drinking, danc- Egyptian, and black African Sudanese 1,000 miles to Omdurman. When agreement to jointly rule Sudan, with directly across the river from Khartoum, ing, smoking, and fancy clothes. Common Core Short Written troops, all commanded by British offi- Kitchener reached the Mahdist capital, Britain as the senior partner. The ap- the Mahdi finally decided to take the Under the Mahdi’s laws, women Research Report Questions cers. Their mission was to move up the he created a half-circle battle line with pointed governor-general of Sudan city and defend it against the ap- could not own property or divorce. In addition to the article, research Nile, destroy Kalifa Abdallahi’s army, the Nile at his back. Meanwhile, his headed the military and made all the proaching British. On January 26, Girls were barred from schooling. He at least one print and digital source and occupy all of Sudan. gunboats shelled the city, damaging laws. The agreement also outlawed 1885, his army stormed the city. The permitted trading and owning slaves, and write a 1–2 page response to one Winston Churchill, who much the dome atop the Mahdi’s tomb. the slave trade. slaughter of the weakened defenders as did the Quran, but called for hu- of the following questions. later became Britain’s prime minister The Battle of Omdurman took Kitchener became the governor- was followed by the mass murder and mane treatment of them. 1. What are the similarities and differ- during World War II, was a young of- place on September 2, 1898. More general of Sudan for a short period. rape of civilians. Gordon was hacked Punishments were harsh. They ences between the Taliban of ficer in Kitchener’s army. He wrote a than 50,000 Arab fighters faced In one of his reports, he wrote, “The to death by swords while defending included confiscation of property, Afghanistan/Pakistan today and the book, titled The River War, about Kitchener’s army of 25,000. Kalifa country has at last been finally himself at the governor’s palace. His flogging, cutting off a hand or foot, Mahdists of Sudan 130 years ago? Kitchener’s epic campaign. Churchill Abdallahi’s men fought on foot, relieved of the military tyranny attackers cut off his head as a trophy. and beheading. But the Mahdi him- 2. What events led to the division of justified the reconquest of Sudan horse, and camel, but less than half which started in a movement of wild Altogether, about 10,000 soldiers and self, now 40, increasingly enjoyed Sudan into two countries in 2011? mostly in economic terms. He said it had guns of any kind. The rest car- religious fanaticism.” Sudan remained civilians were massacred. luxuries such as fine clothes and a would economically unify Egypt and ried swords and spears. for nearly 60 years a Muslim land con- Two days later, an advance British large harem. Sudan while strengthening Britain’s Kalifa Abdallahi had a smart battle trolled by a Christian European nation. gunboat under heavy enemy fire Shortly after naming Kalifa Ab- trading position along the Nile. plan, but his men never broke through reached Khartoum. The British saw that dallahi his successor, the Mahdi sud- ***** By this time, the British realized Kitchener’s battle line. Chanting reli- the city had fallen and presumed Gor- denly died of typhus only a few that Kalifa Abdallahi’s Arab fighters gious phrases and carrying flags with don was dead. Since his rescue was im- months after the sack of Khartoum. ACTIVITY were among the most fierce and quotations from the Quran, the Arab possible, the entire expedition withdrew Ismail, one of his followers who courageous in the world. They were fighters were torn to pieces by intense back to Cairo. The Mahdi was now the wrote his biography three years later, Board of Inquiry — The Fall of Khartoum driven by the belief that being mar- rifle, machine gun, artillery, and gun- master of Sudan. Egyptians were fright- explained the Mahdi’s death this The fall of Khartoum and the killing of Gordon in January 1885 was tyrs in battle guaranteed their place boat firepower. Still, they kept charging ened. The British were shocked. way: “The Mahdi’s period — as indi- a disaster for the British. In this activity, students role play members of a in Paradise. until they covered the battlefield with cated in the Tradition — came to an Board of Inquiry, investigating for the British government to find out who Kitchener assembled an invasion mounds of dead and dying. An esti- The Mahdist State end. Therefore God transferred the was responsible for what went wrong in Khartoum. force of about 25,000 well-trained mated 10,000 of Abdallahi’s men were The Mahdi established his capital Mahdi to himself.” 1. Form small groups, each will role play a Board of Inquiry. men. His “grand army of the Nile,” as killed. Kitchener lost 48. at Omdurman. He sent a letter to the Muhammad Ahmad remained a sa- 2. Each group should: Churchill called it, included infantry, At the end of the bloody day, Kitch- khedive in Cairo, demanding that he cred and heroic figure among Sudan’s a. Examine the article and discuss who might possibly bear the horse cavalry, a camel corps, and ener entered Omdurman. He ordered join the jihad against the unbelievers Arabs for years. They celebrated him for responsibility for the fall of Khartoum. steamboat transports. He equipped the Mahdi’s tomb destroyed and his or suffer an invasion of Egypt. The preaching the true Islam, uniting b. Decide on who, if anyone, was responsible. his men with the most modern bolt- bones cast into the Nile. Kitchener, Mahdi, however, did not live long Sudan’s Arab tribes, and driving foreign c. Be prepared to report to the class, citing your conclusions, action repeating rifles, heavy artillery, however, kept the skull. Later, he con- enough to carry out his threat. imperialists from their soil. reasons for them, and evidence from the article. and machine guns. ducted a memorial at Khartoum for The Mahdi began to organize a gov- Kalifa Abdallahi tried to continue Charles Gordon who had been be- 3. Call on a member of each group to come to the front of the room. ernment for his Mahdist state. At its the Mahdi’s jihad. He fought a headed there 13 years earlier. (The Each member will report its groups’ ¤ndings to the class. Members core were the laws of Islam as practiced bloody but indecisive war against Visit us online: Mahdi’s skull was eventually buried in of the class can ask questions following the reports. in the time of the Prophet Muhammad. neighboring Christian Abyssinia www.crf-usa.org a Muslim cemetery near Cairo.) 4. Ask students to vote on which conclusion they agree with.

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Sources Standards The case also affected the futures The Ongoing Debate DISCUSSION & WRITING of the younger plaintiffs. Ellery Lincoln-Douglas Debates Lincoln-Douglas Debates The Abington case informs our 1. Was either Ellery Schempp’s National High School U.S. History Standard 11: Understands the extension, restriction, and Schempp made a career as a scientist Guelzo, Allen C. Lincoln and Douglas: The Debates current national discourse on religious protest or William J. Murray III’s That Defined America. NY: Simon & Schuster, 2008. · reorganization of political democracy after 1800. (2) Understands the positions of north- at General Electric. He remained a life- freedom. The debate about whether the protest in school more effective Jaffa, Harry V. Crisis of the House Divided: An Inter- ern antislavery advocates and southern proslavery spokesmen on a variety of issues long Unitarian Universalist (UU) and Bible can ever be used in schools is part than the other, or were neither of pretation of the Issues in the Lincoln-Douglas Debates. (e.g., . . . Lincoln-Douglas debates). currently sits on the advisory board of Chicago: U of Chicago, 2009. · Johannsen, Robert W. California History-Social Science Standard 8.9: Students analyze the early and steady at- of an ongoing debate between liberal them effective? Give reasons to tempts to abolish slavery and to realize the ideals of the Declaration of Independence. (5) the Secular Coalition for America, a The Lincoln-Douglas Debates of 1858. S.l.: OUP, 1965. and conservative groups. The liberal support your answer. · Lincoln, Abraham, Stephen A. Douglas, and Harold Analyze the signi¨cance of . . . the Missouri Compromise (1820), . . . the Compro- non-profit advocacy organization for position is generally “separationist,” 2. What do you think the establish- Holzer. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates: The First Com- mise of 1850, . . . the Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854), the Dred Scott v. Sandford deci- non-theists. (The UU denomination which seeks to limit schools’ use of the ment clause means when it states plete, Unexpurgated Text. NY: Fordham UP, 2004. · sion (1857), and the Lincoln-Douglas debates (1858). places no judgment on whether an ad- Bible according to the “separation of that Congress shall not make any Wiese, Jeffrey, and Stan Lewis. Lincoln-Douglas Debate: Common Core Standard RH.11B12.6: Evaluate authors= differing points of view on the same herent believes in God.) Values in Conflict. Topeka, Kan.: Clark Pub., 2000. historical event or issue by assessing the authors= claims, reasoning, and evidence. church and state.” The conservative po- law “respecting” the establish- Common Core Standard RH.11B12.8: Evaluate an author=s premises, claims, and evidence by William J. O’Hair III, on the other sition is generally “accommodationist,” ment of religion? Would other Mahdi corroborating or challenging them with other information. hand, did not retain his youthful be- utler, Daniel Allen. The First Jihad: The Battle for Khar- which seeks to accommodate, or to words make its purpose clearer? Mahdi liefs. In 1980, he announced his con- allow, the practice of students’ and even If so, what words would you toum and the Dawn of Militant Islam. Philadelphia, Pa.: Casemate, 2007. · Chamberlain, M. E. The Scram- National High School World History Standard 36: Understands patterns of global change in version from atheism to Christianity the era of Western military and economic dominance from 1800 to 1914. (3) Understands the teachers’ religious beliefs as much as choose, and why? ble for Africa. 2nd ed. London: Longman, 1999. · in©uence of European imperial expansion on political and social facets of African and and soon became a Baptist minister. possible. Both sides base their argu- 3. In his majority opinion, Justice Churchill, Winston. The River War: An Account of the Indian society (e.g., . . . the major chain of events in Europe and Africa that led to the For this act, his mother publicly de- Reconquest of Sudan. Rockville, Md.: Wildside P, 2005 ments on the First Amendment. Clark addressed Stewart’s concern “scramble” for African territory, and the role of particular African governments or [from 1902 abridged ed.]. · Pakenham, Thomas. The nounced him, calling his conversion The arguments offered on both about the “religion of secularism.” peoples in the partition of Africa by the Europeans . . . . (6) Understands economic, so- Scramble for Africa: White Man’s Conquests of the Dark “beyond human forgiveness.” In cial and religious in©uences on African society (e.g., . . . how and why slavery and the sides in the Abington case reflect the “[T]he State,” wrote Clark, “may Continent from 1876 to 1912. NY: Avon Books, 1992. · slave trade ©ourished in both West and East Africa . . .). (7) Understands African resist- 1982, he founded the Religious Free- separationist and accommodationist not establish a ‘religion of secular- Shaked, Haim. The Life of the Sudanese Mahdi. New ance movements against the British during the period of European imperial expansion dom Coalition, a conservative non- Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1978. · “Sudan, perspectives offered in courts and the ism’ in the sense of affirmatively (e.g., the nature of the Sudanese resistance to the British, as well as the general success Republic of the Sudan.” The World Almanac and Book profit advocacy organization, and media today. Whenever a school dis- opposing or showing hostility to of Mahdi Muhammad Ahmed and the Mahdi uprising against British imperialism). published an autobiography, My Life of Facts. NY: World Almanac Books, 2013. · Warner, trict’s policy or a state’s law addresses religion. . . . We do not agree, how- Philip. Dervish: The Rise and Fall of an African Empire. California History-Social Science Standard 10.4: Students analyze patterns of global change Without God that details his disillu- prayer or Bible-reading issues, the ar- ever, that this decision in any sense London: MacDonald, 1973. ·___. Kitchener: The Man in the era of New Imperialism in a least two of the following regions or countries: Africa . . . . sionment with atheism. Behind the Legend. NY: Atheneum, 1986. ·Wikipedia. (2) Discuss the locations of the colonial rule of such nations as England . . . . (3) Ex- guments Justice Clark and Justice has that effect.” Do you agree? plain imperialism from the perspective of the colonizers and the colonized and the Stewart made long ago appear again. Why or why not? articles titled “Berlin Conference” and “Mahdist War.” URL: http://en.wikipedia.org varied immediate and long-term responses by the people under colonial rules. (4) Describe the independence struggles of the colonized regions of the world, including Bible Readings the role of leaders . . . . and the roles of ideology and religion. ACTIVITY Abington School District v. Schempp. 374 U.S. 203 Common Core Standard WHST.11B12.7: Conduct short as well as more sustained research (1963). ·“About RFC.” Religious Freedom Coalition. projects to answer a question . . . synthesize multiple sources on the subject, demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation. Theories of the First Amendment Web. 22 Apr 2013. URL: www.religiousfreedomcoali- Justice Clark’s opinion in Abington School District v. Schempp reflects the Supreme Court’s theory that the gov- tion.org/about/ · Abraham, Henry Julian, and Barbara A. Perry. Freedom and the Court. UP of Kansas, 2003. · Bible Readings ernment should remain neutral, or have no preference, in religious matters. The major theories followed by differ- French, Kimberly. “A Victory for the Heretics.” UU World. National High School Civics Standard 25: Understands issues regarding personal, political, and economic rights. (1) Understands the importance to individuals and to society of ent justices on the Supreme Court today are as follows: 01 Jan 2003: Web. 22 Apr. 2013. URL: personal rights . . . . (5) Knows major documentary sources of personal, political, www.uuworld.org/ideas/articles/3063.shtml · Kim, Sev- Strict separation. This theory holds that government and religion should be separate as much as possible. The gov- and economic rights such as . . . court decisions . . . . (6) Understands how per- erson. “Mississippi Tells Public Schools to Develop Poli- sonal, political, and economic rights are secured by constitutional government and ernment’s laws and policies should be secular, and religion is a private matter for individuals. cies Allowing Prayers.” NY Times. 16 Mar 2013. · by such means as the rule of law, checks and balances, an independent judiciary, Schempp, Ellery. Interview by Liane Hansen. Discov- Accommodation. This theory maintains that government should accommodate, or make exceptions for, private re- and a vigilant citizenry ligious beliefs and practices as much as possible. It also means that government should recognize the importance of ering the Man Behind a Boy’s Protest. 02 Sep 2007. Na- tional Public Radio. URL: www.npr.org/templates/ National High School U.S. History Standard 29: Understands the struggle for racial and gen- religion in our nation’s history, laws, and society. story/story.php?storyId=14124191. der equality and for the extension of civil liberties. (3) Understands how various Warren Neutrality. This theory asserts that government should simply have no preference for one religion over any other, Court decisions in©uenced society (e.g., . . . the effectiveness of the judiciary in pro- moting civil liberties . . . .). and no preference for either religion in general or secularism (non-religion) in general. Some justices support an en- National High School U.S. History Standard 31: Understands economic, social, and cultural dorsement test for neutrality, that government must not be seen as “endorsing” any religion, religion in general, or Visit us online: developments in the contemporary United States. (3) Understands how the rise of reli- secularism.Imagine you are a Supreme Court justice. In small groups, do the following: gious groups and movements in©uenced political issues in contemporary American www.crf-usa.org society (e.g., . . . how Supreme Court decisions since 1968 have affected the mean- 1. Analyze and discuss the set of facts below with your fellow justices. ing and practice of religious freedom) 2. Answer the question presented from the perspective of strict separation, accommodation, and neutrality theory. Common Core Standard SL.11B12.4: Present information, findings, and supporting evidence, conveying a clear and distinct perspective, such that listeners can follow the line of reason- 3. Discuss and decide which of the three theories your group supports and what decision your group would make ing, alternative or opposing perspectives are addressed, and the organization, development, based upon that theory. Be prepared to report your decisions and the reasons for them. If any members disagree facebook.com/ substance, and style are appropriate to purpose, audience, and a range of formal and infor- with the majority, they may report their dissenting opinion. ConstitutionalRightsFoundation mal tasks. Facts: A school district in the hypothetical city of Bookville, USA, has chosen to create a new elective course called Standards reprinted with permission: National Standards © 2000 McREL, Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning, 2550 S. Studying the Bible. The course’s purpose is to teach students “biblical literacy” in order to understand contempo- twitter.com/crfusa Parker Road, Ste. 500, Aurora, CO 80014, (303)337.0990. rary American society and culture, including American literature, music, and public policy. The course will include California Standards copyrighted by the California Dept. of Education, P.O. Box 271, Sacramento, teacher-led study of the Hebrew Scriptures (aka Old Testament) and the New Testament so that students will be fa- CA 95812. miliar with the people, events, literary style, and influence of the Bible. The course will also include discussion about plus.google.com/+Crf-usaOrg/posts the moral lessons included in the Bible. Question presented: Does the Studying the Bible course violate the establishment clause of the First Amendment?

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