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Colonialism, Nationalism, the Harem 19Th-20Th Centuries”

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Pt.II: Colonialism, Nationalism, the Harem 19th-20th centuries” Week 8: Egypt Egypt 19th –20th C. • Two Issues: • Extracting the ‘Egyptian’ experience from the larger Ottoman one with respect to slavery and abolition • Extracting the ‘harem’ experience from that of slavery and abolition in general Egypt 19th –20th C. • Egypt as ‘special case’: • Mamluk history • 1793: re-establishment of Ottoman control and ending of slave trade to Egypt • Goal: to weaken Mamluk’s • Put in Place Mohamed Ali Pasha, Albanian-born, ambitious military leader Egypt 19th –20th C. Mohammed Ali Pasha First Khedive to govern Egypt and Sudan (19th C) Egypt 19th –20th C. • First ‘consequence’ of prohibited trade: • Mohamed Ali turned to Sudan as source of slaves • Imported male slaves as soldiers; castrated males as eunuchs (also for export) • Females as wives, domestics • Sudanese slaves became part of Egyptian culture, especially in large cities • Bought into homes of elite: servants in Harems Egypt 19th –20th C. • 1841: British appealed to Mohamed Ali Pasha to cease slave raiding in Sudan (with aim of undermining slavery): unsuccessful • Argued in terms of ‘barbarity’ of Sudanese trade: especially treatment of women, creation of Eunuchs • Acknowledged Islam’s acceptance of slavery but challenged that any religion could condone what Ali Pasha’s armies were doing in Sudan • Also challenged Ali Pasha’s claim that ‘only Istanbul can make such a decision’ [see Hunwick/Trout Powell, Additional Readings] Egypt 19th –20th C. CAIRO SUDAN Egypt 19th –20th C. • Clandestine trade continued 1860s-1870s: • ‘controversy’ recounted last week between Khedive Ismail and Grand Vizier, Istanbul • Khedive and Mother accused of having harem of more than 400 slaves ‘supporting slave trade into Egypt from Istanbul’ • Khedive affirming that clandestine trade in Circassians into Egypt flourished – but only because upper class Ottoman woman trained young girls for the harem and then sold them Egypt 19th –20th C. • 1877: Anglo-Egyptian ‘Anti-Slave Trade’ Convention (precedent for Ottoman decree 1890) [see ‘Limits of Abolitionism”, Resources] • Prohibited Slave Trading (mainly addressed to Sudan trade – largely ineffectual) • Followed by establishment of ‘Manumission Bureaus’: any slave who applied for ‘freedom’ was granted it • 1884 ‘Slave Trade Bureau’ established: entrusted with searching for unlawful slave-trading caravans, enforcing ‘abolition’ Egypt 19th –20th C. • British efforts to address slave trading continued: • 1881: new Khedive, Mohamed Ali’s grandson took power • Hoped he would be more amenable to abolition • showed him Decree of 1846, Bey of Tunisia as ‘example’ of how Muslim ruler could end the slave trade and slavery [decree had had little impact but that was not the point] • Khedive refused: ‘shaykhs’ would never accept that freed slaves had same rights as free people [see Hunwick/Trout Powell, ‘Additional Readings’] Egypt 19th –20th C. • 1881: Urabi Rebellion • Military uprising protesting pro-British stance of new Khedive [mentioned in Huda Shaarawi’s memoir – cause of father’s downfall, family shame] • British stepped in to assist in re-establishing Khedival authority; also seen by abolitionists as only way to stop slave trade • Occupied Egypt: Khedive seen as ‘puppet’ – surely abolition could now be achieved? Egypt 19th –20th C. • Little doubt that to address the slave trades into Egypt and slavery in Egypt was really about the harem – which in turn was ‘tied’ to Islam: “The British decision to occupy Egypt [1882] and initiate an anti-slavery campaign involved entering new political and ideological territory. It would, therefore require a redefinition of the British role and imperial mission in respect of Muslim practices.” … Egypt 19th –20th C. “Further complicating this situation and marking it as a new departure in imperial politics, both in terms of the history of anti- slavery activity and Anglo-Muslim relations, was the fact that slavery in Egypt during this period was closely associated with the harem, the women’s and children’s quarters in the Muslim home. Efforts to suppress it necessarily involved the British in the private, domestic lives of Egyptians. … Female slaves, destined for the harem, were in demand because of their reproductive capabilities as well as their productive labour. Once sold, they would become servants, concubines or wives” [‘The Harem, Slavery and British Imperial Culture’, 11; see ‘Resources’] Egypt 19th –20th C. • Would take issue with idea that this such a ‘departure’ for the British in terms of Anglo-Muslim relations: • author overlooking nature of recent/contemporaneous experience with Porte: British well aware of ‘issues’ • They themselves clearly associated the harem, ‘Mohammadism’ and slavery [see last week’s lecture] • But she is correct in framing the question in these terms for Egypt: one needs only add the royal to the domestic ‘household’ harem Egypt 19th –20th C. • Difference between British policy in Istanbul and in Cairo: after 1882 were acting as ‘occupying force’ in Egypt • British not only ‘foreign’, they were Christian • Tensions of both ‘nationalist’ and ‘religious’ nature inevitable • Trying to push abolitionist agenda doubly difficult Egypt 19th –20th C. • Urabi Rebellion, British occupation changed political climate: • New British personnel: Sir Baring (later Lord Cromer) • (like earlier counterpart in Istanbul) convinced abolition impossible for political and religious reasons • Had background in India: saw slavery as ‘cultural’ rather than legal issue Egypt 19th –20th C. • “…it is not possible to abolish slavery by Khedival Decree or by Convention. Slavery does not exist in Egypt by virtue of any act of the executive government. It is recognized by the Mahommedan religious law, which could not be abrogated by a mere declaration in a Decree or Convention…” • Slavery should be allowed to die out ‘gradually’, as Egypt modernized and slavery and the harem simply became incompatible • No further British intervention should be taken. And it was not. Egypt 19th –20th C. • From the Stories of Slaves: • Have various ways of hearing slave voices during second half 19th century • Police station report [in Kozma, Policing Women, “Ch. 3 ‘Females, Slavery and Manumission”, Resources] • Newspapers [in Trout Powell, Tell This in my Memory, “Al-Nadim”, Resources] • Trial reports [in Trout Powell, Different Shades of Colonialism, Resources] Egypt 19th –20th C. • [Kuzma] 1877-8: story of Saluma, Sudanese freed- slave in Palestine (town of Nablus) • Along with five other women, she was sold as slave • Kidnapped while looking for work in Cairo: she (and others) were ‘black’, enough to identify them as slaves when in fact they were ‘freed’ • Taken to Nablus: escaped while sent out to buy bread • Sought help from stranger: reported situation to authorities • Women returned to Cairo and ultimately, their homes Egypt 19th –20th C. • Author draws several points from story: • Argues for changing response by authorities: impact of abolition efforts DID have impact at local level • the police records she has examined (this ‘story’ is one case of many) suggest they were beginning to act on behalf of slaves and former slaves, rather than their masters • Points to corresponding difficulties for freed slaves (especially women) to find ‘new life’, employment: always vulnerable to re-enslavement • pointing in large part to growing role of ‘race’ – the more Sudanese slaves were incorporated into Cairo society, the more ‘being Sudanese (black) was equated to slavery Egypt 19th –20th C. • Final point resonates with Ehud Toledano’s analysis of Ottoman slavery: enslavement entailed violent rupture with past… but new pacific integration: • Here the ‘violent rupture with the past’ was immediate: slave raids into the Sudan • The ‘pacific integration’, the ‘new bonds’ created by enslavement were by definition mostly those created in the Harems of the elite and the Khedive • Point: to understand nature of this slavery, need to understand both ‘rupture’ and ‘re-integration’: manumission meant ‘rupture’ of recently established relations Egypt 19th –20th C. • See issues of ‘manumission’ vs. ‘new bonds’ reflected in 1892 newspaper article [Trout Powell] • Abdullah al-Nadim: returned from exile, published article in newly authorized al-ustadh (literally, the teacher) • Speaking in general to upheaval in Egyptian family, covertly critical of gov’t: open dissent not permitted • Article “Sa’idwaBakhita”(Sa’id and Bakhita – conversation between two freed slaves, man and woman respectively) Egypt 19th –20th C. • [Drawn from conversation…]: • Bakhita: ‘ We came from our country like beasts… and it was our masters who taught us Islam… and taught us about cleanliness, food, drink, how to dress and how to speak properly [reference to derogatory fashion in which Egyptians regarded Sudanese Arabic] … [She says she was like a daughter to her mistress . .] “If my master tried to beat me, She would argue and yell at him. We always held hands, even when we were eating our meals.” • Sa’id: reminds her of the ‘terrible journey’ with the slave dealers, the ‘physical hardships’ Egypt 19th –20th C. • Both agree it is ‘difficult parceling themselves out to different households, to work for one household one month, another the next…’: namely ‘wage labour’ • Bakhita: “slavery is not better than freedom but the uncertainty of independent living is too hard to tolerate… • Sa’id: [delivering larger political message] ‘The government should take responsiblilty... And
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