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International Conferences on Recent Advances 2010 - Fifth International Conference on Recent in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Soil Dynamics Engineering and Soil Dynamics

27 May 2010, 9:50 am - 10:20 am

Architecture as an Expression of Identity: Abbas Hilmi II and the Neo- Style

Nadania Idriss School of Oriental and African Studies, Germany

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Recommended Citation Idriss, Nadania, "Architecture as an Expression of Identity: Abbas Hilmi II and the Neo-Mamluk Style" (2010). International Conferences on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics. 1. https://scholarsmine.mst.edu/icrageesd/05icrageesd/session11/1

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ARCHITECTURE AS AN EXPRESSION OF IDENTITY: ABBAS HILMI II AND THE NEO-MAMLUK STYLE

Nadania Idriss School of Oriental and African Studies Lineinstr. 154 10115 Berlin, Germany

ABSTRACT

This paper examines the religious architecture that was built at the end of the nineteenth, beginning of the twentieth century, during the rule of Abbas Hilmi II (1892-1914). The architecture is examined in light of the political and cultural climate of the time period. European influences brought new tastes for building styles, and the Neo-Mamluk became popularized for architecture.

Abbas Hilmi II was only eighteen when he became ´s In Egypt, the neonate architecture was popularised, last (meaning prince). Abbas, descendent of particularly the neo-Baroque and Arab styles. In this study, Ali, the Albanian who managed to I will examine the religious architecture in that was expel ’s from Egypt in 1801, ruled between built during Abbas Hilmi II´s reign, as well as the 1892 and 1914. This paper will examine a series of Khedive’s role in the restoration of older and buildings in their social, cultural and economic context, shrines. which were constructed during this time period. The conditions of the late nineteenth century are interlinked The nineteenth century was a pivotal moment for the with the architecture, as they are a tangible representation Western World as it was being transformed into a of the developments of spaces of social ordering and modernised, machine-dominated society, increasingly ultimately, identity. The approach draws on historiography, affected by new advancements in industry. The social empirical analysis and aesthetics, in order to understand the transformation was all embracing. The industrial changes built environment of the period, which is now affected virtually every area of urban life; from architecture representative of Egypt's modern heritage. to urban planning, currency to media, education to social structures and even the way people dressed. A light rail The development and structure of late nineteenth century, linked the expanding borders of the city limits with the early twentieth century architecture in Egypt has been inner core of the metropolis; while the rail system previously dealt with in academic studies.i The nineteenth facilitated travelling abroad and the European colonies century was a period of rapid transformation and became a haven for the expatriate, which sought a new innovation, as well as a moment when decorative aesthetics opportunity. in architecture were inspired by older building styles. In In developing residential areas, new buildings, fully both Europe and the colonies, the revival styles were equipped with the latest technologies, were rapidly integrated with new concepts of building planning, which constructed, facilitated by cheaper materials, to resulted in neonate structures that were at the centre of accommodate the growing populations of foreign residents. philosophical debate. Architecture theorists debated the In places, such as Cairo, the phenomenon of change was not principles of conservation verses restoration. Should a limited to the physical surface of the city itself. As the building be fully reconstructed whether or not the original previous chapter showed, there were changes in both the plans and materials are available? Would a modern political and social systems; and while tensions developed architect truly recapture the original essence of the over the speed at which the changes occurred, ultimately, structure, or should historical sites and edifices be concerns over identity grew that manifested in language, conserved that would allow one to appreciate the brilliance literature, the material culture. Both Egyptianii and foreign of the original construction without any distraction? While scholars documented the , in order to better the edifices were trendy among the upper classes, they understand the present situation, as well as justify the stood additionally as reminders of the misinterpretations country’s transition into the modern era. that might occur through the process of restoration of older buildings. As many older buildings were at risk of demolition, initiatives were set up to protect them from disappearing

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and further dilapidation. Architects, predominately from traditional house was perpetuating the decay of the older Europe, banded together to document Egypt’s older buildings in the city centre. buildings, labelling them monuments of a particular era. The collection and display of culturally and historically The Comité was regarded as essential in the preservation of interesting objects became equally important, and museums Cairo´s material heritage, and was particularly were established to house the artefacts of bygone eras. This considered the most important person in the success of the had a profound impact on the local quality of life, both group.vii The architects responsible designing mosques in economically and culturally. Transforming Egypt’s past Cairo were inspired by the traditional styles that were into a commercial venture and developing theories undergoing examination by the Comité; even though they surrounding the cultural heritage played an important role ultimately moved away from older models of architectural in the modernisation process, as tourists and specialists decoration. Instead, the mosque became part of the pour into the country to witness the new discoveries and essential characteristic of the late nineteenth century participate in the action. architecture in Cairo.

While institutions specializing in looking after the local, New principles in the perception of design and space are cultural heritage worked to preserve it, the intellectual links often associated with new perceptions of the world and of emerging between the Western world and Egypt posed a one’s identity. The development of Neo-Mamluk threat to Egyptian identity, and there was a collective desire architecture should be understood in this way, which means to assert Egypt’s existence as an independent body with its understanding the increasing influences from Europe, the own unique cultural history. In other words, the vernacular wave of modernisation in Cairo, and its eventual adaptation of culture and heritage preservation took on a decidedly by . European influence, and the Muslim religion and way of life was mirrored against European culture and used to As sovereign of Egypt, Abbas Hilmi II took to building justify European supremacy.iii This was made manifest by mosques in newly developed areas of the city and restoring Europeans residing or visiting the country writing historical Cairo’s most important places of worship and shrines, a accounts, guidebooks, and novels describing locals and tradition that was established by the previous ruling class. their customs using demeaning vocabulary. Hence, there The Khedive’s activities were also a response to the was a need for Egyptians to assert themselves as an growing nationalist movement in Egypt. By observing individual nation. French and English dominated the religious traditions and patronising the construction of new language of heritage preservation; only later, at the turn of mosques, Abbas was able to maintain the support of the the century was used for reports and publications. religious community, perpetuating the image of himself and poetry was also revived. The revival among the elite and the general public as a pious patron of the Arabic language will be discussed in chapter VI. who performed good deeds. The building boom that occurred during the last decade of the nineteenth centuryiv inspired a variety of architectural Historically, political leaders chose to express stately styles. The Mamluk revival style architecture was chosen magnificence through architecture. Great size of the for the majority of public buildings commissioned by the building and highly skilled craftsmanship was a means to State. This trend was an emulation of the monuments in the demonstrate the sovereign’s wealth and good taste. In old city and became a symbol of the spirit of late nineteenth Cairo, the extent to which the ruling party used their century Egypt and served as a visual mark linking the architectural patronage as means to legitimise their role identity of the State with its own heritage. may be seen in the great amount of buildings constructed in the city, the majority of which were religious complexes, The process of transforming dilapidated, medieval quarter public fountains and hospitals. into a display of Cairo’s Islamic heritage comprised a range of successive measures: the creation of a special institution, The Mamluk style of architecture is distinguishable by the Comité de Conservation des Monuments de l’Art Arabe certain characteristics that were repeatedly applied. The (Comité), to manage the efforts of architectural religious complex of al-Mansur Qālā’un (1279- preservation, the study and appraisal of individual 1290) represents one of the finest examples of thirteenth buildings, the selection, classification and documentation of century, religious edifice. The complex includes a buildings and finally, enacting of protective laws. , hospital and , in conjunction with the sanctuary. During this period, the Mamluk enjoyed New villas inspired by European Rococo-style and a spacious capital in which to construct buildings on a Baroque-styles, which were hitherto unknown in Cairo, much larger scale. The sultan incorporated the three began to appear and were considered an avant-garde institutions into an L-shaped complex, each side measuring fashion favoured by the Egyptian elite. The general 100 meters. Later, limited ground space made it impossible application of these new stylistic elements was adapted in to construct massive complexes and special skill was stone engraving and interior wall painting, and which were required to design irregularly shaped buildings that fitted already appearing in places like and .v the site available while still creating an atmosphere of These new forms and techniques were copied and modified harmony and symmetry. The reduced building size became in the capital and subsequently taken up in other areas such a standard feature of the late fifteenth century, although the as . complexes were equipped with similar facilities to the earlier buildings. The architects of the later Mamluk period The modern villas began to draw criticism from the (1382-1517) were also concerned to orientate the principle European community, as they felt the abandonment of the façade of the complex in the direction of the wall, or

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at least in a variation that would in some way align the Egyptian Grandfather and Fatherxviii, despite having been building to the direction of .viii The architects educated within the culture of the Ottoman court. In his ingeniously designed buildings to meet the requirements by opinion, the affiliation with the Ottoman culture was increasing the thickness of the façade wall giving them through Ottoman suzerainty over Egypt, rather than freedom to shift the interior wall to which ever angle was heritage. While the Khedive does not make any direct necessary while retaining a façade flush with the street.ix references to the popularity of Mamluk-style architecture, it seems reasonable to assume he would have agreed that it The prevalent revival of the Mamluk style during the would be appropriate as a symbol of modern Egyptian nineteenth century raises some interesting questions. architecture. Firstly, in which way are these mosques best described as “revivals” of the Mamluk type? Was there a deliberate One should note the abundance of Mamluk architectural standardisation of religious architecture? Why was the examples throughout Cairo. The amount of Mamluk Mamluk style chosen as the model? Was it a matter of buildings outnumbered edifices from the Fatimid (910- aesthetics, or a more conceptual choice? And lastly, in 1171) and Ayyubid (1171-1250) Dynasties, and since what ways did the architects try to integrate the new Egypt seeked autonomy from the , mosques into the local surroundings? Whether or not there selecting the Mamluk-style for religious buildings was a was a difference between European and Egyptian particularly poignant choice. The Mamluk-style revival is Orientalism, one should look beyond the general concept of thus a significant component in developing Egypt's modern European influences in order to understand the architectural cultural heritage. vocabulary of the new eclectic mixes that are characteristic of the late nineteenth century architecture in Cairo.x Knowing some prevalent design principles may assist understanding of late nineteenth century architecture in According to Rabbat, the revival of Mamluk-style Cairo. The most standard feature of the nineteenth century architecture and decoration owes its origin to the two mosque is the carefully planned symmetry and centrality. mosque plans that Xavier Pascal Coste (1787-1879)xi made As mentioned earlier, in contrast to the Mamluk mosque, for Muhammad 'Ali in 1821 and 1824 (Figure 2).xii Coste’s the new mosques built during Abbas Hilmi II’s time are aborted plans for the mosque were published in 1837 in characterised by a principles of order and uniformity that L’Architecture Arabe ou Monuments du Kaire Mesuré et characterises architectural theory in the nineteenth century. Dessinés de 1818 à 1826. The plans had a strong influence This tendency can be seen in all the details: the strict on European architects in Europe, where Oriental-inspired regularity in the structure of the façade; the uniform themes for both exterior building decoration and interiors sequence of the windows flanking a centralised portal; the were becoming popularised. There was an equally strong smaller entrances flanking the base of the that is influence on students at Cairo’s Polytechnic School, the integrated into, and projects up from, the façade of the only institution that offered instruction in architecture.xiii building. The imaginative variety of ground plans and façades, distinctive features of the Mamluk era, are One might assume that at some point, the architects moving subordinated into a unified design scheme dominated by a to Cairo for work must have been in contact with Coste's new sense of order, regularity and measurements. designs. As noted above, the work the Comité undertook to restore the older buildings became an important influence There is arguably a connection between the political and and made its way into the consciousness of the Egyptian social environment of the late nineteenth century and the elite, which looked to as a standard for use of Mamluk decorative elements for religious buildings. religious architecture in Egypt.xiv The form of the modern The neo-Mamluk was defined as representative of Egyptian mosque was diagnostic of European influence, namely the identity. The vocabulary of the style may be described not symmetry and centrality, while the decorative elements so much as historicism or exoticism, but rather as an remained a fusion of Bahri and Circassian Mamluk eclectic renovation of the indigenous language of architectural elements. architecture through combining prevalent traditional elements with European rules of structural design. It was As Mamluk architecture was already well documented, set in the local architectural framework that was a constant studied and analysed in the West, xv the Comité directly and important point of reference. connected the with Egyptian identity.xvi The Comité is central within the context of patronage at the end The neo-Mamluk aesthetic was not limited to religious of the nineteenth century since the majority of members architecture.xix There are three principal public institutions were architects who designed a great number of public, in Cairo inaugurated by the Khedive that were built in the religious and residential buildings for private individuals, as neo-Mamluk style: Cairo Railway Station, the Museum of well as the court. Thus the Comité should also be Arab Art (later called Museum of ) and considered an influential part of the Mamluk revival that Khedival Library (Dar al-Kutub), and the Awqāf Ministry made its way into Cairo’s modern urban landscape. building. Following its destruction by fire, Cairo Railway Station was rebuilt between 1891 and 1893, following the Max Herz believed the Mamluk period to be the style designs of the British architect Edwin Patsy. representative of modern Egypt. He considered the Mamluk period to be one of “glory, grandeur, power and Abbas Hilmi II inaugurated the Museum of Arab Art and wealth” and Mamluk architecture to be aesthetically Khedival Library in 1903, although Max Herz had already beautiful.xvii Throughout his memoirs, Abbas openly penned the first catalogue for the museum in 1895, referred to himself as an Egyptian descendent of an dedicating it to the Abbas Hilmi II.xx The initial plan was

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to collect and display the objects found during renovations British. The relationship between the Sultan and the of older buildings before the Comité was formally Khedive was strained from the offset, when Abbas established during the reign of Khedive Ismā´īl. A bypassed Istanbul on his first European tour as Head of temporary museum was set-up in the courtyard of the State.xxiv mosque complex of al-Hakim (990). However, overcrowding of the facility necessitated the creation of a The first task the Khedive undertook was the reconstruction new museum space, postponed until 1870, when Khedive of the façade and , at the al-Azhar in 1892. The Tawfiq asked Franz to organise a museum. The project, facilitated by the Comité, lasted until 1897. Since Comité took over the project at the moment of its inception, its founding in 969, the al-Azhar has been continuously which included as a requirement, stated in Article IV of the given additions and renovations, a testimony to its Khedival Decree dated 1881, that the Commission “…will importance in Cairene society. Abbas Hilmi II’s devote its attention to all objects discovered which may be contribution to the mosque was part of an effort by the of interest in regard to Arab art.”xxi In 1883, a museum was Comité to modernise the surrounding neighbourhood. constructed in the courtyard of the al-Hakim mosque, which was later abandoned for the present building. The building In 1894, the Khedive commissioned a mausoleum for his designed by the Italian architect, Alfonso Manescalo, is an late father, Khedive Tawfiq, in the eastern cemetery. It was imposing, freestanding structure with a wide pishtaq portal. designed by Dimitri Fabricus , then chief architect of An equal number of recesses on either side of the main door the Khedival buildings in the Daira Khassa. In a surround the windows, and stylised crenulations span the publication entitled, Mausolée d’Afifi, Érigé à la Mémoire roof. de Feu Son Altesse le Khedive Tewfiq, the architect is quoted as saying the reason behind the Mamluk revival is The Ministry of Awqāf was built in three successive stages, that it represents the “best époque of Arab architecture.” in 1898, 1911 and 1929. The first stage was undertaken by The building follows the plan of a Mamluk mausoleum: a the palace architect and chief architect of the Ministry, large, squared structure topped with a . The portal is Mahmud Pasha Fahmi al Mi’mar. Both the Museum of flanked with windows set in recesses, a decorative feature Arab Art and The Ministry are good examples of neo- of the Mamluks. The interior is lavishly decorated with Mamluk architecture. They are both freestanding, sculpted plaster and painted wooden ceilings. symmetrically proportioned buildings, accessible through monumental pishtaq portals. The façades are punctuated Visiting tombs and shrines of saints is an important with an equal number of recessed panels topped with trefoil tradition and custom in the Muslim religion. Therefore, crenulations, which frame elongated, rectangular windows Sultans and Amirs have paid particular attention to decorated with stucco . Both buildings are restoring and maintaining shrines and expressive of a period in which the nation was searching for throughout their territory. In Cairo, the aforementioned its identity and consciously constructing a cultural eighteenth century Amir, Katkhudā, reconstructed the trajectory. The neo-Mamluk style, as used in these edifices, mosques and shrines of Sayyida Nafisa, know today as was very much appropriate; particularly considering that Sayyida Aisha, Sayyida Zeynab and Sayyida Sukayna,xxv one of them houses the oldest Islamic charitable institutions with successive making additions and restorations and the other Egypt’s cultural relics. throughout the course of the nineteenth century.

As the leader of Egypt, the Khedive Abbas Hilmi II The Khedive sponsored two mosques that bear his name in commissioned the construction of public religious buildings 1904 and 1905 respectively. The earlier building was and restored some of the most important shrines in Cairo. constructed near Hawsh al Sharqawi, not far from Each one of the commissioned buildings is neo-Mamluk in the Darb al-Ahmar, in the old city. The later building was style. Looked at from the perspective of the political events erected in al-Daher, which at the time was referred to as El of the time, they represent visual symbols of the newly Emiriye.xxvi The two neo-Mamluk structures vary from one emerging, modernised Egypt. The Mamluk revival another in orientation. During the last century both reflected the use of architecture as a means of self- buildings have suffered alterations that greatly reduce the representation. The Comité had already introduced a new possibility of having an accurate vision of the original type of structure into the collective conscious of the structures. The 1904 mosque seems to have been orientated Egyptians: the Arab monument. The architects used the towards a corner unlike the mosque in al Daher. Both are language of their discipline in these mosques to evoke a made of stone and follow a loosely comparable decorative glorious period of Egyptian history, as well as advancing scheme. Window recesses with flank a pishtaq the legitimacy of the patron. The neo-Mamluk style was portal. A trilobed arch with stalactites frames a wooden viewed as the most appropriate symbol of the State. door. Mercedes Volait, who states that Abbas Hilmi II’s participation in the Mamluk revival did not actually The building, dedicated to the Sufi saint al-Rifa’i, was built correspond to the movement when the Awqāf Ministry was in three stages beginning during the reign of Khedive promoting it, further enhances this point.xxii The author Ismā´īl and finished by Max Herz between 1905 and 1911. speculates that this can be loosely seen as a reflection of the The Egyptian architect, Hussein Pasha Fahmy, who studied Khedive’s desire to break from the British rather than in France and at the Polytechnic School in Cairo, was first Egypt’s movement away from the Ottoman Porte.xxiii selected for the task. His plans for a neo-Mamluk structure However, I believe it encompasses both aspects. One can were very similar to Coste’s designs for the Muhammad deduce from his memoirs that the Khedive was just as eager 'Ali mosque. One may speculate that because of his to emancipate Egypt from the Ottoman Empire, as from the training at the Polytechnic School in the capital he had

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probably come into contact with Pascal Coste’s xxvii drawings. Due to a series of financial redesignations Mercedes Volait, «Un Architecte Face a L’Orient : Antoine and the deaths of both the patron - Ismā´īl ‘s mother - and Lasciac (1856-1946) » La Fuite en Egypte: Supplément aux the architect, the project was suspended until Abbas ordered Voyages européens en Orient (, 1986) pp. 265-281, xxviii its completion in 1905. Herz followed the original 1869 plans, which had the structure integrated with its fifteenth ii See `Alī Mubārak, `Alam al-Din , (Alexandria: Matba`at century neighbour, the complex of Sultan Hasan. Jaridat al-Mahrusa, 1882) and al-Khitat al-jadida li-Misr al-qahira wa-muduniha wa-biladiha al-qadima wa-l- The physical history of Cairo should not become an shahira , 20 vols. in 4. (Cairo: Bulaq Press, 1307h 1889/90; ideological discussion. The adaptation of non-indigenous 1st ed. 1305h 1887/8) architectural elements is not new in the process of cultural development and authenticity should not be the main issue iii see Edward Said. Orientalism (New : Pantheon, of the century’s architecture. Instead, the discussion of the 1978) designs should focus on the extent to which the buildings correspond to the needs of society. This should be based on iv Roger Owen, “The Cairo building industry and the its own experiences and its success in adapting the new building boom of 1897 to 1907,” Colloque international sur elements and injecting new meaning into it within its local l’histoire du Caire (27 Mars-5 Avril 1969). (Cairo: Ministry context. Seen from the political perspective, Abbas Hilmi of Culture of the Arab Republic of Egypt, 1972), pp. 337- II was utilising the neo-Mamluk style as a visual stamp to 350 assert his authority over both the British occupying forces and the Ottoman Empire. Seen from a cultural perspective, v Stefan Weber, “Damascus 1900; Urban Transformation, transforming Cairo into an idealised capital city was part of Architectural Innovation and Cultural Change in a Late a trend that started around 1860, which popularised Cairo as Ottoman City (1808-1918),” Proceedings of the Danish a tourist destination and focus for Islamic art and Institute Damascus in cooperation with the German architecture. Cairo was equally promoted in Europe in Institute of Archaeology - Oriental Department (in world fairs as an exotic metropolis, where romanticised preparation, 2008) concepts of the capital were created for public xxix enjoyment. viiIbid (2002), pp. 125-127: Lord Crommer included the following in his official summary of events in Egypt for The changes that took place in Cairo during the course of 1896: “…Mr. Max Herz (Honourary F.S.A) has been the the nineteenth century created new, conceptual views architect in charge of the work of the Commission, and it is within the individual as well the framework of the society at bear justice to say that to his industry and considerable xxx large. The principles that drove these changes led to new technical and archaeological attainments much of the images and actions that were evident in the culture of the present improved manner of supervising and preserving the last decade of the nineteenth century. The dialogue that monuments is undoubtedly due. Herz Bey joins to the developed between the modern theories and the technical training of an architect a familiarity with the autochthonous models resulted in new ways of dealing with history of Arab art, together with a genuine enthusiasm for the built environment resulting in the emergence of what his work… and the complete restorations he has made of became Egypt’s modern cultural heritage. the few smaller mosques are evidence of his insight to Arab construction and decoration, of his technical skill and of his scrupulous fidelity to the original design.” iMohammad Al-Asad, « The Mosque of al-Rifa’i in Cairo » Muqarnas, Vol.10 (1993) pp.108-124; Nezar Alsayyad, viiiSheila Blair and Jonathan Bloom, The Art and Irene Bierman and Nasser Rabbat, ed. Making Cairo Architecture of , (New York: Yale University Press, Medieval (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005); 1995), p.72 Doris Behrens-Abouseif and Stephen Vernoit, ed. Islamic Art in the Nineteenth century: Tradition, Innovation or ix Doris Behrens-Abouseif, of Cairo, Eclecticism? (: Brill Academic Publishers, 2006); An Introduction, (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1989) Jill Edwards, ed. Historians in Cairo: Essays in Honour of George Scanlon (Cairo: American University of Cairo x Volait (2006), pp. 131-155 Press, 2002); Roger Owen, “The Cairo building industry and the building boom of 1897 to 1907,” Colloque xiPascal Coste was the first to make the distinction between international sur l’histoire du Caire (27 Mars-5 Avril medieval and contemporary buildings. His analysis on the 1969). (Cairo: Ministry of Culture of the Arab Republic of trajectory of Arab architectural styles was original and well Egypt, 1972), pp. 337-350; Nasser Rabbat, “The Formation received in Europe. Artists and architects made the trip to of the Neo-Mamluk Style in Modern Egypt,” The Egypt following the publication of his book. Coste's use of Education of the Architect: Historiography, Urbanism and the term, "Arab", became part of a debate on the meaning the Growth of Architectural Knowledge. Essays Presented of the word in relation to its Islamic , or in other to Stanford Anderson on his Sixty-Second Birthday. Martha words, a style (Arabic architecture) that developed Pollak, ed., (Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 1997), 363-86; following the advent of Islam. The term, "Arab", was Stephen Vernoit, "Mamluk Revival," Occidentalism: The accepted by Egyptians as a way of building national pride. Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art (London, 1997), Other idioms such as Muhammadian and Saracenic were p.238; Mercedes Volait, L'architecture moderne en Egypte conceived, as in the example of Stanley Lane-Pool's The et la revue al-`Imara (1939-1959), Cairo: CEDEJ, 1988;

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Art of the Saracens in Egypt (published 1886). For more on xxx This did not necessarily mean that all facets of society this debate, see Habashi, pp. 99-103. and its institutions were in agreement with the changes occurring. xiiNasser Rabbat, “The Formation of the Neo-Mamluk Style in Modern Egypt,” The Education of the Architect (Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1997) p.373 xiii Rabbat (1997), p. 374 xiv Ibid, p. 142 xvSee Rabbat 1997, Mercedes Volait, “Un Architecte Face a L’Orient : Antoine Lasciac (1856-1946) La Fuite en Egypte: Supplément aux Voyages Européens en Orient (Cairo: C.E.D.E.J., 1986) pp. 265-281, and Mohammad Al- Asad, “The Mosque of al-Rifa’i in Cairo“ Muqarnas, Vol.10 (1993) pp.108-124 xvi Ormos (2002), p.128 xvii Ormos (2002), pp.128-130 xviii Sonbol (1998), p. 13 xix The period under investigation was one of major building activities and the neo-Mamluk was not limited to government-sponsored projects or religious institutions. A flurry of buildings was constructed, applying various combinations of Arab architectural devices and patterns. For example, to name only a few: the Grand Ballroom at the Shepard’s Hotel, the main building of the American University of Cairo, which was at one time a tobacco factory, the Bank Misr, Egyptian Engineers Society, Assicurazioni Generali Trieste Apartment Building, the private villas of the architects, Ambroise-Alfred Baudry, Count Zughayb and ‘Umar Sultan and, of course, the Heliopolis Company Buildings on Sharia `Abbas. xx Max Herz, Catalogue Sommaire des Monuments exposé dans le Museé de l’Art Arabe (Cairo: Imprimerie de l'Institut français d'archéologie orientale, 1906) xxi Ibid, p. 10 xxii Volait (2006), p. 138 xxiii Ibid, p. 138 xxiv Sonbol (1998), p. 172 xxv Doris Behrens-Abouseif, “The Abd al-Rahman Katkhudā Style in the 18th Century,” Annales Islamologiques XXVI (1992), pp.117-127 xxvi Cooks guide books to Cairo 1900 xxvii Al-Asad (1993), pp.108-124 xxviii Ibid, p. 117 xxix Zeynep Çelik. Displaying the Orient: Architecture of Islam at Nineteenth-century World's Fairs (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Warner (2005), p. 43

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