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COMPARATIVE AND COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

Series Editor: Vincent Wright

Published Comparative Government and Politics (3rd edition): Rod Hague, Martin Harrop and Shaun Breslin The Government and Politics of the European Community (2nd edition): Neill Nugent The Government and Politics of France: Anne Stevens Communist and Postcommunist Political Systems: An Introduction (3rd edition): Stephen White, John Gardner, George Schopflin and Tony Saich

Forthcoming Dutch Politics: Rudy Andeweg and Galen A. Irwin American Government and Politics: Nigel Bowles The Government and Politics of Spain: Paul Heywood Government and Politics in Italy: Robert Leonardi The Government of : Douglas Webber

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Standing Order Service, Macmillan Distribution Ltd, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, RG21 2XS, England COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT AND POLITI CS

An Introduction Third Edition

Rod Hague Martin Harrop Shaun Breslin

MACMILLANM © Rod Hague, Martin Harrop and Shaun Breslin 1992 © Rod Hague and Martin Harrop 1982, 1987 Softcover reprint of the hardcover I st edition 1992 978-0-333-55819-5

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission.

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any Iicence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London WIP 9HE. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. First edition 1982 Reprinted 1984, 1985, 1987 Second edition 1987 Reprinted 1988, 1989, 1990 (twice), 1991, 1992 Third edition 1992 Published by THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world ISBN 978-0-333-55820-1 ISBN 978-1-349-22276-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-22276-6 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copy-edited and type set by Povey/Edmondson Okehampton and Rochdale, England Summary of Contents

PART 1 STUDYING POLITICS 1 Political Concepts 3 2 The Comparative Approach 23

PART 2 THE NATION-STATE: EVOLUTION AND REVOLUTION 3 The Nation-State in Three Worlds 45 4 Revolution, and Political Change 66 5 The Nation-State in One World 100

PART 3 THE SOCIAL CONTEXT OF POLITICS 6 Political Culture 135 7 Political Participation 156 8 and Voters 182 9 Interest Groups 209 10 Political Parties 234

PART 4 THE STRUCTURE OF GOVERNMENT 11 The Constitutional Framework 261 12 Assemblies 287 13 The Political 313 14 The 342 15 The Military and the Police 367

PART 5 AND PERFORMANCE 16 The Process 347

v Contents

List of tables, figures, maps, exhibits and exercises XVI

Preface XXX

PART 1 STUDYING POLITICS 1 Political Concepts 3 Politics and government 3 The state 6 7 Power 8 Elitist theories 12 Pluralist theories 14 Authority 16 Legitimacy 19 Summary 20 Discussion points 21 Key reading 21 Further reading 22 2 The Comparative Approach 23 The advantages of comparison 24 Providing context 24 Testing hypotheses 24 Improving classifications 25 Making predictions 25 The problems of comparison 27 Controlling comparisons 30 Frameworks of comparison 31 Comparing states 31 Comparing societies 33 Comparing policies 36 Techniques of comparison 37 Case studies 37 Statistical analysis 38 Focused comparisons 39 Summary 40 Discussion points 41

VII Vlll Contents

Key reading 42 Further reading 42

PART 2 THE NATION-STATE: EVOLUTION AND REVOLUTION 3 The Nation-State in Three Worlds 45 The three worlds 45 The first world: heartland of liberal 48 Majority democracy: the Westminster model 50 51 The second world: communism and postcommunism 54 The failure of communism 55 The challenge of postcommunism 56 The third world: the politics of 57 An economic classification 57 From oligarchy to democracy? 58 Summary 63 Discussion points 64 Key reading 64 Further reading 64 4 Revolution, Ideology and Political Change 66 Types of political change 66 What is a revolution? 67 Explaining revolutionary change 68 Marxism 68 Functionalism 70 Social 71 Comparative 73 Three revolutions: France, Russia and Iran 74 France 1789 76 Russia 1917 78 Iran 1979 79 1989: the year of revolutions 82 Documenting the revolutions 82 Interpreting the revolutions 83 Ideology and revolution 90 What is an ideology? 91 How do arise? 91 The end of history? 96 Summary 97 Discussion points 98 Key reading 99 Further reading 99 Contents IX

5 The Nation-State in One World 100 Interdependence and the nation-state 100 The global economy 102 The trading world 102 The competition state 103 National variations 104 Transnational corporations 105 The financial world 108 The global village 109 The global ecology 111 Population growth 112 The first world: the driving force 113 From regulation to markets 113 From markets to blocs? 114 The second world: from isolation to integration 119 The old order: problems of isolation 120 The collapse 120 The new order: problems of integration 121 The third world: dependence or interdependence? 124 Liberal theory 125 126 Summary 130 Discussion points 131 Key reading 131 Further reading 132 PART 3 THE SOCIAL CONTEXT OF POLITICS 6 Political Culture 135 The first world 136 The civic culture 136 Ideological hegemony 139 Postmaterialism 141 The second world 142 The failure of transformation 142 Political culture and the collapse of communism 144 The third world: local political cultures 145 Tradition and modernity 146 Political socialisation 147 Liberal and radical theories 148 Elite political culture 151 Summary 153 Discussion points 154 Key reading 154 Further reading 155 x Contents

7 Political Participation 156 Types of participation 156 The first world 157 How much, by whom, so what? 157 New politics 159 The second world 162 Regimented participation 162 The transition to postcommunism 165 The third world 167 Patrons and clients 168 Participation and development 168 Public opinion 170 Opinion polls 172 The media 173 The first world 173 The second world 175 The media under communism 175 The media and postcommunism 177 The third world 178 Summary 179 Discussion points 180 Key reading 181 Further reading 181

8 Elections and Voters 182 First world elections: bottom-up or top-down? 182 Elections in the second world 184 Elections under communist rule 184 Elections and the decay of communist rule 186 Postcommunism: the founding elections 187 Elections in the third world 190 Electoral systems 191 Converting votes into seats 192 Evaluating electoral systems 195 The social base of parties 196 The national revolution 198 The industrial revolution 200 The post-industrial revolution 201 Parties of reaction 202 Parties in the new world 202 behaviour in liberal 203 Classifying elections 203 Dealignment 205 Summary 206 Contents Xl

Discussion points 207 Key reading 207 Further reading 208 9 Interest Groups 209 Classifying interest groups 210 Customary groups 211 Institutional groups 211 Protective groups 212 Promotional groups 213 Geographic groups and social movements 214 Channels of access 215 Direct dealings with government 216 Indirect influence through parties 218 Indirect influence through the media 219 What makes an interest group influential? 220 The first world: pluralism or ? 222 Pluralism 222 Corporatism 224 The second world: from channelled to active groups? 227 Groups under communist rule 227 The emergence of active groups 228 Groups in the third world 229 Summary 231 Discussion points 232 Key reading 232 Further reading 233 10 Political Parties 234 The functions of parties 235 Parties in the first world 236 Party organisation 236 Party competition 240 Parties in the second world 241 Ruling communist parties 242 Means of control 245 Decline and fall 246 Postcommunist parties 247 Parties in the third world 249 No-party systems 249 One-party systems 250 Multi-party systems 251 Are parties in decline? 253 Summary 255 Discussion points 256 Xli Contents

Key reading 256 Further reading 257

PART 4 THE STRUCTURES OF GOVERNMENT 11 The Constitutional Framework 261 Constitutions 262 Classifying constitutions 262 The origins of constitutions 263 Revising and replacing constitutions 263 When do constitutions succeed? 267 268 Federations and confederations 268 The origins of federations 270 Classifying federations 271 The consequences of federalism 272 Central-provincial relationships 273 Assessment 275 Unitary government 276 Dual and fused systems 276 The two-way stretch 278 The 279 Administrative justice 280 Judicial independence and recruitment 280 Interpreting the constitution 282 The judiciary in the second world 283 The judiciary in the third world 284 Summary 285 Discussion points 285 Key reading 286 Further reading 286 12 Assemblies 287 Structure of assemblies 288 Number of chambers 288 Committees 289 Functions of assemblies 292 Representation 292 Making 295 -making and scrutiny 296 Recruitment and socialisation 297 Assemblies in three worlds: a policy classification 298 First world assemblies: policy-making and influencing 299 Second world: the assembly as theatre 302 Assemblies under communist rule 302 Contents Xlll

Assemblies in postcommunist states 303 Third world assemblies: minimal and vulnerable 305 Problems of third-world assemblies 306 Functions of third world assemblies 307 The fall and rise of assemblies? 308 Summary 310 Discussion points 311 Key reading 311 Further reading 312 13 The Political Executive 313 What does the political executive do? 313 The first world: presidential executives 315 The 315 France 318 Finland 319 Assessment 320 The first world: parliamentary systems 320 Heads of state in parliamentary systems 321 Government and parliament 323 Prime ministers and cabinets 324 Collective responsibility 328 The second world: the communist executive 329 Personality cults 330 Succession crises 331 Formal structures: state and party 332 The second world: the post communist executive 335 The third world executive 336 Personal and unaccountable rule 336 Towards accountable executives 338 Summary 339 Discussion points 340 Key reading 341 Further reading 341 14 The Bureaucracy 342 The functions of 342 Sources of bureaucratic power 344 How are bureaucracies organised? 345 Bureaucracy in the first world 349 Organisation 350 Recruitment 351 Political control 353 The reach of political appointments 354 Norms of ministerial responsibility 355 XIV Contents

The use of political advisers 355 Bureaucracy in the second world 358 Bureaucratic power in the communist states 358 Organisation in the communist states 359 Bureaucracy in postcommunist states 360 Bureaucracy in the third world 361 The colonial legacy 361 Patronage and privilege 362 Summary 364 Discussion points 365 Key reading 365 Further reading 366 15 The Military and the Police 367 The state in uniform 367 The military: who guards the guards? 367 The first world: the liberal model 368 The military and policy-making 368 The military as a police force 370 The second world: the penetration model 371 The party in the army 371 The army in the party 372 The military and the collapse of communism 373 The third world: military coups 376 Types of military rule 376 Motives for military coups 377 Back to the barracks? 378 The police 380 Liberal and radical perspectives 381 Structure and organisation 381 Specialisation 383 Community or reactive policing? 384 Community relations 385 Policing the police 386 The police and politics 387 The secret police and surveillance 389 Summary 391 Discussion points 392 Key reading 393 Further reading 393 Contents xv

PART 5 POLICIES AND PERFORMANCE 16 The Policy Process 397 The policy focus 397 Synoptic and incremental models 398 Stages of the policy process 402 Initiation 402 Formulation 403 Implementation 404 Evaluation 406 The first world 406 Policy styles 406 The welfare state 409 Defining the welfare state 409 Development of the welfare state 409 Classifying welfare states 411 A crisis of the welfare state? 413 The second world 414 The planned economy 415 What did the planned economy achieve? 415 Dismantling the planned economy 418 The third world: policy stagnation 421 Summary 423 Discussion points 424 Key reading 424 Further reading 425 Appendix Information Sources for Politics Students 426 Books about specific countries and regions 426 Reference books 429 Keeping up to date 430 Starting a literature search 430 Books for the beach 430 References 432 Glossary 458 Index 473 List of Tables, Figures, Maps, Exhibits and Exercises

• Tables

1.1 Forms of power 10 1.2 Weber's classification of types of authority 18 2.1 Almond and Powell's functions of political systems 35 4.1 1989 - a year of revolution 84 5.1 The economic might of transnational corporations 107 5.2 Membership of major international organisations in Europe 115 6.1 Liberal and radical perspectives on political socialisation 148 7.1 Old and new politics 161 8.1 Eastern Europe and the founding elections 188 8.2 Main types of in liberal democracies 193 8.3 Some social bases of parties 199 8.4 A classification of United States elections 204 9.1 A classification of interest groups 213 10.1 Duverger's classification of political parties 238 11.1 Financial transfers from central governments to subnational governments 274 11.2 The balance of power between central and local government in unitary states 277 11.3 Methods of selecting judges 281 12.1 A policy classification of assemblies 298 14.1 Structures of administration 348 14.2 Background characteristics that increase the chances of entry into the bureaucratic and political elites in liberal democracies 353 14.3 Modes of control over bureaucracies 370 15.1 Police politics: a glossary 382 16.1 Introduction of social insurance, selected countries 410

• Figures

1.1 Government, state, and society 5 1.2 Elitist and pluralist views of power 12

XVI List of Tables, Figures, Maps, Exhibits and Exercises XVll

2.1 Easton's model of the political system 34 3.1 World divisions, circa 1983 46 3.2 Protective democracy: the US constitutional system 49 4.1 The J-curve theory of revolutions 73 5.1 Trade as a percentage of gross domestic product, 1988 105 5.2 Eurocentric and Pacific-centred views of the world 117 5.3 World automobile manufacturing 118 6.1 Almond and Verba's theory of the civic culture 137 6.2 Political learning and participation across the life-cycle: the liberal view 149 7.1 The diamond of political participation 158 7.2 Percentage of women cabinet ministers following most recent general elections 160 7.3 Attitudes to participation in Finland and the United States 163 9.1 A classification of interest groups 210 9.2 Channels of interest group influence 215 10.1 Organisation of the Chinese Communist Party 244 10.2 Communist party control over society 245 11.1 The territorial distribution of power 269 13.1 The presidential executive 316 13.2 The semi-presidential executive 319 13.3 The parliamentary executive 321 13.4 Soviet executive structure, 1936-91 333 15.1 Military spending as a proportion of GNP 370 16.1 Stages of the policy process 402 16.2 Dimensions of national policy style 408 16.3 Attitudes towards business people in Eastern Europe 420

• Maps

Peters' projection of the world XXll 5.1 The Baltic 122

• Exhibits

2.1 The origins of comparative politics: 's classification of governments 26 2.2 Easton's model of the political system 34 3.1 New Zealand: majority democracy under strain 52 3.2 Consensus democracy: Finland 53 3.3 : democracy and dynasty 61 4.1 The perfect revolutionary situation 75 XV1l1 List of Tables, Figures, Maps, Exhibits and Exercises

4.2 The 'isms of politics 92 5.1 : sliding down the first division 104 5.2 The Baltic republics: joining the world league 123 5.3 South Korea: promotion from the third division 126 6.1 The benevolent monarch: how British children see the Queen 150 7.1 Women in government 160 7.2 Regimented participation: 's sparrows 164 8.1 Getting out the vote, communist style 186 9.1 Do interest groups strangle nations? 223 9.2 Austria: a corporatist waltz? 225 11.1 The European Community: a chronology 265 12.1 The legislative pork barrel 294 13.1 How powerful are prime ministers? 326 13.2 The Dutch Prime Minister: not yet a chief 327 13.4 Mikhail Gorbachev: communism's undertaker 334 14.1 The Minister's tale 346 14.2 Bureaucratic power in 347 14.3 Controlling the bureaucracy: a lesson from France? 357 15.1 How not to stage your coup: the Soviet Union, August 1991 374 15.2 How to stage your coup: the mechanics of military takeover 379 15.3 Policing Japanese-style 385 15.4 Civilian control of the police in Sweden 388 16.1 The language of policy analysis 399 16.2 China's Great Leap Forward ... into starvation 401 16.3 'Private enterprise' in the Soviet Union 416 16.4 Mixed views about the market 420

• Exercise

8.1 Gulf War II: showing the effect of electoral systems 197 Preface

When a journalist asked British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan which aspect of the job caused him most difficulty, he replied, 'Events, dear boy, events.' We know just what he meant. Rewriting this book to take account of the dramatic events in the political world in the late 1980s and early 1990s has proved to be a challenging exercise. In this new edition, we have given full coverage to the collapse of communism and to the emergence of postcommunist regimes in Eastern Europe. In rewriting all the sections on the second world, we aimed to give at least as much coverage to postcommunist governments as to their predecessors. In fact, limits of information and perspective mean that we have not kept completely to our own promise. But we think it has borne fruit anyway. We are delighted that Shaun Breslin, a young second- world specialist at Newcastle, agreed to join the existing authors for this edition - and we're even more pleased with his vivid coverage of the momentous developments in the second world. On a minor note, we have used the past tense when referring to communist party states, except when discussing those states (notably China), where communist rulers still hang on to power. The democratic revolution in the third world has been quieter, but perhaps no less important, than the changes in the second world. The retreat of the generals in Latin America has transformed the nature of regimes there. Elsewhere, international pressures have encouraged a transition towards democracy. We have sought to reflect these devel- opments, too, in this edition. All this raises the question: If democracy is now universal, why have we retained a three worlds approach? The answer is that we still think this is the best and simplest way to capture contrasts between countries. The political differences between , Chile and Czechoslovakia remain fundamental, even if they all now share democratic forms. The political agenda in a country is set by where a country comes from, as well as where it is now. The agenda also depends on the country's relationship to the world economy. On both dimensions, the differences between the three worlds are still vast. The world, however, continues to shrink. Traditionally, comparative politics texts, including this one, have underplayed the whole issue of

XIX xx Preface interdependence between nations. We have therefore added a new chapter on 'the nation-state in one world' to this edition. Its purpose is to draw out those features of global politics which impinge most on politics within the nation-state. It reflects our belief that the dynamics of politics rest neither in national nor in global politics, but rather in the interaction between the two. This book conforms to the law that new editions are always bigger. 'Elections and voters' and 'the military and police' now rate chapters of their own. Indeed, the section on the police is entirely new. The two opening chapters have also been strengthened, in order to provide a general introduction to political concepts (Chapter 1) and to compara- tive politics specifically (Chapter 2). New sections in other chapters include: majority and consensus democracy (Chapter 3); 1989 - the year of revolutions (Chapter 4); postmaterialism (chapter 6); new politics, public opinion, opinion polls and the media (Chapter 7); and the welfare state (Chapter 16). We're pleased that this book is used in several countries where English is not the first language. We owe a special duty of clarity to such readers and we have made an effort to improve our expression throughout the book. Alison Wright, a recent politics graduate, went through the text for us, simplifying paragraphs, sentences and words. Passive sentences were also transformed by her into active ones (though she missed that one!) We are grateful to her for this careful work and to Paul Gliddon, another politics graduate, for compiling the index. Thanks also to Keith Povey, our copy editor for three editions of the book, for his painstaking work. In these days of expanding student numbers, it's important for texts to provide students with a framework for independent study. We have tried to achieve this by including discussion points and key readings at the end of each chapter. We've also added an appendix giving detailed advice on information sources. We hope this will be useful for students' essays and projects. The appendix includes a detailed list of recent country and , many (not all!) of which were used in preparing this edition. We've also included more sign posting in this edition, through a more detailed contents section and by adding chapter summaries. In response to feedback from students, this edition also contains more devices to break up the text and an extensive glossary of concepts. We want to thank all our colleagues around the world who responded to our request for advice on how best to revise the book. The replies (and reading lists) really were helpful in setting the agenda for the revisions. Comments from experts on particular countries also helped us to broaden our range of examples, and in particular to Preface XXI provide more coverage of Australasia, North America, the Netherlands and Scandinavia. We're especially grateful to the wise owls who advised us not to change too much! Specific thanks to: Peter Aimer, University of Auckland Rudy Andeweg, University of Leiden Hugh Berrington, University of Newcastle upon Tyne Craig Dearden, University of Newcastle upon Tyne George Jones, London School of Economics Steven Kennedy, Macmillan Jan-Erik Lane, Lund University, Roger Leys, Institute of Political Studies, Copenhagen Chris Rudd, University of Otago Ulf Sundhaussen, University of Queensland Vincent Wright, Nuffield College, Oxford

The authors and publishers are grateful to The Observer for permission to reproduce the article by Sir John Harvey-Jones in its edition of 25 August 1991. What began in the 1980s as an introduction to comparative govern- ment has now broadened out in the 1990s into a comparative introduction to politics. Although the book itself has changed over the years, our underlying aim has not. We have sought to write a clear and up-to-date introduction to politics for students beginning their study of the subject. We hope this edition goes a little further towards fulfilling that objective.

ROD HAGUE MARTIN HARROP SHAUN BRESLIN --- >< FINLANO ,. ~:

~ J ~PHILIPPINES

~(J~~' KEY: EUROPE

1 IRELAND ~.~~" 2 BRITAIN 3 DENMARK 4 NETHERLANDS 5 BELGIUM 6 FRANCE 7 ITALY 8 AUSTRIA 9 POLAND 10 CZECHOSLOVAKIA 11 HUNGARY 12 YUGOSLAVIA 13 ROMANIA 14 GREECE 15 GERMANY Q 4~E~LAND 16 BULGARIA 17 ALBANIA 18 SWITZERLAND

Peters' projection of the world