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Nebraska Anthropologist Anthropology, Department of

1999

The Collecting Culture: An Exploration of the Collector Mentality and Archaeology's Response

Tamie Sawaged

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Sawaged, Tamie, "The Collecting Culture: An Exploration of the Collector Mentality and Archaeology's Response" (1999). Nebraska Anthropologist. 121. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/nebanthro/121

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Anthropology, Department of at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Nebraska Anthropologist by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. The Collecting Culture: An Exploration of the Collector Mentality and Archaeology's Response

Tamie Sawaged

The collecting of cultural remains and the looting of sites have serious repercussions for the preservation of the archaeological record. The scientific community has long bemoaned this situation but has developed few effective, proactive measures to stem the activities of collectors and looters. This lack of success can be attributed partially to a failure in researching and understanding the driving forces behind the collecting phenomenon. Thus, this paper has several main goals: to provide the archaeologist with some basic understanding of the collecting culture from the collector's perspective; to encourage the use of an integrated, multidisciplinary approach to address this issue; and to offer suggestions for the creation of new initiatives.

The Collecting Phenomenon to escape the problem by labeling any endeavor to check these practices as futile Over the last decade, the attention (Fagan 1996). directed by the archaeological community toward the collecting phenomenon and its This mentality of the archaeologist impact on the archaeological record has speaks to a problem that undermines efforts increased dramatically. Many to combat the collecting of artifacts. archaeologists fervently condemn the Archaeologists place the local collector who actions of collectors and their collects as a hobby on his/her own land or "collaborators," the looters, but few have with the permission of landowners in the taken active steps to reduce this damage to same category as the major collector who the archaeological record. In particular, may hire looters to procure items of value. archaeologists may be criticized on several However, a great disparity exists between accounts. Literature condemning the the two, the former often has no knowledge practices of collecting and looting is of the legal and ethical ramifications of circulated primarily among professionals, his/her actions; the latter is fully aware of and thus access to such information by lay them and may engage in the illicit people is limited. Further, much of this smuggling and/or purchase of antiquities. literature simply provides a laundry list of To treat the amateur collector as a hardened the adverse effects that collecting has on the criminal incapable of reform is ludicrous archaeological record, with practical and unproductive. In fact, it is entirely suggestions for dealing with these activities plausible that the same energy expended by glaringly absent. In print, archaeologists the average person in collecting artifacts can have encouraged public outreach and be redirected with the help of the education directed toward current and archaeologist to aid the preservation effort. potential collectors but have failed to To use the same methods to combat the implement such programs on a wide-scale collecting by amateurs and professionals level. Finally, archaeologists have failed to would be ineffective as well. The majority fully understand why people collect and to of amateur collectors do not violate any target those motivations, instead preferring legal restrictions, whereas the professional

80 collector may violate federal statutes, posed by art historians (i.e. compOSition, international law, and import/export color schemes, technique, symbolism, and regulations. content). Thus, objects of fine art may be collected, sold, relocated, and recollected No strategy aimed at dissuading without damage to their intrinsic values antiquities collecting can be successful (including monetary values). The same without an understanding of the motivations cannot be said for artifacts, as context is for collecting from the collector's point of vital when addressing archaeological view. Thus, this paper presents information questions. Furthermore, collecting is a on the culture of collecting and provides museum's primary activity, and a person some suggestions to archaeologists to more entering into this collector's paradise effectively deal with this phenomenon. witnesses the awe and approval of patrons Understanding why people feel impelled to and hence may be inspired to collect. In the "transform their fascination with the past Guide to the Arts of Americas, the author into a lust to own it" may enable researchers succinctly presents the attitude of the major, to devise strategies to combat looting and wealthy collector: collecting (Fagan 1996:241). It is also important to remember that not all private To a large extent the argument against collections stem from the activities of collecting is influential because its looters or artifact hunters. Indeed, many proponents often promote it very collections remain within the same family aggressively. They also tend to express for generations after initial purchase from themselves intemperately, customarily the manufacturer and may be sold at auction referring to those in favor of collecting as or donated to a museum once interest in 'looters,' 'grave robbers,' and 'criminals,' them wanes. since many objects in museums and private collections were originally found in tomb The Collector Mentality: an Ernie sites by excavators who sold the articles in Perspective the art market, often flouting local law .... (It may be argued that archaeologists also are Like many archaeologists, collectors 'grave robbers' who take objects from tombs often first become entranced by material for their own professional purposes.) ... objects and collecting after visiting a Illegal digging has been going on all over museum. Thus, museum administrators the world for thousands of years, and it is must become more aware of the messages foolish to think that anything will stop it.. .. presented to their patrons through displays Indeed, because of the relatively small and institutional policies. In many museum number of archaeologists and the limited catalogues, artifacts are not distinguished time and money available to them, a very from art. Displays of ethnographic and large number of ancient works would remain archaeological materials generally focus on buried, perhaps forever (yielding neither art the physical attributes of the objects nor information), were it not for the themselves, providing little or no economic incentive that collecting provides information on the importance of context. nonscientific excavators.... For the most Items considered to be "fine art" (portable part, the knowledge acquired In art) by art historians possess pertinent archaeological digging, if any, is only information in a self-contained package; marginally interesting to the scientists and of generally, the objects themselves are prized. such small value to others as to be Context is useful to the extent that a negligible. The question is, then, is the pedigree of ownership may be established possible loss of some information of small and fakes or forgeries detected. For interest to the world at large, or even the example, a Renoir painting in-and-of-itself occasional loss of some information of provides answers to most of the questions somewhat greater interest, worth depriving

81 the world of the millions of aesthetically and situ impossible and seriously reducing the spiritually enriching experiences provided scientific potential of collected artifacts. by many fine works of art? Even if a work is brought out, it remains effectively lost to Fred Reinfeld, a com collector, the world if it is kept in the cellar of a attributes his fascination with acqumng university archaeology department. There is coins to several factors that correspond to no reason why, once the information it can collecting in general: coins are miniature yield has been scientifically recorded, it works of art; possessing rare coins increases should not be sold .. .in practice the works a collector's pleasure; the durability of such they [the collector] acquire tend eventually objects increases their attractiveness; and to be bought by or donated to museums ... perhaps most importantly, coins are without these collectors these works might witnesses to the past-"every coin tells us never become available (Johnson 1992:7-8). something about the history of the period when it was minted" (1969:5-7). The small-time collector may not take Additionally, collecting as a hobby serves to such a philosophical approach, instead "take his [her] mind off of the trials and preferring to speak plainly about the joy of tribulations of everyday life," and thus has a collecting "art" or "antiques,,,6 often referred therapeutic effect (Bricker 1951: 15). to as "treasures." Again, museums often are responsible for stimulating the interest of a Although many collectors purchase would-be collector (Salter 1971 :ii-iii). For antiquities from dealers and auctions, an some, it is the enjoyment of seeing and equal number of collectors actively search owning beautiful, creative work molded by out artifacts from prehistoric and historic human ancestors that encourages the archaeological sites. This type of collecting collecting of such items (Salter 1971 :iii). is extremely damaging to the scientific Correspondingly, many people collect reconstruction of the past. Treasure hunting objects to satisfy some nostalgic sentiment magazines, handbooks, and source books or to continue the legacy of their familial provide artifact hunters with general predecessors (Salter 1971). Many locations, background information, and collectors, particularly the wealthy, engage prices for archaeological materials. In the in connoisseurship, recognIzmg and Artifact Hunter's Handbook, the author collecting only the best and rejecting reiterates those factors that make collecting forgeries or fakes (Lanmon 1999: 13-14). such an enjoyable activity: "to find Connoisseurs are discerning in their something unexpected - a small surprise to selection and extremely knowledgeable interrupt the routine of an otherwise about their purchases, rating the value of ordinary day"; to find a "palpable link to the objects based on appearance, condition, and exciting story of a civilization's past" authenticity, with a history of ownership and (Hudoba 1979:v); and "perhaps it is because provenience important in weeding out fakes of our disenchantment with the sameness of (Lanmon 1999: 14-15, 18-20). As a result, machine-made items produced for our daily collections generally are not procured in use that there is such keen interest in their entirety, thus making comparisons with handmade artifacts from the not too distant like items and other artifacts discovered in past, particularly artifacts that reflect the indi vidual ity of the producer" (16). Labeling himself and other artifact collectors as amateur archaeologists, 6 The author recognizes the differences between Hudoba encourages the artifact hunter to "antiques," "antiquities," and "art." However, as gain information on possible site locations similar factors motivate the collecting of each of and on the culture histories of the artifacts. these categories of objects and as many colle'ctors do not distinguish between these To this end, the collector must become categories. all three labels are used in this paper. immersed in the literature on the desired

82 artifacts, visit local museums and attend both the domestic and international markets meetings of local history and antiquities as major contenders. Pre-Columbian shell societies, and contact others (including and stone carvings, ceramic figures and museum curators and professional animals, stone sculpture, terracotta archaeologists) for information (5-6). miniatures, Moche ceramic vessels, and Furthermore, the author offers suggestions ancient jewelry are in high demand - a of possible locations for finds, including demand maintained by the relatively river banks and bluffs, county dirt roads, inexpensive price tags associated with such caves, farmers' fields, areas of ground items (Johnson 1992: 17-22). American disturbance, urban renewal areas, and along Indian" art" is equally popular, although the water or land trails used by voyageurs and costs of these objects are considerably pioneers. It is interesting that these areas are higher than their southern counterparts. precisely the same locations that are Objects most attractive to major domestic attractive to archaeologists. The use of and international collectors are: materials historical records, maps, metal detectors, made prior to 1850 (general time of and digging instruments is recommended. synthesis with European materials and Interestingly enough, the author styles); Southwest prehistoric pottery, distinguishes himself from the "swarms of animal effigies, and Mimbres vessels (prices battlefield memento hunters wantonly have increased steadily); Indian textile digging and scarring the landscape," weavings, particularly those of the Navajo claiming that the discovery of artifacts on and Northwest Coast Chilkat (command areas not protected by state and federal lands prices up to $500,000); Navajo, Hopi, and aids the archaeologist in identifying Zuni silver and turquoise jewelry; basketry potential sites (9, 40). He also reassures the from the Southwest, California, and reader that although the National Park Northwest Coast ($250,000-$350,000 each); Service protects some thirty million acres of Hopi kachinas; and stone tools (particularly national parks, monuments, battlefield, and popular among collectors in the Midwest) historic sites, millions of acres of land (Johnson 1992:23-27). In addition, owned by corporations and private eighteenth and nineteenth century Eskimo individuals are still available for survey after ivory carvings and Indian contemporary arts permission is granted (9-10). Without a and crafts have become more appealing to doubt, it is with these scores of people, the collectors. Materials associated with the artifact hunters, that archaeologists must Ghost Dance and other spiritual rites and develop a discourse if public opinion objects depicting American flags and eagles regarding the collecting of archaeological are also popular items on the antiquities material is ever to change. market (Johnson 1992:27-28). Regionalism in the purchasing patterns of North Current Trends in the North American American antiquities appears to be Antiquities Market dissipating as international buyers are paying more attention to these works The international market for (Johnson 1992:31). European, African, and Asian art and artifacts has remained strong as evident by The average local collector obviously the growing volume of legal sanctions and cannot afford such exorbitant prices. cooperative ventures between international Therefore, he or she is more likely to attend agencies designed to stem illicit trade (see county auctions and to patronize antique Koczka 1989 for a compilation of domestic shops and "mom- and-pop" dealer and international laws protecting cultural establishments. Furthermore, they are property; also Eyo 1986 and Greenfield equally likely to assemble their collections 1989). Over the last several decades, North firsthand by scouring the backwoods of and South American antiquities have entered America with metal detectors. Prehistoric

83 stone tools (every local collector seems to collecting habits of the groups they hope to have a collection of arrowheads) are favored target in order to make their appeal directly by the artifact collector as is pottery, albeit relevant to collectors. Furthermore, to label to a lesser extent since potsherds are more all collecting and all collectors as criminal difficult to see and identify compared to and unethical is fanatical and unproductive. shiny, multi-colored stone tools. Unlike the Archaeologists will never be able to wealthy collector that tends to purchase eradicate collecting entirely, for it appears to items of a particular style or time period (i.e. be a part of human nature; therefore, Clovis projectile points or effigy figures), professionals must decide which battle is the artifact hunter is generally more eclectic worth fighting and which will provide the in taste and collects a wider variety of most positive outcome. Archaeologists tend historic and prehistoric objects. to focus on the actions of major collectors, Furthermore, colonial and pioneer artifacts and undoubtedly it is this group that is the including homestead, battlefield, and fort primary driving force behind large-scale, paraphernalia are of great interest to the intensive looting activities; however, it has local collector for several reasons: such been illustrated that the activities of the local items are generally more visible to the naked collector or artifact hunter may be just as eye since they are not as likely to be covered damaging to the preservation of the by several meters of dirt as are prehistoric archaeological record. artifacts; such items often are readily detected by metal detectors unlike stone The Collecting Mentality: an Etic artifacts; and finally, these historic artifacts Perspective cater to nostalgic sentiment and bespeak to a heritage more familiar to many Americans The above discourse represents an than do 3,000 year old scrapers, for attempt to understand the collecting example. In terms of monetary value, mentality from the perspective of the Euroamerican period pieces range from five collector and to shed light on the differences dollars to several hundred, with antique and similarities between groups of furniture bringing in the highest prices at collectors. It is also important to examine several thousand dollars (Kovel 1987). the literature on the collecting culture Examples of the market value of Native presented by the scientific community, American objects according to 1987 figures particularly the psychologist. What are as follows: Pima basket (early 1800s) - underlying, psychological motivations or $550, small Osage basket - $30, Navajo needs fuel the passion to collect? Is basket (coil construction) - $100, Navajo collecting an innate part of human behavior blanket (geometric border) - $525, Navajo and hence unchangeable? In Collecting: An ceremonial bracelet - $475, Effigy lizard Unruly Passion, psychologist Werner flute - $100, Hopi kachina - $135, Pipe ax Muensterberger explains the collecting (hard dark stone) - $95, Chippewa sash - impulse as a repressed need to substitute for $20; Tomahawk - $490 (Kovel 1987:278- a "not immediately discernible sense of 280). deprivation or loss of vulnerability ... closely allied with moodiness and depressive Understanding the purchasing and/or leanings" (3). As puzzling to the observer, collecting patterns of the consumer is vital collectors themselves often cannot explain to developing strategies specifically or understand the all-consuming drive to designed to reach each sector of the collect or the intense emotion involved in collecting culture. To address the large­ acquiring new objects. It is apparent that scale art collector, the antique shopper, and collecting is more than just a matter of the artifact hunter as a homogenous entity is experiencing pleasure in the object itself; if a potentially disastrous, futile endeavor. this was the case, one object would be Archaeologists must be aware of the enough, hence negating the need for

84 repetitive acquisition (Muensterberger mastery. . . . these possessions ...are but 1994: II). Collecting fulfills an innate stand-ins for themselves. And while they longing to assuage feelings of guilt and use their objects for inner security and outer dread, anxiety and loneliness that may stem applause, their deep inner function is to from childhood experiences. Dedicated screen off self-doubt and unassimilated collectors become attached to objects and memories. . .. we see how collecting has use them to represent self-identity and self­ become an almost magical means for definition (Muensterberger 1994:4, 8-9). undoing the strains and stresses of early life Muensterberger clarifies, using the story of and achieving the promise of goodness (12- the great collector of love, Don Juan, as a 13). metaphor: Jean Baudrillard expands upon this The lustful escapades of Don Juan psychological interpretation of the collecting were not just an unusual young man's phenomenon by analyzing the collecting unusual adventures .... He is not truly loving culture as a system, with the object fulfilling but in need of reassurance that he is wanted various desires of the owner. Objects that and lovable. In essence he is lonely and are collectable are those that are divested of forever trying to gain assurance from what their primary functions and made relative to our young Don Juan described as objects. the subject; that is, a freezer is not a Against this backdrop, it can be seen that collectible item since its primary purpose is much of what has been said about the Don as an implement and, as such, will always Juan also applies to many devoted and direct the collector back to the real world passionate collectors. The intricacies of the (1994:7). The goal of the collector, then, is find; its discovery or attainment; the to piece together a world or a "microcosm" sometimes clever ploys utilized to effect an with him or herself at the center and objects acquisition; the fortuitous circumstances of radiating to him or her (Baudrillard 1994:7). the lucky strike; the energy expended in The possession of one object is never obtaining the object, and occasionally the enough since that object invariably belongs waste of time; the preoccupation with the to a set and thus extends itself beyond the challenge, with rivalry and jealousy ... An sphere controlled by the collector old and often well-disguised urge, an (Baudrillard 1994:8). Ultimately, the emotional hunger, seems to lay the collector is able to recognize him or herself foundation for this needfulness. It is as an absoiutely singular being, unique from frequently accompanied by a vivid and even other beings and independent from the imaginative fantasy that embodies the inner world, since the object he or she possesses is drama the satisfaction-seeking collector can also singular (Baudrillard 1994:9-10). It experience ... The true significance lies in must be reasserted that, although many the, as it were, momentary undoing of archaeologists undoubtedly will scorn these frustrating neediness but is felt as an rationalizations provided by the psychology experience of omnipotence. Like hunger, community, the value of these studies is which must be sated, the obtainment of one tangible. Archaeologists will never be able more object does not bring an end to the to halt the activities of collectors, for this longing. Instead it is the recurrence of the impulse appears to fulfill driving, experience that explains the collector's fundamental needs of the individual. Hence, mental attitude. . .. every new scientists must adopt a practical and realistic addition ...bears the stamp of promise and approach by specifying those types of magical compensation. . . momentary collecting most damaging to the symbolic experiment in self-healing of an archaeological record and, subsequently, ever-present sense of frustration. The engaging in an active discourse with those successful experiment is usually followed by who involved in these pursuits. More a short-lived sense of elation, of triumph and importantly, this literature suggests that it is

85 not the object itself that captivates the local history museums staffed by volunteers; collector, thus it is highly likely that many and giving credit to landowners and people collectors may be persuaded to refocus their who report site locations, all constitute energies on preserving cultural remains. proactive means of garnering public support for the preservation directive. Local Suggestions to Establishing a Discourse collecting societies can become local with Collectors preservation societies, and their members can aid in the safeguarding of archaeological Archaeologists are continually sites from looters hired by major investors, devising new strategies aimed at decreasing thereby changing the social climate from and ideally halting the destruction of one of acceptance of private collections to archaeological sites by looters and vandals. one of disapproval. It is vital that, in the Reactive in nature, such measures have literature produced and in verbal discourse, included lobbying for new state and federal the archaeologist not condemn all types of legislation, increasing site security, and collecting but rather specifies those implementing undercover sting operations to activities that are the most damaging to the arrest looters and collectors or dealers that study and conservation of the archaeological purchase illegal artifacts (Neary 1993a, record. Swaying public opinion from one of 1993b ). However, professionals have failed tolerance and protection of the private to design effective proactive measures to property right with regard to artifacts to one dissuade collectors from acquiring of condemnation will have dramatic effects antiqUItIes and destroying contextual on the major collector of antiquities. informational important to archaeological reconstructions. Part of this failure is due to To establish a discourse with local the attitude of hopelessness and cynicism collectors and artifact hunters in displayed by many archaeologists who view particular, archaeologists must collectors as a homogenous group - the actively disseminate their message. enemy, hardened criminals incapable of To accomplish this, the reform. archaeologist might attend local town and collectors' meetings, Archaeologists forget that many dissuade local farmers and collectors experience the same emotion and townspeople from granting access to are driven by the same motivations as the their lands to nonprofessional scientist but possess different agendas. excavators, deliver seminars and Understanding the driving force, the "unruly lectures at schools and local civic passions" underlying the collecting centers, and publish articles that mentality is vital to the development of address artifact collecting in strategies that redirect people's energy for popular magazines and local collecting into an energy for conservation newspapers. Another proactive and protection. To tap into and channel this strategy with great potential for potential requires a concerted effort on the success is the allocation of funds in part of the archaeological community to each state and/or region for the offer the collector an alternative source of hiring of archaeologists trained in pleasure and fulfillment and to replace that and exclusively devoted to public which is lost in the abandonment of outreach or for the establishment of collecting artifacts with some motivation of separate regional public outreach equal value. To this end, engaging the offices. Furthermore, museums public as volunteers in museums and on digs must emphasize context of discovery and providing these volunteers with as one of the most important valuable, important work; encouraging the elements to an art~fact 's value (for initiatives of townspeople in establishing further i'~formation on the role of

86 museums as collectors of North these problems. In addition, the use of an American artifacts, see Cole 1985). integrated, multidisciplinary approach to The goal of this paper is two-fold: to deal with this issue is highly beneficial and provide the archaeologist with a basic allows for a more complete understanding of understanding of the collecting culture from the phenomenon under scrutiny. the collector's perspective and to encourage the creation of new initiatives that address

References Cited

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87 O'Keefe, Patrick 1997 Trade in Antiquities: Reducing Destruction and Theft. UNESCO, Paris. Reinfeld, Fred 1969 Coin Collectors' Handbook. Doubleday and Company, New York. Salter, Stefan 1971 Joys of HU1lfing Antiques. Hart Publishing Company, New York. Snedeker, Rodney and Michael Harmon 1990 Archaeological Vandalism in the Southeastern National Forests. In, Coping with Site Looting: Southeastern Perspectives, ed. John Ehrenhard. pp. 32-45. National Park Service, Altlanta.

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