Rome Or Death

Home , Carbonari, Young Italy

ROME O R DEATH

The Story of F ascism

CARLETON BEALS

“ u or of Me co A n Inte r reta tion A th xi , p

ﬁllustrateb

THE CE NT URY CO .

New York a nd London 1923 Co r i ht 1923 b py g , , y

TH E CENTURY Co .

PRI NT E D I N U. S . A . CONTENT S

PART I

BA C ! GROUN D A ND ORIGIN S

CIVI L STRI F E

E URO P E A N D THE RIS ORGIMENTO

THE POST- WAR

EARLY A CT IVI T IE S

E ARLY TENDEN C IE S

PART I I

THE AGRAR IAN STRUGGLE

VI AGRARI AN CON DI T ION S

VI I RI SE OF THE COOP ERATIVE M OVEMENT

VI I I RI SE OF THE P O P ULAR PARTY

I! RISE OF THE AGRAR IAN F A SC I ST I

PART I I I

CLAR I F I CATION

RI SE OF LAB OR F A S C I SM

! I DE C LINE OF THE SO C IALIST PARTY

! I I CLAR I F I C A T I ON OF THE F A SCIST PROGRAM

! I I I A DO CTRI NE OF VIOLEN CE CONTENTS

! IV F ORE I GN POLI CIES

! V VERSUS THE LI B ERAL STATE

PART IV

THE MAR C H ON ROM E

THE BREA ! ER OF B ALLOT - B O! E S GROWING TENSION THE M I LITARY H IERAR CHY

THE NA P LES CONVENTION THE M AR C H ON ROM E

PART V THE FAS C IST STATE

! ! I THE D I CTATORSHI P

IN DE! LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

l s Gr ee i n i ven to B en At the conven ti on of Na p e . t g g ito M u ssoli ni a n d M i chele Bi an chi F ron tispiece F A CI NG P A GE

Th B e te NOire of I a i a n o i i c Abbé u i i S u r o 2 8 e t l p l t s , L g t z

’ Deva stati ng the T ypogr a phic a l Worker s H a ll 5 6

The la st bon ﬁ re of the e ff ects Of the deva st a ted P aes e Ofﬁ e T i a er h a s n e er re u med u i ca c s . h s p p v s p bl ti on 5 6

Conventi on of the Pop u la r p a rty i n Rome 1 16

M u o ini e ore the u i rina e ca in u on the in 1 80 ss l b f Q l , ll g p k g

T u r a i a nd M odi i a ni ea der of the Uni a ria So t gl , l s t n ci alistic p a rty 1 80

The Rome con en i on of the Fa ci i i n No em er 19 2 1 24 v t s st v b , 8

In sta llin g a n ew Fa scio in a sma ll vill age 264

Bla ck- Shi rt Ca va lry 2 72

Fa s ci st ca va lry entering Rome 2 72

m n a i i C n i Wo e c . on e o T i ic F s st v t n of Na ples . h s p tu re w a s ta ken in the r a in

F a sci sti r om Si en a Rome Oc o er 3 0 f , , t b

F asci sti rom Ar e o Rom e Oc o er 3 1 19 22 f zz , , t b ,

a ci i rom Floren ce a n d S a n oren o Rome via F s st f L z , , T ri on e Oc o er 3 1 1 9 2 2 t , t b , — Bla ck Shi rts comin g i nto Rome LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Pa r of th e in a di n a r m B lu e - S i rts t v g y, h

F a sci sti vi a Ven e o Rom e Octo er 3 1 1 9 22 , t , , b

- S i r in fr on t Of the r o a a a ce The in Black h ts y l p l . k g i s on the b a lcon y

M u ss olin i mou n tin g the Atla r of the Cou n try from the Pi a a Ven e 1a on No em er 5 1 9 22 i n memor zz z v b , , y of the vi ctory of the Pi ave

The ﬁ r mee i n of M u o i n i ca in e No em er st t g ss l s b t, v b 1 9 2 2

F a sci sti e ore the A a r O the P a ri a No em er 5 b f lt f t , v b 1 9 2 2 PAR T I

BAC! GROUND AND ORIGINS

ROME O R DEATH

CHAPTER I

CIVIL STRIP E

ILAN may well boast of having more burdy-gu r dies than any other city in the

i e n ot e e e . world . Civ l strif has sil nc d th m A

l f e ension i e young cava ry o ﬁc r from my p , qu t

e e e red- e respl nd nt in his blu , strip d pantaloons S e w a s and hiny black l ggings , guiding me down a slot of a street nea r the Porta Venezia in that

e the - e of city wh n rollicking, Old World tun “ ” i u l e F u n c a e . Funiculi , , ﬂoat d around a corn r Picking our way in the shadow of the high grimy tenements and across a garbage - cluttered

e e e w e a e spac b sid a small church , c m upon a smeary bambin o dancing hilariously in the e T he f e e b n gutt r . o ﬁc r point d with his asto e at a small yellowe d poster above the frowsy

h e : head of the woman turning t e crank . I r ad 4 ROME OR DEATH

Pr olet a r ia t : 300 of you r comr a des wer e killed in this str eet du ring the pa st fou r teen months by F a s cisti a n o a u r d R y l G a ds .

Wh e ile I was still marv ling, my companion grasp ed my arm and shoved m e roughly into an

- ﬁ le a inky charcoal shop . A Of F scisti , with

e e e the e h avy load d can s , swung around corn r , “ e e a ezz singing th ir quickst p , Giov n a , Gio v anezza A S a e . though a button h d b e n

e e the Of the a e e - S pr ss d, doors d rk littl win hops

e tra ttorie e a e e and dingy, clatt ring lit r lly xplod d

w ho e the a Communists , f ll upon F scisti with

e e . fists , kniv s , and revolv rs The conflict ebbed and flowed and swirled

the e - - W We around barr l organ . A Show indow nt

e a e the smash . Isolat d comb tants roll d in black ’ e for ea e mir at our doorway, clutching ch oth r s throats . e e one e a a Pr s ntly some rais d a cry, Gu rdi ” Re gia ! A platoon of Olive - green uniforms few and gray iron helm ets swept into View . A

he of ee sporadic Shots , t scurrying many f t , and the e e e e disturbance nd d , lik a tropic thund r

S e e e e . how r, as pr cipitat ly as it had b gun

the a a - Emerging cautiously from ch rco l Shop , I caught a glimpse of a laughing bambino CIVIL STRIFE 5

e the of crawling from und r organ , and a group battered and disheveled Fascisti beating a r e

e he treat around the corn r . T only mortal casualty w a s a donkey that had bee n hitched to a wine - cart over whose twitching carca ss a

- ru nty raccoon faced Neapolitan wept copiously . A S w e passed on I he ard the rollicking strains of “ ” F u nicu la Funiculi , , and , glancing back , saw t he e he bambino dancing hilariously in t gutt r .

the zza e zi Our room, overlooking Pia V ne a , proved better than box - s eats at a series of per forman ces which at that early date still possessed

e The a nov lty . communists and F scisti fought

e e e e e ou r e e a numb r of pitch d battl s b n ath y s , tw o of the victims being a woman in her ﬁna l month of conﬁnement and a servant - girl Shak

ou t o a terra zzo one ing a rug n a dist nt . And ’ ’ e e u fl ed night, about el v n O clock, our window p inwa rd with a terrific roar when the bomb explosion occurred in the Diana Kursaal e e the Th at r across way, a roar that brought my h e ou t ee ee t e . wif of a sound sl p , f t to floor For of the e two hours bawling confusion , polic medical corps was carrying ou t the dead and e b e e e wound d, umping through an unr gulat d lan

o e e a e . e e e f xcit d byst nd rs In Flor nc , ight m e e - e onths aft rward, I was in a movi hous 6 ROME OR DEATH when the audience stampeded to the exits at a “ ” false cry of Bomb ! and my imagination w a s stabbed w ith the horror I had witne ss ed in

. The e the e the Milan sam night as xplosion , in

e the n ew - e a e latt r city, million lir Soci list h ad e w a s e e the a ee quart rs d stroy d , v rious m ting — pla ce s of the sinda ca ti or la bor unions were in

e e e vad d , and an unsucc ssful attack mad upon “ ” the Ana rchist paper La Umanita Nuova . From Florence came the news Of the erection of Communist barricades in the Oltrarno district ; o of ea from Puglia, an acc unt a p sant uprising ; e the e of the b of e from Tri st , r port urning tw nty ’ ﬁ ve million dollars worth of lumb er in the S an a e n a e M rco yards . Pisa, Si na , A con , Cr mona ,

‘ and other cities we re disturbe d by similar

e e 19 2 1 . viol nc . This was in March , The same month was also fea tured by the

of e e occupation many public buildings , sp cially e the a e in Milan and Rom , by mutil t d war e vetera ns demanding govermn ent employm nt . In Milan they s eized the post and telegraph h e e e a building . T e employe s w r not b dly mo

e a e e e lest d , but m ny windows w r brok n , and mail from the general delivery w a s emptied ou t of the compartments a n d scattere d over the e te o ﬂoor . The Royal Guards mad no at mpt t CIVIL STRI P E 7

e e e dislodg the d monstrators , but mer ly formed ine ffectua l cordons about the front entrances of ’ the - ofﬁce he d I talia t post and t Banca , direc ly

or e e e e e i Opposite . N was any int rf r nc mad w th the rationing of the demonstrators by outsiders . NO one seemed particularly worried that the e mail could n ot be delivered or telegrams handl d . The occupation of the post - ofﬁ ce was accepted by the public with a shrug and the much abused e e xclamation, As I was quit with a t the e the e o out funds tim , owing to d lay f a

- e e e e ee e long xp ct d draft , my p rsonal f lings w re

a he n d e SO e . t e not ch ritabl In , the Gov rnment effected a compromise and numerous additions e e ff were made to the a lready ov rcrowd d sta . I ﬁnally received a welcome envelope sta ined with water and cancelled with h a lf- moon indentations k o from the hobnails of an un now n b ot . When I went to Bologna several months later to make a ﬁrst - ha nd investigation of the

a a e the agr rian situ tion, I found mys lf in midst

Of a n e ea - op n P sant Fascist land war, which for nearly three ye ars has been more in tense than th e e struggl s in any other part of the country . T he scenario - writer w ho piloted me around that me di eva l uni versity town a n d through its en d less miles of Shadowy polychromatic arcades 8 ROME OR DEATH

e me : ou see e warn d If y a ﬁght start , or h ar

e e - e the e e a r volv r shot , div for n ar st doorway or drop in your tracks . The blood of Romagna ” is hot .

the en d 1 9 21 e on a Toward Of , wh n a w lking e w a s e e o the tour in c ntral Italy, I ov rtak n n strada m e tr a - n - a s o. to Pr to i Toscan a by three e e hurtling lorri s , cramm d with Fascisti (in

S e red - black hirts , orang collars , stocking caps ,

ni e e h e the k ck rs , and l ggings ) all ead d for cloth

the e ing mills in same town . Wh n I ﬁnally

e e e e e : arriv d , th y had work d th ir mischi f e e e zzo e plast r d post rs over the Pala Communal , or e e e e e city hall, insid and out, maltr at d s v ral f of the Sindaca to e e O ﬁcials labor , and raid d th ir e e h adquarters . The town was in a vivid stat of e e e the g sticulation, and wh n I wish d to ﬁnd caretaker of the civic museum that I might look i ’ at Filippino L ppi s famous Madonna , I had to

' ' bribe two red -taile d ca ra bzmeri to help m e get to him in a dense and loquacious throng wedge d ’ between Pietro Tacca s fou ntain and the Pretor e ian Palac . e e e e a e Many times sinc , I hav witn ss d sm ll r a e on e frays , and in many a town h ve h ard , cl ar ni the e ee e e e ghts , cho of marching f t across d s rt d piazzas and beneath arches where must have CIVIL STRIFE 9 passed the mercenary soldiers of medieval

' ndo tz ' e e co t eri . Many a night sinc , I have h ard “ the - e zz io blood quick ning song, Giovane a , g van ezza or the Old Roman b attle-cry “ ” E a e a a la ld ja ej j , which per haps the legi ons of Caesar hurled against the of Gauls in the forests of the S eine . Most the — Fascisti at that time were young men I have seen the average age given as twenty- three and this lust for night - prowling and night

e e ee e viol nc has b n, in part , an unavoidabl legacy o the of e e e the f war , march s b n ath black windy sky and long wakeful nights in the starlit

e e e tr nch s ; in part , a prim val passion for the

the e e e e e e dark, r stl ssn ss Of ov rwrought n rv s , and the call that the mystery of warm southern nights makes to every living creature and which the proverbial Italian mandolin -playing no e e long r satisﬁ s .

e the one can Trav ling through country, scarcely believe that this feuda l bitterness is at

The e a e - of work . vin y rds and Oliv orchards

e e e - ee Tuscany, ﬂank d by th ir slim cypr ss tr s , look half wild a s they ha ve a lways looke d ; but

e are e a e ee e e th y b ing c r d for, s mingly by cont nt d

e he e of the e peopl . T ﬁ lds Po vall y stretch away in an endless green and brown panorama 10 ROME OR DEATH

of ﬂax and barley and wheat and alfalfa . The littorals Of the Adriatic and the Tyrrhenian S ea a re richly cultivated ; p easants are at work ;

are e e e crops b ing harv st d . O r , passing down the avenues of any Italian c e e ity, one Obs rv s that the people have good

e of e The clothes and pl nty r ady money . cafés are e The jamm d at all hours , day and night .

e - l T h ar e win shops are a ways noisy . e arcades e e e e p opl d by animat d prom naders . Only in Madrid have I seen such daytime idling as e e the e o f atur s citi s f Italy .

e e e e Of cours , viol nc in Italy must be prop rly e e discount d . In f w countrie s could a virtual civil w ar take place without irresistibly sweeping e h into its vort x t e bulk of the population . But here violence is a more Or less normal means of expressing public opinion in an imperfe ct e zz d mocracy . Pia a demonstration runs back to the da ys of the Roman republic ; it is the Old

of e the a the form popular ass mbly, tr dition of

' comitzu m the vow o u li e e , p p , Of the gr at gath r ings on the Capitoline Hill a n d in the more e e e e mod rn Campidoglio . In m di val tim s such

e e e e strif was commonplac , as in Flor nc during ’ the heyday of the city s imperial culture and

e e ev e of the gr atn ss . The custom pr ail d calling

1 2 ROME OR DEATH dition ed by the play Of ant agonistic social forces ;

e e nm e or m a conf ssion of gov r ntal inability, u

e e e willingn ss , to cop with conomic and political e cris s . It repre sents the inevitable degeneracy

e e f a of d mocracy in a p riod of di ﬁcult tr nsition . The : e e e e e paradox is viol nc is st ril , pur ly

e e e re - F a s r actionary ; its b n ﬁts a by products . m o e e the e cis has c m into pow r with th ory, “ ” e e Violence to en d Violenc . That id a was born

ee are ea of Italian n ds , but its roots Europ n ; they strike down into the dark subsoil of revolu i a tion , syndical sm, and milit rism . CHAPTER II

EUROPE A ND THE RISORGIM ENTO

CAR CE LY any period in the history of Europe has been so stormy as that from the capture of the Bastille in 1789 down to the

e e of present tim . Following the ov rthrow

e e a Napol on , two pow rful aspir tions molded European politics : national unity and political

e e e e e - tw o democracy . Th s id als w r cross cut by

e e e e oth r forc s , imp rialism and socialism, whil all four were complicated by questions of racial a a autonomy . The ﬁrst two , n tion lism and

e e e e e e e a d mocracy, r pr s nt d b lat d pplications Of the doctrines Of Machiavelli and Rousseau re

ective e on omi sp ly . Imp rialism was a natural c c tant of industrializa tion ; socialism repre sented a dogmatic and at the same time visiona ry embodi e of the e of the e m nt hop s Fr nch communists ,

- e e e Saint Simon and Fouri r , and , mor dir ctly, Of he e a e o e t m ch nistic doctrin s f Karl M a rx . Th e progress Of national and racial consciousn ss , 13 1 4 ROME OR DEATH

e i the i e eVolu tion coupl d w th spirit Of l b ral r , was e e e the e e b a e x mpliﬁ d in ris Of S r i , B lgium ,

ee e e a the e e e of Gr c , and G rm ny ; d v lopm nt class

e the a nd a e consciousn ss , by formation r pid int r ’ national extension of the various workmen s a a e e e ul i e ssoci tions . Th s e confus d hop s c m nat d in that jumbled inchoate outburst known as the ’

48 .

United Italy was the posthumous child of that

e the e n i of e uph aval . Actually b gi n ngs a r al faith in the ide a Of national unity had be en im planted a t the time of the establishment of the

e a a e A n d kingdom of Italy und r Bonap rt . when the kingdom colla psed the di scharged

Oﬂi cers e a e e a ni z n w form d s cr t org ation , k o n as

the a e n ew . Carbon ri , to agitat for a Italy All

the e - e the u e during n xt half c ntury, miniat r states of the peninsul a were repe atedly uptorn

e e on e e e by r volutions, and mor than p tty d spot ﬂ a ed e e . e e t mpor rily from his thron And, as ls

e e in e the e s e a wh r Europ , two curr nt Of d mocr cy ’ — a n d nationalism culmi nat ed in the 48 Onl y to be crushed under heel again by autocratic re action . Wh e e e e e inex n th y r viv d, d mocracy was trica bl li e the ea e of a zz y nk d , by l d rship M ini and

a e e P O a the e . G ribaldi , with prol tari n mov m nt THE RISORGIMENTO 15 liti a e the ni of c l nationalism , und r guiding ge us e e w a s e e pudgy, sp ctacl d Cavour , hop l ssly com promised with the diplomatic intrigue of the am e e e the bitions imp rial gov rnm nts of north . T he conserva tive elements of the Risorgimento de sired repres enta tive institutions a n d limited mon

The a a a n d e e archy . C rbon ri oth r r volutionary

e e e e e soci ti s advocat d pure d mocracy . With r

a the of a on e e e e g rd to form uniﬁc tion , l m nt

e e e e a e e e cen d sir d a f d r l gov rnm nt ; anoth r , a — tra lized Ita ly to both the question of repub lican ism versus monarchy w a s a matter Of in f e e e di f r nc . And still another group - intere st op era ted to

e a e the e a e a : h s par t lov rs Of unit d It ly t e church .

e e e e e Som writ rs , such as Giob rti , and v n

a zz a t one e a a e a n a e M ini tim , dvoc t d It ly unit d

e the a a a n en d e the und r V tic n , also push d by

e e a — a e o papal s cr t ry, Rossi glamourous id a f a n w e e Holy Empir .

ee e e e e e e a e Thr t nd nci s, th n , for br vity d scrib bl a s a a e n tion listic , r volutionary, and Catholic,

e e a t e e w r work . And this sam tripartit division give s us the key to the politics of the most r ecent post - w ar period and pa rtia lly explains the rise

Of Fascism . It is doubtful whether the great minds that 1 6 ROME OR DEATH crea ted Italy were fully aware of th e immense

e ee e e e the e la e gulf b tw n th ms lv s and low r c ss s , or tha t they realized the terrible conditions of the peas antry ground down by centuri es of foreign oppression a n d by p a pal misgovern

or the ha d ee e e ment , how country b n d bas d by

- l e e e e e ee i . its num rous , p tty, s lf s k ng ru rs Aft r

18 0 the n e e the e e 7 , all in at d pravity that pr c ding centuries Of mis ery ha d genera te d ros e u p to mock the Ita ly that would b e free and great .

T he disu n it of the corruption , incapacity, and V earlier period made their fortress the n ew state e he w a s e its lf . T country soon disrupt d by

a e the ea f ctionalism and r gionalism, and tr sury of! the Government was sucked dry by greedy

fﬁ - e O ce gra bbers and sodden plunderers . El c e e a re e the S tions w r , and , conduct d upon poils ’ e e e e of syst m , and Sir John Gold nmouth s gr as B occa ccian fame has always playe d an unctuous

. The e e e part poorly mix d c m nt , which had

e the the n ew e gon into building of political hous , e e the a e of e a e f ll out , l aving b r bricks a mis r bl th e e e had past . Thus all e en rg tic forc s that

e ni e a e e the e - e mad u t d It ly , xc pt lib ral cons rva

e a the h e tiv party of C vour and ous of Savoy, e l T w re forced into antagonistic rOes . he THE RISORGIMENTO 1 7

Nationalist movement was projected as a virile

- e e The anti gov rnm ntal crusading movement . e e Catholics settl d into sull n political abstention . The revolutionists laid the foundations for a e e Al l e prol tarian mov ment . hop d to overthrow

e e e e e the Gov rnm nt they had h lped to cr at . The Nationalists retained their e arlier dis

e a c . ord rly, radic l , and militant chara teristics They adopted the syndicalist dogmas of e e e e e viol nc . They boldly acknowl dg d th ir debt to Bakun in and particularly to Fernand F e e e ellou tier and Georges Sor l . Th y took ov r the e e syndicalist phras ology bag and baggag , attempting to infuse it with a nationalistic con

e . a t nt S id Enrico Corradini , the most out standing Italian Nationalist theorist , fully a decade a go

- Ju st a s s ocialism ha s r edeemed the pr oleta ri a t so na tiona lism be ou r me o of r e em on r om r a n ce will th d d pti f F ,

erma n E n a n N or a nd ou Amer ca who a re G y , gl d , th S th i , ou r ou r eo u s the me o of oc a m a r b g isie . J st a th ds s i lis e

r e a nd e oo t o the ener a r e t o ema n c a e st if , th y l k g l st ik ip t

em r om e o a on so the me o n a on a m th f xpl it ti , th ds Of ti lis m be w a r or the r e a r a on fo w a r N on a u r . a st , p p ti ti lism Th i s the l ogica l ou tgrowth of s oci alism. e N a tiona l 18 ROME OR DEATH i st s ha ve ta ken u p the stru ggle wher e the S ocia lists

e Off . B u t of cou r e the N a on a ea a l ft , s , ti list id l is

r ea er one : n ea a c a the o e n a on in g t i st d Of l ss , wh l ti ;

ea Of the ou r eo e the o r st d b g isi , w ld .

In or nece a r t o r eco n ze tw o er e of sh t , it is ss y g i sph s

r u on one ma the o er a r e the ma er dist ib ti , s ll , th l g ; s ll sphere is the n a tion with its dist r ibu tion between cl a ss a nd cla ss by mea n s of the str u ggle Of orga n ized cl a ss es u sing the str ike a nd the lock - ou t ; the sec ond sphere is the world with its dist ribu tion between n a tion a n d n a

on in the n ern a ona ru e for ma r e c o on e ti , i t ti l st ggl k ts , l i s , n e a nd rm e avi s a i s .

The immediate aims of the pre - war Nation a list movement were twofold : to strengt hen the

a e e e the e Itali n stat , and compl t proc ss Of uni ﬁ cation by the a nnex ation of the Austrian territory on the north and east littorals Of the

a a l . e e Adri tic , including D matia Irr d ntism was

' e t e e the constant fu l of the Nationalis mov m nt .

e e e e e in the a e Its strong st c nt rs w r Austri n citi s , he e e Z . The e t Tri st, Fium , ara activiti s Of Italia n na tiona ls on Austrian soil were loud and

e e e e e e e disorderly . Th y martyr d th ms lv s in v ry

e the a e e e a possibl way, at s m tim hurling impr c tions at the corrupt Italian Government in order

- e to stir u p sentiment in the home land . Th ir e e a efforts invited stern Austrian r pr ssion . It l

20 ROME OR DEATH

Benito Mussolini from the Socialist party ; it e e e e e saw the r pl dging of what , for conv ni nc , may be termed the syndicalist - nationa list alliance for the ﬁrst time since the Ita lian a rmy battere d down the Roman walls at Porta Pia in — 1 8 0 . w ar e e e e 7 Patriotism , , military mpris th s

e e e the S n e e of e r cr at d spirit , the i gl n ss purpos , o the e f Risorgim nto . As were the post - u n iﬁ cation Nationalists and the - u niﬁ cation - a e e e post working cl ss l m nts , so

e the e the Cl rical groups , following Risorgim nto , e wer oppos ed to the n ew Ita lia n Government .

w the S ee e Follo ing instructions from Holy , th y refus ed to treat with the new Italian state which

e e e the e e a the had wr nch d Rom , t rn l city, from papacy . T hey held strictly a loof from all

a e a e on a n politic l conn ctions , c rri d assiduous propaganda through the confessiona l a n d the e u e la a za the pr ss , and built p th ir y org ni tions for a day when the Savoyard monarchy should f ll .

W e e he the - w ar the thus hav , in t Italy of post , trip a rtite grouping of the Risorgimento in a Slightly modiﬁed form : N a tiona lism plus Syn di calism ; international revolutiona ry Socialism ;

e c e e h ee and Cl ricalism . In ontrast to th s t r

e e e a rOle e living t nd nci s , and pl ying a corr spond ing to the decrepit feudal régimes antecedent to THE RISORGIMENTO 21

e e e i the Risorgim nto, w had the dodd r ng bureau cracy with its discredited system of diplomacy e e whose xpon nts were Orlando , Giolitti , Nitti ,

Bonomi, Facta . CHAP TER III

T H E POST - WAR

I OSUE the CARDUCCI , most sturdy e the - u niﬁ cation e r e po t of post p riod, garde d modern Europe as an old and rotting

a an e her e e e h rrid , cov ring wrinkl s with m r tricious

e ea e ze a cosm tics . It is sy, now, to r ali wh t a

e the r e - w a rocky pi ce of furniture was p r regi me . The thin veneer Of nineteenth - century political de mocra cy la id upon the Europe an wa rdrobe of

a a r - e e a a r ci l wo m hol s , f udal and ristocr tic cracks , a nd e a e a s bourg ois warping, to m k it look good n ew e e e e ea e o , m r ly s rv d to conc l imp nding c l

e a - a a the a e a laps . Cl ss nt gonisms and fund m nt l maladju stment of the industria l system were

e e a the e a e of the gloss d ov r . Industri lism is h rit g Occident ; but the factory system is world - wide

a a e w a s a n d in its r miﬁc tions , and Europ is

he a a n d a j arringly nationa l . T politic l ﬁn ncial order w a s a n d is thoroughly inade qua te to answer the needs Of interna tion al commerce or 22 THE POST -WAR 23

e e int rnational culture . Industrialism smash d through the superstructure Of suave hu manitar ia n ism e e ef e democ , diplomatic d c it, and in ﬁci nt

he a e e e e racy . T m chine d manded int llig nc and t e e scientiﬁc con rol from its suppos d mast rs . The old order Of la wyers and professional a ea e e re propag ndists , s t d in parliam nts far

e the o the mov d from actual work f world , dies e e e e e e o ou r u nn eces hard . Th s d cad nt el m nts f sary political democracy were partly responsible — for the world struggle ; they not as individ n als — are e e e , but as a class larg ly r sponsibl for the armed pe ace instituted by the Treaty of

e e ha s e the e V rsaill s , which inj ur d world far mor h t e . e Of e n than war Inst ad a r vivi g Europe , w e are thre atened with a Europe which promises to expire in a s eries of revolutionary ’ t The a and mili aristic convulsions . dr gon s teeth Of continuous international war have been

e e r sown in civil strif . Ci vil strife is the norm of present - day Europe ; the factors tha t keep it within bounds are fe ar or

e or . e xhaustion both Bad nough that Europe , having for ha lf a century and more promote d a commerce at the e xpense of the world and for the elevation of her ow n instead of international

e e e cultur , should have committ d slow suicid by 24s ROME OR DEATH increasingly cutting herself Off from the sources of - e e food supply and raw mat rials , a proc ss e ee e the that has sinc b n aggravat d by class , e the national, and racial shifts r sulting from war . Al l of these generaliz ations hold for Italy

e the politically, int llectually, and spiritually

e of he young st t important weste rn nations .

e e of her e e B caus youth , and oth r mor Obvious

e e e e e b e economic r asons , th s b s tting pro l ms touch Italy more emotiona lly but p erhaps less h fundamentally than a ny of t e other powers . The of coming rise this nation , which may result in her seizure of the hegemony Of the M e e the e e diterranean , runs count r to g n ral

e e e The a e e ex d clin of Europ . ggr ssiv spirit of ’ ansion e u a e p , cork d p in Italy s r pidly incr asing

a ee e population , h s b n call d forth , in part, as a

c t e o e . e rea tion to h cha s Of Europ It r sults ,

the i of the m e a also , from sh ft com rci l focus of

the e e n ew the world to Ori nt , which has giv n a

h e Neverthe importance to t e Mediterran an . ’ e e e a e l ss , Italy s itch for pow r is as unr ason bl , at the pres ent hour of consta ntly decrea sing pro

as of the u e e . duction , that E rop an prol tariat Her youth smacks Of the Sophomoric ; she is the spendthrift Of a ruined family . Fascism is THE PO ST -WAR 25

e e new . an xpr ssion of this , irrational Italy

- Yet Ita ly is an exaggerated push cart . Who e forg ts this fails to u nderstand Italy. She e s— has no important natural r source no iron , no e e no — ne coal , no p trol um , cotton her o industrial e w a e - e e ass t , t r pow r in Lombardy and c ntral e h o i Italy . Every y ar t e coun try must imp rtt e e e e o som l v n million tons f coal , a million and a -oil e e e half tons of coal and gasol n , mor than a

e e of million tons Of p trol um , two million quintals

of . cotton , a million and a half tons wood Hence Italy can never be thoroughly indus ialized She e e e tr . must remain th xaggerat d - The e etw e the ft push cart . two class s b en sha s

a re the con ta dini or e the iccolo , p asantry, and p bor hesia or ee n g , small trading and shopk pi g T o e a class . r m in sturdily p easant and lacka

daisicall e ee b e y trad sman, this would s m to ’ a e he e e e e It ly s immedia t destiny . T d g n rat

t the e the aris ocracy, upp r middle class, and

e a be e e the as prol tari t must consid r d , ﬁrst a of e e e b e e shadow thre c nturi s of Italian a as m nt , the last two as a pa rt Of a distu rbing infusion of industrialism essentially alien to the Italian

e e of the w a r exercis g nius , though , as a r sult ,

e e e . ing a disproportionat , aggr ssiv power On e iccolo b or hesia e the oth r hand, the p g has be n 26 ROME OR DEATH partially di slocate d a n d scourged into political

e consciousn ss . In the United State s the term middl e cla ss

a a e a a has v gu connot tion of h rdwood ﬂoors , “ ” e e e ea fram d Saturday Ev ning Post cov rs , n t

- a e front yard l wns , and an automobil . But in Italy it has a precise meaning a n d signiﬁe s pre

e e The cis conomic relationships . small bour — g eoisie in the Ita lian towns and citie s the a ee e the a e — a sm ll shopk p r , small tr d r is sh rply d f e i i f rentiated . And while the line b etween th s the e a e e e group and p as nt, and v n mor the

e a e a e e e e a n d prol tariat , is f irly w ll m rk d , b tw n it the upp er middle cla ss es a n d the aristocra cy a e e e yawns an lmost uncrossabl gulf . Th s small urban bourgeoisie ha ve immedia te conta cts . They comprise an excitable yet ea sy - going

e e e i group , cont nt to dawdl around th ir d rty,

e e e - e e S e a e k ros n light d , cubbyhol hops , to duc t their childr en sufﬁciently to see tha t their sons Obtain government sinecur es or become prie sts and that their daughters marry a bit above their

e e e e the own sta tion . Both th s p opl and

a r e e T he ea a ar e de p e sants a e r stiv . p s nts

n a a e e e the mandi g l nd, ch ng , b tt r conditions , but very nature of their work an d the la ck of good

28 ROME OR DEATH the dumping of war - goods ( American shoddy ’ and Ar mour s tinne d meats n ot b eing exc luded) and their standards were cu t down by the boy cott of the cities by the organized peasa nts and by the rapid rise of the cost of living to Six times 1 that of 1 9 4 .

e e e e Furth rmor , the last s v n years have s ee n a new e - e - a r e e s mi middl cl ss group is to importanc ,

o e the i e e The c l c mpris d of sk ll d work r . a ce er ated expansion of Ita lian industry during the w ar e e the n ew incr as d ranks of this group , and ,

in to the e e e a ea e ow g d pl t d l bor supply, incr s d its e o r c nomic impo tance . There arose a tra ined proletariat a s fa r or farther removed e conomic ally from the le vels of the ordinary day - worker the e n ew as is small bourgeoisi itself . This group sought to control the Socialist pa rty and to convert it from its Old program of social re of e ar e form to that prol t ian r volution , to bring Karl Marx ou t from the dusty cubbyhole shops into the factory where they asserted he rightfully e e b long d . h r e l e re e T e Socialist pa ty , sudd nly swol n to th

e r e- w a r en t e a e the a e a tim s its p str g h , b c m r n for three antipathetic groups : the n ew skilled pro letariat the e e la a n d the , Old low r middl c ss , r e p e asants . Under no mal conditions th se con The bete n oi r e Of Ita a n o t c Abbé Lu i i Stu r o li p li i s , g z

THE PO ST -WAR 29

ﬂicting intere sts might have been reconciled or e e - compromis d ; but, plung d into the post war e e r c a s with its ﬁ erce comp titiv st uggles , the So i li t

o e e e o a e . party was d om d , soon r or lat r, to c ll ps T he active directive strength of the Socialist e party w a s proletarian and r volutionary, as events later proved ; but for tw o years internal tension was subordinated to a discipline d effort z o n e and to sei e control f industry and gover m nt , was restrained by the bitter opposition of other e i popular , ambitious political and conom c groups e with l ss radical psychology . se on the ee of the Clo h ls Socialist party, bid me the ding for public support , ca Popular party ze D i 1 9 1 9 organi d by on Luig Sturzo in . It shunted the Old intransigent Catholic s entiment

the S of c a e r e u upon iding so i l r fo m , hitch d it p to the e e - a of e e al e xpr ss tr in g n r discont nt , and lande d a hundred representa tives in the national Chamber and its most capable leaders in the e cabin t . Out of the war - alliance of Syndi calists and a N tionalists sprang Fascism . Fascism , a spirit - w ar e e e e e e Of post r stl ssn ss incarnat , was dir ct d into organized channels by the le aders of the two e - On on dir ct action movements . e other factor c e the a e e of the a e d tribut d, rous d f ar disloc t d mi dle a of e e ee e cl ss the citi s , oblig d during thr y ars 30 ROME OR DEATH of e a e e e e arm d p e ce to ﬁght for its v ry xist nc . The d e e e of l w ho re i l , un mploy d sons this c ass , turned from the trenches exp ecting to be

e e e e a n e e promptly r ward d with gov rnm nt l si cur s ,

e he the a constitut d t ﬂying squadrons of F scisti , carrying on destructive sortie s a n d occupying the

. ee e e e e public buildings Thr l m nts , th n, Nation a lism n s e a e i , Sy dicali m, and a middl cl ss mad m li ‘ e e e the diﬂicul t - tant , w r harri d by post war into n the o e Fascist movement . Thus the tripartit e subdivision of the Socialist party had its analogue in the larger nationa l

e e e w a s r a r e ar na, wh r also occur ing tripa tit

e . u e w a s struggl This str ggl is traditional , and rou ghly represented by Socia list - Communist p ar

e the . The ti s , Popular party, and the Fascisti on e question from the beginn ing Of the post - war w a s w ho be the e n e , not should n xt mi ist r, but which of the three groups shoul d come to con trol Italian de stinies ? Which group should undertake the making or the breaking of the n ew Italy ? — The years 1 9 1 9 20 will be numbered among P e r the most critica l yea rs in Itali an history . verse destiny focused in those two years every The e n u force making for nationa l ruin . dir ct settling inﬂuence of the war and the Versailles THE PO ST -WAR 31

e e e Peace were th n most in vid nce . The war had e e e e cr at d a stat of mind sharply r volutionary,

e o e e . F or ven in pe pl traditionally cons rvative , e th e 1 9 1 1 e mor than e war with Turk y in , it tor u p the sleepy regiona lism that had existed in Italy after the struggle for uniﬁcation had been e b e brought to a clos . To oth peasant and prol

e the e e tariat , at hom and in tr nch s , it brought e e a Of the improv d di t and stand rds living . At same time it exposed both elements to the shift ing world tendencies and op ened n ew chann els

a e e for radical propag nda . And n arly all class s cha fe d both at the unaccustomed military disci pline and a t the gross inefﬁciency with which the w r t e a was conduc d by the Government . The Italian p eo ple did not submit gra ce fully to mil itarism e e e e - e , and wh n p ac cam a wide spr ad hat

f - e red flared u p against the o ficers . Train cr ws refuse d to carry men in uniform ; lone officers

e e set e e e e e e . w r upon and cru lly b at n , v n kill d In Flore nce I saw a chance stre et throng j eering a t e e a ee o a first li ut n nt who, having b n flung fr m e w a s e a e his bicycl , stagg ring about h lf blind d by the e e blood str aming from his fac . The full sign ificance of the Russian revolution

e the e n e era . drift d across Alps , h ralding a w Demobilization was carried ou t with no adequate 32 ROME OR DEATH provision for the e mployment Of the ex- combat ants ; the army was thrown back in to civil life overnight . Soldiers discovere d people a t home

e a e had grown prosperous . Th y le rn d that the most extreme favoritism a n d brib ery had v itiated the efﬁciency of conscription and of e er e m e e D e ob liza v y gov rn ntal departm nt . m i tion also resulted in a wide - sprea d population S h hift in to the cities . T e disa ster of Ca poretto had dr iven thousands of refugees south a long the

to i e e e Adriatic littoral and M lan , Flor nc , Rom ,

e l a and other cities . Subs equ nt ﬁnancial col ps e was later to bring a bout unr uly shifts in the e e e n d industrial population . This r stl ssn ss a inter - contact of different groups from diverse parts of the country having striking differe nces in psychology and customs all contributed to the r e e a an d general un st , brok down st ndards e ri e e e morals , and increas d c m , wast fuln ss , and i e high livin g . T he n ew bus n sses springi ng u p m are the a the - e e Italy c fés , moving pictur hous s ,

e e e a e the s a n a d th th at rs , candy f ctori s ; mo t ﬂ ri g v ertisements a r e for expensive alcoholics . Si mu ltan eou sly the cost of living mounted alarm in gly ; the depreciating lira made an d still m akes e e any gre at improvement in this di r ction unlik ly . At the same time came the rep ercussions from

34 ROME OR DEATH

e w re impractical and annoying . Involved regu lation s large ly absolved the train Ofﬁcia ls from

e for e e e all r sponsibility loss or th fts , which w r e Y t notoriously frequ nt . et in spite of he rig m arole e e a e the a n c ssary to Obtain d mag s , r il e e e in 19 20—2 1 a e roads w r forc d to p y for th ft , a nd e e e e e 3 000 loss , r tard d shipm nts ind mniti s per cent greater than were p a id in 19 13

a ll the e the e e e ex And tim railway d ficit , v n the m e n e e cluding su s b i g sp nt on r construction , for the of n ew e the e e building lin s , l ctrification of n ew a w a s a a mi — ro ds , mounting l r ngly to a l e l a bil ion lir , to a bil ion and a h lf If la bor discontent was on e form of rea ction to the post - w a r economy and the breakdown of the e m e e l the e of the Gov rn nt , qua ly so was ris Fa scist movement a n d the meteoric descent of ’ d A n nu n zi e i a e e o and his l g on ri s upon Fium . The only a nswer of the Italian Government to these disturbing symptoms w a s to r a ise pro cra stinat o ef e i n a nd in fici ncy to the nth power . The minds Of the w a r diplomats still move d in th e e e e e sultry atmosph r of p tty intrigu s , paid

a a a e e e prop g nda , patron g , suav compromis , and e the e a tricky vasion . An d v ry tr dition of

i e a a n Italian l b ralism, its hypocritic l hum nitaria

“ ” 1 e Oc h n L Cr si A ra r a . 84 r c a . Pi i i, i g i , p THE PO ST -WAR 35

e et e in ism and pat rnalism , and y its fundam ntal terest in conserving its power by concessions to every strong or violent faction had softened the

e of the e e a t social and moral ﬁb rs country, n v r e e any time very tough . This lib ral bourg ois e e W e the Gov rnm nt , hich had bart red away ’ e e e e ha d country s p ac to the high st bidd r , which f e the w a r e e e ail d to conduct ff ctiv ly , which had e e e e e e e e or the fail d to s cur ith r an nlight n d , on

e a e of ffa oth r hand , frankly s lﬁsh solution a irs the e e e m e e at p ace tabl , now b ca e utt rly incapabl of e n d aling with a socially distraught ation , whose centrifugal forces were threatening a dis

e e ruption of the stat its lf . Overnight the Socialist party leaped to a com manding position ; overnight the newly created e Cl rical party , a party of mild Christian social

e e e ea the ism , wr nch d away a hundr d s ts in “ Cha mber Of D eputies on a platform of land for the e e a e e p asants , bur aucr tic r form , social l gis h t e a ee . lation , and Wilsoni n Fourt n Points The membership Of the organize d la bor move e e m nts , Catholic and Socialist , jump d from thousands to millions .

e e e e e the All th s disturbing t nd nci s , including

F iu mian e e the e imbroglio , cam to a h ad at tim Of a an z 2 e e the l nd d factory sei ures of 19 0 . Th s 36 ROME OR DEATH were precipitated by the employers in the metal e e e 2 e e trad s, who , aft r r fusing a 0 p r c nt incre ase in wages an d after suffering from a prolonged White strike that had seriously curtailed the

th - e e e e ou . output of factori s , d clar d a lock t This lock - out was answered by a syndicalist call

- i for a lock n . As this proved temporarily suc cessfu l and the Government offered no deter

e e e e min d arm d opposition , a wav of r volutionary

e h z e fervor sw pt over t e country . S ei ur of other factories followed ; groups of renters com man deered the houses Of their landlords ; peasants squatted upon the lands Of absentee

e . e e e e e propri tors And, v n wh re factori s w re e e the sinda ca ti e e e not tak n ov r , avail d th ms lves Of the crisis to force better terms upon the e e who e e a a mploy rs , w r willing to gr nt lmost anything in order to prevent the spread Of the e e e mov ment . Thus the pow rful p asant land leagues of the north completely gaine d the upper hand in imposing their demands upon the

e . e a propri tors In Sicily and south rn It ly, in e e he e not e z the localiti s wh re t lands w re s i ed , landlords promptly modiﬁed the rental con tracts . the e e not But mov m nt was doomed to failure , e e the a et b caus Of F scisti, who had y to cut their THE POST -WAR 37 e e - e nor e e the of y t eth , b caus of moderation Pre m e a i r Giolitti ( lthough this was important ) , but e e of the e e f e e b caus inh r nt di ﬁculti s involv d . The Socia list leaders themselves sounded the bugle for retreat They we re cognizant of the following facts

1 . The ﬁrst week of the factory seizures had made great inroads upon the suppli es Of raw e a mat ri ls .

2 . e z i No s lling organi ations ex sted , and no o e purchasers could be found f r ﬁnish d products .

3 . Adequate funds were la cking for buying raw materials or for paying wages .

4 . e the e a of Aft r ﬁrst nthusi stic days , many the locked -in men began to lose heart and to desert their posts . 5 The e z e e e . s i ur s had brok n exchange valu s so that it r equired more than twenty- nine lire to a buy an Am erican doll r . e e 6. All shipm nts to Italy from for ign coun trie s were held u p .

7 . Evidence w a s not lacking that the powers would promptly blockade a revolutionary e e gov rnm nt .

8 e e e . No assurance s were b ing mad by Fr nch or English labor of practical concerted support h e of t e Italian revolutionary movem nt . 38 ROME OR DEATH

e e e 19 1 9 20 the e e On S pt mb r , , pr mi r , Signor

e the e e e e Giolitti , invit d r pr s ntativ s Of the indus tri a l federation to discuss the situation with the a l a e N e L bor Al i nc . O agre ment w a s at ﬁrst e possibl . The workers submitted a well drawn constructive plan for initi ating democratic a a e e the e T h m n g m nt in factori s . e owners sub mitted a short vague alternative of a few hun e e dr d words in l ngth . Premier Giolitti thereupon presented the d of a e be raft a bill, which , if both p rti s should

ee e he ee e a agr abl , volunt r d to submit to P rlia

e he a ment . This compromis was t dr ft Of the - e w a s much abus d Controllo Act , which to mark , to e n ew according Premi r Giolitti , a stage in e e e Ita lia n industrial lif . Th work rs would hence forth colla bora te in running industry . This a ct would have cre ated in every factory and e e m ee of e v ry industry j oint com itt s work rs , e a e e e ee e so- a e t chnic l xp rts , and mploy s , whos c ll d “ ” control was to have the following scope (Article 1 )

1 a e the e e e . To rrang that work rs should b com cogn iz a nt of the Op erating conditions of the industry . 2 e the e e . To promot improv ment of t chnical THE POST -WAR 39 instruction and of the moral and economic con dition s of the workers within the limits allowed h by the operating conditions of t e industries . 3 . TO insure the execution of all laws enacted for the protection of the workers . 4 e e . TO counsel improvements for the incr as of production which may tend to promote e greater conomy .

5 . To render the relations between employe es an e e e d mploy rs incr asingly normal and paciﬁc . e t e e e e ee e Tru , he work rs w r to hav b n in ov r whehnin e e ee g maj ority upon th s committ s , and the representative s of the e mployers and the technicians were largely seated to provide in the e the formation ; but , on oth r hand , com mittees were to ha ve had no a dmin stra tive e o e n pow r , no actual contr l . Th ir fu ction was

e e a the e e the pur ly inv stig tory, aim to ducat workers to a better underst anding Of the condi

he a ze tions of the industry . T act w s critici d in some quarters be cause it did not provide for organic bodies with a larger measure of direct

e be e a e the pow r . But it should r c ll d that a e a re e e a the It lian work rs mostly illit rat , th t gulf between them and the educa ted and tech n ical classes is probably greater than in 40 ROME OR DEATH

e e e any oth r important country xc pt Russia .

The ee Controllo Act , had it b n promptly sub mitted to the Cha mber of D eputies and made e into a law, would p rhaps have a llayed much social discontent and proved a starting- point for an enlightened and evolutionary solution Of the problem Of class antagonism that w a s t earing Italy asunder ; it might conceivably have

e the e e chang d dir ction of the Fascist movem nt . The solution with regard to the land seizures

e e e was mor dir ctly efﬁcacious . In south rn Italy the peasants directed their activitie s against absenteeism and a pernicious system of farm a belloti or - e administration by g , farm usur rs , which will be subsequently described ; a nd the Chamber promptly legalize d the seizures p end ing the passa ge of legisla tion which would make e e The e all idle lands acc ssibl . peasants w re m e thus im diately successful . e 19 20 e e The clos Of , th r fore, marks a great decisive point in the hurried events Of the post f e war . I t marks the culm ination O r volutionary e t e l a e of strength . It coincid s with h col ps

a comCIdes the blo ted Italian industry . It with disillusionment of the Italian workers with e n e r gard to Russia . It coi cid s with the lowest

CHAPTER IV

EARLY ACTIVITIES

mm e 19 21 the e e N the su r of , Fascisti ord r d

e e e 20 er e o all r tail rs to cut pric s p c nt . M st dealers immediately posted Signs

T HI S ST ORE COMPLIE S WITH T H E FA SCI ST

ORDE R ; ALL GOODS 20% BELOW MAR! E D PRI CES

Recalcitrants were promptly caned into su bmis

. e e e e w a s the sion In Flor nc , wh r I living at

e the e —a e - a a n d tim , pric Of show c s gl ss window e e e e e e e glas s w nt up . R duc d sch dul s w r also i e e e e e a e . mpos d for butt r , ggs , fruits , and v g t bl s I saw several Old men and on e Old woman kicked and caned and their c art - loads of garden stuff trampled into the mire . Such incidents provide the only key to the Fascist movement during the first ye ar and a e e s w a s a t half Of its exist nc . Fa cism first a e e Of a a e t nd ncy, a symptom social m l djustm nt 42 EARLY ACTIVITIE S 43 a channel into which flowed the post - war malaise which could not find outlet in the Socia list and

Popular parties . The Fascisti at that time “ ” calle d themselves the backbone of Italy . “ e a ee Th ir tactic l motto has b n , Hit ﬁrst and ” e ﬁ nd ou t afterward . Fascist dir ct action has

e e the o the e not as a rul includ d boyc tt , strik , or

e e e . sabotag . It is still more dir ct and primitiv The ﬁrst violence of this atavistic sort took e e the e e e place in Julian V nic , ann x d provinc , a i i a the a 1 9 10 cont n ng, ccording to Austri n e e e e e c nsus , s v n hundr d thousand G rmans , Slavs ,

e e e n e a a ze and oth r ali ns . Th se w It li n citi ns ,

be the a e ea the distur d by political ch ng s , f rful of e a nd a e futur , nxious to cling to th ir original a a e e e e e of n tion liti s , w r co rc d by roving bands

e orditi or - e discharg d , shock troops , who Oft n acted in concert with the occupationa l army h division . T e ﬁrst demonstration Of impor ta nce by a n a ctua l Fascist unit of which I ﬁnd newspa per re cord w a s the burning Of the Nar ni D om the ea a e the a do , h dqu rt rs of Sl v nation

a a z e 1 3 19 20 . list org ni ation in Tri st , on July , e e for a e e e How v r , fully y ar b for this ,

e e e a ea occurr d minor misd m anors , such s b ting u e e e s e the e e p for ign r sid nt , maltr ating t ach rs and pastors of foreign - language schools and 44 ROME OR DEATH

e e etc church s, invading privat homes , . Through ou t 1 920 the an ti - Slav and anti - German a e of the c e ctiviti s Fas isti became more Op n , and aroused riotous street demonstrations and news e e in Z e pap r prot sts agr b and Belgrade . The Fascisti even drove ali ens across the frontiers in the most barbarou s manner ; and during the F iu mian e e s xp dition , in which many Fa cisti the e e participated , ill fe ling constantly increas d , resul ting in a Fascist demonstration in Triest in December at the time of the downfall of ’ d A nnu nzio e , a d monstration which had to be

. On e 8 9 2 quelled by armed force F bruary , 1 1 , the Fascisti invaded the offices of the nationalist “ ” S E dinost e lav paper , d stroying subscription d the e e e lists and amaging pr ss s . On anoth r occasion they destroyed the Slavic Hotel Bal kan . In the farming districts of the Adriatic delta r i i e e egion, in Puglia, Sicily, Sard n a , and ls w e e ffi e here, the h adquarters, newspap r O c s , and cooperative store s Of the agricultu ral leagues — were pillaged and burned ; the copi - lego league oflicials— e e e e e e e e w re beat n , doused , s qu st r d, v n e e aneotti e k n e murd r d . Deputy M , sp a i g b fore of 1921 the Chamber during the early part , thus described the violence in the province of Rovigo E ARLY ACTIVITIE S 5

r ou a e a er v a e e e tru c on Th gh vill g ft ill g p a ss d d s ti , mena ce er ror for a ll the ma commu ne of the , t , sixty s ll s

o e ne . One b one in the or a ce of ree ee P l si y , sh t sp th w ks , thes e wer e inva ded in b r oad d a ylight by hu ndreds of u r u en ma ni ac who ea e er one n c a e t b l t s , b t u p v y i di t d b the oca a r a r a n r o r e or a s e n oc a y l l g i p p i t s b i g S i lists , a nd ene r a e n o ea u a r er e r o n u r n u r e p t t d i t h dq t s , d st yi g f it a nd u n Off ect b n ma e r ou l ggi g Obj s ; y ight , sk d g ps , with r e o r eck e own the ree or r e om ifl s , sh t l ssly d st ts th w b bs , entered into the hou ses Of member s of mu ni cipa l c ou n c or the of cer of the Le a e en za a coo ils , fi s g di R sist , p er a tive or m a r or a n za on a nd t o the indescrib , si il g i ti , , a e err or of the omen a nd c ren r ea ene mal bl t w hild , th t d , rea e e or e s a emen er e r a e a me u nu t t d , xt t d t t ts , p p t t d sh f l , men ona e n or o e e er one t o fl e er ti bl thi gs , blig d v y y d sp a e a cr o the e t ly ss fi lds .

According to the Critica Sociale of Jun e 15—30 e ee 3 M a 9 19 21 , b tw n January and y , , e of there occu rr d in the province Ferrara, forty ﬁve e e Fascist sorti s , f atured by shooting, bomb w on e thro ing, and assault privat homes ; forty two league and three labor - union headquarters valued at from two thousand to two hundred and ﬁfty thousand lire were burned : and twenty One radical communal administrations terrorized into resigning . In the province of Rovigo in the space Of 46 ROME OR DEATH several months some four thousand persons were violently handled and three hundred houses

e burn d . a 24 1 9 21 the e the On Janu ry , , Fascisti burn d “ ” o a e a a i Bol gna Ch mb r Of L bor Th t n ght ,

e a e r C a the m lodr matically wrot En ico orr dini , “ a a e e the e the N tion listic l ad r , I saw fortr ss of e e a e of a e n my , the Ch mb r L bor , disapp ar in

e ze e the e ﬂa m s . Cheering citi ns a ssist d at sp c

a e e e e a ee a a n d t cl , whil polic m n , c rbin rs , gu rds , s e a t e e the a e e oldi rs , arms r st , watch d ﬂ m s d vour h ” 1 t e building . The common practice was for a ny number ze e e e a of from a do n to hundr ds , v n thous nds , F a scisti to cra m into motor - trucks and make a

- descent upon the country side or the Villages . In loca lities known to be largely Socia listic or

m e e e e Com unist, th s bands ﬁr d right and l ft as e e e the th y hurtl d by, pumping th ir guns into a e n ea e windows of priv te hous s . Know l d rs of the pea sants were treated like on e with whom I a t lked in Bologna . — — His house is or was located a bout thre e ’ e ten one ev e mil s from the city . About O clock

lM a 1 9 20 he w a s b ed a ning in y , , as going to , heavy knocking resounded on the front door .

“ ” a r Immort a I ta . 355 . l . E r A . ow e dg . M , l ly, p EARLY ACTIVITIE S 47

’ ? ” Who s there Op en in the name of the police !

the e Now, prov rb runs through all this dis “ ” trict e the e e that wh n polic knock, death nters . he e e e Accordingly r fus d to op n , and the door e was ba ttered down . Some twoscore mask d

e . H e w a s ei ze e ﬁgur s burst through s d , qu s tioned e e e a , kick d , his hands ti d b hind his b ck , a

e ga g stuck in his throat . His wif and two girls were ya nked from their beds a n d forced to a e The go ou t on the ro d in th ir nightgowns .

h e e e e e . H e ous was s arch d , th n burn d was taken awa y in the a uto - truck to a lonely spot e e e e he e n ar F rrara , wh r was stripp d and bound to a tree that he might be tortured by the swarm of mosquitos that infest that low marshy

- e n he country sid . His family was left o t coun

e e e e ee the try road , and his wif sp nt s v ral w ks in H . e w a s e a e hospital unabl to Obt in any , polic e e inve stiga tion or r comp nse . The following a fﬁdavit by a former Fascist “ ” ofﬁcer was tra nsla ted from the Avanti by the “ ” New e e 20 19 22 York Nation (D c mber , )

en to B o o na in Ma r c 1 2 1 in the com a I w t l g h, 9 , b t

i i e a n u nit of the F a sc st . Aft r st yi g in B ol ogn a

tw o mon w a s a e t o o t o mo a . n ths , I sk d g I l Whe I 48 ROME OR DEATH had been in tha t city for one mon th withou t a ny r a nk in w on the con ence of ou n a m n o nn a g, I ﬁd C t Fl i i Gi si , a nd a n to hi s n u en ce w a s ma e one of the , th ks i ﬂ , I d di m r ec or of the o a u n . At a me the rec or t s I l it th t ti , di t s were dis cu ssing the methods of violence t o be u sed in

e n r id o f the ea of the or a ni za on who ere g tti g h ds g ti , w con sidered to be the b a ckbone o f working- cla ss resist a nce a nd remem er er e ou ea r of con r a , I b v y w ll , with t f t di c on a u m a r n r om t o re ti , th t s s v yi g f li “ ” for every ma n elimina ted wer e pla ced a t the dispos a l

f o set to ca r r ou t e a o th se y th se t sks .

In Oc o er wa s en t o r en a a nd a e er t b I s t A g t , with l tt

rom the mo a rec or ca e on Lu r a n a a f I l di t s I ll d igi G t ,

c a cr e a r of the u n ere en O c o er politi l se t y it th . I sp t t b

ne u n a e en n to a nd November a t Argen ta . O S d y v i g

a r the end of Oc o er or the e nn n of N o em er w d t b b gi i g v b ,

u a ron oc a t rom a ezzo a ca me to A r 3. sq d Of S i lis s f L v l

en a to hOld a emon r a on ch a c u a oo g t d st ti , whi t lly t k pla ce withou t a ny incident beca u s e Gr a na ta ha d or

a o e dered all the Fa scisti n ot to le ve thei r h u s s .

r a n a a o e er en a asc t o erra r a b mo or G t , h w v , s t F ist F y t cycle t o i nform the di r ectors of the d emon st r a tions

a ha a en a ce . a o a o a ccom a n e b wh t d t k pl It l B lb , p i d y a n of cer a me e ra m r om rea U a nd b ﬁ n d B lt i , f G t livi , y a no er a c ca me t o r en a a few ou r a er th F s ist, A g t h s ft

na a wa rds t o c on fer with Gr a t .

11 P M tw o u e a r r e e t a c r om At . . b s s iv d ﬁll d wi h F s isti f

th r o nce of err a ra who er e va riou s section s Of e p vi F , w

mu e om a nd a er a o ene a nd a rmed with sk ts , b bs , d gg s , g s l

5 0 ROME OR DEATH

en to a na r a b or er of Ca lvotti ecre a r I w t B g , y d , s t y Of the a enn a r o nc a e er a on t o u u for R v p vi i l f d ti , s bstit te

o n in the orma on o f the E conom c n ca e P lli i f ti i Sy di t , a n d to or a n ze ew a c th T h o ec g i a f F s isti in e pl a ce . e bj t w a s r of a ll t o e m n a e D no Golinell e an d B el , ﬁ st , li i t i r a m o e r e a r the m F or S c o m ec on . t i ilvi , s t y Of C u nist s ti this pu rp ose B eltr a mi P a squ a lin o a nd his b r other Cec

c n o Me r . M a r n Mor o ni a n d the D e a er c a hi , ss s ti i , si , ll Gu i fa mily deposited lir e wi th Giova nnino Della

u er c a a t the r e o oma no o H e en G i C dit R g l . ! th

oe on t o e how n ea of n e e men he ma e g s t ll , i st d killi g th s , d r en h em f i ds wit th . I st a yed in Imol a du ring thewhole month o f Apr il a nd fr om there I w a s s ent t o Mor da no with deﬁn ite in str u ctions for ca r rying ou t a ction a ga in st the w orker s i n a ca a n d u an o t o ma e em ea e e r or Chi vi B b , k th l v th i

n za ti s g a i on . In addition t o this I w a s a ssigned the t a sk of getting rid the o o n men n o m set t o the mea n Of f ll wi g , with li it s t o be em o e : ra n ce co Pi r r a zzini a e t o h a e pl y d F s , ll ged v been involved in the mu r der of a Fa scist n a med S olferini

u r n th a r a r a n con c a nd who h a d r ecen een d i g e g i ﬂi t , tly b fr eed ; Au relio B enda n ti a nd his br other C elso ; the

Pi rizioli r o er Domen co Fi u a w ho w a s in the b th s ; i g , s a me situ a ti on a s Pir r a zzi ni ; L odovi co L a nz oni a nd

o er a ll of u a n o a nd a c a . O er on the th s , B b Chi vi th s

ere Lu a u cc a oc a n a t o e list w igi B ld i , S i list livi g V lt

ou a nd o one o c n on Via u no . T he H se, C l l F s hi , livi g Fl killi ng of these men w a s en tru sted to me by the Imola EARLY ACTIVITIE S 5 1 u n u n er the or er of o a nn S lfer ini n a t it d d s Gi v i o , livi g

a zza u a ini in mo a a nd his r o er in B u a n o who Pi Q I l , b th s b , ha d deﬁnitely sta ted tha t they w er e p r epa r ed t o ma ke ’ a n a cr ce t o see e r o er e a en e y s iﬁ d th ir b th s d a th v g d .

B M a 30 ha d not et ca r r e ou t m a a nd y y I y i d y t sk , went t o the u nit a nd decla red tha t it w a s impossible for me t o so S olferini t do . hen s a id tha t if I did n ot ca r ry ou t my du ty with r ega r d to the per s on s men ti oned a o e ou ea a n e e i on I r a n e b v , I sh ld h d xp dit n g d styl a a n the n a a n of a c a T he r ec or a t g i st i h bit ts Chi vi . di t s —' mola Men or e a a a Am a eo F er r a tini r o I t R v gli , d , A i

a n n Ma r o Ne r ou n a m n o nn a a nd F ti i , i g i , C t Fl i i Gi si , — ’ Andrea R o cchi a ll fa vored S olferini s pr opositi on a n d ga ve me the n ecess a ry a u thority for ca rrying ou t the e xp editi on .

’ F or thes e p u rposes they p resen ted me with a mot or c c e a n d e- ca r en b the Golli ni r o er t o en y l sid , l t y B th s , a ble me to get in t ou ch with the u nits of M a ss a l om

a r a on e ce o no a L u o B a n a r a M or a n o b di , C s li , C tig l , g , g , d , a nd u a n o a n d a e en n er e en the or ce B b , th t v i g w s t f s I r e u e e t o a a ce h a ha d een a r ee u on q st d pl t t b g d p . I ,

o e er n ot on a r r a n e n so a m a c on h w v , ly g d thi gs th t y ti

ou n ot mee u cce b u t a r ne the n a w ld t with s ss , I w d i h bit a n o f the oca c h a d een ma r e ou t a n d ts l lity whi h b k d , mo of em e a a r om e r ome a n st th k pt w y f th i h s th t ight , whil e the p olice fo r ce kept the F a s cisti squ a dr on s fr om

r o n Th e o o n mor n n the m o or e n te ing the t w . f ll wi g i g t cy cle Of the Golin elli pi cked me u p a t M a r da no a nd oo me to mo a er e w a s t o r e or on the re u t k I l , wh I p t s lts 52 ROME OR DEATH

of the e e on c of cou r e ere u e ne a e . xp diti , whi h, s , w q it g tiv

in the morn n ou n S olferini who w a s a ux At i g , I f d , iou sl a n me a nd a t the concer n ne a e y w iti g , dis ti g ws I g v hi m he e a n to emoa n the mon e he ha d a n en , b g b y v i ly sp t a mou n ting t o a ppr oxima tely 1800 lire whi ch he ha d pu t i n to my ow n ha nds .

w a s en ca e e or e the rec or who r e or e I th ll d b f di t s , p t d

e r n a ec on en r u n me one mor e con th i ﬁ l d isi , t sti g with

ﬁden tial a a s a n a r oo of m a n n the t sk , ﬁ l p f y st di g with

a T he a con e a u m n comma n o f F s cisti . t sk sist d Of ss i g d s ome squ a dr on s of a ction compos ed Of men fr om Bol ogna a nd on du ty a t Imol a for the pu rp ose of get

n H n M a r abini a nd his son n rea Ves i r i of o . A ti g d d , p g n an B a r onicini cco n the r o r e or of the a ffe i , , Ci li i , p p i t C

m r e a ha d n ot the de om e c o et c . o ec C i , I bj t d th t I

n ca r r ou t Su c a a a n d u r ermor e mea s t o y h t sk , f th I

w to o ma n T he w ou ld ha ve to kn ow the men I a s c m d . next eveni ng eight men wer e in tr odu ced t o me a n d

ou r eco n ze em pl a ced a t my dispos a l . I sh ld g i th if I

aw e a a n e ere a n a t the a m a n a s th m g i . Th y w st yi g C p

Inn a nd a te a t the Em a r e a u r an . en ou n , ili st t I th f d

the c o e of omen ou t tha t they wer e su pplied with l th s w ,

r e a n d e a r a nd a e mu a c e ea r p i sts , b gg s , with f ls st h s , b ds a nd w to c a n e e r a ea r a n ce a s occa on de igs , h g th i pp si

Th men en r u e t o me ha d come rom ma nded . e t st d f

o o n a a rme a nd a t m re u e ou n l a m n o B l g un d , y q st , C t F i i Ginn a si a sked me t o his hpu se t o s u pply me with the

e r a cce e his n a on a nd a nec ssa y a rms . I pt d i vit ti , th t EARLY ACTIVITIE S 53

en n oo m men to the nna man on a nd ev i g I t k y Gi si si , , one a t a me we er e a en o n n o the ce a r er e ti , w t k d w i t ll , wh

- aw a bi ca n non a 37 mm . a u oma c u n a nd a n I s g , t ti g , immen s e nu mber of mu skets a nd gu n s of a ll des cription s

o piled u p in a confu sed hea p . I n a n ther pa r t of this

a cella r w a s he ped a qu a ntity of a mmu nition . T he mu s e c c o e a mon the e a n d hi k t, whi h I h s g b st , w ch I a m

r e a re t o u m to o er nmen a en ha s c a r e p p d s b it g v t g ts , v d on the u end th n a me of ou n e a e b tt e C t D ll Volp . T he re of m com a n on a rme em e e r e o er st y p i s d th s lv s with v lv s . When I qu estioned C ou n t Ginn a si he told me tha t the c annon had been Obta ined fr om Gener a l Ta ma i a a nd

rou n o the a ce ece b ece b ght i t pl pi y pi .

the u n ea u a rt er S olferin i o me a 15 At it h dq s t ld th t , 000 lire ha d be en coll ected a nd depo sited with C ou n t Ginna si a nd tha t when one of the a b ove- n a med per s on s shou ld be done a wa y with it w a s t o b e u s ed a s a pr ize for the a u thor of the a ct in a ddition t o mor a l a nd ﬁ n a n cial su pport du ring the su bs equ en t per iod Of con

cea lment . On the o l o n da u n a a t the a f e f l wi g y , S d y , C

S a n a in o a a c s n a me Or e e a n u r e me t o g p , F s i t d st L di g d

a e a c on a a n H on M a r a bini w ho ou r n . ce a t k ti g i st , w ld t i ly g o t o the Cha mber of L a b or s ome time tha t morn ing ; bu t sin ce I did n ot feel like ca r rying ou t a n y a ct of

o ence a a n him en t o a na r o a n vi l g i st , I w t B g a with u t t ki g a n n o c of a h a y ti e wh t e ha d s a id . AS resu lt my pl a ce a s comm a n der w a s immedi a tely given t o a F a s c t n a med u e e n cone a ni who rece e r o the is Gi s pp A t , iv d f m 5 4 ROME OR DEATH u n it 30 lir e a da y in a ddition t o pa yment for a ction . H e br ou ght the squ a d r on whi ch w a s t o a ct a ga in st

a r a bini e r t a m of a r M n a he Ch ber L bo . Ju st by cha nce M a r a bini fell in t o the ha nds Of other

a c who e a him u so a the u a r on h a d t o F s isti , b t p , th t sq d

t a a a r enou n ce its cr imina l pl a n . My ﬂight o B gn r ma e the a c u c ou a nd ea r n eca u e of d F s isti s spi i s , , f i g b s the r e e a on m ma e e a e led me a v l ti s I ight k , th y h v piti

e c a e ou u n u cce u e ce for a e hea l ss h s , th gh s ssf l x pt littl t i n e u ccee e in in e g th y s d d giv g m .

I n u con c ence of a n o en the tru rea f ll s i h vi g sp k th, dy t o u or a t a n me or e ore a ll e en a t the co t s pp t it y ti b f , v s o f m e S n m e y lif , I ig ys lf

' VI rT ORI O F R AN C ES C O DI GIUSEP P E M ANCI NI,

o n a t N ocer a T errinese a a nza r o . B r , ( C t )

The ire of the Fascisti w a s an d is directed particula rly aga inst the Socia list an d opposition a sa t of the press . In Mil n I w he results ” e of the a n d e d struction Avanti , in R ggio “ ” the a e e e of the z a Emilia, bl ck n d Ofﬁc Giusti i ,

e e on 8 1 921 . The e e e e wr ck d April , pr ss s w r e the e e e the smash d, typ dump d ov r floor , and the a e e e e e e e i e c s s burn d . Typ writ rs w r d mol sh d , e On e books and r cords stolen or de stroyed . would have to go ba ck to the S a n Francisco e arthquake and fi re to find similarly devastated n d e a gutt d interiors. EARLY ACTIVITIE S 55

ee Elections have rarely b n honest in Italy,

e - but during thes post war years , with the

e the e e a e e of 1 9 19 e exc ption of g n r l l ction , th ir purpose has been invariably defeated by armed

e e . The e e 19 21 viol nc l ction Of May, , was featured by direct aggression on the part of the supporters of the Fascist - Nationalist - Giolitti blo co e s e e t e ze c . Opposition vot r w r rrori d or

' e e e b aten up . The preelection dead numb r d e a tw o e e the e e mor th n hundr d, whil numb r s ri i ou sly wounded excee ded ﬁv e thousand . Crim e i ze nal group attacks wer organ d in Umbria ,

e red i e . Emilia , Tuscany, and oth r prov nc s mm e e a Socialist , Co unist, and ev n Cl rical c ndi dates were run out Of their districts and kept ou t n e ea e u der thr at . Notaries were browb t n into

- refusing to Sign anti Fa scist candidate lists . Under the Italian law each party provides its h e e ow n ballots . T e Fascisti captur d and burn d many opposition ballots j ust before the day Of e lection SO that no time remained to duplica te

. e e e e them In Tri st , F rrara , and oth r localiti s the Socialists were kept from the b a llot - boxes e by force . In Bari the organized workers w nt

- a to voting places in compact military form tion . e e Similar incid nts occurr d in Caviglia, in

F e e F u ori otta e R a dicendoli lor nc , g , Napl s , . San 5 6 ROME OR DEATH

. e e z e di Severo In Torr di Par n o , San Dom nico e a Grisi n a P r otole e Cast ll r, g , Umago , , Stridon , an d e c to a a nd oth r towns of Istria , ac ording Sl v e e s o e Socialist n wspap rs , the Fa cisti t ok arm d possession of the approaches to the polls ; Opposition poll- watchers were driven away ; and v e e e in e e i e to ot rs w r , num rous instanc s , obl g d

(ﬁ e l e e ll in th ir bal ots in Sight of the el ction judg s . Only 20 per cent Of the registered voters exer cise e a e e d their right . A rm d b ttl s occurr d in u i e etc . e T rin, Milan, Bari , P rugia , At P rug a e e e e a e Ca sti l ctoral s cr cy was viol t d . At g lione del Lago the pe asants were marched to the booths and obliged to vote in the proper fashion . Some towns were threa tened with armed in va sion should the vote for the Fa scist candidates — fall b elow a given percentage threats which a the a were l ter enforced . Both Popul r and Soc ialist pa rties afterward attempted to contest some of these elections ; but the m a chinery for doing so is in full control Of the minister in

e a nd a e a e e . pow r, nothing t ngibl was chi v d An other fe ature Of this violence was the force d resignation of local a n d provincia l

Ofﬁ cials w ho opposed Fascist activities . Thus in the province of Grosseto in the commune the sindaco e Of Roccastrada, receiv d the follow

EARLY ACTIVI TIE S 5 7

n in 1 20 ing typical commu ication April , 9

' Sinda co of the C ommu ne of R occ a str a do

n ce a ou to be a a n oul n ot ere Si It ly ght It li it sh d , th

or e be a m n er e b n u a u c a s ou f , d i ist d y i divid ls s h y a nd I a e ou t o r e n e ore ri 1 a rn n dvis y sig b f Ap l 7 , w i g

ou a in c a e ou do n ot ou be r e on e y th t s y , y will sp sibl for r o er nd e on An d ou o t o the o ce p p ty a p r s s . if y g p li

e er m ou en e a nd u ma ne ma or with this l tt , y pi s , g tl , h y , the me r a n e ou be r e u ce t o e ne a the ti g t d y will d d W d sd y ,

th r e c r n s or u ne 13 a u . , ﬁg whi h b i g f t

DI ! P A A G N O E RRONE C M P NI .

a zza Olt a via ni 1 or en ce a c o om a men o Pi , Fl , F s i di C b tti t ,

renze di Fi .

The sin da co e A s e did not r sign . a r sult , a rumor of a F a scist raid on the town came ea rly a a the in July, and many inh bit nts took

e ee h e pr caution of sl ping in t e ﬁelds . B fore

of the i e da e dawn g v n y , two trucks , load d with

a l a e e F scisti , ful y rm d and suppli d with hand e e a n d e a a e a swe gr nad s inc ndi ry m t ri ls , pt into the a Th Vill ge . e house a n d business of Signor the sinda co e e e a e e Bastiani , , w r d vast t d , as w ll as

e of the a e a T a lia ferri thos ss ssors N tivi and g , and of the e e the coO e r ative Cu cin s cr tary of local p , ’ e . e a e the lli About nin o clock, ft r drinking in c the a e e e ten afé, F scisti l ft town , but r turn d min e e on e of e e i ee ut s lat r, th ir numb r hav ng b n Shot 5 8 ROME OR DEATH

’ the e VO S aletti from ambush , stud nt I Of Gros

e . The a e s to F scisti sprang from th ir trucks , e e e e e shooting at v ry p rson th y saw, murd ring

z a n d e e . ten citi ens , wounding mor than a scor They then set ﬁ re to and destroyed other houses

he e i a e e t . and busin ss s , all tim shoot ng at r ndom e e e e e e h e Fift n hous s wer d stroy d, and t e t rror ed last six hours .

i the n S an In Emil a in tow s Of Fabbrico , lVI artinO Sliceto Nov allara R e , Rio , , , Rolo , g iolo e w the n f a g , and oth r to ns , mu icipal O ﬁci ls were notiﬁed by letter to resign within a period

- The e of forty eight hour s . Fascisti w nt in p erson to the council meetings to enforce their

l f w ho a e e e e e wil . Those O ﬁcials bs nt d th ms lv s were roun ded up and brought forcibly into the sessions in order tha t the resignations might b e “ ” e a e e e in strictly l g l, though xact d in som h a ll of a stances a t t e point of a gu n . In It ly thousands of popularly elected Ofﬁcials were e oblig d to resign . e 6 1 9 21 the de Up to Jun , , Fascisti had

e a e a e e ll the stroy d , as I h v sc rtain d by fo owing ” ﬁle s of the Avanti and the Corriere della ” e e e e a e e S ra, at l ast tw lv import nt n wspap rs ,

e - Six cose del o olo a - tw nty p p , sixty l bor union

ea e e - e a e e e h dquart rs , ighty six coop r tiv busin ss s , EARLY ACTIVITIE S 59

- ee e of forty thr h adquarters peasant leagues ,

ze of e e fﬁ e - do ns mploym nt O c s , thirty four Social e e ee o e ist headquart rs , s vent n scho ls , librari s , and ’ - e cultural societies , and thirty six work rs cul tural circles . the In the cities , Fascisti have not only con tinn ed this same form of direct action but have also occupied the public buildings and the police e stations , invad d arm stores , ammunition plants , and factories . They have broken strikes and disrupted Opposition processions and funerals . the e e e In ports , th y hav occupi d the wharves , the e e e S e e e sh ds , and v n hips . Latt rly th y hav come to intimidate the proprietors of large businesses and have exacted contributions to the e e e e e mov m nt by arm d m nac . The results Of the se early violent activities e e e e a (larg ly c nt ring in Tri st , Mil n , Bologna ,

of - e e and parts Tuscany, and almost non xist nt in southern Italy a nd Sicily) may be sum marized un der the following heads :

- 1 . a z e Non Italian org ni ations , pap rs , schools , e e e e e e e and v n church s w r d stroy d .

- 2 . All non Fascist politica l a n d economic or aniza io e g t n s were coerce d or disrupt d .

3 on - a ee e . N F scist public m tings wer ren e e e d r d impossibl . 60 ROME OR DEATH

- a 4 . Anti Fascist newsp pers were forbidden to

e e f e or - circulat , or th ir o ﬁc s printing plants

e wr cke d .

e e e e 5 . Vot rs w re intimidat d at el ctions ; and

se the e the a e e the in ca vot for Soci list , som tim s

a l e ee e a e e e e C tho ic party, xc d d c rtain p rc ntag , t he whole district w a s invaded and shot u p . 6 f . Elected o ﬁcials a ntipa th etic to the Fascisti

e e r e e e w r mu d r d or forc d to resign .

a e - 7 . P easant le gu s and labor unions were dis ru pted ; labor employment Ofﬁces were destroyed or e prevent d from functionin g . CHAPTER V

EARLY TENDENCIES

HE violence describe d in the previous chap ter gives the clue to certain deﬁnite p eriods in the development of the F a scist move ment a n d to certa in tendencie s which have since

e b come more outstanding . The Fa sci di Comba ttimento are the logical outgrowth of the Nationalist loca ls that sprang 4 a n e e 9 1 . a e into w lif in 1 In th t y r Mussolini , having b een expelle d from the Socialist party and deprive d of his editoria l chair on the “ ” a e e a ze a ro Avanti , tt mpt d to org ni F sci Of p

a w a s n ot e e war Soci lists but v ry succ ssful , for ” none Of the se b ands survived the ﬁrst year of

ro the w ar . In tha t ye ar he also la unched the p “ ’ ” d I ta lia war Popolo ; Enrico Corradini ,

e e the a a e l ad r of N tion list party, call d for war ’ against Austria ; Gabriele d A n n u n ziO scattered his poetic propaganda from Syra cuse to Turin . From the sentiments a roused by these three e e a e e l ad rs was l t r to issu Fascism . 61 62 ROME OR DEATH

The ﬁrst bands in 1 9 19 were composed Of orditi ( shock - troops) largely ma de u p Of young e e l ze ordit Nationalists . Thes d mobi i d i in the annexed areas were irritated by the Govern ’ e e e n ew e ment s failur to co rc the ali ns , to

z e the e e e Italiani e th m with proper xp ditiousn ss . Acting Often in concert wi th the restless and idle e the orditi i e the soldi ry Of occupation , comm tt d misdemeanors and violence previously describ ed . When the eastern outposts of the Adria tic e e n a w re in danger Of b i g lost to It ly, many

l Of e e deﬁ Ita ian troops and some th s groups , ’ n itel e e e d A nnu nzio y lab led Fasci, ralli d b hind Z and followed him to Fiume and ara . Mario “ ’ i in i e Con d A nnu nziO Carl , his rem nisc nt book ,

um e e ef a ze a Fi , t lls vividly of his forts to org ni the orditi in support of Fiume and of his a rrest the e of the e e e e a at ord r s cr tary of war , G n r l

On e e e 1 1 12 1 9 19 e e Caviglia . S pt mb r and , , th s volunteers streamed south from Triest by bi

e - e a er o lan e e cycl , motor cycl , by p , automobil , and

- — a e - un e motor boat infantry, m chin g compani s , e e e ee e e gr nadiers , Fascisti, v n thr hundr d t ach ers .

‘ The Fascisti had been orga nize d secretly . Their ﬁrst public a n d Ofﬁcia l a ppearance oc curred in the meeting held by Mussolini in

64 ROME OR DEATH in an orgy of blood and incendiarism the week e e the e e b for l ctions of May .

e e The Th n Italy br athed again . Fascisti were beginning to feel a growing antagon ism

the e e o e a e toward xtravaganc f th ir ctiviti s . By August 3 the F a scist national dire ctorat e w a s e e e b de e en the v n induc d y Nicola , pr sid t of

a e e e S ea e - Ch mb r Of D puti s , to ign a p c pact with the a the e e a a Soci lists , which in subs qu nt n tion l F a scist convention w a s de clared by Signor M an “ del to be a truce with the public Opinion Of ” e e the America . It was r ally a truc with public e e of a a n d ee a a e s ntim nts It ly , had it b n m int in d, might h ave turned most Of the Fa scist energies w a s into politica l channe ls . That Mussolini well awa re of the n ew s entiment of the country is revea led in the tone Of his explanation made upon his resigna tion from the presiden cy of the Fasci di Combatimento when ha lf the orga niza — tion sixty loca l s ecreta ries repre senting on e hundred a n d ﬁfty thousand a graria n Fa scisti 1 refus ed to abide by the pact

H ow sha ll w e a chieve pa ciﬁca ti on ? DO y ou think it will be p ossible t o extermin a te the wh o

S m Or to r u n the r of c w a r ? v oted for ocia lis . isk ivil

“ ’ ” 1 o d Itali a Au u t 8 1921 . Popol , g s , EARLY TENDENCIES 65

Or t o go a ga in st the sentiment of the n a tion ? Or do y ou pr efer t o su bmit t o a pea ce impos ed by the S oci a l i st s a s a r esu lt Of a n other n ot impr ob a ble whirl of the wheel ? T he pe a ce- p a c t Of Rome does not mea n the demobiliza ti on Of the F a s cisti n or the cess a ti on Of their p olitic a l str u ggle a ga in st the S o cia lists nor a gener a l

em r a c n enem e . the a c of ome the b i g Of i s With p t R ,

a c m a e o n not onl e r u c F s isti ight h v sh w y th i p gilisti ,

om a r n u er or bu t e r cer e r a a nd mor a b b di g s p i ity , th i b l l

u e or A er the a c of ome a a r s p r i ity . ft p t R th t p ty whi ch cou ld give the most ﬁrm p r oof of in tellec tu a l dis ciplin e wou ld in the r ea lity Of things ha ve been v ic

T he a re n con a n r o f t ori ou s . Fa s cisti givi g st t p o f o

e is o ﬁtu e th ir d c m r .

the e e e the of But on whol , d spit formation the militant Arditi del Popolo (July 6 ) compose d

e of r volutionary Socialists , Communists , and e w a s i Anarchists , int rnal war abat ng ; and

a a e F scism , though it maint in d its militancy,

e a e e P e also mb rk d upon a political cours . r viou sl the M a e e —ﬁ v e y , in y l ctions , thirty Fascisti ,

a e ee e running on v rious tick ts , had b n s nt to the

a n a a e the n tio l ch mb r . At Fascist convention of e e e 1 9 2 1 the Rom in Nov mb r, , National Fa scist p arty was crea ted with a complete e l n a d a . conomic , politica , social pl tform The convention determined that at the next national 66 ROME OR DEATH election (which has not y et occurred) the n ew party should run Fascist candidates in every commune and province . This n ew political drift w a s undoubtedly the e f the Of the e a the r sult o absorption middl cl ss , iccolo bor hesia e p g , which , though its young r genera tion provided most of the ﬂying militant

a e squ drons at this tim , is traditionally timid ,

- - traditionally a law and order group . But this group ha s been so battered a n d dislocated during the post - war tha t it ha s b een forced to ﬁght for its existence and its place in the scale Of the e social hi rarchy . Concurrent with the se developments came the

e e a the m ris Of agrarian Fascism , p rh ps most i 1 e e of the e e e portant singl phas mov m nt . Lat r ca me into existence labor Fascism on a progra m “ of a a a the a e e n tion l syndic lism , vow d purpos of which w a s to establish industria l pe ace and e e e coop ration . Th se various e l ments beca me da ily more milita nt a n d toward the en d of t e 1 9 22 e a the a e Oc ob r, , b g n M rch on Rom which a fter three days culminated in the e sta blishm ent of Fa scism as the supreme governmental the ea in of party, cr tion Italy a dictatorship of a minority .

1 Gi e e ai e ea men i ar I I v n d t l d tr t t n P t . EARLY TENDENCIE S 67

e e e a re e i n the Th s , th n , the principal stag s Fascist rise to power : Italianization of annexe d a e the e z e e li ns , participation in s i ur Of Fium , v e e u e of iol nt r action to comm nism , ris agrarian e a of Fascism , ris of politic l Fascism , absorption the e a a the middl cl ss , rise Of l bor Fascism , March

on o e . The e e R m , dictatorship lat r phas s Of

e e be e e e . this s ri s will consid r d in d tail But , in the ea e the e rly stag s , possibiliti s Of Fascism e e e e e T he e e w r not so asily disc rnibl . mov m nt e was amorphous , continually haul d in contrary e he . me e t dir ctions Thus , at ti s , it was us d by big industria lists and the landed proprietors to

e e a e e furth r th ir priv te int r sts . In Puglia it marked a bloody reaction of property and was identiﬁed with an opprobrious system of bossism mozzier sm a known as i o. In Sicily and S rdinia it a ssassina ted the p easant leaders w ho had

- e e head ed the land seizure movem nt . In Tri st a n d Istria it was anti - Sla v ; in Florence it had a

a e e a e e sophomoric ch ract r, b ing l rg ly compos d of i e u e e e e un v rsity st d nts . In V nic , wh re it had

e e e r r lativ ly littl opposition , it was aristoc atic ,

e e e e . w a s e s dat , and th or tic In Parma it accus d

e m the e e a e Of b ing com unist , and d l g t from that

e w a s e e he a e city, Ruggi ri , hiss d wh n ttempt d to spe ak at the Fascist Rome convention . In the 68 ROME OR DEATH

Adriatic delta district it e arly developed a pro

a o - e a gr m f land subdivision . In oth r loc lities it ha ee e s b n thoroughly middl class .

Yet e e e e e e e - c rtain t nd nci s w r cl ar cut , though he e e e e . Of t at that tim rath r n gativ First all ,

e e - Yet ha s e e mov m nt was anti Sociali st . it n v r

ee e e e a e c a n d b n , xc pt in c rt in limit d distri ts for e e the e e the short p riods , a Whit guard in s rvic of

e e r oﬁteers the a e r actionari s and p , as r dicals hav

a e e . de e e e of ss rt d As St fani , now a m mb r ’ a e e a e a e Mussolini s c bin t , d cl r d in Parli m nt in “ J 19 2 1 The a e b e the uly, , F scisti do not int nd to dagger for the politicians and industria lists with whom for expediency they were yoked during ” h e a e a the t e el ctions . As matt r of f ct many of principa l l eaders we r e recruited from ra dical d a . e e the w a r e a r nks B for , B nito Mussolini n

‘ Michael T erz a ghi and Enrico B esa na were r evolutionary Socialists ; Leonardo Arpinati w a s a n Anarchist ; C esare Rossi w a s an Ana rchist Syndica list ; and the list might be in deﬁnitely ex e e Of the a - a at t nd d . Much F scist anti Soci list titu de is wrappe d up with their ha tred of the ’ party s pro- Russian alinement a nd its com promising enjoyment Of governmental privi 1 e e leges . Wrot Pi ro Belli

“ ” 1 o di Trie te F b ru ar 5 1921 o o e . P p l s , y , EARLY TENDENCIE S 69

We ha ve n ot been born to comb a t the S ocia list pa r ty w e a re a a n the of e er a r We ma r c t o g i st p a st v y p ty . h the conqu est of the fu tu r e a ga in st every for ce tha t

ne a e the a trio a n u a ou r u n . g t s p , th t i s lts it , th t w ld i it

ee the a e e e Ind d , s m bitt rn ss was at that early

e a e e a the p riod m nif st d gainst Catholics . In Florence I witne sse d the bloody break - u p Of a C atholic procession that ma rched to lay a wreath a t the foot of the towerin g statue of Dante in the zz e e Pia a S a nta Croce . T he Fascisti consid r d this a deﬁ lement Of the memory of the ﬁrst grea t e a a se r of Italia n n tion lism . Mussolini has Spoken of the Popular party in the most rabid e the e mann r, as at national Fascist conv ntion in Rome :

the mo a n er n r o n ex It is st d g ou s . It swi gs f m o e

reme t o n r e n t a othe . It r sts u po its r ich b a nking in sti t u tions u on r o a n a r o hia ls— a c , p its thi ty th u s d p c bl k

B o e mo re a n er ou a n r ed o e a nd lsh vists , d g s th B lsh vists ,

u e b mor e er oc ou neu r a a n d a n - a g id d y f i s t ls ti Ita li n s .

e a e e Pri sts h v b en murdered in their churches .

P ie n tin a a nd a the e a e In Vicopis no , h adqu rt rs of the Popular party a n d the Catholic circle e e e a e n i e e to ea e w r d vast t d, a d, pr sts ord red l v e a e th ir p rish s, 70 ROME OR DEATH

i the the a ciﬁ sts Sim larly, Fascisti fought p and have constantly empha sized the necessity for a e large military e sta blishm nt . Though an a m nesty had b een gra nted to a ll conscientious Ob ector s e e the m n j , th y drov Com u ist Misiano , who e ze the ou t the w nt to Swit rland during war , of e of e e he e Chamb r D puti s , to which had b en e e e e l gally l ct d , and out of the country again .

- - - Anti Socialism , anti Catholicism , anti paci

ﬁ sm— e e e e the Of th s w r burning sparks Fascism . These earlier tendencies revolved around a

e o The a ea th ory f nationalism . F scisti rly ’ evidenced their sympathy with the d A nn u n zian expedition and their bitter animosity toward the e a a e e Tr aty Of R p llo , which gav Fium and l Dalmatia t o Ju gos avia . Thus during the initial period Of Fascism

e e e e a e n e . w a s c rtain t nd nci s c m well d eﬁ d It ,

Of a - e of the ﬁrst all, post war proj ction Nation alist movement tha t ha d been ﬁghting for Italia Irredenta and a gainst the corruption Of the

a a Ita lian paternal bure ucr cy .

e e e e S cond , Fascism was alr ady an xpr ssion of the self- cente red raucous a dolescence of a nation without governmental tra ditions in the sense tha t these a re possessed by France or

e e n he England . It repres nts a historic phas i t

72 ROME OR DEATH

’ e e e e e c Vi w, Fascism, d spit its d structiv ta tics and

b e a 1 9 20 e e a its igotry, as rly as had b com , in m ny

e e the ways , a pow rful, invigorating forc ; from

Of e e e e e world point Vi w, it alr ady app ar d r action a e u ary and d ng ro s . A preliminary deﬁnition is thus possible at this point : F a scism ha d become an expression of the p ost- w ar restlessn ess of the demobilized

dir ected into or anize chann els b ex arditi , g d y na tiona list a nd ear- syndica list lea ders imbu ed with the doctri n es of direct a ction and S orelian vio lence and in s ire b a ne a tive a triotism or p d y g p , f the u r ose o na tiona lizin a liens destro in p p f g , y g S ocia lism cu rtailin th secu la r in u en ce o the , g e ﬂ f chu rch u rootin a ci sm a n d— b m a kin u se , p g p ﬁ , y g

- — of the discon ten ted middle class elemen ts cre a t n n i c nt n str n t l i g a efl ie a d o g I a y . But the means to be used in crea ting a n effi cient a n d strong Ita ly ha d n ot as y et b een clari fi a intelli ed . w a a e a e u n F scism s still n g tiv , gent rea ction Of the trenche s against unhea lthy e n d a ac a a conomic a politica l in dequ y . It w s l ck e e a n d e e ing in dir ction , purpos , common s ns , but imbued with all the war re stlessne ss and faith in e e the e e e ea viol nc , all inchoat , misdir ct d id lism tha t had been created by interested war propa a g nda . PART II

THE AGRARIAN STRUGGLE

CHAPTER VI

A GRARIA N CONDITIONS

AND ! That has been the key to Italian prosperity and politics since long before the time of the Gracchi and the legge fru m nta me of e rio. From the ti Sulla down

r u the i of e e e th o gh long l ne cont ntious mp rors , the land que stion was involved with every pro

m Of e a e . e gra t rritori l xpansion Soldi rs , ﬂung ou t the e i a e e e against fronti rs , nvari bly d v lop d

e - n e e ea a gr at land hu g r , part of th ir dr m Of a e the e -u s ttled life . And conﬁscation and br ak p the e e e the e e of e Of larg stat s , improv m nt wast e the e and marsh lands , such as thos in Pontin , absorbed the energie s of all the most thoughtful h the e . t e e of rulers Again, in lat r days empir , when the monetary and c ommercia l sy stem ha d

e n the e e e of e e a brok n dow , s v ranc h althy r l tions between the city and the country- side strangle d civic life and broke the lines of commun ication

e a ee re within the empir . It ly has always b n p : the e o d eminently agrarian and probl m f to ay, 75 76 ROME OR DEATH

l e whi e complicated by industrialism, by a broad r l e a s democracy, by socia ism, are much the sam when Sulla and C aesar e stablished their notorious - ze land laws for the veterans . Demobili d sol e the n e e of o u di rs , u mploy d, shifts class and p p

a ea a e a e e e - exhau s l tion , p s nt r volts , bs nt ism, soil i e e ho a n d the e e a e tion , prim tiv m t ds , g n r l stat e Off the of e of Europ , cut from basis lif , from e e e e o the Old raw mat rials , r cr at most f Roman situ ation . Pier Ludovico Occhini in his La Crisi A g ” “ raria repeatedly insists upon the reality : the relation between the city and the cou ntry is trul y the most fear - inspirin g question for the ” “ ” he e e of t . nl futur nation Land , o y land, it r

e e the e a of at d Franc sco Crispi , most imp ri listic ’ “ t e all of Ita ly s ministers . Only he soil can r ” h e ee ou r n . w o d m cou try Garibaldi , promot d irrigation improvements in conn ection with the

e e a w ho e ee Tib r Riv r , and C vour , introduc d b t aw e a a A n d ul e s . sugar c tur , with qu l cl rity to ’ day it is more true than ever tha t Italy s future lies in her soil .

Yet there is no physiographic unity in Italy .

i e a ll a n d a a All cl mat s , kinds of soil l nd , all lti

e a ll e ee of a . ll a tud s , d gr s r infall A uvial pl in , he m t h ll . T i , marsh , and mountain i por ant di AGRARIAN CONDITIONS 77‘

of e e ee t vision , cours , is b tw n Nor h and South

‘ a e on e e e It ly . Wh n cross s th Apuan Al ps in e e ec he e ffe e ith r dir tion st ps into a di r nt country, wh ere eve n the p eople preserve unique social cus toms and spe ak mutually unintelligible tongues . The P 0 valley enj oys the climate and soil of central Europ e ; its rea ches are traverse d by myriad streams and groove d with hundr eds of

a a e e 1 000 A D. c n ls , som of th m dating from . Except during the months when snow covers the

a ee the a re fed ground , this l nd is gr n , crops by

the air e b abundant rainfall , is cl ar and salu ri

e a - e e Ous . W ll built f rm houses are scatt red ov r the landscap e and connect ed by good roa ds . The ca na l system is complemented by adequate steam transportation and an extensive network of e b a e int rur n e l ctric communications . Especially is this true of the Adriatic delta

A a e district . S on e dr ws near the sea one is r e Of a e a e Of the e e mind d Holl nd b c us low, f rtil ,

- - e a e e . canal cross d , ro d n tt d panorama It is a a a e e e te e v st lluvial r gion , xt nding in a ﬂat n d

e the the z e - ﬁ ve curv from mouth of Ison o , tw nty

e e the e mil s from Tri st , to Mar cchia cutting

e e through Rimini . Num rous sluggish str ams ,

the ea e e including Po, m nd r through this r gion , bringing down every year great loads of silt from 78 ROME OR DEATH

e i n the Alps and the Ap nn nes , formi g wide la -ﬂa ts con goons , marshes , and mud . This coast stantl e e h n e y ncroach s upon t e sea . A ci nt ports such as Ravenn a and Adria now lie from six to

e il e . The ee i ﬁft en m s inland soil is t m ng rich , and the whole district is ( along with historic Lucca and the environs Of Naple s) the most e f rtile developed fa rming region of the country . “ Wrote Antoni o Marozzi in the Giornale ’ ” 1 d I talia in an op en letter to the sub - secretary of Soleri : agriculture , Signor

H l Tw on S o eri come u er e a nd see. o or ree . , p h th

a a o o o r d y s will n ot be b dly spent . We will sh w y u u mmen e a n e o the e e of the sea r ec a me b i s pl i b l w l v l , l i d y the en a c ou of ma n a nd ou or a mo t i s will , with t , l st with ou t ov erninent a l a a n ce w e S o o ou r , g ssist ; will h w y u

r a u c a n the n e or of c a n a ou r a rm hyd li pl ts , tw k ls , f s in whi ch a ll the most modern techni ca l dis coveries a r e

u e on a a r e ca e You a e occa on t o s ppli d l g s l . will h v si

ee onc mor e r o f e n a a n f l e p u d o b i g It li .

n to e th e e Passi g c ntral Italy, country b comes e e a The a rolling, v n rugged and h rsh . clim te along the littoral of the Tyrrhenian Sea varies

of the a n a e from that Adri tic from A con to Chi ti , a nd both from that of the foot -hill s and the moun

1 F r a 3 19 eb u r 1 22 . y ,

8 0 ROME OR DE ATH n ot spread over the cou ntry- side in isola ted dwellings close to their labor but must live on the

u n n - e e e mo tai tops , huddl d tog th r in compact Vil e the lages . From these th y must descend to

e e a e plain long b fore dawn . Oft n h ve I h ard them singing in the late twilight as they have ’ i e u the e e A n d cl mb d p h ights aft r a day s toil . e a ee l th e th ir labor h s b n truly labor . Not on y natu re of the soil but the scanty rainfall makes

e returns proportionat ly slight . They cannot de p end upon streams in times Of dr ought as in the the e e few e north , for riv rs rag for a hou rs aft r each mounta in thun d er - storm ; but most Of the year the be ds ar e bleaching sand a n d boul ders .

And everywhere there are sp ecial difﬁculties . 1 Writes Occhini :

T hink of the moorl a nds of cen t r a l It a ly a n d of the — r e er enn a ou r ce o f ma a r a of the M ezz o ma sh s , p i l s s l i

h a T n the r ete or c a o f gi or no a nd t e isl nds . hi k Of c l y

a the ma r ie of u i a o f the ea a e Sien ; Of g P gl , h th th t giv s a n a lmost de ser t a spect even t o s ome pa r ts of the

in . f the a c of o a e a er a n Pa du a n pl a Think o l k p t bl w t ,

for t e e of men a nd a n m a element so impor t a n t h liv s i ls ,

T in of the enni n e in cent r a l a nd i n su l a r It a ly . h k Ap

r or r en a b n a u r e i c a c a er in the r ive s , t ti l y t , wh h l k w t very s ea s on s when it is needed .

1 t . . 42. 0 p. ci , p AGRARIAN CONDITIONS 81

I n few cou n tri e s of E u r ope does there exist su ch a n

me a r e r a c or t o cu a on e a a r ea i r re di bly f t y ltiv ti , whil th t

e a n on u ze a t rea co which is su s ceptibl c ly be tili d g t st,

r ea er e er a n ce a nd a er a on er e of ea r . g t p s v , ft l g s i s y s

Thes e various geographic difference s impose corresponding land problems a n d have given rise to the most diverse types of tenure and methods e Ya cini of cultivation . Wrote St fano in his “ ’ ” Rapport Final de l E nqu ete Agricole

Ag ricu ltu r a lly Ita ly r evea ls s u ch a v a r iety of con dition s a fa r r om con u n a n econ om c u n t th t , f stit ti g i i y , one c a n w ell sa y the c ou n t ry r eﬂects a ll tha t is most diver s e in r u r a l econ omy : fr om the grea t e st a tes of the M dl e e u ze for a n e en e c a on id Ag s , tili d xt siv u ltiv ti of the most p r imitive type to tha t of very in ten se cu lti v a tion Of the most per fected s or t ; fr om sm all heter o geneou s cu ltiv a tion t o tha t of the g r ea test Specia liz a ti on Of pr odu cts ; fr om the mo st r u dimen t a ry a gri cu l tu re t o tha t of the most v a r ied r ot a ti on s ; fr om a r e tu r n of ﬁve lir e for every hect a r e cu ltiva ted t o tha t of 200 0 r e li .

Southern Italy and even the Roman Cam pagna and other localities are under a régime of ee e a e men absent ism . Gr t estate s a re own d by w ho rarely visit th eir poss essions but live in the e e e the citi s nj oying the usufruct . About Rom 82 ROME OR DEATH la ti ondi or eu di are let to mercant di f , f , usually i

Cam a na e - a e eu p g , or larg sc l contractors , who

e e Of the a a ttore or trust the manag m nt l nd to a f , bailiﬁ w ho e e ca sole the , r sid s at the , as central - e e farm hous is call d . e e z With r gard to Sicily, writ s Giuseppe Pre “ ” 1 zolini in the New York Nation !

I a e a n e r o er - n Sicily l rg l d d p p ty preva ils . One sixth of the isla n ds is owned by 173 people in a popu l a tion of fou r million inha bita n ts ; one- third is owned by 787

T he r cu u r a C a eo e er people . a g i lt l l ss p pl ov

a o e mo n T e a n ten y e r s of a ge ) p ss ss a l st othing . h l d o ner in ener a e a a r om e r a n in the w s , g l , liv w y f th i l ds

i ome a r o e r en e c a n o n n ad . r Si ili t w s , R , b Th y t th i la nds t o people pecu lia r to Sicily ca lled Gobello ti who ’ a a n ce mone fo the ea r cr o re u en rer en dv y r y s ps , f q tly t

u the e a n ing to other s who in tu rn su blet . Th s p a s t

a r o o r mi emen T he Go belloto ha s to p y th ee r f u ddl . is the ﬁn a ncier of the a gra ria n ma na gemen t of the

r o r e or he is u u a a ea a n who ha s r o n r c p p i t ; s lly p s t g w i h, a u rer ou cr u e who r e to et a r o s u with t s pl s , t i s g wh t p ﬁt

a n r om the a n ou m r o n not e n he c f l d with t i p vi g it , b i g s u re of ha ving it a ga in a nd ru nning the r isk a lso Of

e u H e em o losing the ha rvest by frequ n t dr o ghts . pl ys

r o ne r a n ru r a u a r u er n en en a pe s n l of ty ts ( l g ds , s p i t d ts ,

ee the ea a n u n er r c u a r for ea r etc . ) to k p p s t d st i t g d f tha t he shou ld ea t the s eed in stea d of s owing it or r ob

1 M a rch 2, 1921 . AGRARIAN CONDITIONS 83

o n o er a n T he obel the ha rvest or go to w rk o th l ds . G oto a the ma r a nd the ea a n in a a n ce bu t l p y s ste p s t dv , he c a nnot r ob the ma ster a nd he ca n rob the pea s a nt ; a nd ou t of the a dv a n ce pa yments which he gives the

er n n r e pea s a n t he ta kes fr om 30 t o 5 0 p ce t i te st . It is n ot t o be w onder ed tha t the Gobell oto is the most de s ised a nd a e e r on in ci p h t d p s Si ly .

The p a rallel between these conditions and the viciousne ss that featu red the Roman provincia l e e administration does not need to be drawn h r . I have traveled in Mexico for seventy -fi ve miles through a single ha cienda ; I have ridden horse back from da wn till dark and the boundary Of ’ one man s prope rty w a s still invisible beyond the horizon ; I have investigate d absenteeism in southwestern Spain where the back - wa sh Of a broken empire and the social de cay of the race have left a discouraged and poverty - stricken peo ple whose diet means slow sta rvation ; but I have nowhere seen su ch terrible conditions as prevail e e in c rtain parts of southern Ita ly . On would have to go to the Orient to find equal filth and e e d bas ment .

e the o b r s a the N xt to piccol o ghe i of towns , no class in Italy sa cr iﬁced more during the war h the e than t e peasants Of the south . But id a spread abroad that the war was bringing a n ew 84 ROME OR DEATH era e e e the e , a mor lib ral régim , that p asant be e e e would r comp nse d . B sides this S a nta

the e of the - w a r ha Claus faith , p asant post s a psychology of violence and class - right which he e e e e e e The n v r poss ss d b for . impossibility of emigrating to the United States has destroyed much Of his hope of e scap e from an intolerable

t h - e h si uation by ﬂight . T e post war has s e n t e e e e e a e led the ris of p asant l agu s , m ny Of th m by e Oﬂi cers w ho ha d e the w a r sam participat d in , others directed by the Popula r or Socialist pa r h ties . T e coOper ative Agricole fra L avoratori

e e e O e ve a n ea e d lla T rra and oth r co p rati s d l gu s ,

e e toe- e a which had w dg d holds in c rt in districts , broke through a ll Obstacles a n d soon achieve d a

e e e the sure footing . Th s l agu es enroll Virtually e e a a ntire p as nt popul tion . e e e 1 9 19 the e Unr st incr as d . In p asants e ze th e e a Of ea s i d e n c ssary lands . B nds p sants moved en mass e ou t from the village s and S O camped on la nds previously marke d out . cia lists e e r ed a e w nt with th ir ﬂags ; C tholics , Oft n led e e e e a e ex by pri sts , w nt with th ir whit b nn rs ;

Soldiers went with the tricolor or with bla ck ﬂa gs . The ﬁrst went to establish coop erative colonie s ; the two latter gr oups to establish p ea sant pro ieto s e h a ll pr r . This movem nt spread t rough of AGRARIAN CONDITIONS 85

a e . 19 20 Sicily and l st d about four months In , n the e e e e e duri g r volutionary driv Of S pt mb r,

- e z e c e e land s i ur s again oc urr d , this tim even in e n provinc s as far north as Turin . More than o e o the e e a e e z third f ntir r a of Sicily w a s thus s i ed . The la nd - seizures were n ot directed so much the e the a belloti against propri tors as against g , e a e e T he whos tyranny h d b come unsupportabl . demands of the Sicilian peasants are well sum mariz ed by the four points adopted by the pro v in cia l e e e i on conv ntion h ld in Sal m , Trapani , 8 19 20 August ,

1 - . Abolition of the interme diary land specu ator a b llo s ( g e ti ) . 2 e . C ssion of lands to the agrarian coopera i e t v s .

3 . of the e of e e Abolition syst m ﬁx d r ntals . ! The clim ate make s crop - returns t oo uncertain ] 4 e e of the e of e . D t rmination t rms r ntal by means of a commission representative of renters and proprietors . The s eizure s of the la nd were temporarily — l ega lized by the Chamber the opinion Of the

e e the w a s a l a p opl in south so milit nt y un nimous , an d the conditions a bolished so obviously medie

v al . e ee e e e e 2 19 19 A d cr , publish d S pt mb r , , had already been called forth by the ﬁrst signs 86 ROME OR DEATH

e e e e 13 the of peasant unr st . On D c mb r , Cham ber passed an agrarian law introduced by Signor

e eﬁ ect R ina , which was promptly put into by the o e Falconi and Vis cchi decrees . These d crees aimed at increasing the yield of cereals and at he re providing the peasantry with lands . T p feets were authorize d to Occupy ( as a temporary measure ) all the uncultiva ted or poorly cultivated lands in behalf Of legally organi zed associations . e e e e e e Th re wer thus r quisition d h ctar s , Of which over were in the provin ce of Rome and nea rly 8000 in the province of Cal tan isetta w a s a e e , Sicily . This law m nd d in 1 9 20 of the li April , , and the study app cations for land - grants was therein referred to a special pro v incial commission to be presided over by the local tax asse ssor and compos ed of two land

e e a e e e e a own rs and two peasa nts . P n lti s w r st b li he the e a e s d for ill g l invasion of lands . Aft r the seizures of 1 9 20 a centra l Commission of Agriculture w a s set u p to decide a ppea ls re

the a a the ea n garding aw rd of l nds to p sa ts , and also a r egiona l autonomous commission in Pal ermo for all Of Sicily . The origi na l Visocchi Decree was successively modiﬁed by the various ministers of agricu lture — e e all Mich li , Mauri , B rtini , belonging to the

88 ROME OR DEATH cultivated or sporadically cultivated lands or those susceptible to noteworthy increase in cul iva te t d products . But far more Si gniﬁcant with respect to the rise of Fascism are the developments in the A d ria i e he t c d lta district . Al l t important inci

e in a - a e d nts the l nd war , during its initial ph s , e e had th ir origin in this small s ctor . And this , The the l i e . to Ita ian, has pleasing sign ﬁcanc e e of the e e p opl Romagna , as nam would sugg st , e are considered the re al Roma ns . To this r gi on ﬂed the most hardy Latin remnants during the e e A n d e e tim of barbarian p rsecutions . th s

li of e e e Romagno , big body, big at rs , big talk rs , — and politic ally minded Mussolini be ing on e of — them have been the most active in all the recent troubles . e e the e — For d cad s , Adriatic d lta district with the exception Of the large estates nea r Veni ce — a n d in parts of Ferrara has been largely popu la ted by a prosperous cla ss Of sma ll landholders u ni ze e e e e e in and nio d t nant farm rs , w ll v rs d e e a e sci ntiﬁc int nsive cultiv tion . Both the larg Owners and the tenants have shown their initia tive and intelligence by grouping themse lves into powerful coop erative banks and pur chasing agencies for the more eﬁ ective use Of modern AGRARIAN CONDITIONS 89

' te ni e machinery and ch cal m thods . And yet,

e of e e e ev n in parts this r gion, abs nt eism is not “ e the e unwont d . In F errara land is cone n trate d in the hands of a few hundre d p ersons ; of whom but a score or so interest themselves di ” 1 rectl e ow n e y in th ir prope rti s . Five or six decade s a go much Of this region a e e was swampy, mal rial, and farm d in a slov nly, ignorant fashion by the Old feudal patriarchal colonies . In Ferrara the colony unit was known

the versu ro Of e - ec e the as tw nty six h tar s , and a th r The patriarchal l bor contract as e boa io.

d- e u for un the c nt ry wars iﬁcation and , later, e e e e introduction of machin ry, dislocat d th s cog e e e natie units . In som cas s agriculture so d clin ed e that only waste lands r mained . The Governm ent promoted reélamation by

e e etc. building roads , drainag syst ms , This

e e e e proc ss still continu s , l nding a p culiar char e the e act r to agrarian labor probl m . As Pro fessor Gustavo del Vecchio writes :

r e on u ec t o r o r e e r a n orma on This gi is s bj t p g ssiv t sf ti . Du ring the per i od of swa mp de s ola ti on o ccu r r ed the

r a a er a me t e g e t cu ltiva ti on of a lfa lfa a n d r i ce . L t c h

a a n - r ee mul a ne u cu ltiv tion of gr a in d fru it t s . Si t o sly

ere con r u c e the r r oa or of the n a me w st t d ﬁ st ds w thy ,

“ 1 I a on iello am n e e e aron e Ro e 148 o E . T s I Tr o . I . t l , t d ll B i ss , p 90 ROME OR DEATH a on ou e a nd a e o ul a on eca me l g with h s s st bl s . P p ti b

en e a nd oc mu e a er e en a w a s w a r d s , st k ltipli d f st v th n r an ted by the fer tility a ccu mu la ted in the s oil du r ing “ its lon g per i od of intermitten t cul tiva tion a nd ex ” - en e a rm n . er eu on a r e ca e met o t siv f i g Th p l g s l h ds ,

ma c ner er e n u e b echn ca e ert with hi y , w i stit t d y t i l xp s , who r o a e cr 0 a n d ecu r e ma mu m r u rn Th e t t d ps s d xi et s . worker s needed for this form of l ab or cou ld n ot be c om o e a s in o er oca i e r e en a rm n p s d , th l l ti s , Of a sid t f i g

n m the on r a r o l a on in con a e u r u . On c p pu ti st t q ilib i t y ,

e com r e a ma n c r o e a r a n r a n th y p is ss disti tly p l t i , d w

r om the e ce o u a on in th r on er zone f x ss p p l ti e f ti s , wher e occu r s a n extr a or di n a r y dema n d for la bor de v oted t o the initia l import a n t work of t r a nsformin g the ma r e n o i e a n hi a r a r a n o ul a sh s i t t ll a bl l d . T s g i p p ti on pr esents a ll the cha r a cteristics of a n indu str ia l p r oleta ri a t a ma ss ca lled t o the ma nu fac ” u re O f t l a nd .

e e r n the the B for and du i g war, when labor a e e u the e the S o supply r r ly cam p to d mand , cia lists had not succeeded in controlling the bulk Of the peasa nts except in certain sections such as e a a e the e a a e e F rrar , but ft r war th y m n g d to w ld the small farmers and this proletariat ( exclu d ing the Ca tholics) in to on e powe rful class or a n ization h e e e g , w ich th y manipulat d larg ly for

i e h e e e e s pol tica l nds . T e w ar str ngth n d this sentiall ll e e e a e ee e e y i ogical allianc . S v r l d cr s w r

9 2 ROME OR DEATH

But during the revolutionary activities Of 1920 the lea gues were emboldened to make gre ater and more arbitrary demands upon the propri etor s e e e e a n d , in som cas s r sorting to viol nce e d struction of crops a n d buildings . The leagues

e e e n the e - d mand d , among oth r thi gs , ight hour da the the y , right of monopoly control of supply ing of all labor by means of the class - controlled u i cio di colloca mento e e e e Of ﬁ , or l agu mploym nt ﬁ ce e e e the e ; th y also d mand d that propri tors , the S ze Of e ro in proportion to i th ir holdings , p vide employment to workers during the slack — season in Ferrara three workers ( operai ) to th the e e the e versu ro. In addition , mploy rs lost e e e e right , in most cas s , to impos t chnical ov r ee h w a s s rs . A t the sa me time t e peasant boycott directed against a ll renters in an attempt to de

- stroy the mezza dria or crop Sha ring system .

the e a the e a e e In provinc of M ntua , p as nt l agu w a s e se e a e e e mor con rvativ , h ving d v lop d , with

- ea e ea e . st dy progr ss , through a thirty y r p riod e Of ﬁ v e e le he d mestiere Alongsid hundr d g i , scat tere e e -e e e e d through s v nty ight commun s , w r , in

1 9 19 25 0 e coO er a tiv es of a e , oth r p v rious typ s , ’ a e a a n L I stitu to e ﬂ nk d by rur l ba k , di Cr dito The e a i z Popola re Ma ntovano . p as nt organ a tion early gaine d a share of control in the u f AGRARIAN CONDITIONS 9 3

l n t the d ﬁci di col oca me o. In a ministration Of these came to be represented the provincial fe d cra tion of farm workers and the agrarian associ ation of the proprietors ; th eir function was wid ened so that they not only supplied labor but regulated the la bor turnover so as to insure an equal number of working days throughout the year and guaranteed employment to a given a 1 9 20 the number Of ha nds on a given are . In

e e e e da of e p asant f d ration , without a singl y strik , ’ suc ceeded in se curing a minimum Of 22 0 da ys work a year for six m en on drained lands and ﬁ ve men on marsh lands for every thirty - three

e e . the ea e e e ex h ctar s In addition to l gu , th r iste e e m e coO er a 'tive d in v ry com un a land p , and about ten thousa nd acre s were rented and farmed

e e a e e coll ctiv ly and r th r succ ssfully, with a con st antl ea e e y incr sing output , as was d monstrat d the coO er atives of zz e e Ga b by p Su ara, S rmid , b he e e . e e t iana , and oth r localiti s Th s produced greate st amount Of gra in per acre of any cu l tiv ate a T he e a e e d l nd in the province . p as nts w r e e e e a prosp rous , cont nt d , and sob r . And lthough un e e e e the e the co mploym nt is nd mic in r gion , operatives help ed to absorb most of the ﬂoating e work rs . e e e e e e e Th s d v lopm nts w re also the r sult, as 9 4 ROME OR DEATH

e e roletarianiz a has —be n indicat d , Of peasant p the e o i e e a tion , ris f a d sinh rit d class of f rm

e e e ze i work rs , p rf ctly organi d into Social st land leagues and closely a fﬁliated with the sindaca ti of th e the he a e citi s . Thus at time of t f ctory e z e e e e 1 9 20 the e s i ur s in S pt mb r, , citi s , in many

e e e e the e instanc s , w r ration d by j oint r gu lations the e e e e An d of l agu s and th chamb rs of labor . though in some cases sharp di fferences bega n to e e ee the e e e a the app ar b tw n two bodi s , in g n r l plight of the middle classes became quite

e e e e e w e e a e comfortabl . Th r was v ry h r a m rk d antagonism b etween the small bou rgeoisie Of the a e ee e cities , whose stand rds had alr ady b n t rribly

e e t The he e r . low r d by war , and p asant y city el e e e e e dw l rs w r , in various localiti s , boycott d — by the organi ze d pea sants a singul a r repetition e f s e e e e in an establish d state o Bol h vik exp ri nc , and a tende ncy whi ch has since been observable e e the ni e e v n in U t d Stat s . With the e xception of the Polesine and some e a e the ea e e e oth r sm ll s ctors , l gu s in imposing th s conditions resorted to considera ble violence . Throughout this regi on crops and villa s were 20—2 e e e e the bur ned . In 19 1 s rious ﬁr s d stroy d property of ma ny who refused to trea t with the

e e . e e leagu s , mostly in F rrara Among such w r

9 6 ROME OR DEATH

e e e in prop rty guards . And , as un mploym nt

e e the ea e e e mi e he u se of cr as d , l gu s v n li t d t ma chin ery in order to provide labor for a larger numbe r of ha nds ! The e Of e the ea e minut s som of l gu s , which I ha e m e e e e l e v exa in d, are instructiv ; th y r ad ik the mandates Of a medieval ecclesiastical au thority :

T he Assembly a ppr oves tha t Lu nghi Feder i co r e ma in s boy cotted u ntil he lea ve s his fa ther ! a ls o b oy

o T he em a cce ma eo F l a rni c tted] . Ass bly pts A d a a s member beca u se he ha s p a id the lea gu e 100 lire for its hea dqu a rt er s fu nd a n d ﬁfty lir e for his wife T he As sembly order s Federi c o P edr oli t o come every evening for one m on th t o the L ea gu e Hea dqu a r ter s to e a n a ccou n m e giv t Of hi s lf.

Several boycott cases were tried in the Bologna the e 1 9 21 ea e Of courts . In arly part of , six l gu ﬁ cials were tried a n d condemne d to twenty ’ mo nths imprisonm ent for ha ving imposed a ﬁ ne U z a e e on e e a e he pon E io Rom , a r nt r shar s , b c us used his wife and children to help him cle ar the la nd Of stones instea d of employing outside help . “ Rea ds the cou rt record : The lea gue members in a ee e e e n a a e i m ting pr sid d ov r by A tonio P nt l on , cap o- lega and president of the direction of the AGRARIAN CONDITIONS 9 7

e e e e U z fi ne leagu , d cid d to impos pon E io Roma a of two thousand lire to be paid within a few days ” e under penalty of the boycott . Roma w nt to the authorities ; thereupon the league doubled the fi ne so he u , that had to pay in all fo r thou e sand lir . 20 1 9 21 P ocaterra Of On March , , Silvio San e e e e e en Martino was s nt nced to one y ar , l v ten of e months , and days imprisonm nt and to pay a fine of fi v e hundred lire for having in

19 20 e the e e August, , as h ad of l agu in that town , imposed a ﬁ ne of on e thousand lire upon Antonio

a - e Cavicchi for employing n on league work r . According to Ma rio M issiroli the peasant or “ gan iza tion had not only fa iled to solve the tremendous problem of ba la nce between the ” population and the labor market but had in the “ pa st help ed to create a vast agra rian middle class with nothing in common with the r est of the the - farm population , with farm hands , or ” T with the Sociali sm that gave it birth . he ag “ rarian struggle of 1 9 20 was conducted by the Socialists of Bologna with an unh eard - of dis cipline and violence in the hope of preventing the Socialist army from breaking in two ; to pre vent the peasants from going their ow n w ay and ” the e o Th e e isolating r st f the mass . e viol nc 98 ROME OR DEATH with which the land - war in Bologna was carried e e e e i the on sprang from ﬁ rc d t rm nation , from ” - e instinct of s elf preservation . Rath r than for “ the e of e e a a a conqu st b tt r gr rian contracts , it p e the z e p ars organi ation was battling for lif , bat tling to su rvive Time and conditions were subtly working a gainst the Socialist and Catholi c domina tion .

The - e ee a the war r fug s , driven south long littoral e e e e the e aft r Capor tto , had incr as d numb r Of permanent r esidents ; demobilization a dde d to the dislocation and unemployment ; the economic crisis of the post -war ﬂooded the districts with e th e e labor rs from e industrial c nt rs . The policy Of the league s w a s to ac cept every

- n ew comer without reference to soil productivity . u e the e the And , having ass m d r sponsibility for a the ea e a distribution of l bor , l gu s had lso to guarantee employment . This proved partie ul arl the e e e y disastrous for coop rativ coloni s , on which was ina ugura ted a stea dy increase in the number of ha nds and a corresponding reduction e The e in hours and wag s . customary y arly

e - u e of e e e e e wag s rplus s th s soci ti s w re wiped out ,

e and efﬁ ci ncy went by the boards .

100 ROME OR DEATH

’ founded the people s coopera tive banks ( banche

o ola ri o f e a . p p ) Milan, Cr mon , and Bologna By 1876 Lu zzatti had organi zed the ﬁrst asso cia tion e e e e of such ba nks . Tod ay th r ar ov r e e a nd the ight hundr d , principally in Lombardy e e the a Emilia . Th ir d posits consist, in main p rt , of - e on e 3 0 savings accounts and amount d Jun ,

19 14 e on n e 30 1 9 1 9 to lir and Ju , the e u — lat st available ﬁg res to lire .

' The ﬁr st rural bank ( ca ssa ru ral e ) was founded in Loreggia in the province of Padua in 1 883 by L eone W ollemborg ; and rural coOp era tive banking w a s soon supported by other propagandists of the rising socia l - Catholic move e a e t e the R a ment . Th se b nks ar consti ut d on f n e The e feise typ . Catholic institutions acc pt deposits and provide loans to members only .

The Socialist banks conduct a wider business . By the en d of 1 9 1 6 there were 2725 rura l co

e e a one Of e e . op rativ b nks , third which w r Catholic The deposits of all combined a mounted on June

3 0 19 19 e . , , to lir T he coOpera tiv e credit system Of Italy is cor related and integrated by the Istituto di Credito

er le e e e Lu zzatti 1 9 13 . p Coop rativ , found d by in Part of the capital of this institu tion is supplied COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT 101

h e e e e e on the ex by t e stat , which has r pr s ntativ s

u iv The of the a re e e ec t e board . bulk funds d riv d ’ the - roﬁt - the e e from non p savings banks , p opl s ’ the e e e e banks , and two work rs c ntral coop rativ

e e e a e e insuranc soci ti s . Loans r grant d upon certiﬁca tes issued by the va rious governmental departments on the basis of contracts ma de with coO eratives e e local p , and cr dit is also advanc d ’ to consumers store s and to fa rming and build ing societie s . Occa siona l loans ar e made to pri e e e e e vate compani s , but th s , as oppos d to thos e C e e a re e e mad to oop rativ s , subj ct to gov rn e m ntal taxation . The coop erative labor and farm associations ’ date back almost as many years a s the people s The Old c a e the banks . ontr ct syst m by which Government promote d recla mation work proved

e . ea of on rous to labor But , inst d striking or of e a agitating, a group work rs (virtu lly without capital) organized in 1 883 the Coop erativa di a a e e a e L vora di R v nna , in ord r to contr ct dir ctly for e the ee public works . Th n , as n d for public m e e i ni e a n d a e coO er i prov m nts d mi sh d , this l t r p h e e a e e t e . e e a re tiv s turn d to land Th r , how v r , more than three hundred la bor cooperative s still e e the a a re in exist nc . Among most import nt 102 ROME OR DEATH the e e e e building soci ti s , and th s since the war have ma de the onl y real efforts to meet the hon s e e 80 ing crisis, and in Milan construct d n arly l n On e the per cent of all new bui di gs . Of larg est undertakings during the war was the build in g of a municipa l hospital at Genoa at a cost of half a million lire by the Federation of Ligur ian f e e e e e ee es . All o Soci ti s , r pr s nting sixt n trad these coOper a tive s a re subsidized by the Govern e e li m nt , and th ir contracts run into mil ons of la a a dol rs nnu lly . T he ﬁrst cooperative association of land renters h e 1 886 . ee ea e t e was found d in Thr y rs lat r, e a a e e the a ricu l p as nt f rm rs follow d suit , and g tural coOper ativ e movement soon gathered ra pid

' A the e O the w a r e e ere headwa y. t clos f th r w about seven thousand agricul tural coOperativ es and mutua l insu rance societies in north and cen tral Italy . Two types of land colonies ha ve b een built up by thes e coopera tives ( 1 ) A ﬁ tta nze o condu zion e diverso is followed by the small tenant

e e e or a e Catholic farm rs . Land is r nt d purch s d e e e the e e outright and th n parc l d out to m mb rs , w ho labor and usually dispose of their products 2 A ta nz c n u z on e ol individua lly . ( ) ﬂi t e o o d i c lettivo means tha t the land is farmed collectively

104 ROME OR DEATH

ﬁ cu lty is Often obviated by distributing the land The plots by lot . main criticism of the second form is that it tends to create a farm proletariat lacking sympathetic attachment to the land

e . The e e till d t chnical advis r, so long as he was of exhau s a part the system, prevented improper of the tion soil . The purchasing cooperatives ( consorzi ag ra ri ) represent a distinct and later development . e e e e Th s buy, occasionally manufactur , ch micals , e ze e e e e f rtili rs , farm impl m nts , and oth r suppli s are to sell to the farm members at cost . Some p easant coOpera tives ; some are controlled by the f e e . e e e ﬁ larg landown rs In all, th y numb r ov r ee z are t n hun dred . Important organi ations n P e e R a fou d in arma, Cr mona, Novara , Si na, e he e v nna, and Ancona . T strong st group is e z i z known as the Fed ra ione de Consor i Agrari , located in Piacenz a with branches in Rome and e e e e he e e im ls wh r . T f d ration owns ships for a e a porting goods from broad, and its sal s tot l

e more than a million lir annually. CoOperativ e enterprise a lso took hold of the e the e o f the or marine work rs , who , at clos war, anized the e e g famous Garibaldian Coop rativ , at the he ad Of which is the well known Giuseppe ’ e of S eamen s Giuli tti , president the Federation , COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT 105

’ who provisioned d A nnun zio in Fiume in defi e e CoO era ance Of the Italian Gov rnm nt . This p e e e ow n tiv bought and op rat d its vessels , and also le as ed ( from the Nitti Govermnent ) five e e Six oc an lin rs , in which were invested some and e a quarter million lire for Op rating capital, and which were thoroughly overhauled at a cost of some eight million lire . The running of these ships has taught the marine workers some of the diffi culties of industrial management and has given them fi rst -hand knowledge Of operating

e e i costs , th r by ncreasing their ability to bargain rationally with private companies in matters Of e T e wag s an d conditions . h ocean liners were later reclaimed by the Government at great loss the a z the coO erative to org ni ation , and p prae h tically disrupted by t e Fascisti . T w o blows have b een dealt the general co e e e e : destru c op rativ mov m nt ﬁrst , by Fascist e tion , and , s cond, by the withdrawal , without e e of of e e prop r int rval warning, gov rnm ntal

e Th e subsidi s . e destructive sorti s of the Fas i e e of cist n arly always includ d, as points attack, the coO era tive popular p s . Thus at Ostiglia in a e e e the Lomb rdy , aft r s v ral invasions Of town , the Fascisti sent the following message to the e e m Coop rativ di Consu a ed Agricola, which was 1 06 ROME OR DEATH managing the most important café of the place

T he ma na gement of the cooper a tive is invited t o

u a e the r o er t o e a ll of u rn n be liq id t p p ty , s ll its f ishi gs ,

or e the end of M a ma be one ou ea r f y . This y d with t f of mo e a on l st ti .

The time was extended by the Fascisti to June 30 1 921 h e e , , by which date t e coop rativ had

e e the e ob y d ord r . At Suzzara the Fascisti came in ca mions from

e e a e a e Mod na, R ggi , Poggia , and oth r pl c s , and e the Shot up the town . They were ﬁr d at from meta l -works and thereupon invaded the Coop erativa m of the u h di Consu o, one most ﬂo ris ing

a . u e e e in It ly Furnit r , books , pictur s , d cora

e e e e e e . tions w r burn d . Employe s w re can d

Ar di e the b rigo Lupi , r ctor of auxiliary ranch Of the coO erativ e e p bank, was driv n away and as serted later tha t lire in bills Of exchange e ea e e e w re carried off. ( Thr t n d with d ath by

the he e e e a e . Fascisti, lat r r tract d this ch rg )

The e e - ff stor was loot d Of goods , cloth , food stu s ,

etc . e e e , which w r subsequ ntly found in the

e o ee hom s f thr Fascisti . Similarly were destroyed the Cooperativa di

P er o n an a the a e u Consumo Of g g , d mag amo nt in g to lire ; of Soave di Porto Manto

108 ROME OR DEATH

In this general devastation the Catholic co operatives were less seriously damaged ; the S o ciali st coOperativ es were largely swept out Of e e e the e e e xist nc , and mov m nt is so badly crippl d that it is doubtful whether it will revive for years

. The e the a to come , if at all h ad of C tholic movement made a statement that while their dama ges have b een formidable he feels that there of e is possibility continuing th ir work . The e e e Fascisti , for all th ir insist nc upon a laissez- a ire a e e e f commerci l policy, th ir insist nc that all business Should be conducted by private e ee e e e capital, hav b n oblig d , in ord r to win p as e e co ant and labor support , to stablish th ir own h nl f e e be operative societies . T e o y di f r nce tween these societies and thos e h eaded by the Catholics and Socialists lies in the fact ( an d this now holds for all coOperative business ) that they z e a re not subsidi ed by the Governm nt . T he growth of the Fa scist cooperative move ment has been rapid and enthusiastic and prob ably replaces the strength Of the destroyed SO he cialist c e . ee t oop ratives Ind d , many Of Fas cist coOperatives were formerly connected with h e a fﬁ wi the t e Socialist party . Th ir liation th a e e e e or Sindacato Itali no d ll Coop rativ , Fascist

coO era tive national p association, was brought COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT 109

about by coercion and propaganda . A great

coO eratives m e e many p , enac d with d struction , hurriedl y withdrew from the Socialist national association and j oine d that of the Fascisti . In e oth r cas es coercion w a s more ﬂagrant . Thus the e a e e i coop r tiv s Of Sermid , Goito , Marm rolo , S an e e e ze e e B n d tto , and do ns Of oth r towns , aft r e e e to to the p tty invasions , w re forc d agree fol lowing conditions : 1 e e . Indors m nt of the Fascist program .

2 The coO erative e the e . p to assum nam de termin ed upon by the local head of the Fascist za organi tion . 3 . The nomin ation of an executive committee e e acc ptabl to the Fascio . e the e In Portomaggior , Fascisti visit d each of the members Of the executive comm ittee of the e e e Coop rative di Produzione e Lavoro . Th s ” “ were ordered for their ow n good to come vol ” u ntarily to a meeting in the Fascist headqu ar “ ters for the purpose of founding a Consorzio delle Coop erative del Sindacato Economico del ”

. e e e e e Fascio Som att nd d . Four Fascisti w r sent to the secretary of the Old cooperative or dering the surrender of the books a n d the min The o e e utes . Old co p rative was then chang d in a n me, and the founder and manager , Antonia 1 10 ROME OR DEATH

B ttizzi o e . e he F , discharg d At Cittav cchia , t as e i the t e cisti , aft r storm ng town and forcing h

e Of the a e de r signation municip l authoriti s , manded that the local coOpera tiv e affi liat e itself a e e b in with the F scio . Th se in stanc s coul d e definitely mu ltiplied by a ny on e patient enough to go over the files of the press for the la st two “ ” “ ” e The Of the e e y ars . Avanti Milan , Pa s “ ” e e e Of e the of ( sinc suppr ss d ) Rom , Epoca “ ” e I I e the Rom , S colo of Milan , and various “ ” a e of the UOVO e i p p rs Popular party, N Tr nt no “ ” a a et e e e e c. Of Tr nt , Lib rt of P dua , , hav giv n especially ample and convincing records Of the

e h v m thods of t e Fascist c oOperati e movement . The same evidence m ay be Obtained from the

a e e c a e i Fascist p p rs , with l ss cir umst ntial d ta l, “ ’ ” “ ’ ” e 11 d I talia L A ssalt o pap rs such as Popolo , “ ” h e he or t e . T of Bologna , Cr mona Nuova items in these last are apt to read somewhat after this fashion

A COOPERAT IVE OF VALMACCA ( Monferr a to )

1 50 p r olet a ri a n w orker s with c ooper a tive a n d hea d qu a r t er s r epu dia te the c a t a str ophi c s u bver sive idea s a nd a r om e r sind a ca to en n Mu o in a n d p ss f th i , s di g ss l i

CHAPTER VIII

RI SE OF THE POPULAR PARTY

HE Popul ar party is one Of the thr ee im portant political movements that crystal lized from the general unrest and from the pre vailing anta gonism to the P eace Of Versailles . The Popular party is distinctly a movement of contadini The e e . alli d Catholic Fed ration of Workers numbers more than a million members

and most of these are peasants . The e e e e e e e n e party has , th r for , wi ld d d cid d i fluenc upon the events occurring in the P O valley and the c e 19 19 Adriati delta district, wh re from to 1 9 2 1 it Sha red political and economi c control the with Socialist party . After unification and the overthrow Of the e e e 1 8 0 Papal Gov rnm nt of the city of Rom in 7 , the Catholics sullenly held a loof from the n ew Go e e the v rnm nt and , in conformity with Non e of the e e e Exp dit Holy See , r fus d to participat e The in the civil elections or to hold civil offic . i u w a s oh l beral bo rgeoisie , it hoped , would be 112 THE POPULAR PARTY 113 liged to fall back upon the Catholics for the nec essary orga nized support for the defense Of e e re prop rty and ord r . But though at first

e e e e publican and , lat r , prol tarian unr st m naced the n ew a e e st t , and though at tim s ( as after the ’ fa ilure Of Crispi s attempt to invade Abyssinia) the radica l elements press ed the conservatives e e e hard for control , this l ctoral abst ntion , in the

e the - e a e main , gav anti Catholic , lib r l, d mocratic , and masonic elements free reign in guiding the national policies . S eeing the futility Of such an intransigent course and that the church could not indeﬁn itely

e a nd e e ignor political social qu stions , Pop Leo ! e e III in his famous ncyclical , the R rum No

m e e e e re varu , launch d a program Of nlight n d the ten e the e form , and, during last y ars Of nin teenth e e e e c ntury, attempt d to cr at a Catholic movement of the L eft similar to those which had e e e aris n in Franc , B lgium , and Austria . The “ e he pop boldly adopted t watchword , Social j us ” “ tice Wages should not be less than are nec ” essary to maintain a frugal and sober worker an idea which let down the flood-gates Of endless e controv rsy . The Christian -D emocratic group that resulted had two aims : to wean the p eas ants from Social 1 14 ROME OR DEATH ist doctrines and to organize the Catholics for the day wh en the Savoyard monarchy should The n e fall . w group opposed the futility Of the - e class struggl , maintaining that a thoroughgo ing elimination of the corruption of the liberal sta te would re establish a Christian spirit in so c iety . Harmony between capital and labor w a s to be the working formula for industry . Such the f h e was program o Milan of 189 4 . T e mov T ment grew . he first deca de Of the twentieth century saw - under the leadership Of Toniolo a great expansion of the Social- Ca tholic move e e he h m nt . Und r t patronage Of t e church it e e e e le s lf, this arous d gr at const rnation and d to e e e ee e al a f ar , which has n v r b n dissipat d , of an lian ce e ee b tw n the Socialists and Catholics . The e m e e e e e Gov rn nt , how v r, did not h sitat to e h w ho lay a h avy hand upon radical Cat olics , , a the on the long with Socialists , occasion Of the 189 8 e e e e e riots of May, , w r arr st d , tri d , and con “ i e Of v ct ed . Filippo Turati , ditor La Critica “ e an d e A berta rio e OS Social , David , ditor of serv ator e e led ffe the e Cattolico , w r handcu d in same file of prisoners through the streets of Mi lan . ’ Two of the most turbulent years of Italy s

- e post u niﬁ cation history followed . Gov rn

11 6 ROME OR DEATH

e e a the tiv Catholics triumph d all long line . In

19 04 e e the e e a e o f a ea , just b for g n r l strik th t y r , they were a llowed to p articipate in the elections . But the C atholic organizations in which the Christian - Socia l elements predomina ted were

e a e oc a the dissolv d . Christi n D m r cy during e e w a s e e e n xt two y ars cond mn d , scourg d, and f a e h a h su foc t d by t e high Ofﬁci ls Of t e church . Not until the campaign of 19 13 was the Non e Exp dit ﬁnally abolished by the Gen tiloni pact . Ever larger numb ers of Catholics appea red on

e h th tickets of t e various parties . Italy was drifting toward a conservative parliamentary

i e e e s maj or ty compos d of Cl ricals and Lib ral , w ith the proportionate number of the former e constantly incr asing . The w a r an d post - war n ot only precipitated revolutionary cris es but spurred the fall en S O

- cial C a tholic movement to its feet a ga in . In

a 1 9 19 the la a . . . J nuary, , Popu r p rty ( P P I ) — was organized a party deeply impregnated with the so - ca lled subversive doctrines of the mo e The for z ha d m nt . ground this organi ation been broken by D on Luigi Sturz o in his serie s “ of a ggressive article s appearing in the Corriere ’ ” d I talia the ea e , l ding Catholic daily of Rom ,

n e e e 1 9 1 8 . duri g Nov mber and D c mber ,

1 18 ROME OR DEATH lation and international agreements guarantee ing the rights of labor with reference to hours

a n d etc. effe e . conditions Of work, , be ct d It noted the necessity Of developing coop erative n e e the ea u d rtakings , and it advocat d cr tion of ze of e e a stabili d class p easant propri tors . Oth r dema nds were : thorough orga nization of the pro du ctive capacities Of the nation and the scientiﬁc development of agriculture and irrigation ; po litical decentralization ; political autonomy for

l e im m n etc . r est all pub ic entities , com u s , , and a latin e al e the e e u g Of r gion lif . Taxation and l c

e to e e the e toral system wer be r form d , latt r by proportional representation and woman suf

e . e e frag The S nate , to which appointm nts are n ow made b y the king on the recommendation Of the e e be e minist r in pow r , was to transform d into an electoral body to be compos ed of representa — tives from various organize d groups e duca tional e — a e , political, and conomic sort Of t ch n i a e The e a d c l sovi t . int rnational program e e the i ee h r d to Wilson an Fourt n Points . T he n ew party also gave greater imp etus to h t e . 19 14 the ou t Catholic Labor groups In , at e Of the e e e e e m e e ll br ak war, th s l m nts nu b r d in a 19 16 922 e nu in , while in 1 th m THE POPULAR PARTY 1 19 ber had ris en to Of which ( 8 0 he n ew per cent were farm workers . T party polled in its ﬁrst elections ( 19 19 ) a vote second nl of e one o y to that the Socialists , s curing hun e e num dr d seats in the National Chamb r, which ber i e 108 e e was ncreas d to in the l ctions Of May ,

1 9 21 . The organization is quite free from the inﬂu e e of the e nc conf ssional , and , though a part of i am the Cathol c inspiration, its progr was , from

nn e e - begi ing, broad nough to app al to non Cath olics f of e w a s . The di ﬁculty such an alinem nt cleverly pointed ou t by G . A . Colonna di Cesaro ” in a 1921 number of La Vita Italiana '

h r ha d a r e e n a o T . ha s ne e c or e n . Be e P . P . I v p is i t ti nea the c oa of r u a ea m h a s a ere th l k spi it l id lis , it g th d t ogether the most dispa r a te elemen ts ; n ot only ha s it a bsor bed the most hidebou nd con serv a tives bu t on the — — other ha nd t o a ttr a ct the ma ss it ha s con stitu ted

e the a a a a n h its lf p l din Of the sm ll f rmer a d t e pea s a n t . Its hostile a n ti- governenta l ma nifesta tion s ha ve fr e

u en co nc e o e of the e r eme oc a q tly i id d with th s xt S i lists , bu t its ema n a r e n ot con cre e a nd n ot n re d ds t , it is i spi d

a n or a n c u n e or co er en r o r a m . T he with g i , iﬁ d , h t p g P opu l a r pa rt y h a s wished t o nega te a ll connection with the c er ca r ou r om c w a s er e a nd l i l g p f whi h it d iv d, is 120 ROME OR DEATH thu s not only shor n Of tr a diti on bu t its pr ogra m r e sul ts r om con n en u a on e en r om a c u a f ti g t sit ti s , v f t l e ec or a con er a on l t l sid ti s .

e e o - How v r, the tr ubled post war period with its intensiﬁcation of class - struggle nece ssitated h a e t e e e . e formul tion of mor concr t aims Whil , on the on e n e e e e ha d, Cons rvativ Catholics w r

e he . . hop ful that t P P I . would diminish radical in e the ea e e e ism , B rgamo party l d rs form d r vo lu tion ar o M i lioli the inﬂ u y c uncils ; and g , most ential e e to set the e the , ven w nt so far as dat for

z ze he social revolution . Don Stur o summari d t “ new dilemm a of the party in the Corriere ’ ” d I talia 1 1 19 20 e he e : (April , ) wh n stat d

F or Us the cen tr a l f a ct of the a ctu a l r evolu tion a ry

a e the r o em of a or or a n z a on ph s is p bl l b , its g i ti , its c a n n re a on ca a r ou a ou b the h gi g l ti s with pit l , b ght b t y in crea sin g v a lu e of its pr odu cts a nd by the gr owth in

n ca n o c a S r e T h a n o its sy di list a d p liti l t ngth . e It a li p litica l p a r tie s ma tu re with r efer ence t o this cent r a l

u e a nd a n a r a e e o on the ma r n r om iss , y p ty th t d v l ps gi f other fa ctor s mu st la ck p opu la r a ppeal a nd r ea l vi

a en ce ou be e ne to o e the cha r a cteris t lity , h w ld d sti d l s ti c s Of a p a r ty a nd become a Simple a ss ocia tion Of lim ited s cope with a n ineffective r epresen ta ti on in P a rlia men t .

122 ROME OR DEATH — — ita l con sider ed as a p r odu ct of l a bor be redir ected t o its n a tu r a l fu n ction a s a mer e ma ter i a l a gen t of

r o u c on c om en a e i hi n e e ne mi in p d ti p s t d w t w ll d ﬁ d li ts , o r er a a or on the o er a n b e n e ec u a d th t l b , th h d , it i t ll t l o r ma nu a a b e a u r e the u e r u of l , sh ll ss d f ll st f its its

r o f o p du ctive e f r ts .

While most of the energies of the party were dire cted towa rd a ttra cting the votes Of the pea s u the a e e a of e ha s a try, Itali n F d r tion Work rs bee d Of the -w a r the a e n, uring most post , l rg st e a s national labor federa tion . T he fed r tion ha been care ful to distinguish its tactic from that Of the Socialist Genera l Fe dera tion of L a bor . At ’ the time Of the two days strike in 19 1 9 a gainst the e e e a e the a e e P ac Of V rs ill s , C tholic f d ration limite d its manife sta tions to a Single da y a n d expre ssly state d tha t its support Of the strike “ w a s a manife station in fa vor of a just a n d “ ea e a n d a w a s a a e e Christian p c , th t it g inst v ry he e e e e e e e e . T viol nc , v ry Bolsh vik d g n ration

i c e e ar Cathol c railway unions , in fa t , r fus d to p tici n T he pate in a y strike for politica l ends . constant orienta tion in the C atholic Labor group

ee e e e a a e e has b n , th r for , g inst viol nc and in favor of every measure tha t would re store the indus

a ea e a n d e of the tri l p c prosp rity country . At the e e in Congr ss of Naples , h ld April , THE POPULAR PARTY 123

1920 e e e e e e e e e e , th r w r m mb rs r pr s nt d

e The o ee e e by 200 delegat s . pr c dings r sult d in a general ampliﬁcation of principles previously e f r the laid down . In addition to r a ﬁ ming radi “ ” ca l resolution rega rding the right to work and “ the transformation of the machinery Of produc

the e a e the e e tion , party d m nd d that Gov rnm nt

e n ze i e a a etc . r cog i Russia , Ukra n , Lithu ni , A general agraria n program was pu t forth . This had b een develop ed in the interim since the B 0 logna convention . At Bologna a special committee had been cr e he ec ated to deal with agraria n questions . T s retary had immediately consulted with repr e sentatives Of the Ita lia n Federation of Sma ll e the e e Of Propri tors , National F d ration Small

e e - an d the e e R nt rs and Crop Sharers , F d ration The set e of Workers . following of principl s w a s outli ned : ( 1 ) de fense of the piccolo pro prieto ( small land - holding) and its deve lopment with spec ial consideration for the sma ll propri etor in the taxa tion system ; ( 2 ) constitution of class committee s composed Of the a gricultural workers Of the va rious categorie s for the pu rpose “ of negotiating in every district individua l and collective agra rian contracts for the workers of ” the various categories ; (3 ) recognition of the 1 24 ROME OR DEATH

the r e right to labor, and di ct assumption by means of collective rentals and agrarian cooper ation of the farm administration by the peasants with the concurrent guara ntee Of ﬁnancial a id and technical supervision ; ( 4 ) in regions where there a re large e states devoted to extensive culti

the S be e e e e e vation , land hould , wh r v r f asibl , — subdivided e specially for those z one s nea r the

e e be e e e towns , wh r land should c d d by m ans of r equisite state intervention to the worker of the

e o e locality by sal r r ntal . On e of the instruments for raising the stand ards of the Catholic p ea sant and intensifying production ha s been the Italian Cooperative

e e e the F d ration ; and this , support d by Catholic e o f e a n e minist r agricultur , should , it was pl n d, exert constant economic pressure on the propri etors in order to extend the system o f sma ll land

e e e the u be e - e holding, d cr as n m r of wag arning

- e e e e the farm hands , s cur b tt r agrarian pacts for e a z e on the p as nts , thus stabili ing th m land ,

the e e e e particularly in south , wh r xist d a strong

- dema nd for the brea k u p Of the estate s . In all localities were to be e stablished a gra ria n cham b ers ( ca mere agrarie ) t o settle land problems n a d disputes . The Naples program prop er elaborated the

126 ROME OR DEATH

the e la w of e i e i e in xisting m n nt doma n to r ad ,

e Of sco o di u tilita u bblico sco o di u tilita st ad p p , p

social e e , and to apply this principl to all lands e e e ee or a e e e the a wh r abs nt ism , c r l ssn ss upon p rt the e e ee Of propri tors , or oth r social n ds , justi h ﬁ ed it . T e Governm ent was also to impose Ob

e e ligatory improv m nts Upon all landholders . T he expropriated la nd w a s to be ceded to the

a n d a t a ll e h w a a t cultivators , tim s t e party s to tempt to in crea se the number Of sma ll propri etors and safeguard their rights by appropriate

e . the e l gislation In addition, right to strik was e ze the a w a s e the r cogni d , and p rty to prot ct e ak farm work r in m ing and enforcing contracts . This repres ents the matur e cul mina tion of the ’ r a le am liﬁ ca Popula p rty s program, its ful st p T h tion . e subsequent work of later congresses were la rgely devoted to a reiteration Of these ideas and to a more realistic alinement of the pa rty in the face of the rapidl y shifting political e e e e w sc n . A studi d att mpt a s made to attra ct the e e e a a the mor cons rvativ Soci lists , and tow rd close of 1 9 2 1 the party deﬁnitely moved to form a collabora tion ca binet with the Socialist and e the the Social R form groups . Had division in e e e Socialist ranks matur d at this tim , an ntire T H E POP ULAR PARTY 127 new orientation Of parliamentary life might have

a e been inaug u r t d . The Popular bloc in Parliament con sis ten tly particip a ted in the formation Of nearly all the - e e n ew e post war cabin ts , and with ach cabin t impose d certain d eﬁnite demands as a condition

o a . the a of c llabor tion Thus Popul r party, with e e e e e a e out any r volutionary activiti s , x rt d mor consistent a n d fruitful inﬂuence upon nationa l affa irs tha n a ny Of the other so- ca lled democr atic

a The e e or radic l groups . D partm nt of Agri culture w a s continuously in the hands of the P .

- I . a n d the . e P , post war minist rial laws and de crees were enlightened and exp erimenta l

the a e a of 1 9 21 the a In l tt r p rt , Popul r group in P a rliament presented an agra ria n law which provide d for the utiliz ation of idle la nds a ccord ing to conditions that would not disturb e xisting a - he l nd titles . This w a s t la w to a pply the modi ﬁ ed Visocchi e ee e e a D cr , which is d scrib d in Ch p e Th a a a e e t r VI . e agr ri n ch mb rs w re also to

a e ee e e e e a h v b n stablish d by this law, to ff ct wh t “ ” w a s e e a e e t rm d grarian representation . Th s bodies were not to conﬂ ict with the existing Gen era l Council of Agriculture nor the e xisting r e

fo f gional commissions , but was to function r de 128 ROME OR DEATH inite e e e agricultural areas . Th s chambers w re

be e the e e to autonomous , though und r g n ral Vig ilanc e the e e ere of minist r of agricultur , and w to be constituted of from forty- fi ve to ninety fi ve persons ( according to the population) elected by votes from fi ve distinct categories

e of e e a e - ze propri tors larg and av r g si d holdings , the e e e - ze r nters of large and av rag si d holdings , e e e on e the small propri tors , small r nt rs shar s , e e e e m coloni s and farm work rs . Th s co missions w ere to be inve sted with three fundamental functions ( 1 ) general improvement of agri culture ; ( 2 ) solution of labor difﬁ culties ; ( 3 ) O he Su compilation f agrarian statistics . T preme Council of Agriculture was to be re formed to consist of thirty -six members nom inated by the minister of a griculture and thirty six members elected by the eighteen n ew agra rian commissions by proportional representation . It is scarcely too much to say tha t these de cree - laws represented a more fun da menta l re form than all the agrarian legisla tion invoked previously during the p eriod of uniﬁcation .

The Visocchi e ee modiﬁ D cr , its application , its z cation , its ﬁnal crystalli ation into the form of a

e law e e e e a compreh nsive , r pr s nt d a ration l solu e the the tion of the probl ms resulting from war,

CHAPTER IX

RISE or T H E A GRARIAN F A SCISTI

HE N I was in Bologna in the spring of

1 9 2 1 e e e a n e , lif in that m di v l u iv rsity e the town was provincial and thrilling . Und r

z o - e e a e bi arre, c lor dr nch d rcad s ran the long echo of shooting and Of marching feet . Dow n the na rrow streets careened trucks ﬁlled with a rmed

a w a s the e e the Fascisti . Bologn c nt r of land war that raged for three years in the Adriatic

e D lta district . The ﬁrst Fascist demonstrations in the north ern farming regions ( a lso in Tuscany) were in the a e of e the e r re n tur sorti s from citi s , an u ban volt Of the small middle class a ga inst peas ant

e e - dictatorship a n d boycott . Th se middl cla ss the e e e u n bands , striking out from citi s , w r doubt edly yoked a t the outset with the la rge

The e e e ha s ee a proprietors . vid nc b n only p rtly c e e e a a a do um nt d , though an xtr ordin ry m ss Of THE AGRARIAN FASCI STI 1 31

“ up to 19 22 in Fascismo : Inchiesta Socialista ” e dei a o sulla G sta Fascisti in It lia , an acc unt sufﬁ ciently lurid to leave the blackened timbers e th of t ruth readily visible . C rtainly e landed proprietors contributed liberally to the upkeep of the Fascist squadrons and were in thorough eff public sympathy with their orts . Italo E . 1 Torsiello admits :

It is r ea dily u nder st ood tha t a gener ou s pa r t of the ﬁ na n cia l r es ou r ces for the pr opa ga n d a a nd a ction of the F a s cio is c on tr ibu ted by the b ou r geoisie ( in F er r a r a a mo en re a n e r o r e or o e n er l st ti ly l d d p p i t s) , wh s i t e sts ha ve been for l ong y ea r s dir ectly cr u shed by cla ss politi cs in a u gu r a ted by the loca l exponen ts of the Ma xi

a - r r eo ma list nd p r e evolu tiona y th r ies .

Said one important proprietor of Ferrara whom I interviewed : — Ou r pr ogr a m it is n ot c onvenient for u s a t pr e s ent t o dis a gr ee with the F a s ci di C omb a ttimen to is the gr a du a l br eaking u p of the l a nd int o very sma ll

o t o be one b r ecr ea n the ma r en er pl ts ; this d y ti g s ll t ,

er a th er e u a o n er We a e a rea a en p h ps e p p t l w . h v l dy t k

e to r e u ce the r en a r a e A ou be st ps d t l t s . ll this sh ld

ne the omm n ea in We ou en d o with c u ity id view . sh ld dea v or t o mu a e a commu n e a commu n cu l sti l t ity lif , ity

1 O . cit . 113 p , p . . 132 ROME OR DEATH

u r e a nd c ommu n n u r e in or er t o re u ce the t , ity i d st i s d d 1 co n st of livi g .

The proprietor - subsidized character of the early Violence Of the Fascisti in the a gr arian cen e e ea ee e t rs was mor sily s n in south rn Italy, where they assassinated some Of the p ea sant lea ders w ho p a rticipa ted in the land s eizures of “ ” 1 9 1 9 of h a e e . In Sicily some t e b nds w r

e the ma a e e a e e link d with ﬁ , or s cr t b ndit soci ti s ;

e e e e the maz zieri a in Puglia th y w r link d with ,

e of a e an d e e notorious cliqu politic l boss s , w r e the e o a e e cl arly instrum nt f priv t prop rty . a n d e a e e the e But in Sicily south rn It ly , wh r p as ants un til the p ost - w a r period were very in ade u atel a i ze the e e n everthe q y org n d , Fascisti w r ,

e o e e a e . a en l ss , pr mptly xt rmin t d In Pugli a g e a ea a a 1 9 21 r l p s nt outburst in M rch , , virtually pu t a n en d to their a ctivities for more than a

’ 1 The independent p olicy of the p rop ri etor s orga n iz ation s ’ ( Con fe der azione dell A gricoltu r a ) w a s or iented in sever a l con “ ” resses he i n R ome . It con te r t of a r a r a n reco er g ld sis d, ﬁ s , g i v y b reak n the ow er Of the ea u e b forc e e ct n the y b i g p l g s, y ibly j i g tenant a nd the co on t a nd a o b t mu at n r o u ct on to s l is s, ls y s i l i g p d i

m eet the nee o f the n a t on a n d econ o t ca a ct on . A ds i ; , s d , p li i l i s a re s u lt of the l a tter a w edge of tw enty- ﬁ ve l a nde d p rop riet or s w a s r ve nto the N a t ona Cham er b the e ect on f M a d i n i i l b y l i s o y, 921 1 .

134 ROME OR DEATH ex- e the e the i soldi rs , and idl sons of m ddle class , soon develop ed an extensive program that re

e o h e - e volv d ab ut t e p asant proprietor id a . T he first evidence of such a program is s een the e e a in province of F rrara . Aft r h ving e the a l u e e t or brok n Soci ist co rag , str ng h , and aniz ation e e Of e the g in a s ri s Viol nt raids , Fas cist leaders set about to attract the p easa nts into their ow n camp by a program of sp ezzo The e e e men to . , land subdivision F rrar s , and e the s a e e lat r all agrarian Fa cisti , m d th ir for “ ” “ er a him mula La t r a chi la lavora, Land to ” w ho e i works it , curiously nough a Social st S 1 9 02 i e e logan back in , but now hav ng an ntir ly different Significance . The Fascisti in conformity with this formula sought to have the proprietors c ede the land to the p easant members of the orga ni zation by contra tti di en teu si or e a fi , individual r nt l con ee the e tracts . In fift n days propri tors put at the dispos al of the Ufli cio T erre del Fascio e the about thirty thousand acr s Of land , at same “ time indorsing the Fascist program of pa cifi ” The a e v e the su bse cation . F scisti sup r is d

e e a e re qu nt p asant contr cts , but ach individual

e a a e e n ceived a s p r t allotm nt of grou d .

The Socialist leagues broke to pieces rapidly . THE AGRARIAN FASCI STI 135

o e the e e— the In San Bartol m o in Bosso , l agu — ﬁrst ex a mple went over to the Fascisti en bloc and in fact executed the ﬁrst Fascist lea gue- pro

rieto T he e e p r contract (p a tto ) . Socialist l agu s A u scello e e a Of Cona , g , Musi , Tor lli , Quart san , and Cocmaro di F ocomorto soon followe d suit . Ma ny peasants who did not enter the Fa scist ranks signed up with the P opular party or forme d autonomous sinda ca ti directe d by j oint e h committees of workers and propri tors . T e former monopoly of the Socia list employment f The s O ﬁces w a s thus destroyed . Fascist u m mary of the situation was as follows :

The n a tio n w a s hea ding str a ight towa r d a gra r ia n pa u perism a n d r u in a s a resu lt Of the tr iu mpha n t ty r a nny of the S ocia lists who s ou ght the u ni ver s a l esta b lishment o f the r n a a ll a rm- or er r e p i ciple th t f w k s ,

a rdless of en a nd en ce e ca me ou b e em g wh wh th y , sh ld ployed a s da y - la b orer s withou t r efer en ce t o the pro du c tivit o the h ee nece a r r a er to f o . a s n y s il It b ss y , th , choose tha t form Of w orking the s oil which will ma ke the pea s a n t fond Of the l a nd a nd a t the s a me time gu a r a n tee him c ompens a tion in direc t p r opor ti on t o l a b or expended a s well a s per ma n en t r efu ge a nd se cu rit fo hi m In r er t o u e the a rm n y r s fa ily . o d g id f i g

o u a on t o n en u r n a e of ea ce nece p p l ti a d i g st t p , it is s s a ry to destroy with facts the lyi ng formu la of the 13 6 ROME OR DEATH

cl a ss - stru ggle a n d ma k e the in ter ests of L a b or a nd

a a en c a C pit l id ti l .

This explains the divergent point of View of

the a i T he a e Socialists and F sc sti . F scist id a is a nega tion of the adva nt age s Of collective ef

a n d of e a of fort , consists un quivoc l distribution e a i e e e la nd to the p a sa nts . In loc l ti s wh r large e e e e e e e the h r ditary stat s xist , as around V nic , Fa scist demand takes on a rath er revolutionary complexion ; but in genera l it ha s on e main in

e ea e e e ea a e . t nt , to cr t cont nt d p s nt propri tors The Fa scisti ende avore d to e liminate the agra a e a a the e the ri n prol t ri t , migratory work r, col ony fa rm - hand ; beca us e these were a ll inﬂam a e e a a a a a n d m bl fodd r for Soci list prop g nd ,

a e e e e w a s corre5 on tr nquil , productiv nt rpris p

a e dingly discour g d .

T he n ew a c e e e e F scist pa ts w r , th or tically, based upon the following principles

a e e o e the ro 1 . C pital inv st d sh uld r turn to p prietor a n interest not exceeding a given li mit a 5 er e e all the e S ( bout p c nt) , whil r st hould go to the worker . 2 T he of be the . production crops should fruit of the materia l cap a cities Of the worker a n d of a a e of the e the intell ectu l c paciti s propri tor,

138 ROME OR DEATH

- i e e e ( f) Non Fasc st farm rs , small and av rag ze e e e or e on a e si d r nt rs , propri tors , work rs sh r s , be i e e u se ee to obl g d to mak , for plowing, s ding, e of the e e F as and harv sting, machin s own d by or the a s i z cisti by F sci t organ ations . Those wh o refused to abide by such conditions e e e ce e ou t e e w r m na d, burn d , and oth rwis hin

e e the d r d in their labor . Throughout Adriatic delta district the results of this two - ha nded pol

the s e e hl e I n icy of Fa cisti w r hig y succ ssful . timidation e u the ea ea e , b ating p Of p sant l d rs , u of s the e shooting p town , and nunciation Of a program of p easant proprietorship proved quite ef he ﬁcacious . Many peasants went into t Fas cist ranks in order n ot to be molested ; whole Vil la ge s adh ered to the Fasc i in order not to have e e th ir hom s shot u p and bur ned . Giuseppe P rezzolini in an article entitled ” Fascism and the Class Struggle appearing in ” The New e for e e 1 1 9 22 R public Nov mb r , , gives the foll owing animated description of some of the less legi timate methods us ed to bu ild u p the Fascist p easant strengt h :

A s a mple of the methods by whi ch the S oci a list or C ommu ni st lea gu es ha ve b een moved t o go ov er en blo c to the F a sci sti ha s b een des cr ibed to me by a fr i en d THE AGRARIAN FASCI STI 1 39

r T he re en a n in er r a a . the e u e who livi g F p sid t Of l g , is

rm or e of c ou r e n e ou t hen h a a r . e f w k s , is si gl d W ma ke s his regu la r t rip t o m a r ket o n T hu r sda y o r F r i

h u n n ea n b a r da e a e u c o of c . y , is f ili gly b t p y wd F a s isti I n a ddition t o the bodily ha rm d one him a nd t o the o of r o u ce he r e en e r om n n l ss his p d , is p v t d f tr a s a cti g

o a ny bu siness wha tever in t wn . After this ha s been go

‘ i n on for a mon the ma n is in e er a e r a g th, d sp t st its , a nd oe n ot no w c w a t o u d s k w hi h y t r n . T hen su ddenly he receives a visit fr om a depu ta tion “ ’ of a c S ee er e T on w e r e n ot r n t o re F s ist h , y , t yi g p ven o n r a n a n o a n t o t a p or m a f om m ki g livi g . If y u w t

e ou r u f in the ma r e a ll ou a e t o do o n s ll y st f k t , y h v is j i

s u a e r a r n a u . J st tea r u p th t r d g Of you s a d pu t on

u er o o n . Yo a e F a s cist b tton . Ev yb dy is d i g it u h d b t ’ Once ou r ter come a nd get on the b a n dwa gon . y e on ’ o ne i ou c o on or r a ou the u e on n o w ll t h y u . D t w y b t q sti — of w a ges or p ri ce s w e a r e looking a fter y ou r in ter ests a nd er e l r ev ything will b al ight .

N a u r a nce the o r not o u a e en r e t lly , si w ld is p p l t d ti ly b eroe an d ma r r the ea u e re en a e u y h s ty s , L g p sid t t k s p the u e on his comr a e a nd the ea u e oe q sti with d s , L g g s o er t he a c the ne da I n o er c a e o e v o t F s isti xt y . th s s wh l

r c r e er r e a rme r a ru c o a dist i ts a t iﬁ d by d ids , t kl ds Of F a s cisti des cen ding u p on villa ges shooting t o r ight a nd e a nd u r n n or ma n n ou e r eca l ft , b i g dis tli g h s s Of l

it r a n o u n T he r c a t on ce oi n the c t C mm ists . dist i t j s Fa s cisti in excha n ge for gu a r a ntees of immu nity fr om

a s u ch r ids . 1 40 ROME OR DEATH

The Fascisti supplemented these dir ect at t the u se Of a ze e a nd the acks by subsidi d pr ss , , as va rious municipa l a dministra tions were fright e e e a e of the e n d into r signing, g in d control l gal a i e w a s e in e e e m ch n ry , which us d v ry possibl way i i a e o e The to nt mid t r p ers cute the leaders . boy o w a s e e the c tt t st d out in courts , and, though this w a s the sin e u a n on a e a q of colony syst m , m ny Ofﬁcials of the older leagues were given extende d a e e e j il s ent nc s a s a r esult of its u se . Writ s 1 e Italo E . Torsi llo

Whil e in the cities the work Of the j u dicia ry w a s e m n a n the m o n e en hea i n the cou n r li i ti g st i t llig t ds , t y

r c a s a r e u of the e a c e of the S oc a dist i ts , s lt d b l ! i l ist lea gu es ] a n d the flight of the r evolu tion a r ies mo st ea r e a c cu a on e a n to ou r n o the cou r r e f d , s ti s b g p i t ts ga r ding the cr imi na l ext or ti on perpet r a ted by the lea gu e Offici a ls by mea n s o f the imposition of fines a n d th c a r e of or er b r ea h e o co T he e dis h g w k s y th t Of t b y tt . T c olla ps e w a s complete . he r ed b a r on s of the fi elds h fli i a s— er a r a of t e lea gu e o c l w e r ested . M ny

em ﬂed a a n on n e r c a a in a n a nd im th , b d i g th i pit l l d p r ov ement s ; other s cou ld n ot r en der a n a c cou n t of the

a n i e ou t T he r c on c on in lea gu e fu nds d sk pp d . ﬁ st vi ti s a c ou r of er r a r a r e u n in tw o a nd e en r ee t F , s lti g v th

ea r of m ri on men c a u e all the r e to ﬂee . y s i p s t , s d st

l O cit . 163 p . , p . .

142 ROME OR DEATH tles sometimes occurred for the control Of funds

e e ea b and h adquart rs . Inst d of urning such

e e ee e a t the e h adquart rs , as had b n don b ginning, the pro- Fascist members Of the Old organization b egan taking them over in the na me of the F as

e e e e cio di Combattim nto, and s v ral suits wer fought ou t in the courts to determine the right e ful poss ssor . T he ﬂooding Of the F a scist ranks with indi vidua l pea sa nts and by the old R ed sinda ca ti j oining en bloc (as many as seventeen in one day in F errara ) caus ed considerable a larm in the of the e a a minds propri tors . Agr ri n Fas cism by the middle Of 1 9 22 was deﬁnitely ou t o e h e e f th ir control . It a d b come a strong p as

he a - a e e t e d . ant mov m nt , is strong st in It ly to y The acts of the a gra ria n F a scisti have some e ee e e a e e tim s b n mor m n cing, dir ct , and primitiv tha n w a s ever contemplated by the Socialists . Owners of idle la nds have been coerced and com p elled to put their holdings under cultiva tion .

a e z l e s Est t s ha ve b een s ei ed as Of O d . Propri tor ha ve b een forcibly obliged to c ontribute to the

ee of the a . e e upk p F scist squadrons In g n ral, the Fascisti have been more aggressive in look e the e e e e ing aft r rights of th ir m mb rs , in s curing

e e e e e th m mploym nt, in saf guarding th ir labor THE AGRARIAN FASCI STI 143

a the o . e contracts , th n S cialists Rath r dubious comments ha ve occurr ed upon some of these a c ’ tivities the r e e e e in prop i tors n wspap r, Giornal ’ ” “ i - The o the d I tal a Agricolo . Surc ( Plow) of Siena ha s protested with growing alarm a t the demands ma de by the Fascisti with regard to b e e the numb e r of m en to e mploy d . “ e e e 1 9 22 the e the In D c mb r , , Bull tin of Agra ” ’ rian Association a proprietors publication) “ complaine d that at Fontanellato the S qu a d risti e e u a e the e e , arm d with can s , g rd d ntranc to ” the city hall to prevent a meeting Of the associ

The e c a le e e to ation . pap r l d upon its m mb rs “ save Fascism from the subversive reactionary ” “ e e e a e e the e l m nts , s ying that not v n Bolsh vik e a e e e e e ab rr tion r sort d to such m asur s . Oth r ’ reunions of proprietors organiz ations were pre e e in e e v nt d oth r localiti s . T he imm ediate result of the Fascist activities w a s the disruption Of the old land- league s and the e coO erative e e e r form r p mov m nt . Th y pe petrated a great deal of violence and tempora rily

e e - a a r duc d crop returns . But agrari n F scism must be recognized a s on e Of the important b a ck

- the - e e o f to soil mov m nts Europe . the e a e e e On oth r h nd , c rtain partially r claim d districts of the north can only be farmed by mi 144 ROME OR DEATH

a or gr t y labor . In such localities the creation Of small peasant propri etors is quite infeasible . e e the e e e e e Wh r land is not compl t ly drain d, wh r e e not ee e e houses and stabl s hav b n built, wh r roads a re poor or unconstructe d and railroad e de e men e faciliti s ina quat , only with larg capital , or workers associated in coOperatives and sub sidized the e e are e e by Gov rnm nt , abl succ ssfully a on i e e to c rry farm ng op rations . And in oth r e the c e of the localities , as w ll, haract r soil or the crops makes cooperative or la rge - scale pro c ef e Of e du tion highly ﬁci nt . Much this r gion ee e e im has b n subj ct d to cultivation by costly , ’ prov ed m achinery which cannot be provided by e t individual p asan s . er e the e Furth mor , cooperativ farming move

e - ea m nt in Italy has a thirty y r survival value , and the colonie s a re the linea l descendants of the Old patria rchal entitie s of the early part of the centu ry . The whole difﬁculty has been in subordinating what is an essentially scientiﬁc and e xperimental

e ee e . qu stion to cr d , passion , and strif Doubt e e c e e e l ss , wh n onﬂict has subsid d , clos r att ntion e e e e will be paid to sci ntiﬁc valu s . Doubtl ss p as a nt e e e propri tors will continu to xist , and , for the e are e coO erative ar as and crops that suitabl , p

1 46 ROME OR DEATH the proprietors invoked the following ends

1 e a . Maint n nce of all the economic and moral

e e e o ze conqu sts alr ady r c gni d .

2 . Constant regard for the moral and living conditions a ppropriate for the social position Of the e f the - e O . produc r , farm work r 3 e a f . Tut l ge of simila r conditions of life or the e e a ntir colony f mily .

ul a e e 4 . Stim tion of improv m nts in the techni ca l e ds Of a r a le e m tho gra i n industry, to ss n and a e e the a a h e ll viat physic l f tigue of t e work r .

5 a l me a ra r e ee . Est b ish nt of cordi l pp o t b tw n the members of the mezza dria to bring about a rea l pa ciﬁ cation .

a e the a e e As matt r of fact , contr cts hav vari d more in form a n d phr a seology than in substance T he e ee of from those previously in vogue . d gr pa ciﬁ cation may be rea lized from an incident a e ea e the e which took pl c n r C rtaldo , birthplac of

o a . on e a a e e a B cc ccio As ppro ch s C rt ldo Alto , a marble t a blet at the entrance to a strodello at the foot of the hill know n as Costa Ve cchia in vites the SOj ou rn er to climb u p to he ar from the

a e of o e be e the n a vibr nt voic s w m n , for Fou t in of

F ilien e e the e e M schin llo , hundr d stori s Of Boc

o i the e e e of cacci . N ear this po nt is larg stat e e Count Ar rigone d gli Oddi , who shuts hims lf THE AGRARIAN FASCI STI 1 47‘

Up in his castle nea r Venice with twenty- ﬁ ve

e e e - hundr d singing birds to coll ct postag stamps .

e o e the a cou the a Shortly b f r F scist p , Bl ck 'Shirts seized his lands in order to force nea rly twenty - three hundred he ctares of idle la nds u m der cultivation and to oblige the hiring of Fas

e e C e cist un mploy d . oncurr ntly was publishe d a manifesto threatening all other landow ners with simila r treatment should they not make

e a e e o hast in cultiv ting th ir idl h ldings . Count

e la e a ee u t Arrigon promptly capitu t d , gr ing to p every acre under tillage regardless Of produc tivit e e o e e e ze a d y , to giv mpl ym nt to s v ral do n

dition al - a e m e the farm h nds , and to r i burs Fascio for all expense s entailed during the occupation h of t e estate . Not until Fascism had thus deﬁnitely become a p easant movement did it re app ear throughout ezz a n d A n d e e the M ogiorno Sicily . sp cially was this possible beca use of its progra m of land s ezza men to he e an u n p , for now r is l d s bdivisio

c a b e the . su h urning qu stion as in south Also ,

the e the ex- a a ha d in int rim , comb t nts grown z dissatisﬁed with their share of the land sei ures . The Catholic a nd Socia list le ague s and coopera

tives eeze e ou t . squ d all oth rs Thus , in Calta e rz e giron , Don Stu o succe ded in having the 148 ROME OR DEATH

e of e pr fect Catania assign , in accordance with th

e Visocchi e e e the e of modiﬁ d D cr , ntire feu do Pietra Rossa to the Catholic coOperative Madre

e e T rra . Oth r importa nt and extensive feu di in

Ca tania e of e e , as for exampl that San Pi tro , w re

i e - e s milarly assign d , and non Catholic p asants were not p ermitte d to participate in the land oc cu ation p . As in this district many of the Cath olics a re e the eu di fairly prosp rous , f of Frasca,

e Grotteci olle an d e e Casalv cchio , p , oth r localiti s were not broken u p into sma ll plots but into ex tracts averaging a bout thirty hectare s . The

e a e o e e soldi rs comb t d this pr c dur , although until the fall of the Bonomi ca binet they were largely

e e e 19 22 unsucc ssful . How v r , in March , , and this w a s typical of ma ny other Catholic and S o ’ cialist the e e e dell O era holdings , Coll gio C ntral p N a zionale dei Comb a ttenti succeeded in ha ving the feu do of San Pietro in Catania returned to

e e its original own r and, through a r gular contract

e ee A ssereto ha d e e with his ag nt , Engin r , it c d d to the Cooperative Combattenti . Fascism thus not only carried an app ealing program to the

o fed e e e the s uth , but upon a r al gri vanc against existing land league s by large groups of the

the e p easantry . At Fascist conv ntion of Na

e e the cou of M pl s , just b fore p ussolini, virtually

150 ROME OR DEATH part of the world ; they have not looked beyond e n e the a belloti th ir bur ing d sire to be rid of g .

e nm e e Since the uniﬁcation Gov r ent was cr at d , about three times as much in the way of agricu l tural improvement has been spent in south ern as the dis ro or in northern Italy, but with most p p tion ate e the l to r sults . Either peasants wi l have e cooperat in providing necessary improvements , the Go e e e to e a id or e v rnm nt must com th ir , th y must revert to private employment un der the la sh h a ll t e t e be o i . e e the of g With th s asp cts , Fas

e e u cisti , concern d larg ly with the building p their e l str ngth , have paid as ittle heed as have the e p asants . PART III

CLARIFICATION

154 ROME OR DEATH

4 . Labor shoul d achieve its ends by organi za a tion rather th n by revolution .

5 . Labor should collaborate in the manage ment a n d op eration of industry.

6 a za e the em . Labor org ni tions should plac ’ phasis Upon individual eﬂ ort and capacity rather than attempt to create a dead level of hours and output . T he e n ot s l e ro 7 . stat should only timu at p duction but should conscientiously guard the rights of the workers and see tha t capita l at all time s performs its social functions and does not e oppr ss labor . The aims of the federation are substantiall y those adopted by the Fa scist party at the lat ’ ter s initial political convention held in Rome in b 1 9 21 viz Novem er, ,

F a s cism c a n n ot a n swer for the histor i c fa cts in the developmen t o f the corp ora z ioni bu t wishes t o coor di

a e a e o a r n a n a en n te th i r ctiviti s t w d tio l ds . T he corp ora zioni a r e t o be p r omot ed with tw o fu nda

men a ectiv es in e : . e . a s a n e r e on of a bo t l Obj vi w i , xp ssi l r

o a r a n d a s a mea n of u r er n r o u s lid ity s f th i g p d cti on . The Corp ora zioni Shou ld n ot su bmerge the individu a l in the co ec u a r r a r e e n the r o u c ll tivity , th s bit ily l v li g p d

e o er of ea c u ma n u ni bu t r a er e a u a e a nd tiv p w s h h t , th v l t ’ e o th n i a ca a c e d vel p e i div du l s p iti s . RISE OF LABOR FASCI SM 155

The Fa s cist N a tiona l pa r ty proposes to a gita te for the foll owing pr ogr a m in beha lf of the w orking a nd employed cl a ss es

1 Th r . e p omu lga ti on of a sta te la w which will esta b

for all a e- ea rner th e a - ou r da lish w g s e l g l eight h y .

2 ormu a o o a al . F l ti n of s ci l legisl a ti on to a nswer a ctu nee a r cu a r r e a r to t e u n or u na te the ds , p ti l ly with g d h f t ,

a e a nd the old a mon the or er be e in dis bl d , g w k s , th y a r cu u re n u r or e al a r o e a g i lt , i d st y , Ofﬁc s , w y s p vid d th t

r o u c on be not m e e p d ti i p d d .

3 . Repres ent a tion of the worker s in the oper a tion of ea c n u r u c r e r e en a on to be m e to o e h i d st y , s h p s t ti li it d th s ma tter s which directly con cern the opera ting for ce . ’ 4 ru n to or er or a n za on a a re mor . T sti g w k s g i ti s th t a lly a n d techni ca lly pr ep a r ed the a dministr a tion o f their r espective indu str ie s or br a nches of the pu blic s ervi ce .

T a n - o n in t o e 5 . he distr ibu tion of sma ll l d h ldi gs h s zones a nd for those cr ops whose produ ctivity permits .

But just what is National Syndicalism” ? Wrote Guido P ighetti in on e of the ﬁrst n u m “ ” e Of b rs Polemica, a Fascist monthly maga zine

“ “ en a c m a a o a N a ona S n Wh F s is is s id , ls is s id ti l y ” “ ” dica lism a nd en N a on a n ca m a ; wh ti l Sy di lis is s id , “ a c a on a n ca m a lso is s id Fa s ism . N ti l Sy di lis is “ t o th ro cer comprehended in this formu la : Give e p du s , 15 6 ROME OR DEATH the or er a n a nd r a n b mea n of V or w k s with h d b i , y s ig ou s n u a e u ca on the en e of o a ri of i divid l d ti , s s s lid ty ca e or a nd of ru e a nd a n u n er a n n of the t g y st ggl , d st di g possibility of p a ciﬁc c oll a bor a tion between the v a ri ou s c a e or e ere a n n the ma mu m o e t g i s , th by Obt i i g xi p ssibl beneﬁt fr om the a ss ocia tion of p r odu cer s a nd by this ” mea n th n a r a m a n r a nn s e elimi a tion of ll pa sitis d ty y .

The same writer goes on to state that the only means of securing such collaboration is to or anize h e e viz . t e g the w ak st factor in production, , workers ; but that the desired results can be ob taine d not by organization alone but by educa

. e e e e e i e tion Th re must b cr at d an int ll g nt , ffe e the e ctiv aristocracy in ranks of labor , free e e B e from doctrinaire or revolutionary b li fs . in ee e nito Mussolini a sp ch in L vanto , August

25 1 9 22 e e the , , cont nd d that Fascisti , through their national syndi calist orga nization should be ” come the aristocra cy of the working- class ; that “ — — socialism the theory of a futur e society is a

e e dead thing, both in practic and spirit , whil e di n ou r syndicalism liv s , in fact, is a con tio of ” type of society . e he e e the Furth rmore , has Oft n summ d up labor attitude of the n ew movement in his P o ’ ” talia a s of e 2 polo d I , in the issue S ptember , 1 922

158 ROME OR DEATH

While the ﬁr st Of M a y la st yea r witnessed r evolu tiona ry demon str a tion s pr omoted for dem a gogic en ds re a r e of the e n m er ea r a n ew ex g dl ss xisti g is y , this y per imen t is bei ng followed even by the Government

a r a a nd o u n r r e o e ! p ti l v l t a y du cti n of servic ] .

We a c r a a or er who c n o a t o ou r F s ist ilw y w k s , li g l y lly ’ n a on a r o r a m i n e of the o er nmen u a r ti list p g , vi w G v t s g a n tees ec a r e ou r e e o e to a n r e in the , d l s lv s Opp s d y st ik

u c er e p bli s vi c .

F or r ea on e en on the r M a w e S a this s , v ﬁ st Of y , h ll

u ou r u e a s r a a or er a n d a s zen f lﬁl d ti s ilw y w k s citi s . Ra il wa y W orker s ! Ou r p osition is a ls o j u stiﬁed by the opposition a tti

' u e for e th o ernmen u ne a nd n enu t d , whil e G v t s pi ly i g Ou sly believes tha t the in ter na l en emies ca n be d omi n a ted by a system of con tinu a l con cession a n d thu s h a s

r o for a m a on of the erv ce the u er e p vided li it ti s i , s bv siv elements ha ve in stea d per sisted in their for mu l a of a c m o plete str ike . Ra ilw a y Worker s !

m er a he a ct we u r e u on ou a of Re emb th t t g p y , th t

r e or the r of M a giving the n ecess a r y se vic f ﬁ st y , will be a n a fﬁrm a tion of y ou r liber ty a n d of you r devotion to the a trio p .

12 1 9 22 e e . On May , , I visit d F rrara Some thing of the old medieval grimness hovered over

e of a i . wall and tow r th t aloof . brooding c ty

The broad avenues carried a jostling horde . RISE OF LABOR FASCISM 1 59

Thirty thousand Fascisti and une mployed had crowded into the city to protest against the dila tory steps of the Government toward relieving the unemployed problem . Most of this throng was obliged to sleep on the grass outside the Strade di Circonvallazione or on the Montag “ none where Tasso once partially delivered Je ” sa h l e ru lem . T e fol owing day d monstrations were held on the M onta gnon e and before the gi gantic en tra do sign orile of the old castle of the

e . e f the Est As a r sult o this action , National Fascist p a rty was able to force the Governm ent to promise a million and a ha lf lire for the im e a e of i m di t construction local public works , pr n ci all - e a p y road building, and to grant lib r l loans for similar undert akings to all the bankrupt pro vincia l e commun s .

19 21 e e e e . In August , , occurr d a g n ral strik Strong opposition soon developed in Fascist

ea a e a n e a e h dqu rt rs , opposition which b c m so militant as to menace the Government its elf . I arrived in Rome from Florence during tha t month in time for the memorable sitting of the national cha mb er when news ha d come of the genera l mobilization orde r of the Fascisti and of the concentration o f numerous squa drons at the ’ e e mouth of the Tiber . Ev rybody s nerves wer 1 60 ROME OR DEATH

the e e ri e he u f abraded by g n ral st k , t b rning o the

a e e the e z e the com Av nti h adquart rs , s i ur of e of a the e destru c mun s Mil n and Genoa, Viol nt tion and conflict that was taking place in A n a the e e n con , and minist rial ord r placi g six provinces un der martial law . I was a spectator at the turbul ent scene in Montecitorio where or e e e a n d the a l der vanish d , r volvers flash d, j ng ing bell of President de Nicola was swall owed up in e l a scr aming bil ingsg t e . But just a s a thr ee - day driz zle proved more effective in squelching th e revolutionary demon ’ ’ strations of 48 in London than all the kin g s ’ e the men the e e hors s and all king s , so t rrific h at of August successfull y ende d this early threat o v lu zione i ola zz o The da f a Fascist ri o d p . y aft er the Si tting of the Chamber de scrib ed above e of n cam a noxious Sirocco out Africa , bri ging with it a taste of fir e ; the vitreous sky shimmere d an d e the e l of the e crackl d , and v ry wal s c ntury

e Old bu ildings seemed to glow . A hurri d vote e e a s e the of conﬁd nc w giv n to Signor Facta,

a e e e the e e e Ch mb r clos d its s ssion, d puti s rush d

the e the m l e away to Rivi ra , Com unists sku k d in th e n d the e - the e shad a win shops, Fascisti dis

e band d . While revolution might have been anticipated

1 62 ROME OR DEATH two ways : through boring from within the old i a n d the e e un ons , through formation of ntir ly new groups sponsor ed a n d prote cted against Communist and Socialist aggression by the

a e Fascist squadrons . Thus , in m ny localiti s , a maj ority of the memb ership of former leagues has voted to afﬁliate with the loca l Fa scio and with the national Fascist labor federation . In other cases this was brought about by intimida

e tion. Many si ndaca ti a fﬁliated themselv s with the Fascisti to avoid the destu ction of their head qu arters and the repeated bea ting up of their f e a e ee o ﬁc rs and members . Few unions h v b n

e c . e abl to resist such ta tics In Rom in January ,

1923 e e the ee of the ee - car , I att nd d m ting str t workers wh en an election of Ofﬁcers w a s bein g e held . A small nucleus of Fascisti kept the m et in a n d a - a e g in an uproar , Bl ck Shirts par d d noisily up and down the aisles signiﬁca ntly

a e the swinging their heavy canes . But in this c s election went against the Fascisti by a vote! of two thousand to seven hundred . In Florence the Fascist syndica lists m et in e n ea e a n d a e the Politeama Fior nti a Th t r , ft r an B i the address by Edm ondo osson , national

e e s cretary, voted the following ord r of the day RISE OF LABOR FASCI SM 1 63

T he worker s of ha nd a nd b r a in a ssembled in the Poli tea ma cer a n of n er r e n the u n an mou en , t i i t p ti g i s s ti men of the or n ma e of oren ce a n n o ts w ki g ss s Fl , t ki g i t a cc ou n t tha t the ma j or ity of the a dher ents t o the Cha mber of L a bor of this city ha ve r en ou n ced the vile a nd cr oo e or of e r ea er ca u on the a u k d w k th i l d s , lls p thorities for the immedia te a ssignmen t o f the sa id Cha mber of L a bo r t o the N a tion a l Feder a tion of Syn dic a list or or a on h c enr o in r a n the C p ti s , w i h lls its ks

h r e most s a ne a nd elect of t e wo king p ople .

As a result of such tactics and the natural of e of the e shifts opinion in tim s crisis , int rnal tension of the older organizations in many cases e e e e e prov d utterly disruptiv , and th r occurr d pitched b attles as to which fa ction should con the z e e trol organi ation funds and h adquart rs . Many former chambers of labor passed into the of the Cor orazioni hands p . In other instances the corporazioni were form ed from small da ring u nits who were willing to e a e of risk maltr tm nt and loss employment . e the e e e e As arly as Rom conv ntion , S cr tary

e t P a sell a e e a Umb r o , hims lf a form r syndi c list ea e e e a the l d r, stimat d that h lf Fascist member e e of ship was th n compos d farm , factory, and marine workers . Hence it was not diﬂi cu lt to form provisional committees in every industry 1 64 ROME OR DEATH and trade which would carry on the work of or

' anization a e the e g and propag nda . Aft r failur of the e e a of the e e a of g n r l strike August , s cr t ry the Venice F a scist syndicate s annou nced that a ll the R ed un ions had ha stily afﬁliated with the

an d e e w a s hen om e Fascisti , mor and mor this p n e e e a on to be obs rv d in very loc lity . Two charges have been made with regard to these Fascist activities : It is sa id tha t the F a s cisti have attacked the Catholic and Socialist syndica tes in order to smash the strength of labor and reduce the working- cl a ss to a miserable di The e e the e con tion . Fascist r pli s that old r organizations had assume d the character of e a the e a monopoli s ; that , in f ct , Fascist d m nd for

e e a b e m et the a strong, fﬁci nt n tion cannot if

’ workers do n ot enjoy decent standards . e a w ho Mussolini , in r ply to Arturo L briola , “ ” made a charge in the Roma of Naples tha t “ the development of Fascism de ﬁnitely mena ced ” historic evolution and that it aimed a t destroy in the e e the de g labor movem nt , mad following fen se :

ha s een a n n con e a e a c : r a er e It b i t st bl f t Fi st , th t wh Fa s cism con tr ols ther e h a s been n o r ed u ction o f w a ges or ncr ea e in the ou r of or a nd in mo i s h s w k , st ca e the a c or a niza on a e m o e i er s s , F s ist g ti s h v i p s d h gh

1 66 ROME OR DEATH lowed S ocia lism for thir ty yea r s merely to make a n immedia te a nd ma ter ia l tu r n- a bou t withou t ha ving a s simila ted a ny of the a nima ting a nd r en ov a ti ng idea s of “ S oci a lism ; a nd tha t t o- da y they will foll ow sp on ta ne ” ou i hou or r or ou ea r a mo a the sly w t t h , with t f , l st gl dly ,

e r o er of e r ou e of e r n u on of e r d st y s th i h s s , th i i stit ti s , th i c ollective pa tr imonie s a n d of thei r thir ty - y ea r con

u e t o o o a no e n e n e r a e . q st, f ll w th r i d ﬁ it mi g

The Fascist replies that the mass of the work ers were never ena moured of revolutiona ry lead ershi e are a be e e p , that th y gl d to fr from the yoke of dicta toria l a n d dogmatic syndicates and league s which use d equally violent methods to s on i e e u e e . R o s build p th ir str ngth , talking b for the ﬁrst convention of F a csist marine workers e e o in G noa , touch d up n this point

T o- da y the a dher ents of ou r syndi ca tes nu mber more tha n M a ny s a y : B u t a re these work er s sin cer e who befor e ext olled B olshevism a nd bu rned the t ri c olor yet n ow swea r ﬁdelity t o the p a tr io ? T he Ita lia n

e a a n he a a n a on worker s ha ve never be n g i st t It li n ti . They wer e t u rn ed a side by a bu n ch of politi ci a n s who

on deba sed the ma sses t o ser ve their own a mbiti s .

e e e the of a N v rth less , rush radic ls into the Fascist corporations has not taken place unno

e the e e sc tic d by more cons rvativ Fa ist leaders , RI SE OF LABOR FASCI SM 167 who have feared that their ranks were being ﬁlled too rapidly and th at many workers were j oining the Fascist movement w ho were but lukewarm in their sympathies toward so- called T he F national syndicalism . ascist railway work ers took a st a nd against permitting the R ed syn dicates e z en bloc to j oin th ir organi ation , and devised measures for scrutinizing the applica tions of all n ew members as set forth in a ciren lar bearing the date of August 28 in which it “ w a s stated that the recent social - communist col

e e e e Oh laps has r sult d in, and still caus s , as is e e the e e e the s rvabl , xodus of hug mass s from ” z R ed organi ations into the Fascist syndicates .

a e e e e e e The circul r then num rat s instanc s wh r , e e e of e e aft r strik failur s , groups work rs hav

e the a z e join d F scist organi ations , and sugg sts the following precautionary measur e s

1 r o o e a nd a or in e er ma nner the a n . P v k f v v y disb d

R d ec ing of the e S tions .

er e a r e u e for the en r o n ma s o f 2 . If th is q st lli g en se the seceding member s do n ot fo r mally a ss u me obliga

o e a e n ee of ma r n me n th u a ti n . W h v d ki g ti u til e sit tion is cla r iﬁed a nd the P a r ty Direc tion t a kes a S t a nd .

er e or e be nece a r t o e a the a en r o Th f , it will ss y d l y s id l men t in o rder t o su bmit the a pplica ti on s t o the decision

e r a f . e e a of the c nt l o ﬁce Good x cu se for d l y . 1 68 ROME OR DEATH

em n ﬁ a n a 3 . R a i rm d ir r evoc ble tha t the lea der s be “ ” in h en e a left b a n is m t . W c n a dmit the r epenta n t mem er the r a a m a on of the m a e w ho a e b s , pid ssi il ti ss s h v a a e r B t w e o lw ys be n t r a ile s . u sh u ld distr u st u nqu es ti on a bl the or a n zer the r o a a n the ea er y g i s , p p g dists , l d s

f r u h r a n th o o o t e ec e ri e a d e c u n c or . g ps , s t s , il s

4 e r n t o a n n o . Whil p omisi g Obt i i st ru cti n s fr om the cen r a ea u a r er r e a r n a m on one c a n a nd t l h dq t s g di g d issi ,

ou a s c on er e e a cce the n u a a sh ld , is sid d b st , pt i divid l p

i ca on n n a e e be ri c e a m ne es pl ti s , i sisti g th t th s st tly x i d , pecially with r ega r d to the mor a lity a nd politi ca l fa ith of the a c a n the n orma on ou a or ppli t . If i f ti s ght is f v a e or c a n be een a the a ca n w a s n ot eu bl , it s th t ppli t . r o e in the S oci a list or Commu n ist or A na r chist or ll d , ,

an iza tions a ce c a n be ma e for him in the r a n g , pl d ks bu t a a a s a s m othiz er lw ys y p .

re e e the e of the As p s nting a special cas , ris a e F scist m arine workers is int re sting . Most of the important harbors in Ita ly ar e administered b a of y autonomous port consortiums , m ny which have played hand in glove with the lea ders of the ’ Seamen s e e e e e e F d ration , h ad d by Gius pp Giu lietti a n d th a coO er , with e various radic l port p

he -w ar e a the atives . T rapid post xp nsion of ’ S eamen s Federation is a tangle d and sordid history ; the development of the organization has ’ bee n involved with the d A nnu nzian seizure of

170 ROME OR DEATH

e e e e e - e act r, l agu d into a singl ps udo cooperativ , which have in the economic ﬁelds abolished free

of b the dom la or and rights of the minority, and in the administrative ﬁeld have practically a b e the e of the on the one sorb d pow rs consortium, hand imposing upon commerce di sastrous wa ge a e on the e e sc l s and conditions , oth r xploiting and

the e ex oppressing casual workers , larg ly ea e e combatant , tr ting th m not as comrad s but as e a n d e e e e slav s , hav thus transform d th ms lves m e e e fro work rs into privil g d contractors , in whose ha nds the gre atest port of Italy is dis ” gracefully heading toward ruin .

e e the e the a e e Wh th r ris of G ribaldi Coop rativ , which was controll ed by members of the fe dera

’ e a e e e e tion , and which op r t d oc an lin rs , alarm d

e or e e e e a th m , wh th r this mark d a natural r ction to the rigid control by on e organiza tion tha t had

e e a e boycott d c rt in groups of work rs , in any event the Fascisti found sufﬁcient followers to e e the a ea e the red nt r h rbors , br k strik s , pull ﬂags off he e e e a n d en t various coop rativ sh ds , , in g

e a e e e e ce . The ral , m k th ms lv s a for Fascist e e e e the marin syndicat s gr w in numb rs , and in early pa rt of S eptemb er a nationa l convention T he n ew a za o w a s h eld in Genoa . org ni tion p pose d the monopolistic furnishing of labor by the RISE OF LABOR FASCI SM 171

Socialist Ufﬁ cio di Collocamento ; it demanded the abolition Of the port consortiums ; equal rep r esen tation on all govermnent commissions and ’ workers councils with othe r labor organizations ;

a n e e z not op n shop , but op n right of organi ation

for the . e Socialists , Catholics , and Fascisti Som of the early interested backers of the Fascisti had ’ proposed the abolition of the various workmens e e councils , but this was vigorously oppos d , ev n the e a e the or by t chnici ns , and lat r by Fascist an a he g iz tion itself . T Fascisti also built up

e ow n coO eratives e e th ir p , for which they d mand d the same privileges as the coOperatives alre ady a in existence . S id Michele Bianchi at the con “ vention in Genoa : W e should carry on a work ‘ ’ o - era f recovery . W e should n ot be anti coOp tioni t W e he coO eratives s . Should conduct t p

the e e e . e . back to functions th y should s rv , i , a a form of coll boration between ca pital and labor . W e desire that ou r coOpera tiv es be placed in a

of e a n d e ee e i position pow r , by m ans of fr comp t e of e tion, to hav , not a position privil ge, but a o position f battle . ’ D A nn u n zio w o e e e the F iu mian e , h v r sinc p iso de has counted Upon the support of the S ea ’ e e e locked he m n s F d ration , with disfavor upon t rise of the n ew organization and attempted to 172 ROME OR DEATH

a e c bring about r con iliation . In October a l e e working al ianc was form d, by which the two organi zations were to take no action without

e e e be mutual consulation , and all strik s w r to e conduct d j ointly . Mussolini backed this pact,

e e the and , although som criticism aros among

e e e . Fascist ranks , it w nt formally into ff ct Dis

a e e e be e s tisfaction , how v r, caus d it to modiﬁ d e of e an d on e 22 a numb r tim s , ﬁnally Octob r ( Shortly before the cou p of Mussolin i) a decision w a s reach ed to disba nd the Fascist corporations and have the membership enrolled in the old Marine Federation a nd the Garibaldi CoOper e e e s ative , which w re to am nd th ir constitution to include expressions of nationalist loyalty . e t e e e e the Aft r h r volution, how v r, Fascist cor poration s were encouraged to maintain their in e e e e e con d pendence . Fu rth r n gotiations w r e e a the a e F ed duct d, and it now app ars th t M rin cration will disband and its members enter the

Fascist unions .

The proletarian Fascisti claim to have infused a n ew ethical concept into the Ita lian labor e e c c a mov m nt , a on ept distinct from nation lism and from syndicalism : Industry is a social

- e trust , not for the spoils of factions , class int r

1 74 ROME OR DEATH

labor Fascism other violent measures have been

e e e e e pursu d . Fascist bank cl rks hav oblig d th ir employers to contribute to the upke ep of the

e e . e a Fascist mov m nt In P rugia, th t school w of ae 19 22 the to n Raph l, in August , , Fascisti occupied the ofﬁce of the Siama c factory and

forced the proprietors to meet wage payments .

e e a re e e the Th s isolat d instanc s , but Fascist workers will neve r accept patriotic shibboleths of The in lieu good macaroni and wine . workers of Italy are p atently desirous of assist ing in the reconstruction of Italy ; reconstruction

u e e will call for arduo s sacriﬁc , which will scarc ly be given unl ess there is a similar spirit shown by e th a the propri tors and e industri lists . The Fascist syndicalists have broken up the old mold of the Italian labor movement ; it has

substituted tripartite instead of dual divi sion . It has divided labor along the old historic lines of a e Savoyard monarchy , Garib ldian r volution ,

a and Catholic intransigency . Italian l bor is

a - n a now Fascist, Soci list Commu ist, and C th A s e th the e . olic, with e ﬁrst far in l ad a matt r

of the e e fact, Fascist labor mov m nt could not have come into existence without the prior organ ization work of the Socialist and Syndica list o e the of m v ments , for idea paciﬁc industrial col RI SE OF LABOR FASCISM 1 75 labora tion presupposes that the workers are as important an d digniﬁed a factor in production as h a e . t e employers . Only equals c n collaborat For the workers to have become e quals ( even in e the e e of the th ory) , bitt r, r volutionary thrust post - war Soci alist party w a s p erhaps necessary a F or a the and s lutary . it t ught Italy and

a e the e i e of the It lian work r r al ti s situation , and create d a more thoroughgoing a ppre ciation of the ee of h - w a r r The u e a nd n ds t e post e a . b rd n

e n ow h a r sponsibility rest upon t e industri lists . If the y shirk that responsibility a n d do not meet the n ew Fascist conception honestly a n d en thu

' sia sticall e e a r e cor orazio y , th r Fascist p m with a tradition of violence more direct tha n that of the Socia lists . The situa tion has been dispassionately summ ed

z e e of the a r up by Don Stur o , l ad r Popular p ty ( C atholic )

F a s cism i s n ot e con omica lly the p olice o r the r oy a l

u a r of the r c a nd r e a or n u r a ou r eo e g d i h p d t y i d st i l b g isi , nor will it ma in ta in the p a r a siti c i n du st ry tha t live s in the sha dow of the sta te T he r a pid a nd vi olen t ma n n er in c the r o - S o c a ommu n a nd whi h p i list , C ist ,

n a r c ea u e ha e een r n or me n o a c A hist l g s v b t a sf d i t F s i , — a n d a t the s a me time the p r o ofﬁcia l hea ds a n d the dog ma s o f the Red Internati ona l s u bstitu ted with other 176 ROME OR DEATH lea der s a nd with other myths of a p a tri oti c a nd n a tion a l cha r a c ter in n o wise m odiﬁes the econ omi c

a c of the c a ru e n or o e of the r on f ts l ss st ggl , disp s s i a of the r u on of ea nor e en the r a e l ws dist ib ti w lth, l ss s g v pr oblem of ex cess l a bor p opu l a tion t o whi ch still r e ma n o e a l o e em o men i cl s d l p ssibiliti s of pl y t . Under su ch economic c ondition s there h a s been over

r o n b a c on u e a nd o en mo emen a a or th w , y v lsiv vi l t v t , l b policy tha t w a s be coming excessive a nd mon opolistic ; the violent mea su r es will be exha u sted when r esista nce

mi n he bu t r ea ea r a a n on the er r a n of di is s , will pp g i t i — the c a - ru e n ow m a n a ne b a c ons e er l ss st ggl , i t i d y f ti y st d mmu t o- morr o a c t a c and o n . y S o ialist C ist, w F s is

178 ROME OR DEATH that ﬁnally triu mphed with the name of Inte gra lismo f 05 The in the convention of Rome o 1 9 . convention of Florence ( 19 08 ) saw the return e the to pow r of Right wing, though not without sharp opposition on the part of the revolution

e . The e e e b the e e ari s party, h ld tog th r y C nt r e he 1 9 12 e e and dominat d by t Right until , njoy d a degre e of patrona ge by the Govermnent . Many members were rewa rde d with bure aucratic

he e e e ze t e . positions , and coop rativ s w r subsidi d — Then the more revolutionary elements the maximalists- succeeded in throwing compro

e o h e e be mis u t of t e party. Th ir m thod was to a of a a e th t cl ssical Marxi n r volution, known in

' n sta u Italy th en by the a dj ective bla qu z . D ring the war the Socialist pa rty w a s virtually obliged to suspend activities ; the result was a gre at u n er rou n d d g growth in revolutionary sentiment . the e 1 9 18 the So, at conv ntion of Bologna in , maximalists were able to force through a vote of party adhesion to the Third Inte rnationa l of he ee e e 19 1 9 Moscow . At t succ ding l ctions in the Socialist party ca ptured twenty- tw o hundred

e e - ﬁ v e e 1 5 6 e commun s , tw nty provinc s , and s ats h ce e e in the chamb er . T e suc ssful candidat s w re instructed to sabotage the Government and to DECLINE OF THE SOCIALIST 179 u se their position for the spre ading of further propaganda . But the inﬂuence of the reformists increased a s a result of the failu re of the factory seizures

of e e e 19 20 . e e e S pt mb r, Th y b cam known as the concentration group and oriented their program in the factional national convention held in R eg gio - Emili a in October of tha t year in preparation for the approaching convention at Leghorn . The strength of the con centration ists at the e e a 1 9 21 w a s L ghorn conv ntion in J nuary, , fur ther incre ase d by the Twenty - on e Conditions e e the e s nt as a ukas by Moscow ; but , at sam e the e e the tim , doctrinair attitud of Communist e Th e w a s the lements was intensiﬁed . e r sult sece ssion of the latter ( on e third of the mem ber hi t the o s p ) o form C mmunist party . e e e e the a in a e N v rth l ss , Soci list party, the f c of W e - e a e e e e w a s id spr ad F scist l ction viol nc , able to conserve 1 22 sea ts ( a nd the Communists e e ee h 2 a s e ul of t e 1 9 1 . s v nt n) a r s t May, , contest e e : Th ir program stat d , in part

We ha ve a lrea dy w on for the working- cla ss a for mida ble s oci a l p ower which cha ll enge s tha t of the

ou r eo e a n the r u e c on nu e in a ll b g isi , d with st ggl ti s ‘ this e ha s its on or e en e an its a r or fi lds . It u n i s f d f s d p ty f 180 ROME OR DEATH the fight t o the fin ish ; it ha s its coopera tives ; a nd it ha s r ou n a r a men its g p i P li t . T o cooper a te in st r engthening this power of l a bor a nd t o u se a ll mea n s t o br ing a b ou t the dict a t or ship of the r o e a r a o r r a er to ma e a oc e ou n e on p l t i t, th k s i ty f d d a or ou o of e o a on mus be the l b with t p ssibility xpl it ti , t

u of the oc a a r a men a r r ou d ty S i list P li t y g p .

e the e Aft r split, a Prussian spirit of disciplin “ e : the he e the dominat d In past , t disciplin of acts of the members w a s sufﬁcient ; for the fu e e e be e a e the tur , th r is to d m nd d also control of the e e of e e xpr ssion thought As a r sult, int r nal f e e e e e e l di f r nc s d ev lop d rapidly . L ghorn iad not really separated the revolutionists from the

e ha ere e a e o r formists . It d m ly s p rat d u t those e l I n willing to ob y Moscow unconditiona ly . e the of the e e t rnal friction, signing p ac pact with the 1 92 1 the i Fascisti in August, , qu ck shifting

a a f a e i a e r of n tion l a fairs , the ch ng d parl m nta y situation that had made possible the collabora of the e a n ecessi tion Socialists and Cl ric ls , soon tated the of the e calling conv ntion of Milan . This was held in the Lyr ic Theater in Novem b er .

The on s Socialist party this occa ion , it soon

e m e e e e o b ca vid nt , was divid d int four camps , but the most important division was betwe en the

180 ROM E OR DEATH the ﬁght i the ﬁnish ; it has it s coopera tives ; and it ha s r a r a men its g i p i n P li t . T o c oopr a te in st re ngtheni ng this power of labor a nd to u s a ll mea ns t o b ri ng a bou t the dict a t orship of the roletaia t o r r a e r to ma e a oc e ou n e on p , th k s i ty f d d a o w itl t o o f e o a on mus be the l b r u p ssibility xpl it ti , t

u a r a me a r r u d ty of tl S oci list P a li nt y g o p .

e te us Aft r split , a Pr sian spirit of discipline “ d a : of omin te In the past , the discipline the a cts of tle members was s u fﬁcient ; for the fu

er to e l of ture , th is be demand d a so the control the e x res io o p n f thought As a result , inter diffe r ce d e e e Had nal o s ev lop d rapidly . L ghorn not real]; separated the re volutionists from the e r formist . It had merely separated out those

t ( e l willing ob y Moscow unconditiona ly . In

e ricion the n o e t rnal f , signi g f the p ace pact with the F a scizi 1 9 21 the i in August , , qu ck shifting n a tionl f e r of a fairs , the changed parliam nta y situation hat had ma de possible the collabora

of th e l n ecessi tion Socialists and Cl rica s , soon ta te d the ca lling of the convention of Milan . This was neld in the Lyric Theater in Novem b r e .

Soiali st s The party on this occa ion , it soon

e a e e i en w a s e o b c m d t , divid d int four camps , but the mst important division was between the na e M u s soli n i be fore t he Q u ir i l .

! u ra t 310 1 . h I a n : T i a nd .2a a t

1 82 ROME OR DEATH

e e a e on the lic pow r alr ady c ptur d by us , and , e a e the e e oth r h nd , to impos upon bourg oisi the proposa ls that the group might formulate . The e e w a s a e Socialist d puti s , it m intain d, should be strictly subordinated to the party executive h committe e . T e resolution protested at the ex pulsion of the party from the Third Interna tion al for the ha d a e e the , party lways adh r d to principles of internationa l socia lism to the ext ent “ permitted by environment and historical con ” tin n ge cies . The a e e e of m ximalists , r c iving a cl ar maj ority controlled about two thirds of the voting e Th on cen i nis e str ngt h . e c trat o ts bow d to the

a e a e e e m m jority will , though it r ting th ir d t r ina tion to convert the membership to their point of e vi w.

the e e e e e e But split yawn d v r wid r . Th r is little doubt that Tura ti (inspired by the success w ho e e e the a of Bonomi , , xp ll d from Soci list

a 1 9 11 e e e e p rty in , had b com prim minist r in 1 9 21 ) w a s hop eful of ultimately swin ging the

a a n d ﬁ le e . ea the r nk b hind him Thus , h ding

e e a i e he i strong st singl p rl am ntary group , m ght ea a e e e e e e H r son bly hav hop d to b com pr mi r . e had b efore him simila r examples in Scandinavian DECLINE OF THE SOCIALI ST 183 countries and the success of Scheidemann in e he e Germany . It was with this id a that inspir d the e e e 19 22 conv ntion of Milan in Nov mb r, ; it was with this ide a that he broke the Socialist precedent and called upon the king at the Quiri n a l as B issolati had done in 1 9 1 1 ; it was with this idea that he manoeuvered the general strike of August to whip the re st of Parliament into line and force the formation of a Socialist - Catholic e the cabin t . While this shift brought about

n the a e e the e dow fall of F cta Gov rnm nt , mov c was too tardy . The aggressive Fa scist ta tics in putting down the ge neral strike were so pat e e the e e f a a ele ntly succ ssful , pr stig o the r dic l ments in the labor- unions and in the political e vi e e a the ﬁ ld so ob ously d stroy d , th t Socialist deputie s who had manipul ate d the collaboration e e e e e mov w r l ft complet ly isolated . The Cler icals on whom they had coun ted drew precipi ta tel h y toward the Right . T e Popula r parlia “ me nta ry group observe d that if the Socia lis t party had been able to solidify its formation of a e the e of the e - l gal group , b ginning Tw nty sixth Legislature would have received a n ew and ” ecu nd e ha d e e the f impuls , but it d lay d too long ; Catholic party was therefore obliged to ally itself 1 84 ROME OR DEATH

with those groups which obviously enj oyed the public conﬁdence and which could recreate an ” e e ord r d state .

e w ho m e t S rrati , at Milan had cha pion d par y

n e a n e e e - r u ity at all costs , now mad l v nth hou scramble to r estore himself to fa vor with Moscow by expelling the reformist T ura ti - Treves - A ra

o e the e g na group , rath r ludicrously striking xact

e e ha d e e ee mom nt wh n Moscow, which b for b n “ ” dictating purification by schism w a s now advo “ ” ’ Se cating purification by u nification . rr ati s activities resulted in the calling of a nationa l con v ention 2 1 9 22 the a del for October , , in Cas

e The a a on oc Popolo at Rom . C s that historic

a s e e e e casion , I r call , vaunt d an almost f stiv e l e e of dec appearanc , an a most bourg ois w alth

a the e o he l e e ee a or tion . At n d f t ha l w r thr pl t m on e e the e e one for s , raised abov oth r, r minding of the medieva l paintings of the hierarchy : the lowest level served for the exe cutive committee and the orators ; the s econd for the president ; these surmounted by the bust of Karl Marx . Bitter discussion of technical procedure : the e M in rin o ea e the factions rang d from g , l d r of

del w ho e ee e e Arditi Popolo , favor d m ting viol nc e e o a with viol nc , t that of Tur ti , willing to collab t n S r orate w ith the Catholics and Giolit ia s. e

186 ROME OR DEATH the ru in of the Socia list movement and the eco e a nomic system . It is furthermore fals th t coll aboration was to restore the old economic

e . e e f e e régim Our duty, inst ad , is quit di f r nt, and you shoul d ask yourselve s whether the pro letariat can abs ent itself from all measure s of ” e reconstruction . Ev n b e fore the ca lling of the e a e a e conv ntion, the collabor tionists had d cl r d the mselves a s favoring the nation rather than the interna tional socialist revolution ; they were aware of the re surgent pro- Ita lian sentiments which were booming the Fascist movement ; but by changing their attitude they did n ot inquire the e e of the - e e e conﬁd nc working class l m nts , while those w ho had accepted the nationalist point of view ha d long ago enrolled th emselves

’ ’ the a cor orazzo The e in F scist p m . r sult of the Rome convention w a s the expulsion of the collab ora tionists by a vote of against The ﬁgures a re eloquent of the de cline of a party tha t in 19 19 had boasted a qua rter of a million h e h e a e e . T e w o m mb rs C ntrists , had vot d ag inst e e e e a xpulsion , s c d d to join with the coll bora

ion i t t s s .

the e e Turati, in discours comm nting upon his “ ‘ ’ e a : W e a re a the . xpulsion , s id mong gradualists a ou r We do not wish to say coll borationists , as DECLINE OF THE SOCIALIST 187

i of critic did , limit ng the question participation in the governing power to that of a slight collab

- - oration to day or to morrow . But though e e we separate w e shall not be d ad . We l ave to to — work , combat predicting our labor will be ‘ e u r of il S o fruitful . W leave with o cry Viva ’ ‘ ’ cialismo ! e il Commu nismo ! If you r ply, Viva w e shall be p erfectly in accord in ou r disaccord .

e the e Aft r split , the maximalists attempt d , in e e the n ew e to e ob di nce to ukas from Moscow, fus e e th mselv s with the Communists . For many e e n anta o r asons , not the l ast bei g personal g n isms e The , this prov d impossible . collabora tionists e the found d Unitarian Socialist party, “ ” making their official daily paper La Giustizia of Milan . These events marked the utter disruption of the Socia list party as a political and economic

e . The e e forc party, as Claudio Tr v s put it , “ e ze had be n Balkani d . The last obstacle had b een removed from the path of victorious — Gov ermn ent Fascism except the itself . CHAPTER XII

C LARIFI CATION or T H E FASCIST PROGRA M

T the moment when the Fascisti orga nized

e e e a th ms lv s into a political p rty, toward the e of 1 9 2 1 e e i e clos , th ir movem nt , l k that of h t e w a s . Socialists , passing through a crisis ’ D A nnu n zio e e e e e pr dict d that Fascism , nm sh d r in politics , could not su vive . of the e e e Also , many Fascisti w r disgruntl d at the lack of public appre ciation of th eir efforts

e a . The e e to d stroy the Soci lists Gov rnm nt , with the obvious moral support of the country

e wa s o e e the at larg , vig rously r pr ssing Fascist e e e punitiv xp ditions . In addition , many Fas cisti felt that they had b een cleverly used by the industrialists and proﬁteers but were now b eing ' in diﬁ erentl he - e ; y cast upon t scrap h ap . Many e retira ndo dalla local Fasci w re disbanding, lotta . But the leaders in terest ed in the formation of the political p arty ha d no intention of disband ing the militant Fascist groups ; they merely 188

1 90 ROME OR DEATH

Fa s cism constitu te s itself a political p a r ty in or der ” to o z cr e s lidify its dis cipline and individu a li e its e d . T he n a tion is not a simple a gglomera tion of living individu a ls nor a n in st ru men t for the speci a l ends of

a r e bu t a n or a n m om re en n the n e p ti s , g is c p h di g e dl ss s eri es of gener a tion s i n which the individu a ls a r e tr a n sient elemen ts ; a nd it is the su pr eme sy nthesis of a ll the ma er a a n d n on - ma er a ea he r a ce t i l t i l w lth of t .

n T he sta te is the j u r idica l in c a rn a tion of the n a tio . P olitica l in stitu tion s a r e efﬁca ciou s in form to the ex ten t tha t the n a tion a l v alu es ﬁnd expression a nd tu te a e ere n l g th i . T he a u tonomou s worth of the individu a l a nd of nu m

r of n u a e r e e in e r on co ec e be s i divid ls , xp ss d p s s ll tiv ly

r a n z a m e commu ne cor or a on o g i ed ( f ili s , s , p ti s , is a a r omo e e e o e a nd e en e in the c om lw y s p t d , d v l p d , d f d d pa ss of the na tion to whi ch they a r e su bordin a ted . T he N a tion a l Fa s cist p a r ty a fﬁrms tha t in the pre s ent histori ca l momen t the for m of domin a nt s oci al or a niza tion in the or th n a ona oc e a nd a g w ld is e ti l s i ty , th t the essentia l la w of the life of the w orld is n ot in the u niﬁ ca ti on o f the v a riou s s ocieties into o ne immen se oc e u ma n a s the n er na ona oc ri ne in s i ty , H ity , i t ti l d t

bu t in the ecu n a u u r a ble a nd a c c con sists , f d , g , p iﬁ cu rren ce e een the a ri ou na ona oc e e b tw v s ti l s i ti s .

The Fascist doctrine has ever centered in the e e state , which should be r duc d to its essential fun ction of j uridicial and political order ; in THE FAS CIST PROGRAM 19 1 o he v of e i ther words , t acti ities the r presentat ve organs of government should be limited to the main tenance of internal order and the guaran teeing of the national defense The scope of the e e e a r pr s nt tive Parliament is to be curtailed . Government industries are to be returned to pri e e e n r of vat own rship ; probl ms of i dust y, pro e duction, of the relations betwe n various pro du cin be a e g groups , are to h ndl d by regional and e national t chnical councils . The provisions relating to the labor movement e ee e e e e have alr ady b n quot d . In g n ral , th y look toward a progressive application of the prin ciples of industria l d emocracy and the establish e e e o e m nt of a s ttl d class f p asant proprietors . F or internal affairs the Fascist party advo “ c e . the e the e e ates , abov all, r storation of pr stig “ of the national state the liberty o f the citi zen is to have a double limit : the rights of other persons and the sovereign right of the nation to ” live and develop . The foreign policy is largely oriented to M ed ’ e a iterraneanism . The Fascisti r afﬁrm It ly s “ right to her complete historic and geographic ”

ni e e n o ee a e . u ty, even wh r that has t b n att in d “ She is to be the bulwark of Latin civilization in ” e the Mediterran an . 192 ROME OR DEATH

The Fascisti have always opposed the League “ the a re re of Nations , in which not all nations p

e e e e e are e r s nt d, whil thos that do not ﬁnd th m e e n s lv s o a footing of equality . e e a e e the vi Lik wis , F scism do s not beli ve in “ a l the ef of the red e t ity nor ﬁcacy various , whit , ” a n d e - e e a oth r color d int rnationals , maint ining “ tha t all the international structures a re doomed to fa ll as is documented by recent historic ex ” eri nce p e . Particularly is the Fascist party interested in a ra r che n the e e f the e pp o me t with p opl s o Ori nt, — fa r a n d ne ar the only living expression of de e r e a ‘I n sir fo any form of int rnation l concord . t ern ation al o e e n ot the c ncord is , how v r, valid a h editer e . The a T e M motiv F scist slog n is , ” ran ean for the M editerranean peoples . The Fa scisti desire that Italy dominate the Medi terranean with the cooperation of the Moslem world for the sake of di spossessing France and

England . In order to carry ou t this program the Fa scisti demand an army and navy a de “ qua te to the needs of its policies and the efﬁcient ” strength of other nations . The economic program for reconstruction is more concrete and may be summarized as fol lows :

19 4 ROME OR DEATH

e e of e n d v lopment arbitration faciliti s . In a y! e e the e v nt , right to strike is sp ecifically d nied in e the public s rvice . The educa tiona l program is subordinated to The e e the tenets of nationalism . Fascisti d sir e of he a li e an int nsification t war gainst il t racy , the e e a ext nsion of compulsory schooling, mph sis upon na tional spirit in the elementary schools the e di e the e the e e cours of stu s , t xts , and t ach rs to be carefully sieved with the ide a of promoting The l e the . mi patriotism dd schools, normal , e a l ar e prof ssional, industri l , and agrarian schoo s , t x e e e e a o be e t nd d a n d perf ct d . Emphasis is l id “ upon a free university subordinate to the con ” trol of the state for national pur poses . e e 19 21 In short , in Nov mb r, , Fascism had e in e b come , action , a political , conomic, and a a e w a be milit nt org ni zation . Political lif s to “ ” e e a quick n d and in stilled with gre ter discipline . “ In the economic field the movement proposed to

' e the r cor oraziom e e stimulat fo mation of p , wh th r w the e of e Fascist or autonomous , ith id a cr ating a working force unenslaved by the dogma s of ” a r e o e de cl ss st uggle . For purpos s f int rnal “ fen se the e a e , volunte r mi lit nt squadrons wer to be placed at the di sposition of the national ” state . CHAPTER XIII

A DOCTRINE or VIOLE NCE

HE clariﬁcation of the Fascist program necessitated a rationalization of the tactic o e s e e e a e f viol nce . F a sm t th ori s of violenc r e e e e e e e cl ctic , b ing deriv d from at l ast thre trac able sources : ( 1 ) pragmatism ; ( 2 ) Hegelian e e e e e idealism as d v lop d , not by Tr itschk and e 3 a Lasson, but by B nedetto Croce ; ( ) syndic list e dir ct action . Pragmatism was advocated in the reviews and

Va ila ti e e books by Papini , , Cald roni , and oth rs , h w o drew their inspiration from William James . If these young pra gmatists did not e nunciate a of e e e ll doctrine viol nc , th y iconoclastica y as sailed the old moralities and the old view of ’ - - e n philosophy for philosophy s sak , as did Papi i “ ” “ in his Crepuscolo dei F ilosoﬁ and Pragma ” tismo ; and by their emphasis upon w orkabil ” ity they gave the various current doctrines of n ew e l force a r a istic validity.

e ol e a Papini , aft r ironing out all the d m t 195 19 6 ROME OR DEATH

: e physics , says to each man H re, the slate is e e e u cl an, mak your own philosophy, cr ate yo r ow n a e mor lity, strike your own road to pow r, to glory . H e thus states the methodologi cal con se quences of his theories

P r a gma tism wishes n ot mer ely in the content bu t a lso in the r n o e a a u spi it . It will long r exp ti te u pon r es lts bu t ou n e o no on er e a will c sel m th ds . It will l g t ll wh t

een on the a bu t ma e no n h a is s highw y , will k k w w t

i c e a ce a r o r r e a nd ee f r ne e We veh l s re ne ss y t a iv s o o s lf .

u a e the u e to the a r cu a r T amna siolo ia th s h v g id p ti l ( g ) ,

a for r ema n the or M a ica a nd for r e th t ki g w ld ( g ) , tha t ma n one e E olo ia ki g s lf ( g g ) .

om e e the er t c r c e of o o Thu s is c pl t d p fec i l phil s phy,

c a r n r om a a e o f n on - e re on a nd of whi h, st ti g f st t xp ssi

u r e a c on cr o e a of r ef ec on on the oc a a c p ti , ss s th t l ti s i l ts

mor a on the or co mo o a nd on no ( lity ) , w ld ( s l gy ) , k wl e e n o eo o a n re u r n b mea n of no eo o dg ( g s l gy ) , d t s y s g s l gi e — c on c u on t o the non e re on t o the r a c ca t o l si s xp ssi , p ti l ,

M r o o a or u u r e o o a t the a me life . y p p s l f f t phil s phy is s

me u men the com e on of the c r c e of ti its f lﬁl t , pl ti i l

o o a nd r o r a m the e nni n of ome phil s phy ; its p g , b gi g s

n e e . W e in ener a o o a re to thi g ls hil , g l , phil s phy spi s crea e ome n a e u ma e e n e e e t s thi g st bl , lti t , d ﬁ it ( H g l ,

om e a o e a ll t o do ome n n a C t , I wish, b v , s thi g i iti l ,

to o e a new r oa ere o er er a ra e . p n d , wh th s , p h ps , will t v l

This practicality of pragmatism for Papini

19 8 ROME OR DEATH

‘ e thing is certainly licit that l ads to victory . “ But he deﬁn es victory as not merely a momen ‘ ’ tary success that is lost again and is promptly expiated when it is improperly achieved ; but it the victor u e e ma teria is y, a tri mph not m r ly l and ” e e r t a eph m ral but spi i u l and enduring . An d e f e : , sp aking o force in g neral

I n mec a n c a nd in c w e o o e rea er t o h i s physi s , pp s g t m nor or ce a nd the one o er come the o er the i f s , v s th ; s a me conception ca r r ied over int o the hu ma n world n o

o a oe ot longer ma kes sen se . T he d min tor d s n

o na a n o er b cr n him a s a n a a a n c e d mi te th y u shi g , v l h cru shes a vill a ge ; if the domina t or cru shes the domi ’ n a t ed he l a e cea e to be om na or : il n a , wil h v s d d i t y

r en le r oi er su r o . i , p d d it

Thus for the Crocian ide alists violence is an inevitable part of the cosmic and huma n proc e e a e ss s , but is without signific nce unl ss sub ordinat ed to a moral purpos e and strictly disci line e e p d to s rve that purpos . Of far more practical and actual significance for Italy have been the syndicalist doctrine s of e e F ellou tier and Sorel . Th s doctrines have ruled the Italian labor movement ; they have de cidedly influe nced the activities of the Socialist party ; with a slight modification of their more A DOCTRINE OF VIOLENCE 19 9

e ul e e primitiv form ation by Bakunin, th y hav been adopted by the large Anarchist movem ent ; their tactical implications and their phraseology were thoroughly absorbed by the pre-war e Nationalists . A nd th se doctrines crept in and influenced the so- called idealistic school of Ital he e ian philosophy . All t mod rn Italian philos o hers e e e e p hav car fully studi d Proudhon , as th ir quotations show ; and Proudhon w a s too good e a r volutionist not to exalt force . Similarly e e e e e e e Pr ton , Rava , del V cchio , P r go , and G ntil have written brochures on the juridical com n i h mu sm of Fichte . And both Proud on and fF ichte e e e e e . trem ndously influ nc d Sor l Sor l , a e e e o e the ft r pati nt p rusal f Pascal , dr w first “ ” “ ” d e e e real istinction betw en forc and violenc , a distinction which has become part of ou r

e e - e pr s nt day thinking, and yet which Croc , and the e e certainly Fascisti , have tri d to transc nd if no t entirely obliterate . Wrote Sorel in his Considerations upon ” Violence

“ “ T he terms for ce a nd violen ce a r e u sed in ter c a n ea t o n c a e n ow the a c of a u or n ow h g bly i di t , ts th ity , the a cts of revolt ; bu t it is clea r tha t the two a cts give

er er e e a m of the o n on a r ise to v y div s r s u lts . I pi i th t there would be a g rea t a dva n ta ge in a dopting a te 200 ROME OR DEATH nolo a ou not r e u in a n con u on a nd a gy th t w ld s lt y f si , th t “ ” it is necess a ry t o r eser ve the term violence t o the

econ on n n We a r e or e a or ce c e c . a s e s d ti g y sh ll y , th f , th t f ha s for its scope the imp osition o f the orga n iza ti on of a oc a or er i hi c a m nor o er n T he ou r s i l d n w h i ity g v s . b

eoisie a r n in mo ern me a e a o e or ce g , isi g d ti s , h v d pt d f ; the r o e a r a r ea c now a a n em a a n the p l t i t t , g i st th , g i st

a e ol ence st t , with vi .

The theories of Sorel led to an identiﬁcation of e e e e forc with injustic , and of viol nc with jus T he e of a f tice and natural law . fat human he fairs is determined by active minorities . T

e e e r calcitrant minority is , th r fore , always right . To summarize : Pragmatism removed the moral inhibitions to violence ; the conclusions of “ the idealistic H egel - Croce school of mild - war “ ” and mild - rul e apologi sts were seized upon to “ buttress up the Fascist u se of internal violence ” for a moral purpose and to create a th eory of “ ” violence within limits ; Sor elian syndicalism clariﬁed the relations of minorities to the state and provided Fascism with a new tactical moral ity . Out of these three sources has grown a type of thinking b est described as Fascist . Various Fascist theorizers such as S ergio Panunzio and Amerigo Nami as have threshed through the

202 ROME OR DEATH rent Fascist sophism and ﬁnds repeated echo in the writings and speeches of Mussolini and in the of e e M arisch words such l aders as Pi ro , e nationalist of V nice . The most disturbing inconsistency involved is the a e e a n d e that F scisti , advocating viol nc r vo lu tion h he o e t e e . T S , also advocat strong stat cialists e the of , in accordanc with thought Marx a n d e e e e the r Eng ls , justiﬁed th ir viol nc by theo y e e the of surplus valu , capitalist class rul , and e T he materialistic conc ption of history . Fas

e e e e ze e r cisti , b ing lik wis oblig d to rationali th i e e e e le erde viol nc , accomplish d this Fr udian g “ main by characterizing their violence as neu ” i a w a s e the tral , by assum ng th t it id ntical with “ force used by an orga nized state for the en “ ' forcem ent of law . They drew a distinction between lega l and illegal r evolutions ; they pro ” “ e e e e e e u pos d to x rcis a rational viol nc , a s rgi ” “ ” e e I n a e e . cal viol nc , viol nc within limits identifying their ow n violence with the legitimate “ ” e e e e the forc of a stat , th y not only abolish d S orelia e e e e n distinction , but th y w r oblig d to

e o the e e e b e assum a portion f Stat pr rogativ s ,

a t e e ad e ul e a a e c use h stat h d fa t d , had bdic t d part “ he : W e are th of its powers . T Fascisti said e ”

e re the new . stat . We a Italy A DOCTRINE OF VIOLENCE 203

o or e e - a e The idea f a strong, , bett r , sup r st t ,

the re- l w ho is derived from p war Nationa ists , borrowed their ideas from the Prussians and made a true Italian hybrid by wedding this con cept with the Soreli an theories of syndi calism and a mystic Buddhistic resignation to the “ fact ”— of the most strong at the same time assuring e e e th mselv s that th y were the most strong. e e e e When the stat is w ak, th y argued , th n syn dicali st methods are nece ssary to strengthen it or overthrow it ; when the state has be come strong, it must maintain its position at home by w ar the e i w ar . e and pr parat on for In any cas , the individua l should sacriﬁce everything for the state . If this conception is Prussian on one e e hand, it has a Spartan id alism wh n trans muted into Italian terms .

e e e In accordanc with th s ideas , Enrico Corra ” 11 z e dini , in his Na ionalismo Italiano , publish d in 1 9 1 4 e e , attack d the Lib ral party for its avid T h protection of the Savoyard bourge oisie . e “ Liberal party should have procee ded to com

n ot e e a e the bat Socialism , b caus Soci lism attack d e e the e e bourg oisi , but to xt nt that Socialism , in h ” u e e e t e . attacking the bo rg oisi , attack d nation “ H e the m en of ee e e saw thr p riods , Lib rals , l e e Democrats , and Socia ists , mixed tog th r 204 ROME OR DEATH saw them cooperating toward the same aim of ” e e dissolving the state . If th se thr e groups in political control of Italy ’ s destinies were betray the Govermn ent e e e di e ing th y w r recting, th n the force for the salvation of the state must come e e of from without, from the patriotic, viril forc s th o e nation . This was the argument f the Nationalist before the war ; it is the argument of the - The e e ed Fascist to day . Nationalists b li v in direct action but largely reserved it for ag gression in the Irredenta districts in order to stir up sentiment in the home -land and arouse the Government to ﬁrm action ; the Fascisti since the war have carrie d violence into every reach of civil life . e e e e a ssum H nce their justiﬁcation, h nc th ir p tion of the right to act as the tru e guardian of the historic Itali an state ; their violence became

e e e e . e force, th ir r volution b came l gal Th y took a more arrogant and arbitrary position than the w ho e e e Bonapartists , dr w a distinction b twe n “ ” “ ” legality and law to justify their civil strife “ and their seizure of power ; The law is n ot vio ” e the r he e e a e lat d if count y sav d , d cl r d Napo

. the e c leon With Fascisti also, d mo racy has ea c sed to be a means . Every minority may now “ ” e d clare itself to be the state .

206 ROME OR DEATH

“ ” It wa s the prestige of violence tha t ga ve victory to the a c a a h rea o u a a u b F s ist c ndid tes . T e g t p p l r m ss s mitted to the a c n a on of o ence c the cre f s i ti vi l , whi h is a or o o d h e c o o a m t f va l r a n t e r su s it a t r f en thu si s s .

the a an oc a ha d rea r ou on e If It li S i lists d P dh , th y wou ld ha ve known wha t a dmir a tion this gr ea t revolu tiona r had for or ce a nd how he u e n y F , st di d it , sifti g thr ou gh a ll the immen se fecu ndity of s ocia l fa cts i n

ea rch for s it . At the bottom of the presen t F a s cist victory ! elec “ on of M a 1 21 one encou n er a ca e of orce ti s y , 9 ] t s s f ” tha t rea t i ht c es r g .

At the Social The ater of Udine on Se ptember 20 1 9 22 he io , , gave his ethical justiﬁcation of v lence at more lengt h

o ence i s n ot mmor a o en ce ome mes Vi l i l . Vi l is s ti

r Wé con e he ene e o amen mo a l . t st t right of ou r mi s t l t ou r o en ce eca u e c om a r e to a c w a s com vi l , b s , p d th t whi h mitted in the u n or u na e ea r 1 1 a nd 1 20 com f t t y s 9 9 9 ,

a r e t o a of o e i u a ere tw o m on p d th t B lsh v k R ssi , wh illi per s ons ha ve been dest r oyed a nd wher e other million s ’ o f n u a a n u in r on ou r o en ce c i divid ls l g ish p is , vi l is hild s

a u r ermore o ence ec e ec a u e a t the pl y . F th , vi l is d isiv , b s end of u a nd u u in or - e ou of s J ly A g st , f ty ight h r s sy t ema ti c o en ce w e o a ne a c w e a e not vi l , bt i d th t whi h h v obta ined in for ty - eight yea r s of p r ea ching a nd of prop

a a n a . er e ore ou r o en ce is r e o u or of a g d Th f , vi l s l t y A DOCTRINE OF VIOLENCE 207

tu a on it con c en ou h mora a cr o a nct si ti ; is s i ti s , ighly l , s s , a n nece a r ere a o ence a era e d ss y . Th is vi l th t lib t s a nd a violence tha t en sla ves ; there is a violence tha t is

a mora l a nd a vi olence tha t is stu pid a nd immor l .

The social function of violence is the trans formation of society :

We a re not a o u e of the a ou n c a ne to bs l t ly p st, b d , h i d

m rn n mu one a nd a . In the o e c e er st s w lls d ity, v ythi g st - c mo i e be r a n orme . F or the r ee a r the a u o t sf d st t s , t b l s , the mo or - c c e the old ree s of ou r c t e n o on er t y l s , st t i i s l g s erv e ; for in these a r e ca r ried the su rging w a ve of civi

za i nece a r to e ro i n or e t o crea e li t on . It is ss y d st y d r t mo de r e ea u u r ea a nd n e . B u t ne er b tif lly , g tly , wly v str oy with the s a v a ge plea su re which br ea ks the ma chine t ee a is n e e do n ot r e u e t o c a n e e en o s wh t i sid . W f s h g v the r of th c u eca u e the r of the c spi it e ity , j st b s spi it ity i s e ca e T o me no nece a r soc a c a n e re d li t . ss y i l h g is

u na nt p g .

T he Fascisti thus arrive at violence by the fol lowing route : The world is dualistic ; struggle is inherent in dualism ; dualism and struggle con tend in every human breast ; struggle is syn ony

e e e i e e e e . mous with viol nc . Viol nce l b rat s , cr at s e e e e e th Th r for , viol nc is not immoral ; e morality of violence dep ends upon its purpose ; the moral f he ity o t purpos e is alone signiﬁcant . The so 208 ROME OR DEATH cial purpose of Fascist violence is destruction in e ord r to create . Fascist violence is therefore moral . But violence is to be limited to its pur pose and is e e e e e be o n v r to ov rleap its lf . Viol nce is to c me the e o e e e e e instrum nt f int llig nc . If viol nc is “ carried beyond its proper limits it defeats its ” “ ow n u e ee e p rpos , br ds further viol nce which ” the e e end s thwarts d sir d . Said Mu solini in 3 19 21 : Bologna, April ,

We do not ma e o en ce a c oo a em or ll k vi l s h l , syst , , sti

r o en ene ec wor se a n esthetic . We a e vi l t wh ver it is m es

a r bu t a dd mme a e a nece a r to con s y , I i di t ly th t it is ss y

er e in th nece a r o ence o f a c m a ne a c a r s v e ss y vi l F s is li , h a c er c ea r a r oc r a c or ou r e er c ea r su r t l ly ist ti , , if y p f , l ly

i ca l . Ou r u n e e e on a ll a o ence c g p itiv xp diti s , th t vi l whi h

l the a a er ou a a be of the c a r a c er ﬁl s d ily p p s , sh ld lw y s h t

m e r of a j u st r ectiﬁca tion a nd a legiti a te r p isa l .

e e the a ea Viol nc for F scisti is a m ns , theoret ically of no more import ance than any other ea e of e e m ns , though cl arly mor importanc than

e a e ea e the d mocr cy . What oth r m ns xists , Fas e cisti have nowhere s a tisfactorily elucidat d . Organi zed violence when directed agains t the

e e e e e . stat b com s r volt ; if succ ssful , revolution e the e the e a e R volution, ov rthrow of xisting st t , was always the ultimate objective of Fascist

2 10 ROME OR DEATH

e the e more sp ciﬁcally st ps that would be followed . He traced the creation of the Italian uniﬁcation e e e e e mov m nt , showing that two forc s had nter d through the breach at Porta Pia to wrench Rome from the papacy : the Piedm ontese and Savoyard u e e e bo rg oisi , and the Garibaldian r volutionary e e H e l ments . went on to say that Fascism in tended to reenter Rome much as Garibaldi had the done , bringing a fresh impulse to national et m of the in stitu life, y aintaining the integrity of the u n tions co ntry, includi g the monarchy

o om e e e a the mon a r c h a s n o in At b tt , I b li v th t hy terest in obst r u cting tha t whi ch for convenien ce we may ca the a c r e o u on ll F s ist v l ti .

On the o er a n i s nece a r t o r e en the th h d , it ss y p v t

ome Fa s cist r ev olu tion fr om pu tting a ll in j eopa r dy . S ﬁ rm point mu st be left in or der not to give a n impre s

on to the eo e a ll ha s a ll en a a ll ou si p pl th t a f , th t sh ld b e r ec on r u c e e ca u a er the r e en n a a e st t d, b s e ft p s t i iti l w v

f en u a m l o o the a e of a n c a nd er o th si s wil f ll w w v s p i , p ha ps the su cceeding w a ves wou ld be a ble t o overwhelm

r ma er a r e er c ea r : emo the r . o e e ﬁ st H w v , tt s v y l d lish

- m r r r the entir e s ocia l de oc a ti c su pe stru ct u e.

e e If th se are the weapons of r volution, it is a lso see n that revolution must be kept within “ ” be r e e limits . It should uthl ss in d stroying its e e e et e e e e l n mi s , y onc in pow r ag r to conci iate A DOCTRINE OF VIOLENCE 21 1

n a a e opposing tendencies . This is i ccord nc “ with what Mussolini has termed the second ” phase of revolution ; he declared at Triest

e ma e o e for a r u men the o e of L t u s k , s l ly g t, hyp th sis

c or the a of the o ernmen a nd the r é me . vi t y, with f ll G v t gi T he s econd step ? After the mor e or less ea sy demoli

on a rec on ou the r e o u on a e ? oc a ti , wh t di ti w ld v l ti t k S i l , — a s s ome B olshevists wish tho se with the formu la “ ” a lwa ys fu r ther to the left or n a tion a l a nd Da l ma tion a nd r ea ction a r y a s the other s Wish ? Is ther e n o po ssibility of concilia tion betwee n these tw o cu rr en ? F o r a oc a re o u on a si niﬁ ts s i l v l ti , wh t g ca n ce ou the er r ori a u e on a nd rec e the w ld t it l q sti , p is ly

D a ma a n u e on a e ? l ti q sti , h v

Thus Fascism attempts to reconcile two great tendencies that have exhibited themselves in - a e e ze post war Italy . It is an tt mpt to synth si the proletarian violence as repre sented in the factory seizures with the nationalist violence as ’ represented by the F iu mian foray of d A nn u n zio e the ef e e e f a , to d stroy f ctiv valu o both org n ized e e e e mov m nts , attract the shatt r d factions

he e e of into the Fascist camp , hold t viol nc both e the ea within limits , dir cting it against w k and corrupt Government in orde r to establish a state of e potential worth . Thus , the r volution a c 2 12 ROME OR DEATH

o or one e complished, s cial national as car s to e the ru e consid r it , st ggle is inevitably carri d over The e into international conﬂict . world struggl of the e s for e nations , it happ n , is pow r in the z belief that power brings culture and civili ation . e e e War, th n , is consid red, as was violenc , a stim la u tin e i e . g , a cr at ng forc To - day every Fascist sees a proj ection of the e arlier violence of the movement into another Santa Guerra which will liberate Italy from the e o e r pow rful nati ns of th no th . As a Fascist sympathizer expressed it to me : W e no longer he - th e hold t An glo Saxons and e G rmans in awe . e e e e e e e W know th ir g nius and th ir w akn ss s . And w e shall take advantage of their weaknesses to libera te our s elves and become their equals or e e e sup eriors . W hav given as much and can giv even more to the world . All that is necessary is e e e the rt faith in ours lves . You p opl of no h have e W e taught us how to liberate ourselv s . shall make u se of the weapons you have given us in e order to break your heg mony . The e of w a r e e e e c qu stion , th r for , l ads dire tly to a consideration of the international program o f Fascism .

214 ROME OR DEATH

e e ac conqu st , a gr at history, a long record of co e e e e n ot mplishm ent . H r cycle Of achi v m nt is e h end d . S e is just beginning to lift herself into ” the he first rank Of t first nations . In thirty yea rs bea uty ha s cease d to be some e e a n thing worth battling for . Tru , wh n Italy n exe d o f e the a part north rn Africa, first dmin istrative act was the restoration of the triumphal a rch of M a rcus Aurelius and the instituting of

ae e e e on the e of e e arch ologic r s arch s sit Cyr n , and on e Of the demands of the peace trea ties with Austria was the return of long- coveted art

e the e obj cts ; but , in main , sordid mat rialism has “ la id its stodgy hand upon the mothe r of ” e Of the b auty . In common w ith most nations of e e e - a e Europ , pr s nt day It ly is avidly cov tous

e h e e e e the Of w alt and pow r , a spirit that p rm at s A e . n few e public at larg d. in Occid ntal coun e tries is the life struggle so debased . A st adily incre asing popula tion in a la nd shorn of natural re sources is increasing the bitterness of this struggle and the pre ssure On the Itali an fron e ti rs .

ee e e e About thr d cad s ago , Italy, und r Crispi, was making her ﬁrst tentative experiments in e e h ha M diterrane an expa nsion . Since th n s e s watched Mediterranean developments with a FOREIGN POLICIES 215

e e of hungry eye . She has absorb d littl strips des ert here and there in Africa ; she has engaged The in a war with Turkey for Tripoli . long standing agi tation over Ita lia Irredenta dragged the country into the Great War . Italy has com mitted herself to a policy Of Mediterraneanism .

Z e e e a of e n Corrado olli , form r subs cr t ry for ig ’ “ f e d A n nu nz io Gior a fairs und r , has , in his Le ” 1 n ate di Fiume ' expressed the current sophism of this imp erialism

rom the rom the a r o r om the a e ha s F Alps , f C s , f Pi v , stepped forth a na tion of inha bita n ts the econ r ea con nen a o er of Eu r o e con s d g t ti t l p w p , stri cted in the long la nd- pier tha t rea ches ou t t ow a r d — the ea st a nd t ow a r d Afr i ca seething with energy tha t will bu r st over its neighbor ing E u r opea n a nd

r ca n con ne for rom Ma r e l e t o u n r om Af i ﬁ s ; f s i l s T is , f

r e t o m r n a r om A e a n r a t o r o no n T i st S y , f l x d i T ip li , thi g

ea r bu t the a n u a e of enoa a nd en ce of a r is h d l g g G V i , B i — a nd P a lermo even the dist a nt shor es of the tw o Ameri ca s a re fecu nd a ted with the in telligen t l a bor of o o n a o c a nn o bu t r e on t o the u r pe ple . This ti n t sp d

rr n of r en ooner or a er ou a nd sti i gs its st gth . S l t it sh ld

‘ r a i h or will reg sp its pr oper post n t e w ld .

l Ita ian imperialism, as set forth in Nationalist

1 Page 137 . 216 ROME OR DEATH an d ac Fascist writings , looks forward to the quiring by negotiation or the seizing by war Of e i e th e e all r g ons wher e Italian tongu is spok n . a The cov It lia Irredenta is still a watchword . eted regions include part of Old Savoy with the e city of Nice ; Corsica, controll d by France ; Canton Ticino in Switzerland ; Fiume ; Dalma

the - e of tia ; and British administer d island Malta . e Also , the Fascisti ass rt that Tunis is rightfully e A l Italian, that Italy should have naval bas s in bania and should have her promised share of e to Asia Minor, and that if Constantinopl is fall e e e to any outsid pow r Italy is the rightful h ir . The most impassioned interest of the Fascisti

e e he c nters in the Adriatic . They p erpetuat d t The long controversy over Fiume . Fascisti we e e the e r always oppos d to Tr aty of Rapallo , which gives Fiume its historic status of a corp u s se a ra tu m e B a ross p , and which award d Porto ( the most important portion of the waterfront) u oslavia i to J g . That this stipulation was to g ve legi timate egress to the shipping of Sussak ( a Croat town across from Fium e on the left bank of the Eneo River) could not dull the Fascist remembrance that Sussak had been boomed be fore the w a r by the Hungarians in order to off s he et Italian Irredentism . Nor will t Fascisti

218 ROME OR DEATH

n e Europe but breaking its ﬁ g rs on the Alps . It is the open roa d to the Mediterranean a nd the e fabulous East . Thr e gates open in to this im

: e e e e portant roadway V nic , Tri st , and Fium . TO these ports slide down the railroads of cen

e he e tral Europ and t Balkans , load d with manu fa ctu red e e goods , hid s , tallow, timb r, and meat .

e e e e B fore the war, Tri st , with its marv lous Tau rn

of 1 9 09 e the e e Railway , serv d mast rs , G rmany ’ a n d Austria ; Fiume was the servants entrance h a e e for t e humble d Cro ts and S erbs . V nic was ’ a e e a rom ntic tourists paradis , comm rcially the e l ast important . This division was symbolic of a historical h a e ra cial struggle for t e control of this se . Thr e

e e e e a er : the rac s arly cont nd d for m st y Latins ,

the T eu tOn s the . e e , and Magyars Ev r sinc th a e e e e Rom n Empire , p rhaps b for , northland e i ers have b een crowding down; toward this x t . After the ninth century the Slav tide washe d

e the e e e ov r Julian and Dinaric Alps , and v r sinc

a s e the a e e the h swamp d It lian shor citi s , which in days of Venice were stru n g like a neckla ce of

the ea e . a p earls all along st rn littoral It ly, in

ee e he r a e e e s king to dominat t Ad i tic, is th r for

- e The e following century old pre ce d nt . G rmans e e have b en pushed back . Tri st is in Italian FOREIGN POLICIES 21 9

The e . hands . Magyars no long r count But be e e e are the Slavs have still to m asur d . Th y united in a young state avid to maintain its

e foothold on th Adriatic . The Fascisti maintain that the control of this waterway should be Italian ; they see in the pro longed struggles around its shores a never - en d e e ing r cord Of m nace to Latin civilizations . But they fail to see the dangers inherent in the con

the on e e the trol of Adriatic by rac , the rivalry, ancient reiterated struggles that this will inevi e n e the tably recall to life . Th y ca not appr ciate right of Ju goslavia to a free and unrestricted e outl t upon this waterway . Therefore they are not merely opposed to the Treaty of Rapallo ( and the subsequ ent Protocol Of Santa Margherita ) but consider it a betrayal ’ o f Italy s sacred interests . Said Mussolini in Triest :

The cen tra l committee of the Fa s c ist p a r ty ga ve its u m en on the T rea a a l o n n a c ce j dg t ty Of R p l , ﬁ di g it pt a ble for the ea stern bou nda r ies ; in a c cept a ble for Fi ume ; in su fﬁcien t and t o be Opposed with r ega r d t o

Za r a nd a a a D a lm ti . T he Tr ea ty Of R a pa llo is a n u nha ppy compr omise “ ” a ga in st whi ch the Popolo dir ected ma ny p a ges of

1 F ebru ar 6 1921. y , 220 ROME OR DEATH cr c m A a a a how iti is . n ttempt w a s m de t o expl in

c or ou a a m t o a a o vi t i s It ly c e p r ti cipa te a t R a p ll .

nece a r to reca a the l e tw o of em be It is ss y ll th t A li s , th ing Mediter r a nea n ca nnot look with good gr a ce u on the r e of a t o Me er r a nea n o er hi c p is It ly dit p w , w h expla ins the zea l a nd a ll the more or less cr ooked ma nmu vr es which were u sed t o cr ea te in u pper a nd — lower Ad ria tic the ma r itime en emies of It a ly Greece a nd u o la via a a o n em er n J g s . R p ll is expl a i ed by r em b i g “ ” on a nd hi s so- ca e e er the a o u e a c Wils ll d xp ts , bs l t l k of a a n ro a a n a a r oa the ea re ne It li p p g d b d , d thly ti d ss

er ec e e - a a o ex p f tly xpli ca bl Of the people . R p ll is pla in ed by the Conven tion of Oppressed N a tion s held in

ome in r 1 18 a nd a con en on w a s a re R Ap il, 9 ; th t v ti o en n of th n c a e ore o p i g e u lu ky p g of C a p tt .

On N o em er 12 1 20 w e a a a o for the v b , 9 , p id with R p ll

e ea f a r o o Oc o er 24 1 1 . ou o e d f t t b , 9 7 With t C p tt

er e ou a e een n o c ome B u t in th w ld h v b p a t of R .

r 19 18 w a s crea e — the con en u of all Ap il , , t d with s s s

a a n u c n on n c u n ou r a nd the Na ona It li p bli Opi i , i l di g s ti l ’ — ists the i r repa r a ble ; ther e w a s elev a ted by the Allies

to effec e a nd o en a a n o r or enem e . Be tiv p t ti l r k, u w st i s it known tha t these ! enemies] r eceived even on ou r bou n da ries thei r r el a tive sha r e of the common oo A e the T rea of a a o w a s m o e b ty . ft r ty R p ll it i p ssibl to pla nt the knee o n the brea st of Ju gosla vi a ; this is h u a s a ene a the a a n t e t ru th. Th s it h h pp d th t It li

eo e re a nd m o er e u n ner e b tw o ea r p pl , ti d i p v ish d , v d y y s of u e e n e o a on emor a ze b n r u n o s l ss g ti ti s , d li d y i t ig i g p li

222 ROME OR DEATH

The e the Adriatic qu stion , which , if Fascist a e a e e e a n ew ttitud is maint in d , will l ad in vit bly to a n d disa strous conﬂicts with the Slav popu la

the e of the e M editer tions to ast , is part larg r ran ean e a e the qu stion . It ly d mands Adriatic not merely for strategic reasons but b ecause it is the key to the control of the Me diterranean . And once more this inla nd sea ha s b ecome the ez f the her e e court an o nations , not for j w ls and e for the e a barbaric spl ndor but trad of Indi , th e a he e the s e wh t of t st ppes , cotton of A ia

a n d e the . Minor Eritr a, Oil Of Baku and Mosul The Fa scisti ma inta in that Italy historically and geographically is the natural leader of the M edi

e a e e e . e e a t rr n an p opl s That , at pr s nt , It ly is a modern Andromeda gagged and bound at the e e of her e sea— e a dg this , hom th y, natur lly, as su min t O a e e g he r le Of P ers eus . Fr nc snatch d ’ n e e ee Tunis from u d r Italy s nos (or h l) , and the Fascisti regard Tunis as part of the fa ther a e land . Only Tripoli, a b rr n, unproductive e e a e l e w a s . o e shor , l ft It ly w nt into Trip i l ven y ears a go a t frightful loss to obtain a bit of land which is un likely ever to pay the cost of its tak ing or the cost of its holding no proﬁt but the ” ’ a a e e n me . And It ly s communications v n with Tripoli a re broke n by Ma lta and the he adland of FOREIGN POLICIE S 223

ee e e e the Tunis . Italy f ls h rs lf constrict d in Laocoon coils of French and English imp erial ism . And the Fascisti maintain that their country

a the has prior mor l claim to Asia Minor, to

e e of the a n e h g mony straits d Constantinopl ,

e a e slo than eith r France or Engl nd . But th ir “ gan is The M editerranean to the Mediterranean ’ e D A nnu n z o a e p oples . i in his l t st political volume de clares that the hour has struck for a ll the e e e the w ak and oppr ss d nations , all down e e e Off the trodd n p opl s of the world, to throw

h F a imperia lism of France and Britain . T e s cisti would be only too willing to lead such a

e a crusading revolt . In a liberat d Mediterr nean Italy would have nothing to fear ; she would have a tremendous economic advantage ; she would be free to exercise thos e gentle commercia l re straints on less de velop ed countries which n a tions with imposing ﬂeets and superior resources — m ay ever exercise re strain ts which are now ex ’ ercised by Engla nd an d France at Italy s ex e p nse . This rise of a n ew Italy in the Mediterranean ma e b e du e the a a y v ry possibly , not only to tt in me nt by the n ew Ita lian state of a fresh cultura l e e e e e o u la homog n ity, not m r ly to xpanding p p 224 ROME OR DEATH

o e of e ti n, but to subtl world currents trad which a re e e z The e as yet scarc ly r cogni able . gr at e e o — the e c nt r f world exploitation to day is Ori nt . e e e Europ , though appar ntly doom d to a contin u ou s e e rel s ri s of nationalistic convulsions , a ative paralysis of its e conomic and cultural e f e e e e eco forts will, for d cad s to com , r main om a l n ic l e e . The e y sup rior to the Ori nt Ori nt, e e e f e e e e th r for , O f rs a b tt r commercial ﬁ ld for e the e -su fﬁ ien w xploitation than s lf c t n e world . This will inevitably increa se the importance of e e the Mediterranean . It will in vitably increas the a e o e e import nc f Italy, which will onc mor be come the key country for much of the com e e e e m rce of Europ . Such trade shifts hav r ma de nations . Italy may again be come a h a e e . T e gr at mporium F scisti , in looking to a e the e e e ward Itali n xpansion in M dit rran an , may be obeying a profound law of change on e of the most important commercial shifts o f history . the e e e e ou t In pr c ding chapt r, I point d that F ascism is oppose d to the Lea gue of Nations until such time a s a ll the nations shall be pu t on e e the an equal footing . In g n ral Fascist policy

- - e . e is anti Fr nch and anti English It was , wh n the Wilsonian exploits with regard to the Adri

226 ROME OR DEATH

otia ted er e r ec e of the D emocr a a of g w , p is ly , ts , th t is those most str ongly bou nd t o a n a nti - It a lia n pol i cy . T he beginn ing of the Nittia n degenera cy con sisted in Obs cu r e c on spir a cies with the in tern a ti on a l plu t ocr a cy which ha d fou nd a mea n s of su st a ining a n d ser v ing a pa rt Of the n ew It a li a n ba nking plu t ocr a cy t o the inj u ry Of It aly It w a s a ttempted t o cede t o Amer ica n s the a h

o u e r o - e ec r c mon o o i n the T r en n o nc u s l t hyd l t i p ly ti , i l d in o A e a nd the r o ec w a s n ot o o e g Alt dig , , if p j t f ll w d ou t w a o e e ca u e of th a n - Nitti a n o o , it s s l ly b s e ti pp si

on . I n u a n ce one a r of the a a n lu t oc ti s bst , p t It li p r a c b mea n a nd a en c of N er e en r y , y s g y itti, w giv spi it a nd o b the n er n a on a u ocr a c r e a i i n b dy y i t ti l pl t y , p v l gly h on a n c a c e for t e n u r of a . Wils i , whi h t d i j y It ly T he in ten tion s Of su ch a n u n derha n ded c oa lition a r e r e ea e i n c ffe a w a s v l d the p r ess of L or d N or th li . It ly t o r en ou n ce every idea Of p r edomin a n ce in the Adri a ti c a nd Me er r a n ea n a a r o a n d Sben i co ou be dit . C tt sh ld

n a a a e a a n a . um e hou be r ee a s v l b s s g i st It ly Fi s ld f ,

D a nz a nd a s on a n n o e mo e ig, C st ti pl , with its l s , its

oc a on r a r oa a n d a n n of ce for d ks , its st ti s , il ds , b ki g ﬁ s the expl oita tion a nd the a mbiti on of the i nt ern a tion a l “ ” o E en T r e see T he T me w a s t o plu t cr a cy . v i st ( i s )

a e een ec a r e a r ee or a a n on - a a n h v b d l d f p t, th t is , It li

- or n er n a on a ze a nd An o Amer ca n z e . p t , i t ti li d gl i i d

e e e e r o a ff a r er e er e o er B sid s th s g ss i s , th w th

n u n er a n e a nd n o e er ou p r oj ects o less d h d d l ss s i s , with FOREIGN POLICIES 227' mono o ze commer ce of cerea coa coffee ex p li d ls , l , ,

c a n e et c . h g , At the hea d of ea ch of these mon opolie s w a s pl a ced a ma u n c o f cr o a nd a who ere t o tea s ll b h ws h wks , w s l th a n of th eo e e hide d skin s e p pl .

The general int ernational alinement Of Fas cism is less signiﬁcant than its Adriatic and M ed iterra n ea n e e polici s . Q uit in accordance with

e e a e instinctiv human b h vior , whil the Fascist progra m for the Adriatic and Mediterranean is e e - e e e a e a ll goistic , s lf c nt r d , M chiav llian in the

e ea e worst rang s of that prot n word , in int rna tion al affairs the movement can afford to be quite e The e e the id alistic and lib eral . Fascisti d sir e ee of e a u oslav ia lib rty and fr dom oth r n tions , J g in e and Greece excepte d . Thus speaking of G r 1 many they say

— cou n r u c a s erma n mmen e a or ma r e A t y s h G y i s l b k t , — t r emendou s pr odu ctiv e ma chin e ca n n ot c oll a ps e in the ea r of E u r o e a rea so or er e ou r a h t p , l dy dis d d, with t d g n ow n n rui n the o er cou n r e ou ma k gi g d i its th t i s , with t

r u r o e ing the w orld mor e mis er a ble a nd u pt o n . E p ca nn ot r econ str u c t itself by ma king a des ert in the ’ w h a d er a e of the c on n en . a e n e middl ti t H v t , p h ps , en ou gh with the Ru ssia n de ser t ? T o a void the col

1 Gor olino o . cit . 192 . g , p , p 228 ROME OR DEATH a e of erma n ea n her mea n su ﬂi cient to e l ps G y , l vi g s liv a nd a or t o bu a nd e t o r econ ru c er e a nd l b , y s ll , st t h s lf t o cooper a te with her r es ou r ces in the r econ stru c tion

E u ro e is in the u r eme n ere of the ci l ze Of p , s p i t st vi i d wor ld .

u oslavia e the Thus , where J g is not in qu stion , Fascisti are able to spare part of their e xalted ’ d A nn u n zian rhetoric for the rights of other na tions and the brotherhood of man and to weave a most entrancing veil of glowing words about the e e in vision of int rnational p eace . Th y can voke that international unity Of European

e e e e zz - p opl s as dr am d by Ma ini , Saint Simon ,

o e e Proudhon, Victor Hug , Carlyl , Fouri r , Tom ” ma seo e . e e e e e e , and Lassall But v n h r , v n in

the e of e e e the e . cas G rmany, th r is still j ok r “ ” 1 e f e Si n oretti the e Writ s Al r do g in G rarchia, “ dire cte d at that time by Mussolini : F or us e e e the di er Italians , a b tt rm nt of con tion of G many a nd Of the other defeated nations would be e e e e the good , without , how v r, th ir r gaining e the position they held be for war . It “ should not happen that as a result of the break

of the e e e e e down G rman Empir , a Fr nch b g m ony be created that would be dangerous to

1 an a 1923 J u ry, .

CHAPTER XV

VERSUS T H E LIBERAL STATE

AVOUR founded the Liberal party in “ ” Savoy a t a time when the word liberal “ ” e e he ffe e . e was stu d with spiritual m at I b li v , e e a e e ee a e so xplain d , th t th r has b n raised a b rri r high that reaction will never succee d in over ” the throwing it . Cavour hoped that party would continue to be the balance - wheel for that n ew Italian state ; that it would offset continental

e the on e e r action , on hand, and , on the oth r, the revolutionary fervor b ehind the Garibaldian Red

zz a e Shirts and the Ma inian Young It ly Soci ty , both of which were Of far less worth for govem

a r i ing a n tion than for captu ng kingdoms . ’ But Cav ou r s own efforts to cre ate a united Italy caus ed him to batter holes in the wall he e the m e ee had rais d . By ti uniﬁcation had b n a e e the e be e e e e chi v d, Lib ral party had com w ak n d by political deceit and trading ; as the govern

e e a on m ntal party, it was oblig d to c rry its work in an atmosphere of smug self- righteous 230 VERSUS THE LIBERAL STATE 231 ness be fogged by the same sort of diplomatic intrigue in which Cavour had excelled every The e Europ ean statesman of his day . Lib ral party soon became the host of a parasitic bu reau h e cra c . e t e y To win its way, wh n Gov rn ment neede d many friends and could not afford h e e e . T e n mi s , it had to buy favor at any cost governmenta l Ofﬁ ces were j ammed with idlers ; the bankrupt tre asury staggered under burdens

- that would have alarmed a long established sta te . The Ita lia n nation and Government were born old e the e o z e e ; lik h ro f a yarn by Fit g rald , th y ee e the n d d to acquire youth . But though Italian

ee n e for nation has b n growing you g r ﬁfty years ,

e e e i e the Gov rnm nt has be n grow ng old r, more

e e f a n efﬁ e . decr pit , mor incapable O y ci nt action Giovanni Papini in his ess a y on Cavour thus characterizes the preliminary period

T he ﬁ r st ﬁfty y ea r s of the history of It a li a n u nity is most dolor ou s a nd oppr obr iou s for a ny sen tien t Ita l i an : defea t by sea a nd l a n d in E u r ope a nd Afr ic a ; de

en en c ou r o c u on r a nce a nd n ow Ger p d y Of p liti s p F , ma ny ; b a n ditry a nd r evolt ; civil w a r a n d diploma ti c hu milia tion ; ﬁn a nc ia l s ca nd a ls a n d p a rlia men ta ry a nd — elec ti on c or r u ption a nd wha t more d oes n ot n eed t o

T he a n e r e ener a on ! o be set down . tith sis Of g ti B ef r e ’ 0 w a s o e w the ea er of a ou r to et 6 it h p d , ith l d ship C v , g 232 ROME OR DEATH

’ ou t of the l t a er 60 the re er r e ﬁ h ; ft ﬁlth g w high , g w — so high tha t Ita ly cou ld ba the c omfor ta bly i n it a s

e ha d n ot een a e to do in oo T o old De th y b bl bl d . pretis the rema rk w a s ma de one da y tha t this ﬁlth h a d

rea c e the e e . And he a c n one n er enea h d y s , pl i g ﬁ g b th “ his o er li c ni ca re e : N on a s fa r a s l w p, y lly pli d O , ly ” er e h .

e e e the In addition to th se inh rit d ills , indus e ee trialists Of Lombardy and Pi dmont , s king to e the e str ngthen their relations with stat , made u se of the great liberal traditions with which the Italian Government had b een founded ; they gained possession of the machinery of the Lib eral h e disin party . As a result t e Lib ral party te h So grated. T e nume rous D emocratic and — cia l- Reform groups gathered strength came to represent the real Italy of the p easant and trades — a to e e man n Italy o ignorant to gov rn its lf, too

e ef e e otis stodgy to troubl about ﬁci ncy, too g tically shrewd to concern itself about the bureau

e e of e o- e e e a e cratic shr wdn ss its ps ud r pr s nt tiv s ,

et e e e the a y , withal . vigorous , l m ntal, in n rrow

ff . a e e e circle Of daily a airs This It ly was n v r abl , e u se of the except partially, to mak historic tradi tions of the Liberal party or the libe ral elements e e that supplant d that party. Lib ralism and the libe ral state have been increasingly dominated by

234 ROME OR DEATH

This top - heavy pa ternalism all but collapsed during the w ar ; it effectively demonstrated its t n e incapaci y for ru ning any vast und rtaking . ’ If the true history of Italy s w a r - time partic i ation e e e w l a as the p is v r writt n, it i l st nd most da mning indictment Of odious governmental c-ra ssness an d inefﬁciency in the countri es that

he e . The m en t e e e e participat d in tr nch s , dr ss d

a nd e m e fed in shoddy in pap r shoes , i prop rly and e e e provid d for, oft n holding riﬂ s that would not w a s e e shoot, using ammunition that fr qu ntly

e a n d e n e the worthl ss dangerous , kn w this , k w superﬁcial fa cts of a conscription system vitiated by favoritism a n d bribery . e e ha s ee i e And this Gov rnm nt , as b n po nt d out , proved itself e qually incapable of dealing with th a - e men cing problems of the post war . The decrepit bureaucracy handed over governmental privileges to every gra fter and every parasitica l

. e e e e the claimant Tru , if it b fri nd d Lombard industrialists and the Genoese shipping interests on the on e ze a hand, it subsidi d Soci list coop era tives - on the e and labor unions oth r , both in a e e n equally pernicious fashion . It tri d to cat r a a A n et e it to every f ction l party . d y it prov d T he w is self quite una ble to maintain order . ’ dom of Giolitti s re straint at the time Of the VERSUS THE LIBERAL STATE 235

e z e he e factory s i ur s is history, but had no oth r

- e e . H e a e e e alt rnativ , a mild m nn r d , tol rant , clever man with more vision than the ordinary

w a s e e e e the bu politician , h lpl ssly enm sh d by reau cra c e e e e y which for tw nty y ars h , mor than e e any other individual in Italy, was r sponsibl for creating.

ee rev olu tion w ere e e The s ds of , scatt r d abroad in class - ruled Europ e and Italy long before the

the - w ar ef e war . But war, and post in ﬁci ncy and

e e e fed the e . e e e uns ttl m nt , flam s All int llig nc a nd capacity for dealing with the abnorma l situation s eemed to have evaporated . Factions The e e e e . multipli d, form d , and r form d post war Chamber of D eputies became a j arring den of e f e e e anta bitt r cliques . Giolitti shu fl d th s g onistic elements like a crafty gambler with a spu riou o the e e ea of s deck f cards . But t rribl ord l the years from to 1 9 20 swept the chamber ’ ou t Of the orbit of Giolitti s control ; the various e e e too e kalei groups b cam too bitt r , s lfish , too dosco ic b e e The a e p to e gov rn d . typic l s lf ee e e on e e the s k rs hurri d into camp and out , lik de ad leaves of a lost season rustling b efore the growing wind of unrest whipping u p from the n e e distracted country . Their o frantic d sire was o h e e to be n t e winning sid . Coalition Gov rn 236 ROME OR DEATH

e th e m nt trod on e heels of coalition Governm nt . A strong man coul d not rule such a neurasthenic e ass mblage . Weak men ﬁlled the breach by c e e T he n making onc ssions to ev rybody. cou try

e ini e e e be was rul d by capricious m st rial d cr es , cause no minister remained in ofﬁ ce long enough to force the necessary legislation through ; and the Chamber w a s too disorganized to give its

e e e e The att ntion to constructiv m asur s . Fas cisti blamed the situation on the proportional

e . a ccordin to D on z e e of syst m But g Stur o , l ad r the -e Popular party, Italy had had sixty ight ’ f e e e in e e - l h di f r nt cabin ts s v nty two years . q -w a r lm post situation was but a cu ination , an a ggrava tion of half a century of failure in rep ese a e e r nt tiv e government . Und r any syst m the bitter differences of the post -war would have

a e e nm e a sh k n gov r nt l stability . If re volution and the breakdown of represent e e nm e one e of i e ativ gov r nt was asp ct civ l lif , The Fascist violence was a challenge . bureau cra cy sought to cater to the Fascisti as it had e the cat r ed to the Socialists b efore the m . But

e e be e e e Fascisti r fus d to brib d , r fus d to collab e e e the he Old ur e orat , ith r with Socialists or t b au crat e a e e e s . Th y h v be n consistently oppos d to governm ental favoritism and partizan patronage

238 ROME OR DEATH

Fascism found in the existing Govermnent its e antith sis . It saw in ofﬁ cial and political Italy “ u nre entent o e an p coalition f obstinat formalists , e e e e e routin plodd rs , of cowardly bourg oisi , cow r e e l e e ing b hind th ir privi ges , their positions , th ir traditional bulwarks of lies and ﬁnancial chican ” cr y . In his F a smsmo nella Vita Italiana Pietro Gorgolin o sta tes the Fascist revolt against the old bureaucracy in this fashion :

Pa rlia men t is composed of inept men who ha ve n o en ene t o the u r r n me the r m of s sitiv ss h yi g ti s , hyth which is so diﬁi cu lt a nd the velocity of which is so mu ch

rea er a n e ore men in r e who a e dem~ g t th b f ; , b i f, h v onstr a ted thems elve s a bs olu tely u nequ a l t o the t a sks

h c he w i h the n a ti ona l will ha s a ssigned them. T di recting cl a ss es mu st give a n a ccou nt t o- da y Of their m ee a nd the ma or of the a a n a e a ou isd ds , j ity It li s h v th s a nd a nd one r ea s on s for being qu ite c ru el i n their j u dgmen t a nd br inging t o a c on clu si on the gener a l r e v olt of the n a tion a ga in st the oliga r chic r u ler s of the

a e st t . Fa s cism h a s dr a wn u p tou t cou r t a ga inst the cla ss whi ch is n ot only the politic a l pr opr ietor bu t a ls o the econ om c r o r e or f a a nd ee ere or e to i p p i t o It ly , s ks , th f ,

r e . T he a e tea r a wa y its politica l p ivileg s st t , VERSUS THE LIBERAL STATE 239

u r ermor e e a id to a nd rece e a id rom the f th , giv s iv s f

r a T he ron e bou rgeois liber a lism a nd conse v tism. st g st bou rgeois i nterests intr ench themselves in the economic a c a e er e a r e nu mer ou a nd tivity of the st t . Th s visible threa ds of conta c t a nd r ecipr oca l a id be tween

a the doml na ting st a te a nd the b ou rgeoisie . It w a s new oc a c a a c w a s orn in the r o ec n s i l l ss , th t whi h b p t ti g sha dow of the t ri color a t the time when It a ly wa s crea e b the or of ma r r r o e a nd t d y w k ty s , p ph ts ,

eroe a nd enea the a u ce of a a nner h s ; b th spi s th t b , bit b hit h a s a n e e ha s a en r on r oo be y , it pl t d its lf, t k st g t , — come fo rmid a ble a n ew e con omi c str a tu m tha t h a s ma de itself the pivo t of ou r en tir e s ociety ; w e spea k of the liber a l bou r geoisie Aga i nst the bou rgeois a nd con s erv a tive sta te tha t ha s c r ea e the mono o e a nd the c a a ea t d p li s pit list w lth, Fa s cism r ises compa ctly a n d b a ttles for the t r a n s orma on n ow n r ec nc a n d en ea ow n f ti , withi its p i ts b th its ae of the a e or a n m i n o r er t o the a e gis , st t g is , d ﬁll st t a a n n u r ou o u a r n e en c on g i with i d st i s , p p l , i t llig t

en . T he a e a c u a ecre e or c a nd er t t st t , t lly d pit , pl th i , st ile r om a oo - u c n u n n e en u rea u cr a c f bl d s ki g , i t llig t b y , is

u r e e h e c en th s ﬁll d by t e s u p r i or F a s ist st r gth .

of ear With the new virility Fascism , as with

e a e the e e iolittian lier prol tari n r volt , s d ntary G b ra e e the e e e the n ~ ureauc cy had n ith r int llig nc , i i 240 ROME OR DEATH tiative th e Wh e the e e . , nor courag to cop n mora l ba nkruptcy of the Socialist party w a s once

e the a a e few e pat nt ( F scisti h v had morals to los ) , a e e e F scism , it was vid nt , could no long r be

a e e e a n d a st y d , d spit its amorphous illogic l char e s e the act r , from its victoriou progr ss toward the capture of state .

CHAPTER XVI

THE BREA! ER OF BALLOT-BO! ES

UT of the ﬂux Of Fascism and the post -war

e e e e e has m rg d a mast rful, driving p rsonal e e ity . Benito Mussolini has attained his min nt position because of the volatile a dapta bility of e ni e e his thought , coupl d with his Calvi stic d t r

a e e . min tion , his Cromw llian goism In a move ment which was so ﬂuid as to ba fﬁe analysis for f e e e e ully two y ars , this nerg tic, rath r dogmatic, yet imaginative le ader be came increasingly, as e e on - tim w nt , a rallying point about which the

e e . motional, popular tid might swirl

Mu o n a or o f ou r er ss li i , S vi lib ty , We F a s cisti swea r t o y ou

h h e ern a e t T e hig est t l ﬁd li y .

So runs the chorus of the Fascist hymn to ” e h B nito Mussolini . T e savior has yet to cel ebrate e H e the e his forti th birthday . is young st

e e e man to h ad an Italian cabinet, tw nty y ars 243 244 ROME OR DEATH

’ younger than d A nn un ziO and forty years u yo nger. than Giolitti . I ﬁrst saw Mussolini in Bologna at the time when the struggle b etween the Socialist land le agues and agrarian Fascism was rising to its

i n of e e e the culm nati g point bitt rn ss , wh n ﬁrst cor ora on e e p zi i were springi ng into exist nc . In the e u e he d e e ﬁ v e T atro Comm nal , ad r ss d about

a f ee e i e thousand F scisti , a ﬁrming a d p s nt m nt for every right of labor that should prove con ” sonant with national needs . e e e e e e He spok xt mporan ously, with xplosiv e e H e e n ot e e e n rgy . do s ﬂatt r his audi nc but

e a e e e e e e . tr ats it ggr ssiv ly, at tim s v n abusiv ly H e le aps to his conclusions more intuitively than mi e e e logi cally. His nd swe ps from id a to id a e e e e Oft n fast r than his audi nc can follow, and he

i e e e w ns his h ar rs, not by his main conc ptions , but by the fe licitous and clever phrasing of distinct

e e- e a e e and appar ntly littl corr l t d points , Oft n by H e the o a e e e . quick, sinuous turning f s nt nc e few a e has absorb d a philosophic t gs from Sor l , h n z the ea Proud on, Spi o a, and Italian id lists , which he has the knack of expressing in the form e e e e a Of dilute, disconn cted, and swe ping g n r li — zations frequently with a rather poetic origina l ’ H e of e e ity . has something a po t s lov for lan

246 ROME OR DEATH pression but the in deﬁ nable smoldering haziness that on e may Obs erve in the eyes of a p erson who has enj oyed some n ew and delicious emotional e e e e an d e xp ri nc is still slightly intoxicat d, as e though he w ere always a bit drun k with lif . T he day after his arrival in Rome following his ’ ’ cou d eta t for ou t p , I waited him to come Of the e the Lu dovisi e Hot l Savoy, up in quart rs of

e e ha d - be Rome . A rath r amusing cer mony to e The gone through to get him to his automobil . hote l entrance was guarded by Fascisti in their e e black shirts , with whit gl aming skull and cross

m e a e bones and black hel ts . First came lack y a e e the run e e in with lugg g , th n, on , anoth r lack y e e h o the ne plain cloth s to op n t e door f machi . This s econd lackey so re s embled Mussolini that not a few of the group about the entrance b egan e to cheer . I do not know wheth r the resem a e e e e e bl nc was quit accid ntal or wh th r , during

e e a e Of the e thos arly d ys , a r plica r al Mussolini ’ went ahead to receive any chance assassin s bul e — - - l ts a sort of twentieth century poison taster .

The e e e w as e r al Mussolini , how v r, announc d by the of r e e e e blowing a shrill t ump t , r s mbling mor than anything else the tin horns used by the street - car employees at the trafﬁ c crossings in e Rom . BREAKER OF BALLOT -BOXES 247

“ ” The e of ee new duk Italy walks with a qu r, l ff e e e e e ﬂat a most a ect d tr ad , a slow, d lib rat ,

e of e e k . foot d walk, a sort rel ntl ss stal ing This

e him e - e he giv s a h avy set app arance, although is f e e in reality o average build . This sam impr s sion of stockiness is imparted by the slow strong movement Of his shoulders and the crouching for

- of e e . ward thrust his larg , s mi bald skull As he stepped from the hotel entrance on that

he ee e e e a n e e n ew day, s m d to have gath r d ntir ly e Of ow n pois , a certain consciousness both his importance and the gravity of his responsibility . But as he met tw o friends at his automobile this vanished ; for a s econd he was the Mussolini of

- u t e e quick , good natured , b imp rious fri ndship , and the dynamic quality of his personality ﬂashed forth . I had never noticed b efore how brown he or e e the was how larg his mouth , how s nsuous lips . His nose is bold an d aquiline ; there is a e c rtain massiveness to his features .

H e w a s born in the small village of Preda ppio of e e in a fold the Apennin s n a r Forli . A slight climb to a near - by ridge disclose s the wide plain e e he r that str tch s away to t Ad iatic , with its not

e e e the Of distant ports Of Rav nna , wh r is tomb e i e e e Dant , and R mini , fam d for its l g nd Of 248 ROME OR DEATH

e a Paola and Francesca . H e b g n his career as a

e e e e e e t ach r in an l m ntary school, but , b coming

e i e e e e imbu d with social stic doctrin s , int r st d him

e n a e s lf i politics . He ran as a c ndidat for a local ofﬁce against a man of relative wealth and a inﬂuence but uns crupulous talents . Just wh t measur es his opponent resorted to have not come i e the to l ght, but Mussolini , convinc d of unfair ne of the e e e a e the ss l ction , imp tuously sm sh d

- ballot box .

The e e tem act is typical of his hasty, d cisiv

era men 'H e th - the p t . brok e e ballot box at outset of his career ; and he ha s broken the

- ballot boxes Of all Italy by his dictatorship . the e e he On arli r occasion, was found guilty in a local court and went in to voluntary exile z w e he e the in Swit erland , h re struggl d against e e e most bitt r pov rty, for a tim working as a

the e a . bricklayer . ( On s cond occ sion ) ! e he me M an eotto e w ho Th n t Giacomo S rrati , is still the leader Of the in transigent wing of the Italian Socialist party and on e of the shining lights of the Third Interna tiona l ; a n d with a small group of radicals they continued their propaganda . Mussolini soon proved too obstrep erous for the e e e H lvetian Governm nt, which pronounc d

BREAKER OF BALLOT -BOXES 249

e e him an anarchist and an undesirabl gu st . e e Singularly nough , only his acc ssion to power removed the legal bar against his reenter ze e e e ing Swit rland . H n xt wander d through a e e e e e Fr nc , th n locat d for a tim in the Tr ntino , “ ” where he edited the A venite and later man “ ” e the e the e ag d Popolo , dited by famous irr

e e . e d ntist C sare Battisti He also , at that tim , wrote a book which showed his ﬁrst tendency to liberate himself from hard and fast doctrinaire e e w a s f e to b li fs , but which su ﬁci ntly orthodox gi ' e him a wide reputation among the Social i t s s .

e he e e R turning to Italy, att nd d the Socialist e e he conv ntion at Ancona, wher engaged in a e e B issolati n d bat with Signor , that hero Of Italia h e Of e e e e t e r . Irr d ntism , ov r qu stion fr emason y ’ e e e Mussolini s attitud , that r ligious qu stions lay

e he e e for outsid t sph r of a political party, won

at the a e f - ﬁ ve the of him, g o twenty , editorship th ” e Avanti . His writings at that time show a passion for e a e e e e dir ct ction , an int ns appr ciation for nds — rather than me ans an a ttitude which has never e e e th e a e e e d s rt d him . H e is e typ th t b li v s in on e at cutting Gordian knots at blow, with no

e at r e . e t mpt un av ling In fact , he hims lf calls 2 50 B OhIE OB DE AT H

I n 19 14 111a oppose d the anti -w ar sta n d

be inﬂ at ed tha t the be tra yal of the Socialist In ‘ i tern a t onal by th e German par ty ha d obliga ted

252 ROME OR DEATH on behalf of national rather tha n partisan or e e class int r sts . ’ It w a s through his eﬂ orts that the Fascist e ze l a a movem nt was organi d into, a po itic l p rty

i e of e e 1 9 21 e . n the conv ntion Nov mb r , , in Rom ’ At that time d A n nu n ziO predicted the downfa ll o f the e e re re mov m nt , saying that Fascism p sented a youthful spirit Of direct action an d

e e e t be e l achi v m nt, tha it could not succ ssfu ly a compressed into groove s Of parli a mentari nism . e e e the e e s of Ev n arli r than this , following l ction

M a n e the e the y , Mussoli i had sign d truc with Socialists which w a s denounced by the on e hun dred and ﬁfty thousand agra ria n F a scisti . ’ t ssolin i s reply w a s to r esign ; he intimate d that he did not wish to belong to an orga niza tion not instilled with the most thoroughgoing spirit of e h a e u i . T e a e w as discipl n m tt r p tch d p , but the pact was repulsed by a large vote at the sub e e s qu nt Rome convention .

h e e e e e e From t is m om nt, whil n v r compl t ly in th o e l ee abandon g e legal r ut , Musso ini is s n to swing with his party back toward a tactic of a e e ggressive direct action . This t nd ncy was especially pronounced du ring S eptemb er a n d “ ” 9 22 e the a October of 1 , wh n Fascist squ drons BREAKER OF BALLOT-BOXES 253 were rounded ou t and placed upon a min ute ” men basis . In ta ctic he was reverting to his attitude when “ ” he occupied the editoria l chair of the Avanti . H e un reservedly adopte d the theoretical prin ciples of the ﬁrst and most important leade r of the e Nationalist movem nt , Enrico Corradini , who cleverly uses the Socialist formu las to but e h a t e a . r tr ss up cl ims Of Nation lism In Octobe , 19 22 the e o , at Naples conv ntion f the Fascist i e th old party, Mussol ni boldly abandon d e

e e e t n ts of democracy . Th re is little doubt that throughout he has been fully conversant with the e of syndicalist doctrin s violence , direct action, a n d dictatorship .

1 9 12 e e the In , two y ars b fore World War , e e e the Georg s Sor l , cr ator Of syndicalist theory “ e e di the Gior of dir ct action , stat d , accor ng to ” nale di Roma :

r e e Ou r Mu ss olini is not a n ordi na y S oci alist . B eli v me ou see him ome da er a a t the ea of , y will s y , p h ps , h d a a cr e a a on a u n the or the a a n s d b tt li , s l ti g with sw d It li

H e a a n the een en u r a o ﬂa . n a c n g is It li Of ﬁft th t y , c

ti r dot e o .

’ Mussolini s pronoun cements and orders du r 254 ROME OR DEATH ing the three October days during which the fate of Italy w a s be ing decided show a studie d under sta nding of such doctrine s a n d a relentless de termination to exercise a dictatorship by means of the the con stitu Fascist squadrons , should tion a l elements fail to give way before the F a s e cist r volution .

a e of the e Thus , as r sult Socialistic struggl

e e the w a r of e e the w ar e the b for , xil , of its lf, of

- w ar l e e post turmoil, Musso ini has st pp d forth , a

a e a a e a . comm nding, if som what bl t nt , p rson lity H e has carved ou t his life with swift bold

e e e e of the e e strok s . Th r is som thing quick r l nt less passion and braggadocio of B envenuto Ce l

ee lini in him . And to Mussolini might s mingly ’ be a pplied the words of the pop e of Cellini s da y “ spoken to a critic of the sculptor : I must in ou m en e e e e form y , sir, that lik B nv nuto C llini , e e e a re n ot uniqu in th ir prof ssion , bound by ” the laws .

e e e Like C llini , lik Andr w Jackson , Mussolini has ever been rea dy to annihila te his oppone nts

u the e in a bodily, and , d ring tim I was It ly, e H e e fought at least two du ls . us d to ﬁght the m more frequently . ’ Mussolini s weakne ss lie s in his lack of

e iIn u lsiven ess a e phl gm , his p , his uncontroll bl

CHAPTER XVII

GROW I N G TENSION

of 1 9 22 oc HE ﬁrst half August , (when curred the hastily called general strike whi ch w a s to usher in a S ocialist -Popularist D emocratic cabinet) marks a great tur ning point in the Fascist fortun es . That strike a rous ed the Fascisti to exasp erated and de cisive a e e e e n the a e e ction . Th y s rv d notic o l bor l ad rs to call off the strike within forty- eight hour s ; they s eize d the communal governm ents of Milan

Ge a n e n e of and no , plu g d Ancona i to a r ign e e e the of the t rror , and m nac d stability state

i h a - itself. From that t me on t e Bl ck Shirts

e a e thr w aside all prete ns e . Milit nt activities b came more open and di sregardful of cons tituted

h on e ed as authority . T e March Rom loom up e an immin nt physical possibility . On August 1 5 S enator T om a ssia took u p the ee cudgels for Fascism in the S enate . His sp ch i H e a e was a clar ﬁcation and a warning . e d cl r d “ n ot e l be that Fascism is not , was , and n ver wi l 256 GROWING TENSION 257

against the so- called conquest by the pro ” “ e a l tari t . He admitted that socialist propa ganda had b een inevitable ; that Karl Marx did not invent the dogma of the futu re Of the pro ” e a bu t e the e l t riat , insist d that Socialist mov e m nt in Italy was lacking in all patriotism .

he the e e of the Similarly, said , g n ral corruption state w a s being hastene d by the n eo- Guelphism a the Of the Popul r party . But country could not be allowed to p erish at the hands Of thes e “ e ee ee e forc s ; ind d , it has b n sav d again by the of e valor its youth . Fascism he deﬁn d as a e re action against the disintegration of the stat .

the m e da ettimelli On sa y , Signor S in his “ ” e e e Rom pap r, Princip , wrote under the title “A Fascist Coup

T he pa ciﬁca tory du ty of the M ona r chi ca l Ass ocia tion is to pl a ce befor e the It ali a n i ntelli gen ce the su ~ a Ou r a oc a peri or ity o f the mon a r chi ca l ide . ss i

on mor a a nd ma eri a u e c a n be a rea t ti , if lly t lly ph ld , g

e a br idge for the fu si on of the old with the n w st te. B u t if the Old liber a l sta te will n ot know h ow to r eal

ne l be a s a c ize this fu sion its doom is sig d . It wi l si k — n n r om ee ene who a ou a n a t ma , dyi g f f bl ss lth gh h vi g — his side the choi cest a n d most a bu nda n t food no

e l onge r ha s the for ce t o ma sti c a te a nd dig st it . “ ’ ” a ou d eta t c wou Ther eu pon the F s cist c p , whi h ld 258 ROME OR DEATH cer a nl be r e ec u of the mon a r c o vi t i y sp tf l hy, w uld ine t a en u e bly s .

the e e Cicotti About sam tim , Signor , a prom inent e the f e journalist , in vi w of di ﬁculty of s

e e e the e curing a stabl cabin t, propos d stablish ment of a tempora ry dictatorship on ancient

i e a e Roman l n s , a propos l which arous d pro

e e the e a e long d controv rsy in press . Dir ctly ft r

26 a ward , on August , Mussolini at a F scist con v en tion in L evanto decla re d that Fascism in

e e a : tend d to gov rn Italy, s ying

m n a o r m e r r o r a m e e a of me r a . ou Th y d d p g W ll , p g

w n en o o er n a the o ern is simple : e i t d t g v It ly . If G v men oe n ot a e o e a n not m e e u s t d s h v s il d h ds , it will i p d b c o n the e a oor o herw e en the oc n y l si g l g l d s ; t is , wh t si s ou n ds the Fa s cisti will r is e a s on e ma n for the u lti ma a h ff c ome e n d ec e a e o e e e e oa . t d isiv b ttl , w s tiv g l is R

B u t n ot ome the a n c en c n a r r o R , i t ity , with its w

r ee its cu r o e : w e e r e t o occu the m n st ts , i siti s d si py i is r e w e ea of ome the ca a of the n a on t i s ; sp k R , pit l ti , which shou ld become the lighthou s e Of the Mediter r a n ea n c ou be uide b u s t o the a n u a r of , whi h sh ld g d y v g d the civilized n a ti on s for the g rea tness a n d the pr osper

f u o e it of a for the ea ce o E r . y It ly , p p

The Fascist activities were everywhere

ee e e a e e e e sp d d up . Oth r loc l conv ntions w r h ld ,

260 ROME OR DEATH

. The signing Fascisti again invaded Acona , Where seventeen bu i ldings were devastated by

ﬁ re or a n e e n e bombs , d a lawl ss t rror maintai d

a e e e 6 he e e e f for d ys . On S pt mb r t l ct d o ﬁcials of the province of Novara and of all the com e i e the mun s were obl g d to resign . Toward middle of the month in Monterotondo the a d min istrators of the Agrarian University and of — the commune were forced ou t the only re h maining lega ll y elected ofﬁcials of t e province .

the e ee e e e e e On ight nth , aft r r p at d d mands that the municipal ofﬁcials of Al assio (near Savona ) h e n the e t e . r sig , Fascisti occupi d city hall On the twenty- sixth all the Fascisti of Tusca ny were ze e e mobili d by Marquis Dino P rron Compagni , e the di e e of the e command r of strict , b caus arr st of the e e e Fascist s cr tary of P scia .

the z All through La io , Socialist and Catholic communal ofﬁcials were driven from their ofﬁces

a n e . e 4 tw o e d th ir homes On Octob r , hundr d Fascisti arme d with riﬂes and castor - oil de

e e di e e sc nd d upon Rocca Papa, a Catholic c nt r, where they occupied the municipal offices and de man ded the resignation of the Popular offici als within twenty- four hou rs but were finally driven o h 1 the ff by t e Royal Guards . On Octob er 8 Fascisti invaded Viterbo and destroyed the rail GROWING TENSION 261

’ way workers coope rative and the Casa del P o

e e a r few of the m r polo . Th s e but a many si ila occurrences which took place from August u p to the time of the Fascist cou p at the end of e Octob r . The Fascisti were building up their organize d “ e the on e e e e str ngth . On hand , th y w r purg ” ing the party of un desirable or equivocal ele e e e the m nts , as at Parma, wh r Fascio , long k for a a e e e w a s e nown its r dic l t nd nci s , dissolv d n ew e a z e e On and a pick d org ni ation cr at d .

e e e 1 e e the a e e S pt mb r , C sar Rossi , politic l s cr n e the the tary, an ounc d formation of Corpo di “ ” Polizia Fascista in Mila n to purify the Fa scist

nk e i n a ll - e e e e e ra s by l minati g half h art d l m nts , “ announcing : the Milan Fascio intends rigor ou sl e he of e e y to prot ct t dignity all its m mb rs , who are sometimes compromised by acts of rea l banditry performe d by suspected criminal ou t casts on the margin of ou r v igorous bold militia .

the e e w a s On oth r hand , particular att ntion given to incre asing the membership of the cor

' orazio Th e e of th e e e p m. e d f at e g n ral strik of August ha d cause d a hurried shift of hundreds a e h of labor syndic t s into t e Fascist ranks . On S eptember 3 was held the ﬁrst national congress of e e e all e e marin work rs . Abov , sp cial att ntion 262 ROME OR DEATH w a s given to rounding out the F a scist memb er

in e a the e zz ship south rn It ly , M ogiorno . On

e e e a e w a s e e the S pt mb r 7, Congr ss h ld und r a uspices of the Nationa l Fa scist party to con sider the pressing problems of the south an d the

a . w a s e a n e a e isl nds It th n n ounc d th t , in spit of the ea rlier hostility to Fascism in these re

e e e e e gions , th r now xist d about four hundr d ” l a e e a e oc l bands . A g n r l plan for furth ring a za a e ou t a nd a e org ni tion was m pp d , compr hen sive scheme of ﬁn a ncia l a n d e conomic re form

a a procl imed . P articul r empha sis was la id upon

' the sgretola men to dei feu dz which were created merely to s erve priva te intere sts and pe rnicious ”

e . The n the pow r Fascisti should , o contrary,

ea u the e a e a e through thus br king p f ud l st t s , “ create in a ll the province s of the Mezzogiorno a producin g an d la boring bourgeoisie similar to ” a a a th t in northern and centr l It ly .

e n e the e a b e B gin ing with Octob r, r l tions tween Fascism a n d the Government became

e a e e 3 i de mor str in d . On Octob r , Mussolin ma n ded Fa scist control of the cabinet or r e vision of the electoral law and the prompt e e subsequent ca llin g of n ew elections . Pr mi r Facta half a greed to arrange for the holding of

264 ROME OR DEATH la w the new a em oul be e ec e the r o , ss bly sh d l t d with p

o o a p rti n l system.

~H e went on to say that if the Chamber should be reop ened and should attempt some n ew po “ litical a the a o l e e combin tion, F scisti w u d d s rt the assemblage and convoke the pe ople in the piazz a s ! convocherebbero il p opolo in piazza ] “ ’ ” On October 14 in the Popolo d I talia Mus soli ni openly attacked Genera l B a doglio of the War D epa rtment in an editorial entitle d Army and Fascism”

At a r eu ni on held in Rome between a nu mber of

ou eo e — ou r eo of ou rn a m bou r eo e o f b rg isi b g isie j lis , g isi

na n ce ou r eo e of o i c o e ou r eo e in ﬁ , b g isi p l ti s ; th s b g isi ,

or who a e ma n r ea on t o a e a c m eca u e sh t , h v y s s h t F s is b s Fa s cism pr opos es t o elimin a te them a nd will elimin a te

’ — Gen them w a s a lso in a ttend a n ce Gen er a l B a dogli o . “ er a l B a dogli o expr ess ed hims elf in thi s fa shi on : At ” the r ﬁre a ll of a c m c o a e . ﬁ st , F s is will ll p s

o o o m e f lrea the F a s Gener a l B a d gli o f ls hi s l . A dy

r on a rza n a ou r een e cisti have been ﬁ ed u p . At S f t f ll ; — a t Mo ena e . T o da in the z one of a rz a n a d , ight y S “ ” Fa s cism is so str ongly en squ a dr oned tha t it dispose s of r egu l a r c a v a l ry u n its ! phot ogr a phs wer e shown on the s a me p a ge] We believe tha t the tu rbid pr o pos al of Gener a l B a doglio will never ha ve a ny real iza

The n a on a a rm l not o a a n the a rm tion . ti l y wi l g g i st y

266 ROME OR DEATH

2 . S ettle by the common a ccord of the federal executive organs of the two organizations every e quivocal ha ppening or divergence of ideas which might enda nger the lib erty of propaganda the of the e e and discipline two mov m nts . ’ 3 . Refuse to accept from e ach other s ra nks those expelled for unworthine ss a n d to discuss a micably b etween the two parties the accept ance of members previously exp elled for minor e e infring m nts .

ea e se the a e for the e e M nwhil , Facta t d t r op n a e e 28 e e ing of P rliam nt on Octob r , and onc mor excited efforts were made to form a compromise e a a the e e cabin t . V rious n mes for pr mi rship

e e e e : de w r sugg st d Orlando , Nicola , Giolitti ,

a . The e e e e Salandr Fascisti , how v r, r fus d to modify their ultimatum demanding full control o the e e the e e he f Gov rnm nt . Again r op ning of t

a e w a e e e Ch mb r s postpon d , till Nov mb r 7 .

the A howl went up from Fascist camp , but the e e e Gov rnm nt continued to procrastinat , to

e f e e f e F a s sugg st di ﬁculti s , to intrigu , to o f r the The e e cisti minor positions . Fascisti r main d

e e e e e a . stubborn . Th ir t mp r gr w mor t ut Gov ernm ent and Fascisti had re ached a granite walled impasse . CHAPTER XVIII

TH E M ILITARY H IE RARCH Y

on e e be 1 1 9 22 w a s T Torre P ellice S pt m r 7 , , signed by the F a scist pa rty e xecutive com mittee an d the gene ral command the document which perfected the military organiza tion of the

B - e u b lack Shirt squadrons . This docum nt , p “ ” lished for e 8 in La Patria Octob r , was known “ as the Disciplinary Regulations for the Fascist

Militia . The candida te for the Fascist militia is r e quire d to swea r that

I n the n a me of God a n d a in the n a me of a ll It ly , thos e who ha ve fa llen in b a ttle for the gr ea tne ss of the

a t ri a ea r to con ecr a e m e e c u e a n d p , I sw s t ys lf x l siv ly ’ u ncea n fo a oo si gly r It ly s g d .

The Fascist military un iform symbolize s the process of infusing a n ew ma sculine vigor into the country and the laying of the foundations for a strongly efﬁcient hierarchy to which the 267 268 ROME OR DEATH party will eventually intrust the destinies of the ” nation . The Fascist militia is required to serve Italy

in purity, with a spirit imbued with deep mys ” “ ” ticism the e k ; Fascist soldi r nows only duty,

e e f e or e and , wh th r o ﬁc r private , is r quired to “ ” e m ob y with humility and com and with force . “ e e be e e Ob dienc is to blind , absolute , and r sp ct ” . The e o n ful Fascist soldi r has a law of his w , “ ” the of e law honor, as had th knights of old. “ The Fascist militia rej ects those who are im

e w ho are o a re pure , thos unw rthy, and those who ”

. e e e e e traitors A m mb r, how ver ob di nt , is con ” sidered impure who lacks the real spirit of “ the e e ee the ene Fascism, who lacks s ns to m t e the a e e mi s of Italy on b sis of a lif for a lif , an for e e eye an y , a tooth for a tooth , a hand for a f ﬁ re hand , a oot for a foot , a for a ﬁre , a wound for e for e he a wound , or a bruis a bruis ; who has

of a e e an e or any lack f ith whatso v r, y sk pticism, the least hesitation when military action i s under ” a w y . That member is unworthy who resists disci pline or refuses to recognize the hierarchy ; who

e . lacks honor , courag , or a spirit of solidarity “ ” “ That member is a traitor who spreads dis ” “ of the e e e of trust l ad rs , who incites mov ments

270 ROME OR DEATH

H e w ho would build to -day the hierarchy of the Ita ly of to - morrow must possess the temp er e a the of l e he e of a f ud l lord , will a ru r, t p rsonal a e e and e charm and m gn tism of an apostl , a h art

e . e e as gr at as Italy Abov faith , str ngth , a an d a he be a e of p ssion , rms , must mast r sacri ﬁ ce The e e e e e l ad r must t ach by xampl , but “ he has the right and the duty to u se force to e e the ward those b elow him . H must d mand strictest di scipline ; he must not shun r espon sibil

. a e f e ity In c s o any failure to ﬁght, any d liu

e e an emi of the e li qu n y, y r ssion duty, r sponsibi ty “ rests on the lea ders b ecause the whole member ship of Fascism a n d the whol e futur e of Italy ” a re e on he e The e bas d t hi rarchy . hi rarchy is formed from thos e w ho merit promotion a n d those w ho gave proof of sacriﬁces during the Great War a n d the war aga inst the interna l enemy ; the lea ders are chosen and assigned to the Fascist militia by superior ofﬁ cials in accord w e o he t ith the political authoriti s f t par y . All “ ” the lea ders of the militia a re military leaders ; and during action or military demonstrations the civil lea ders h ave no authority . “ The hierarchical scale is as follows : M ilita ry r n e m e e e z e ins ec a k: gen ral com and rs , g n ral on p m e e tors , consuls , cohort com and rs , c ntury com THE MILITARY HIERARCHY 271

e Corr s ondin e e . e mand rs , manipl command rs p g

olit c rank: e e e e p i a l party l ad rs , g n ral political

e e a e e the e e s cr t ry , m mb rs of party x cutive com mittee e - e e e e e e e a dminis , vic g n ral s cr tari s , g n ral ” trative e e e a e e e e . s cr tary, r gion l d l gat s , d puties h of e e e e T e uniform is worthy v ry r sp ct, and

e e e the r eminis its principl f atur is black shirt , cent of the Garibaldian red shirt . The uniform “ ” n ow ha s its ow n glory and its ow n history . Every wearer of the black shirt must ever as “ ” e sume a correct and noble bearing . Abus of “ the n ot e he e uniform is permitt d, and who do s not de fend the uniform and emblems at the cost The of his life is unworthy of wearing them . un iform perp etu ates the traditions of the w a r ” “ ”

e oe e e e . h r s . It must b worn with prid and lov The regulations also provide for the character

e and scope of public demonstrations . No d m on stra tion of the militia can be made without previous a greement b etween the politica l and a e The e milit ry authoriti s . ( clos st bonds are at all times to be maintain e d betwee n the two ele ments . ) In every demonstration the leader is require d to oblige his un derlings to comport themselves so as to cause every citizen to fee l that the Fascist militia is the ﬁrst guard of the “ nation ; and whenever the Black- Shirts appe ar 272 ROME OR DEATH in public they must prove that they are the pur ” est e and the high st patriotic forces in Italy . “ the e e e e dem On oth r hand, ev ry disord r, very on stration of e e or e e e a d magogical natur , in d f ns of e e e e e e privat int r sts , shall be consid r d tr ason be u e e e e e and shall p nish d as such , ith r coll ctiv ly ” or individually. An extensive section is devoted to Rewards who and Emblems of Honor . Fascisti have “ distinguished the mselves by deeds of cou rage ” p erformed in purity shall receive the medal for a e be of F scist courag or promotion , which may e ze e gold , silv r , or bron , and is ti d with a e e v rmilion ribbon having two tricolor bord rs . These meda ls can only be awarded by a maj ority e of the a e the e e vot triumvir t of g n ral command , after the proposal of award shall have been passe d favorably by every grade of subordinate e ofﬁcer . The medal awards will th n be pub lished in the bu lletin of the general command “ and reprinte d in all the orders of the day so a h th t they can be re ad by all t e princes . Pro motions to the head of a squadron or head of a maniple may be made only by legion com mand ers or their superiors . Promotion to cen tury commander may be made by the zone in spe ctors . Promotion to cohort commander or

THE MILITARY HIERARCHY 273 higher rank is always decided by the general e em command . Fascisti wound d in action are

e e e titled to a sp cial wound mbl m, which is a stripe of vermilion braid worn obliquely across the right sleeve of the black shirt . These regulations were signed by Cesare

' Maria de Vecchi, Emilio de Bono , Italo Balbo , e e e the and Mich le Bianchi , who lat r compos d d i ir e on q a r v ate at the tim of the March Rome . CHAP TER XIX

THE NA PLES CONVE N TI ON

T rai ned in Naple s on October 24 when the F a scisti swept into their second annu a l po litical convention in the Sala Madda loni with

e e m e e e a n d e th ir h l ts and can s , th ir tricolors th ir a bl ck banners . Natu re repeats herself ; man e oe zz on imagines h d s not . Wrote Signora Po i the of her a e 1 85 occasion visit to N pl s in 7 , “ e sea Thund r , lightning, storm at , rain and wind contending for ma stery and combining to ex tingu ish the torches Vesuvius vomiting ﬁ re and pouring torrents of red- hot lava down its sides . “ F or Vesuvius substitute Fascist conv en ” the e a e the a tion , and parall l holds , s v that ctual

e e . ruption w a s not y et . V suvius was smoking And a ll Ita ly kne w that it would erupt in some

The e e ma nner sooner or later . t ns days at “ a h e N ples pu t t e emphasis upon soon r . “ e Che a e Fascisti , a Napoli ci piov . ci st t a ? ” “ fa e e . r Fascisti , it rains at Napl s What is 274

276 ROME OR DEATH

n ew u Italy, the nation the Italy, the fo rth e in e e Rom Italy supreme the Medit rran an .

The Naples convention was not so much a con v entio l za n n as a mobi i tion . Followi g the pub lica tion of the Fascist mil itia regul ations in S ep e e e i e e w a s e t mb r , an incr as ng f rm nt obs rvable in a the F scist camp . Vigorous attempts were made to round ou t the Fascist militia uni ts in all

he e e he . parts of t country, sp cially in t south A rapp rochemen t w a s made with the Blue - Shirt

a e e . Nation lists , the militant S mpr Pronti In “ accordance with Ar ticles 36 and 3 7 of the R eg ” u lation s the e of the for Disciplin Fascist Militia , w a s e e e z e the e e e Italy divid d into tw lv on s , l v nth

e e ni a e and tw lfth b ing Sicily and Sardi , ach of which was put under a zone comma nder of a e e known milit ry promin ence . Calls w r sent out for ex-soldiers ; special appea ls were made for voluntee rs for deﬁcient branches of the “ ” e e service . I rem mb r reading in La Patria he e o an appeal for cooks . T Fascisti wer not g e ing to be without their broth whatever cam . A e Re d s supply departm nt was built u p . Cros

e e e e e . r ze brigad s w r cr at d Caval y was organi d, the platoons of Puglia and Certaldo being par l e ticu arly celebrat d .

278 ROME OR DEATH tween the Sienes e a nd Flor en tine r egion s rea dy for a ny e en u a v t lity .

Thus was built up during the month a military

e he e stat within the state . But t gr at na tiona l e e the e o e a e r vi w of Fascist forc s t ok plac at N pl s . On the morning of the twenty- fourth Mussolini a ddresse d the convention in the j a mmed thea ter of San Carlo . The interior w a s draped with bold eighteenth - ce ntury liberty banners and the yellow and red communal emblems reminiscent o f the rule of the kings of Aragon and C a stile

the the a a e and tricolors and black F scist b nn rs , a mélange of show a n d enthusiasm ; and in the afternoon the Fascist princes and triari ﬁled

th z through e driz ling city . At the head of the column rode the Fascist

e e e e e cavalry four abr ast , uniform d and h lm t d ; e e e e e the e a a l th s w r follow d by bicycl squ drons , wa ys of importance in a land wher e few streets and roads can be used by automobiles or motor e e e e e e e cycl s , and wh r t l phone s rvic is good for e e the e e nothing . N xt cam Mussolini , g n ral

a f a n d the - e e the e st f , gold m dalists ; th n l gions , the a e - a the dvanc gu rd , Balilla (Boy Scout)

a n the e triari squ dro s , princ s and the , all in uni

e e e e form , h lm t d , blank ts and rations slung across T H E NAPLE S CONVENTION 279

e e the s n di th eir backs . The m mb rs of labor y cates which followed s eemed quite ou t of place in e this otherwise militaristic display . Far mor in ee h ni c k ping were t e trucks and the sa tary orps , which closed the procession . The very brevity of the conve ntion prop er

e e th e - fi fth had a sinist r compl xion . On e tw nty The con three sessions were hurriedly held . — elusions were in sign ifi cant the intensification of the orga nization work in the Mezzogiorno and

e The Sicily and the p erfection of the disciplin . real labor of the convention was done s ecretly the e ee The e by e xecu tiv committ . mann r in which the delegates hurrie d away to their v a riou s home localities indicated that a deﬁnite de cision had b een re ached for prompt and ene r getic action to remove the impasse betwee n the

a n the e e Fascisti d Gov rnm nt . The real signiﬁca nce of the convention is to be found in the spee ch of Mussolini in the T ea ee he e e tro San Carlo , a sp ch which d clar d was

e e a ee e addr ss d, not to his own F scisti , who n d d no

e e e the e e couns l, but to thos outsid mov m nt, and “ a he e e e e particul rly to t Gov rnm nt . W hav “ e a e he e e e e com to N pl s , d clar d , from v ry part

y e e of e a n d e of Ital to p rform a rit frat rnity lov . ’ W e are here with the brothers of the be trayed 280 ROME OR DEATH

w ho e e u . Dalmatian shore , int nd n ver to give p H e then described the convention at Rome the e o e et pr vi us y ar, which had m in an atmos

here e e e e p of hostility, harass d by a g n ral strik e e e e the and viol nc , b tray d by political machina

of the H e e e a tions capital . r mark d th t all Italy

the e e e the was watching pr s nt conv ntion , that post - war held no such interesting and remark e e able and powerful d velopm nt as Fascism, that it seemed presu mptuous to ela borat e what he had e e e alr ady said in other address s , but that in vi w of the extraordinarily grave situation in which the e e n e he e e ze mov m nt fou d its lf, int nd d to utili the opportunity to spe ak with the utmost preci “

. w e are the the sion In short , at point at which the bow or the arrow parts from , cord , too tightly

a ‘ e o t he e . u dr wn , is brok n He point d that had “ put before Parliament the dilemma : Legality ? or illegal ity Parliamentary conquest or in surrection ? By wh a t road sha ll Fascism become e ? e e e the e e the stat Wh n I d mand d l ctions ,

e e e e e e e wh n I d mand d th m soon , wh n I d mand d

e e e e w a s e e th m subj ect to l ctoral r form , it vid nt ” e a to all that I had chos n a p th . H e went on to say that this demand was made also by a party organize d in the most formidable

282 ROME OR DEATH to thrust into the liberal state all the force of the new It alian genera tion tha t has issued from the ” the war and victory .

ee e e the e ha As this had not b n achi v d , qu stion d “ e e one of e th en d de b com forc , which in e cides . It is for this re ason w e ha ve united a n d potently organized a n d rigidly disciplined ou r e e e the e e l gions , b caus if struggl must b de

e the e of e e the cid d upon ﬁ ld forc , th n victory

a be . T he a a e e a e sh ll ours It li n p opl . h v the a e the of e a e l right, h v duty lib r ting th ir po it ical and spiritual life from a ll the para sitic in cru sta tions of the past ; they can n o longer peren ni a lly prolong the present sta te of affair s b ecause ” e he e it would murd r t futur . ’ Again he touched upon the eﬂ orts of the ” administrators of Rome to side- tra ck the F a s

the e e a cisti , to pacify mov m nt , to c ll for loyalty

h H e n he e to t e king . agai (as had don at Udine ) w ished to clarify the relations b etween “ k a for e e b a the ing and F scism , th r is no dou t th t unitary regi m e of Italian life solidl y upholds the the a . e Savoyard mon rchy And , on oth r hand ,

the e e of that monarchy , b caus its history and its il n ot t traditions , w l Oppose the new na ional ” force ; n or will it oppose the movement that will “ liberate it from all the superstructure that bur T'HE NAPLE S CONVENTION 283 dens the historic position of this institu tion . a e e ze H e Parli m nt he charact ri d as a toy. rema rke d that Fascism would not deprive the e e of e to e p opl th ir y ; in fact , to att mpt to do so , though only six million out of eleven million e e u t f e e e l ctors had p it into o ﬁc , would rais a gr at hu e h e and cry . But e took a dir ct stand against e e e e de d mocracy . W do not b li ve that after mocra c the e - de y will come sup r democracy . If mocra cy was useful and efﬁ cacious for the na the e ee e be a tion in nin t nth c ntury, it can said th t in the twentieth century there may be some other political form which will more surely strengthen the e e a e coh r nce of our nation l soci ty . o th e e e the Much f e burd n r st d upon army . The greatness of the nation is the complex of

a ll e . its capaciti s , of all its conditions A nation is great when it tra nslates into reality the force of ” h e e e its spirit . T e army expr ss d the r al spirit of Italy . e he e e With r gard to syndicalism, d clar d that Fascism took no stock in the doctrine that the e e e e e mass , in its ntir ty , in its in rtia , could cr at “ anything enduring in history . This mythol o the the e e w e gy, at bottom of socialist lit ratur , e th e the repudiat . But e laboring mass s exist in 284 ROME OR DEATH nation ; they are necessary to the life of the na e e w e tion in peace and in war . Educat th m can and should ; protect them in their just in terests we can and should H e expressed his e desir to end the civil war, to make a pact which “ would ensure lasting pe ace ; w e wish all Italians to adopt the same common denominator which ” e e will r nder possible civil living tog ther . With those who re fuse to accept the Fa scist common denominator of the nation there could be no e e e p ac exc pt by Fascist victory . H e closed his address by stressing the impor see the tance of Italy in the Mediterranean . I

e of e the e e future greatn ss Napl s , tru m tropolis of our Mediterranean (the Mediterranean to the e e e see e e Medit rran an p oples) , and I it tog th r with Bari and with Palermo constituting a e e o e of e e of pot nt triangl f forc , n rgy, capacity ; and I see Fascism uniting and coordinating all ” a this energy beneath its b nners .

Two days later began the March on Rome .

Fa c t fr om S en a Rome Oct o er 30 . s is i i , , b

F a smstl from Ar e o Rome Octo er 3 1 1922 zz , , b . CHAPTER XX“

TH E M ARC H ON ROM E

( Notes fr om my dia ry )

October 28 . O-DAY Premier Facta tendered his resig The ee nation . king, who had b n blissfully swimm ing at Gombo (where Shelley was drow ned ) and getting his name in the papers in ’ glowing accounts for saving a ﬁ sherman s boat

the of the e ha s at —mouth Arno Riv r , hurried to Rome just in time to try to save the Ship of State foundering at the unruly mouth of storm e swoll n events . Signor Facta has been patted upon his pudgy back and told to do his best until the crisis is

e e e ee to av rt d . His b st has b n mass cavalry and

a e - e the zz e m chin gun lorri s in Pia a d lla Pilotta,

ou t e - e e a e e put barb d wir nt ngl m nts , and ﬂing heavy guards at the city gates a n d the bridges h over the Tiber . F or t e March on Rome has “ ” e e or ! slo b gun . Rom Death is the Fascist gan . 286 ROME OR DEATH

What is re ally happ ening ? Even the e m e he a a a e Gov rn nt is in t d rk . The F scisti h v seized the telegra ph lines and the post - ofﬁces ; “ ” the he ganglia of the nation . T army author ities here in Rome ha ve sent bicycle - scouts ped aling furiously over the country roads to ﬁnd ou t

e e the e - e e wh r gr at Black Shirt army is ncamp d ,

e e e e e ea and th s hav p dal d furiously back, sw ting,

e a to r port a hundred exaggerated rumors . L st night there were a few press despa tches telling of z e Fascist mobili ation ; this morning, no pap rs , — no news j ust excite d crowds crammed into the zz pia as . the the e During morning hours , Fascisti post d typ ewritten circulars on the down - town build the l e of the e ings , announcing ful succ ss mov

e z m nt in Tuscany , and calling for mobili ation

h - of t e Rome Black Shirts at midday . n the e of Tusca y is k y to the control Italy . — Not for nothing was Gene ral Dia z how rem — ini scent of Mexican politics is the name in

l e t - F or nce on he night of the twenty s eventh . Tuscany in Fascist hands and the Socialist north h tt an The n is cut off from t e Gioli i south . two e e e R ed are e e e . a mi s of Fascism s v r d Mil n is , and in Milan things might not ha ve gone

e are smoothly . In Rome th re troops and

288 ROME OR DEATH

T he ou r of ec e a e ha e ou r h d isiv b ttl s s ou nd d . F y ea r s a go the n a ti on a l a rmy on this s a me da y l a u nched the rea o fen e a d t o c or T o- da the g t f siv th t le vi t y . y a rmy o f the Bl a ck - Shir ts r ea fﬁ rms the sin ce- mu tila ted

c or a nd r n er ce a t ome r e u rn a vi c vi t y , st iki g ﬁ ly R , t s th t

or t o the or of the a m o o t y gl y C pid gli .

r om od a h r n n r z F t y t e p i ces a d t ia ri a r e mobili ed .

a c m a r a l a w en er n o u or the com F s ist ti l t s i t f ll f ce. At ma n of the du ce the m a r o ca a n d a dm inis d , ilit y , p liti l , t r a tive p ower s of the p a r ty contr ol ha ve been a ssu med by a s ecr et a cting Qu a drivir a te with di ct a tor ia l pow

er s . T he a rm the u r eme a e u a r of the n a on y , s p s f g d ti ,

ou n o a r c a i the ru e a c m r e sh ld t p ti ip te n st ggl . F s is n ews its g rea t a dmir a tion for the A rmy of the Vi ctory

h n u o of Ven ice . Not a ga inst t e a ge ts of the p blic f r ce ma r c e a c m bu t a a n the m e c e a nd deﬁ h s F s is , g i st i b il c en o c a c a c u r n ou r on ea r ha s i t p liti l l ss , whi h d i g f l g y s

n n ot kn own how t o give a gover nmen t t o the n a tio . T he cl a ss es tha t c ompose the b ou rgeoisie know tha t the Fa s cisti i ntend only t o imp os e dis ciplin e u pon the n a tion a nd to a id a ll the for ce s whi ch will a u gmen t

c e a n o a n e - e n h or n e con omi xp si n d w ll b i g . T e w ki g

eo e o e of the e a nd the f ce o e of r a n p pl , th s ﬁ lds O ﬁ s , th s t s

ort a ti on a nd the r o e on a e n o n t o e a r p p f ssi s , h v thi g f

o er e r u r be o a fr om Fa s cist p w . Th i j st ights will l y lly

We sha be ener ou the u n a rme a d gu a r ded . ll g s with d

v er sa ries n e or a e h the o er . a c m r a , i x bl wit th s F s is d ws its sw or d to cu t the t oo nu merou s Gordi a n knots tha t

r a n e i nsna r e a nd bu den It lia lif .

a c t fr om F F s i l or en ce a n d S a n Lor en o Rom e V i a T r t on e s i , , i z , Octo er 3 1 1922 b ,

Bla ck - Shi r ts comi ng i n to Rom e

290 ROME OR DEATH

e ee - persons hav been prohibited, str t car service ee e e e ee has b n stopp d , all motor v hicles hav b n e e e are forbidd n to circulat , all public spectacl s e e ord r d withdrawn .

T he F a scisti l e e e - e , arm d with can s , tabl l gs

e e e e ee from wr ck d labor h adquart rs , burly tr

e ee on the e roots , hav b n coming into town d ad ’ run . At the news of the King s re fusa l tq sign the t e e e e e —e mar ial law d cr e, th y congr gat d xult ant at what they considered their ﬁrst victory e t b fore he roya l palace on the Quirinal . ’ Twelve o clock The hour of mobiliz ation . zz e e n Rain . A steady dri l , quick ni g to a down pour . Not a sign of life . Only rain rain driving against the century - Old walls of ru st e e the ! ica and trav rtin . And th n wind Capricious gusts sweeping through the ga p of the e the a a n d the Tib r , past J niculum Campi r the b e n of the e doglio , ac oss rok n colum s sunk n

Forum .

the zz del Standing in Pia a Popolo , I cannot e e se the ea e e e v n e gr t whit , s micircular monum nt — to Victor Emmanuel II the Altare della Patria th n o h o e me at e e d f t e Cors . Abov in the

P in cio - e e e e ﬁ v e cen , that hill p rch d park wh r tu r ies a go the gr ea te st cardinal of the day came e the e e to driv out vil spirits , the dripping tre s THE MA RCH ON ROME 29 1 lift their branche s fantastically against the gray

- e . rain curtain, dim hobgoblin shap s I take ref uge in the dingy CaffeEuropa opposite the ﬂight o f gray and pink steps leading to the park . I plu mp down on one of its threadbare upholstered

- e wall s ats . “ Que scherzo ! What a farce ! exclaims my “ - e e long nos d n ighbor . This will put the kibosh ” on everything . ou t the I start again , splashing through pud dles toward the street - car tunnel beneath

the the Quirinal . At Via Tritone , I turn toward Piazza Barberini a nd the Fascist headqu ar ters . A few grumpy- eye d youths hang in the en e trance with h avy cudgels and guns .

e . to Things will happ n , I am told Bound

e e happ n . An cona ha s been occupi d . The amm unition works at T erni have been e ze are s i d . Twenty thousand Fascisti campe d ﬁ ve kilometers ou t on the Via Nomen e - tano , with cannons and machin guns . Sixty thousand are coming south from Tus cany .

T he e I splash off . rain and wind shak my

e a e do . umbr ll , my coat lik a g shaking a rug e e Cold damp cr eps u p my l gs . 292 ROME OR DEATH — At the Royal Palace on the .Quirinal noth

n o e e a e ing t v n n xtra guard . The secretary of war slips into the courtyard in an e e e e e normous limousin st ps out l isur ly . e ere the e of D e At Mont citorio, wh Chamb r p u ties ee e - un e e m ts , two oliv gray iforms , as on v ry e e oth r day in the y ar . At the he adquarters of the Supreme Council of Sta te in the old P a lazzo Spada alla Regola in

a e e the e e e a squalid qu rt r n ar Tib r, not v n a a the guard . Just a v cant vista through giant porta ls and the stone courtyard to the rain

h z w e a e e . t e a z fe dr nched g rd ns b yond In Pi a , a smudgy bambini sailing straws between the cob bl estones .

the of e ere the At Ministry the Int rior, wh e e e e r sign d cabin t is in constant s ssion , two full

e of e i e compani s soldi rs, soak ng shiv r ing h a she d into a futuristic polychrome by the lines of the iron grillage of the gate and the falling rain . B u t not a Fascist not

one . ? Where do r evolutions happ en I plow through the ruck back pa st the Piazza della Pi

T h e e e e - lotta . e nin gov rnm nt machin gun lorries e e d e ee with their revolving strip d r , whit , and gr n

e nd w et u tow rs , loom i istinctly in the ; two h ndred

THE MARCH ON ROME 293 white horses hang their heads in the rain ; two e e n the hundr d cavalrym n , gu s in hand , crouch in surrounding doorways .

tH ere e e the e the and th r , in larg r courtyards of — centra l buildings the P a lazzo Venezia the — P a la zzo P amﬁli- Doria I spy other detachments of the cavalry, waiting waiting in rain waiting for the Fascisti waiting for orders from a re signed cabinet minister waiting the e th d cision of e king .

the zz e e z the In Pia a V n ia , in front of long w hite surge of granite steps of the monument — aga inst the side of the Capitol twenty green a e e f e e e bus s , not so v ry di f r nt from thos that cir

e e e ee e culat on Fifth Av nu , have b n stack d up — the e - against ast curbing dismal, rain stained in the vast empty square . I n the e off my room near Great Forum, I tak a e e e a n d a my squ shy sho s , chang my trous rs , st nd on the the e - e balcony, staring at twist d drain pip s on the rear wall of the buildings opposite e staring at the rain, without ev n ambition to investigate that story of twenty thousand Fas citi on the Via Nomentana . e e e a e e the But out th r , I r c ll vagu ly, n ar Mons

e the e e e e e Sac r, s c ding Pl bs had camp d tw nty e e three hundred y ars ago . Ov r that road 294 ROME OR DEATH

the e e ae had passed l gions of conqu ring C sars ,

m e cen co ing to tak Rome , the Eternal City, the of ter the world . How many times ? How many times in a year ? How many times in a ?— century A n d by that road in 1870 the troops of the house of Savoy had come to batter down the u walls at Porta Pia, to fo nd a new na

tion .

e Octob r 29 . Sunday .

a App rently nothing happened last night .

- da the a a s e e e But to y r in h c as d , and V suvius has e — e e e brok n forth tam ly nough , but no l ss por ’ te u l e a s nto s y . Mussolini s ﬁrst cl ar intonation to his purposes ha s appeared in his paper of 1 ” Milan, ] Popolo — T he politic a l a u thor ities s omewha t su rprised a nd — gr ea tly t er riﬁed ha ve n ot been a ble t o c ope with ou r

mo emen eca u e a mo emen of c a r a c er ha s v t , b s v t this h t

o m nd e c be ea e o n T vic n li its a still l ss a n b t n d w . he

o r e nea e e a s a r ea a u or e b the t y d li t s its lf l dy v st , s pp t d y

mo u n an m o en the a on B u t the vi c a l st i ou s c n s t of n ti . t or y ca nnot be mu til a ted by eleven th- hou r com

h o en r p r omises . T e G vernm t mu st be st i ctly

a c F s ist .

a m n ot u it c or bu t oe not F s cis will a b se s vi t y , it d s

296 ROME OR DEATH

Every now an d then a large detachment comes

e a e e the R o quickst pping, rms outstr tch d in old “ man e e E e a salut , crying th ir Roman j a j ” e a a lald e j , ﬂinging th ir song

o a n ezza o a nezza Gi v , gi v ,

r er a e eza P im a v di b ll .

the m - e e z e to ti e stain d walls and the cl ar, a ur sky . A few of thes e a re young women and

— in b a i - they walk with snap l ck sh rt waists , ’ tam - O - shanters - ee e , gray skirts , and low h l d boots .

Passing down the Street of the Four Foun tains b e tween the Via Quirinale an d the Church

a a e a eee of Sant M ria Maggior , I run into m l in

- The a a e i e front of a g u n store . F scisti h v r pp d u p the iron shutters and a re bursting out with — riﬂes l ike black bu mblebees ou t of a shaken

e of a - e m e e n st . A company gr y h l t d sol

e e the e the di rs , riﬂ s at thigh , rac s down hill on the e - e e a - o doubl t ar, th ir n il sh d boots ringing on e n the cobbles . For a mom nt thi gs look

W e the the ugly . crowd into lobby of

T eatro Quattro Fontane dir ectly across . The theater - attendants stand with steel hooks

298 ROME OR DEATH

a e grasp of a Cromwe ll . Wh t ver enlightened e e the n ew e a b n ﬁts régim may bring, It ly can no

e e a . le long r mak th t boast Constitutionalism, li a t u e u e . g y , in Italy has t rn d p its to s From e 3 0 1 9 22 a e a this day, Octob r , , politic l d mocr cy e m ans as little .as it did under the sway of Crom

e I t a e no f e e e w ll . m k s di f r nc that the herd has e the e n e The b nt n ck willingly to the w yoke . e e e e e pr s nt Chamb r of D puti s , with its hurried , e e a f n rvous att st tions o loyalty to Fascism, has as little signiﬁcance ( or as much ) as the Rump ’ P r a ise o e e m e n eces or g d Bar bon s Parlia nt . If ’ a n ew e e be e s ry, a Prid s Purg can invok d to

- eliminate the anti Fascist deputies . But these are triﬂ es to b e memorized in text

u e e The ﬁ a books in fut re c nturi s . signi c nt — thing : a n ew era ha s begu n in Ita ly as it began h in Rome with the dictatorship of Sulla . T e events of these la st few days are a part of a Eur op ean tendency that began with the Great

e e the e War, mbrac d Russian r volution , that may not end in our generation

the a o ee This evening, passing along n rr w str t

the a e a e e F a s leading to P nth on , I c m upon som cisti swarmin g ou t of the Roman headqua rters “ ” a e s of of the Avanti, st gg ring under great load THE MARCH ON ROME 299

n e e e e books and fur itur . Th se w re cart d down ,

he e the under t yes of the royal guards , to fash

' iona ble e e vvere Corso Umb rto I , where th y , heaped upon the muddy stones tracked with three days of marching and countermarching .

the e e A n d as ﬂam s leap d into the twilight sky, between the medieval Palazz o Doria and the old e e e of the Church of San Marc llo , I r ad som torn title -pages beneath the shifting feet of the “ ee : e T he j ring crowd Max Stirn r, Ego and ” “ ”

T rotzk e n . his Own ; y, Our R volutio ? Yet what are these but their ow n gods

Our rooms are directly across from the Great u e e e u e e For m, whos shatt r d col mns b ar mut wit — ness to the futility of hum an violenc e and its e n e W e are e appar nt i vitability . also n xt door to the Camera del Lavoro for the province of F o ee o a Rome . r thr nights bands f m rauding Fascisti have stood outside and pumped the magazines of their rifles into the la bor hea dqu ar ters or have fired a t the lights in the adjoining - e houses . Two nights ago a flow er pot on th — terrazzo above us was struck s ent crashing into ’ the - a ni e o air shaft . L st ght , about nin o cl ck

a n e a during int rv l in this ﬁring, my wife and I , e e e b ing oblig d to go into the city, w re shot at 300 ROME OR DEATH

ni w e s e e ortone without war ng as t pp d from the p . Thr ee time s thi s impromptu fusill a ding ended with the b attering in of the front entrance to the ea a labor h dqu rters . While the soldi ery

e e r e e e look d on, pap rs , fu nitur , and typ writ rs were hurled into this narrow Street of the White

e e i e e the Cross . This v n ng, v n doors and win dow - e e e e e o e n the e e sash s w r wr nch d l os , u til diﬁc

ra w the e now stands black and , lit by ﬂick ring

am e the e in the e e fl s from wreckag cobbl ston s , e w the r e e w ei n red ov r hich fi m n, ith th r ti y old fa shioned fi r e - engine and thin hose are casually u a ee e e e sp rting f bl str am of wat r . The furni tu re and records of the Republica n he adquarters h a ve b een burned in the Pia zza Colonn a a cross from the n ew white loggia and beside the pe destal of the triu mphal column of

M a rcus Aurelius with its quaint pictorial spiral . a e a e e -inten M rcus Aur lius , th t nobl and w ll tion ed e e a e e he p rs cutor of Christi ns , w r to look down from his column ( where now towers a a e a a the e i he de st tu of Paul, s int of r l gion s ised l e s e p ) , wou d doubtl ss ﬁnd his uav and gilded philosophy qui te in tun e with the s cene bene ath hi s eyes .

the r ee l r e e Down st ts stil hu tl arm d lorries , and every gutter - snipe is abroad with the tri

THE MARCH ON ROME 301

- e e e color, blood lust in his y , prot cted by his sud denl e a y acquir d bl ck shirt, his orange collar, his

- fez . skull and cross bones symbol , and his black In the theaters the Fascisti climb upon the s eats to spy ou t and maltreat all those who fail to lift their arms in the Fascist salute or to wear the e e of o e the o prop r smil j y ov r ccasion . e the n m the n ew e Running ov r a es in cabin t , I ﬁnd that the maj ority of posts have been given

he - to t most aggressive pro Nationalists . How will this clique answer the progre ssive needs of their ow n nation and of the world in this hour of trava il ? And this evening as I stirred with my “ cane among the charre d sheets of Voce Repub ” blican a the zz e e in Pia a Colonna , I wond r d what the e a e w ho Fasci R pubblic ni di Combattim nto , comprise a large element in the Fascist move ’ e li e m nt , are thinking of Signor Musso ni s g nu ﬂection s e e th b for e king at the Quirinal . What ? will be their policy The Carthaginian peace

e h a a e . t e e w r the has b en impos d But r l , war of e e . The cou id as , has just b gun Fascist p has e e solv d no fundam ntal problem . Yet on e e e man of ev ry hand ris s , lik a p libera ” “ The New ! he tion , Italy At last, t Fourth ” Rome ! One is obliged to admit that the most ideali stic forces existing to day in Italy have ral 3 02 ROME OR DEATH li e n the of asces the d behi d symbol the f , weapon of the a e old Rom n magistrat , and that in this

e e a r e on the outburst is a sinc r , lmost ly ic d sire part of the younger generation for a renovation the e o h of national li f . Many f t e Fascist locals have taken the most severe blows of abstinence

e e e the from comfort and pl asur , much aft r fash ion of the Ye e e e . t Young G rman mov m nt ,

e the e e e making this conc ssion , hon st obs rv r can ’ n ot but feel a bit of rugged Cardu cci s disgust “ e he a ee oo ntoxi wh n said, It ly has b n t much i cated with ide alism ; to me a fair and well grown ba e cab g is a much more beautiful thing . The press is hailing B enito Mussolin i as the

e r a L et e a gr at chival ic Cid of It ly . us hop th t , e the e z he e unlik spl ndid Ruy Dia , do s not tram

le n e o e er e e The e p u d r f ot v y diss nt r . mak rs of this n ew Italy a re far indeed from the patient - e a n d dynamic faith as Mazzini . Old war f uds have been reawakened to bitte rness ; stark pas

e ee e e e sions hav b n arous d , which a simpl ord r for demobiliza tion may check but not stiﬂe . T he strong sta te has arrived in Italy in the way e i the strong a lways arrive. For a tim its orig ns — may be obscured by parliamentary indorse e of m nt , by ﬁctitious elections, by the chorus

PART V

THE FASCI ST STATE

308 ROME OR DEATH

li the e po cy, though at sam time announcing that ’ he would unc ompromisingly protect Ita ly s in teres e e the H e e e in ts b for world . d clar d his tention of establishing Italy on a basis of equ al ity with England a n d France or else breaking the a e e tw llianc with thos o countries . e e e w a s His chi f concern , how v r , with regard h e z t e e the e . e e to arm d forc s of stat G n ral Dia , of war fa me and one of the pa rticipators in the a on e e the M rch Rom , was intrust d with War e e e he ef e e D partm nt , wh re f ct d a quick shifting f . D e e e m e of of o ﬁcials Bono , g n ral co mand r the a - u t e the Bl ck Shirt militia , was p in charg of l e r e —the e the po ic fo c s Carabini ri , Guardia h ec e e tc . e t e e R gia, N arly all provincial pr f ts and local police hea ds were repla ce d with Fas

or a i . n e e cisti N tional sts Simulta ously, pr lim in ary pla ns were outlined to re duce the police e on ’ the e of e e e forc s , pl a conomy, and to cr at a n ew a nation l guard . The C hamb er was permitted to reop en on

e e 1 6. e a e Nov mb r Mussolini , in d m nding a vot

e e e . e of conﬁd nc , did not minc words Aft r pointing ou t the previous in efﬁciency of the Cha mber and the instability of the post - w ar cab in ets he let be ea e the e , it cl rly und rstood that fat e a of the Chamber was ntirely in his h nds , and

310 ROME OR DEATH ing them were lacking ; Fascism provided the will and means . After touching lightly upon foreign affairs and promising to bring the Treaty of Rapallo and the Protocol of San Mar 1 herita e he e he e e g b fore t Chamb r, d clar d that

e her e Italy sought sound r lations with n ighbors , “ but added : W e cann ot p e rmit the luxury of a policy insensately a ltruistic . W e have n ot the e ea e e a e ou r e vil pl sur of x gg rating pow r , but e i w e e e e e no l ss w ll , by xc ssive and us l ss modesty, m ” di inish it . For internal affa irs the n ew policy of the Gov ernm ent could b e summe d u p in three words “ ” e H e in Economy, Labor , and Disciplin . sisted that a state w a s respected in proportion to its interna l efﬁciency ; that the F a scist Govern e e e e e t m nt int nd d to b strong, to show its str ng h e e a e li to all, v n against F scist ill ga ty but “ a e e e ar e e the th t as s rmons vid ntly not nough , sta t e will proceed to s elect and p erfe ct the armed forces which it directs ; the Fascist state w ill a e e n e i e e e prob bly cr at a si gl pol ce forc , p rf ctly

e e e a n d of e e e a ord r d , of gr at mobility, l vat d mor l

1 A t the time of the r atiﬁcation of the P rotocol of S an M ar g heri ta b the C am er F e ru ar u o ni w as cr t c e y h b ( b y, M ss li i i iz d for u rgin g the a doption of a t reaty w hich h e ha d never lost a n “ o ortu n t to enoun ce H is n cant re w as Wai u nti pp i y d . sig iﬁ ply , t l w e h av e been in p ow er for thirty year s . THE DICTATORSHIP 311

spirit ; while the army and the navy, glorious

e e e be e e and d ar to v ry Italian , will r mov d from e e e reor the political unc rtainti s of Parliam nt ,

anized e t e . e e e g , and str ng hen d It will r pr s nt the supreme reserve of the nation at home and ” e e e abroad . H closed by again thr at ning Par “ liament : I do not wish to govern against the will of the Chamber ; but the Chamber should e e appreciate its peculiar position, which r nd rs possible its being dissolved within tw o days or

e W e u e e e w e two y ars . ask for f ll pow rs b caus wish to assume full responsibility . Without full powers you kn ow very well that there would — — not be on e lira I say one lira Of economy . H e added that full powers did not exclude

e e e collaboration and coop ration, and sugg st d a e e e e that Parli m nt mak its labors bri f , nding

me with , Thus God will assist in bringing to a victorious close my arduous labor . e e e e the e e He th n app ared b for S nat , where he reassu red the memb ers that the preliminary threats of his address were directed only at the “ e the e e Chamb r . I should not u se before S nat the a e e e e ha d l nguag , n c ssarily brusqu , which I to e dir ct a gainst the honorable deputies . Not

e e fo e e m r ly now, but r som years , I hav had the ﬁrm belief that the S enate is one of the solid 312 ROME OR DEATH l pil ars of the nation . I do not consider the Sen ate e i as a sup rﬂuous nstitution , as it is fantastic ally regarded by a small nu mber of Democrats ; e the e e e of the inst ad , I consider S nat as a forc e e of the nece s state , as a res rv state , as an organ sary for the just and wise administration Of the ’ statef The subsequent speeches in the Chamber con sisted largely of exaggerations on the part of the ’ Fascist deputies of Mussolini s threats against e e that body, coupl d with guarante s that if it proved recalcitrant a new election would be ” made with Fascist clubs . The Liberal and Giolittian elements contented themselves with mild reservations or simulated enthusiasm ; some slight doubt was express ed from the Slav and German benches ; the Catholics were largely si e l nt ; a few abandoned the hall in group . Turati

' u the e l took p cudg ls for the Socia ists , his prin cipal arg ument being that his party had b een — more nationalist than the Fascisti that the Fascisti ha d preferred a violent attack upon the e sovereignty of the state to l gal means . His speech degenerated into an exchange of p etty re criminations with Mussolini rega rding the lat ter ’ s activities as editor of the Avanti before

the w ar .

3 14 ROME OR DEATH

e of e e ee l Chamb r D puti s , which had b n dec ining in importance and effectiveness ever since the e 1 9 1 5 a d e e be in d claration of war in , h c as d to ,

e e the e . the true s ns of words , a gov rning body

T h ee o the e e second m ting f Chamber, call d e 1 9 23 ea e w a s on F bruary 7 , , to ratify tr ti s , a further indication that it had b ecome a lu mp of

ea - s ling wax for Mussolini . On this occasion Montecitorio was surrounded on the ﬁr st day by a n impressive detachment of newly created Black a T he of e e e re Gu rds . labors the Chamb r w r stricted to the ratiﬁcation of foreign treaties .

e n e ff Mussolini d cli d to di scuss internal a airs .

e e a Aft r assuming full pow rs , Mussolini l rgely centere d his activities upon establishing his dic tatorship by weeding out of the public services all of those upon whom any imputation of anti T h of the Fascism might be cast . e application spoils system was carrie d down through the low e fﬁ e w st . e e e o c s Part of this a s n c ssary conomy . Whole bureaus were wiped out ; an d the post ofﬁce er e the e e of , railway s vic , and D partm nt e e The n e Education ov rhaul d . admi istrativ and

e f of the l e e e t aching sta fs schools , sad y d pl t d dur e the e e e e the ing and aft r war , w r so r duc d by n ew measures as seriously to ha ndica p the entire e e e syst m . In the railway s rvic ﬁfty thousand THE DICTATORSHIP 315 — men were ordered Off a necessary and sane re l form .

e e e Simultan ously, st ps were taken to liminate e the Guardia R gia , a body of police created by Premier Nitti consisting of forty -one thousand me n . At the time of the factory seizures in 1920 e he , Giolitti had openly d clared that could not e e d p nd upon this corps . It was supposed to “ ” e e e be p rm at d with subversive elements . The more faithful members were now absorbed into h t e Old e e e . The Carabinieri , an and t st d forc dissolution of the Guardia R egia was not a o e complished without som violence . In Turin , e e e e e e e of the Napl s , Flor nc , and ls wh re som barracks re volted In Turin the revolt had to be quelled in the streets and piazzas by the com bined force of the Fascisti and Carabinieri using

e - riﬂes and machin guns . T o take the pla ce of the Guardia Regia w as

1 It a ppea r s from recent atta cks made u pon the r a ilw ay a d ministration by the F a scist F a r ina cci a nd others tha t there is e e te consider able dou bt a s to w hether this r eform w a s re ally ff c d . “ ” The Cor r er e e a Ser a the L er a or a n in a n i n its u e i d ll , ib l g Mil , iss of A ri 6 1923 afﬁ rme t a t the er onne had a ctu a in p l , , d h p s l lly The crea sed a nd that the la bor cost w a s grea ter than before . Governme nt h a s encountere d a lmost insu rmou ntable difﬁcu ltie s t - i r a ttem te to i n cu tin g dow n its p ay r olls . Thu s n Ap il it p d l ay off tw enty- fou r thou s an d w orkers connected w ith the Wa r a nd a r ne e a rtment b u t the a tt tu e of the F a c cor M i d p s, i d s ist ra zi on ca u e the or er to e re c n e po i s d d b s i d d . 3 16 ROME OR DEATH

ze the of organi d new militia Black Guards , con e sisting of ighty thousand members . Musso ’ lini s economy consiste d of doubling the number previously existing in the Guardia Re gia and ap preciably increasing the strength of the Cara bin ieri ! The n ew Bla ck Guards were made re

e n ot the sponsibl , to king, but to God and the e T he o e e pr mie r . basis f s l ction was known per sonal loyalty to Mussolini and the previous rec ord Of the candidate in the w ar and in the guer rilla expeditions organized against the labor e h e e e e . t e h adquart rs and pr ss At sam tim , all

e un e e e ze oth r vol tary arm d groups wer d mobili d ,

e e or - including the S mpr Pronti , Blue Shirt Nationalists ( some of which were absorbed into ’ the n e d A nnu n zian e e w militia ) , the l gionari s w ho e e e e ( in some cases r sist d with viol nc ) , and th e e e r volutionary Arditi d l Popolo .

’ T he principa l di fﬁculties have a risen in this e the e e conn ction with Nationalists, sp cially in the e e e e ﬂ e e south , wh r r p ated con icts hav occurr d

- - between the Blue Shirts and the Black Shirts . e After three months of continuous n gotiation, an agreement was reached between the leaders of the Nationalists and Mussolini re garding the number of Blue - Shirts to be absorbed into the e Black Guard militia, together with guarant es

THE DICTATORSHIP 317 as to the future freedom of the activities of the

e the Nationalists . Yet friction surviv d in south . No sooner had the agreement been announced on e 1 1 9 23 than at Bernalda F bruary , , occurred a battle in the streets which was late r carried on from the doors and windows as the Blue - Shirts were driven to cover . Thirteen Nationalists and three Fascisti were killed and many more se riou sly wounded . An equally serious conﬂict e the took plac at Basilicata, said by Nationalists to have been directly inspire d by Avvocato San sanelli on e f the e e , o most promin nt Fascist l ad

ers e e e ou t . . Th s conﬂicts have continu d to crop In the Naples s ector in June practically all the Fasci seceded because of concessions and priv ileges granted to the Nationalists by Mussolini and had to be proceeded against with force and e compromis . The efforts of the Govermnent were compli cated by other difference s in the ranks of the e e oc Fascist party its lf, and arm d conﬂicts curred for the possession of he adquarters in e e e e en Rome, V nic , Bari , and oth r citi s . In g ] e -u s of e a era , the high r p the party syst matic lly e the e e z disband d Fasci in Bari , Pal rmo , Vic n a ,

e e ezz e — one en d V nic , Sp ia , L ghorn from of — Italy to the other and recreated them with 31 8 ROME OR DEATH special attention to the personal record of each

. e o m applicant At Turin ( a hotb d f Com unism, which even the Fascisti in unguarded moments “ ” admit has never been conve rted ) not only the Fascio but the newly cre ated militia units were dissolved . A general commission w a s created to investigate conditions and readmit those found

e e a e e worthy . Among thos t mpor rily exp ll d w as e Gor olin o of on Pi tro g , author a book Fascism heartily indorsed by Mussolini and fre

e e e e z n ot qu ntly quot d h r in . In Gori ia only were all the local Fasci disba nde d beca use of in ternal disa greements and violence but the pr o a s en bloc vincial organization itse lf w expelled . Th e Fascist National party has intrusted, in

n e e e za the Sardi ia and lsewher , the r organi tion of Fascist loc als to the prefects appointed by Mus za ef e e solini . The organi tion is thus f ctiv ly sub ’ ordinated to the Gove rnment s purposes and is robbed of all democratic or autonomous ini tia

e tiv . As in the ca se of the Communist party of Rus

e the e of the e the sia , aft r succ ss r volution , Gov ernment w a s oblige d to concern itself a bout the character of its own adh erents . Dictatorship ,

e or e e e the e ither Right , L ft , Middl , d p nds upon e e support of a clos d , rigidly disciplin d, and

320 ROME OR DEATH w a s e e e e e i r port d that S nator B rgamini , d tor of “ ’ ” the e d I talia on e the onse rv Giornal , of most c ative and at the s ame time r eliable publications Of the a w a s e ou t We c pital , thus forc d ; it was ll known that he was constantly harassed by v a riou s e a e a e d p rtm nt ofﬁci ls . Other pap rs such “ ” as 11 Lava tore of Trie st have been susp ended fo e of e r vary ing p riods tim . e a e e e Int rn l viol nce abat d aft r the cou p . e e a e e e How v r, m ny Fascist forays w r carri d on e e On the as b for . e would have to go over small local press of Italy to discover the real occur ren ces that took place during the ﬁve months

- e the e . The e aft r r volution Black Shirts , c rtain of f a e e e e e e o fici l prot ction , carri d terribl v ng anc to e a e e e e the thos sm ll villag s , wh r , b fore gov ern mental e e ee chang , th y had b n unable to e a e e e e e achi ve m rk d results . Ev n in larg r c nt rs a i acts of vand l sm occurred . In Brescia a squad ron - fi v e 24 1 9 23 of twenty Fascisti on January , , invaded the Fra ction of F enili B elasi in Ca pri an o e u e e o n the e , b at p p d strians , shot d w str ets , e e e a e e brok into s v ral priv t hom s , and sought to in e e T r ainin i the flict viol nc upon Giovanni ,

l - i in priest of the parish . In A atri Black Sh rts v aded and deva state d the circle of the Popul ar party ; in Turin the Socialist circle of the Bor THE DICTATORSHIP 321 gate San Paolo e Cenesia was wrecked and e e o burn d . In Dro ( Tr ntino ) the S cialist band he a dquarters was invaded and the instruments

o e e e . zz e and p ss ssions d stroy d In Spe ia , aft r the assassination of the Fascist Giovanni Ln

ea brano, h d of a squadron , by an unknown hand , individual and grou p attacks were made upon e e e e the known radicals . In Stroppiano V rc ll s , del or e e Casa Popolo was attacked f a s cond tim , ff e e e the o . its cont nts d stroy d , and roof torn

e e e e e e e e Such viol nc has , how v r, t nd d to b com e ha s more sporadic, and in no mark d instance it e e arous d arm d opposition . The attack upon Socialist and Popular ofﬁ cials e e e e a e e , l ct d by ballot in r gul r l ctions . also continued . Mussolini issued an order that all forced resignations occurring afte r his a ssu mp tion of power be re scinded and the Ofﬁcials re stored to their posts . This proved a mere

a the e e f the form lity, as r sign d o ﬁcials in major ity of ca se s re fused to resume their duties be cause of the danger to the community that would the result from Fascist incursions . In province of Rome ﬁ ve members of the provincial adminis tr tion e e e B a a r sign d upon Fascist ord rs . In

the f a e e e reggio , municipal o ﬁci ls , thr at n d with

e e n en ma sse. d f nestration, resig ed In Como, 322 ROME OR DEATH after repeate d violence at the meetings of both the i municipal and prov ncial councils , at which various ofﬁcia ls were force d to drink castor - Oil a e a e in copious qu ntiti s , both administr tions gav

f e e l e u up o ﬁc . Oth r loca iti s in which the pop larl e e e e e e e a c y l ct d ofﬁcials w r oblig d to r sign, cording to reports app earing in “ ” z a n d e e e : a a Giusti ia, oth r papers , w r Cat ni ,

a e a Barisciano , Micigliano , Ripatr nson , Ari no di a del a e P o lin an o Pugli , Mugnano C rdinal , g , Verola Verola e e e Nuova , V cchia , Pad rn llo , Isola e e i Liri , Cast lfort , Minturno a Fondi , R posto ,

e Nicodia e a e e P ala o Giarr , Eub , Ad rno Min a , g nia P izzi hetone e e e , g , Pad rno , Marradi , R gg llo , e e Chiav ara al a e D lic to , , Rapallo , P m , Mont

a a e a a chiaro , Rav nusa , Manduri , Mont P g no , e M a ssa cortile a e San Dom nico , Altopascio , , M c

a e e zz a e r ta , Mont lupon , Fivi ano , San Salv tor ,

zz e a a e s Nebra n o Po uoli , Nov nt , Vill Est n e , Cor

e a e P ecciola til , San Martino , V rchi , Br ntina , , e e Al Lari , T rricciola, San Luca, Baril , biano , h e e e e . T e San Fior, Pont di Piav Gov rnm nt is now considering a proposal to abolish home rule in all commun es having less than twenty

e e e e thousand inhabitants . Th s would h nc forth be a dministered by a ppointee s of the minister in e who be n e e pow r , would i vest d with the anci nt

324 ROME OR DEATH n ing of the ye ar and composed of the very per w ho e e the e sons , b for acc ssion of Fascism to

e ha d e e e e i e pow r, x rcis d th ir bomb ng and d stru c e r a e e tiv tactics , natu lly did littl to co rce their e ee the n ew broth rs in arms . Ind d , Black Guards have consistently invaded the homes of former members of the Socia list and Communist a p rtie s . In order to intimidate the Chamb er by u ee n e e se stirring p popular f li g, just b for its c on d opening on February 7 about fou r hundred arrests of Communists and allied elements were a e e e e m d , and much good ink spill d to mak n ws

a e a e - e e p p r sc r h ads . Such arrests th n continued

- - — in retaliation to a pot calls the kettle - black mani “ e a f sto from Moscow, which said in p rt that a e e a e of e an d ft r two y ars of sack g , inc ndiarism, of a ssa ssination to the inj ury of the working ” a the e e the e cl ss , Fascisti hav tak n control of stat “ an d e l e the a e e hav abo ish d parli m ntary régim , the liberty of the press have suppressed all the e a e e e e l gisl tiv , x cutive, and judicial pow rs , which a re concentrate d in the hands of a small ‘ ’ Great Council uphe ld by Pretorian guards .

a e the ea e of the In March Tur ti and S rrati , l d rs a e e e e e of two Soci list parti s , w re arr st d b cause their criticisms of the administration . e In addition to thes arrests , various labor THE DICTATORSHIP 325 headquarters were arbitrarily closed and the or anization s e e for e g ord red disband d ; as , instanc , the e e of e G n ral Association Turin Work rs , which was founded in 185 0 as a mutual beneﬁt a ssociation and which has controlled the railway cooperative and the Coop erative Alliance of

Turin . In Molinella the Socialist coOperative was arbitrarily s eized by the police on a techn i cality and its goods sold with none of the custom e e ary l gal steps . In addition to th se direct e e a e a the end of attacks , th re was cr t d tow rd a th ee a e e J nuary e Volunt r R ilway Polic , mad up “ of e e e e e Fascist work rs to pr v nt , in v ry way , ” e the e e fraud and robb ry in state railway s rvic , and to make ce rtain that the personn el of the railways Observe most scrupulously their proper ” e e e su bse duti s . The r al purpose , as practic e e to n qu ntly disclos d , is spy upon and i timidate

o a those not in the inner clique f F scism . It has b een sugge sted that such police units be organ ized e in all industri s .

Aside from attempts to institute ﬁnancial re form and to cut down the bureaucra cy ( and apparently the n ew Government ha s made con e ab e the sid r le progr ss) , the policy of Fascist administration has revolved around 326 ROME OR DEATH — 1 . National defense the strengt hening an d e a of the a e xp nding milit ry forc s . 2 —t . Industry he recre ation of a state of laissez—air f e. 3 — . Labor creation of a national council of r labo . At the beginning of 1 9 23 Mussolini instituted ee e a z the l a e a sw ping r org ni ation of mi it ry forc s ,

u and especia lly of the high command . A S preme Council of Nationa l Defense (to be pr e e sid d over by Mussolini hims elf) w a s create d . the end of the e h e Toward sam month , e found d a volunteer reserve militia to consist of all those

e e e e e be a c from s v nte n to ﬁfty, nlistm nts to cepted a n d handled at the Bla ck Guard hea d

e . ee a e quart rs This volunt r militia , comp rabl to

a a e e a our Nation l Gu rd , is giv n sp cial tr ining on ﬁxed days and is subj ect to the s a me milita ry

e la a - i r gu tions a s the Old F a scist Bl ck Sh rts . It “ will be ca lled in to the active s ervice of God a nd the country by the premier when he deems it a The e necess ry . t rm of compulsory military tra ining w a s extended to eighteen months ; the standing a rmy has b een increa sed from to more than Extensive preparations

r e e a e e e a a the mer a b ing m d to d v lop vi tion, and ch ant marine is being expanded .

328 ROME OR DEATH

One of the most importa nt steps taken by Mussolini was that which abolished the Commis of W a r e tu e sion Inquiry on Exp ndi r s , which was suddenly ordered to r eport to the king before e e e 3 1 1 9 22 an d w as e D c mb r , , warn d that any publication of its fin dings would re sult in at least six months of imprisonment and a minimum fin e of fi ve e thousand lir . The suppression of this commission is related to the warfare between two great fin ancial a n the e groups . In It ly four ba ks take l ad in promoting industrial activities : the Banco di

a l u Rom ( Catholic ) , which supp ies r ral credit an d help ed the Gov ermnent in the war against

e the e u e Turk y ; Cr dito Italiano , which abj r s politics and intere sts itself in the manufacture of

- e w o e e motor cars ; and thos t political m ddl rs , the

m e e Banca Co m rcial Italiana, through which e ﬂowed German ca pital before and sinc the war, which backed up the Giolittian burea ucracy in its e o eu i 1 9 1 4 maint nance f n tral ty in , and which inve sts in the silk and textile industries ; and the B a nca Naziona le di Credito (the revival of the di a e Banco Sconto , which coll ps d in manipulating much French capital and heavily e e e ee - e ee int r st d in st l , ship building, and ngin r The w as e ing works . Banco di Sconto controll d THE DICTATORSHIP 329

the e e e w ho by P rron broth rs , , during the war, by ﬁnancing the An saldo Iron and Steel Company

e ze the re rodu c and oth r concerns , speciali d in p of e e e e e tion war mat rials . The P rron int r sts

ro - - F iu mian - ro are p war , pro , anti Jugoslavian , p

- - e e . Fascist, pro Fr nch , pro imp rialist

Now the m e e e Banca Com ercial , s cur and long established in the proﬁtable indigenous textile industry and in control of the governmental er e the e f of the e machin y, f aring forts st el and automobile interests to create high protective ff e tari s , struck at the Cr dito Italiano through excessive luxury taxes on automobiles a n d at the Banca Italiano di Sconto by means of numerous

- T he e post war inve stigating commissions . chi f of these was to examin e into the matter of w ar e t the exp ndi ures , which , according to directors of a w a s e e that bank and Ans ldo , r sponsibl for the general financial collaps e of these and allie d corporations ; though post - war conditions would have made this inevitable in any event unless it had been forestalled by governmental backing . The Banca Commerciale Italiana pe ople also the e e e 19 19 tacitly supported g n ra—l strik in against the Peace of Versailles the first serious e labor blow at the inflate d P errone industri s . ’ “ It is intimated that much of Giolitti s neutral 330 ROME OR DEATH ity at the time of the factory seizures was ba sed on e similar r asons . The e e e e a d P rron p opl fought back , taking vantage of the rising tide of national sentiment coalescing into Fascism ; they bought up news “ ” e I l e e of e e pap rs , M ssagg ro Rom and its alli d “ ” a e ze e z a e chain of d ili s , subsidi d the Id a Na ion l a n d e i e oth r publ cations , and start d a publicity campaign recounting the patriotic s ervice s of a the Ans ldo during war . But the governmental drive of the Banca e a a e T he Comm rci le w s succ ssful . Banco di Sconto was accused of grave irregularities a n d l e u e . ofli cia s misus of f nds , and collaps d Its The e were placed on trial . Cornigliano Ligur ironworks went into bankruptcy . Ansaldo was re organized and ultimately reduced its ca pital from half a billion lire to fi ve million lire . T he Fascist counter - drive changed the h complexion of affairs . T e Perrone brothers promptly announced their support of the new e f e régim by pro f ring Mussolini , according to e the comm erica l e e r ports in pap rs , a billion lir e the the with which to r habilitate railways, with understa nding that thes e be ultimately turned

o e e over t privat management . C rtainly Musso

332 ROME OR DEATH but to Offset alarmin g decreases in the cereal out ne of ﬁ th n put . O the rst acts Of e ew F a scist m i e of e a in st r agricultur , de C pitani , was to abol

Visocc e e e ish the hi D cr e with its amendm nts . “ e ee e he e a Und r a fr economic régim , d cl red , ” production will be increased . The propri etors e e e , who liv in Pal rmo, in Rom , in Paris , in

are be e e e e . London , to p rmitted unr strict d lib rty

e the a belloti In other words , they can again giv g free hand . They can again rent the ir property ou t to sheep -herders despite the national needs e e for increased c real production . Th y can e i e again d lay to ntroduce any scientiﬁc m thods ,

e c e or e e to d velop un ultivat d lands , to mak urg nt e e improvem nts . They can again let th ir lands lie fallow in order to starve the peasants into

- e e e on her submission . But Italy, all d p nd nt f e e soil, cannot a ford an unsci ntific , antiquat d a of the - absentee system . The bolition post war land de crees and a reversion to such a system w a s indeed an auspicious begin ning for the Fascist “ u e ef fo nd rs of an enlightened , ficient , and mod ern state !” The parliamentary bloc of agrarian propri eto e -fiv u w ho e e rs (tw nty e in n mber) , had arli r “ stated the ir purpose to be that of conciliation ” b e etween the R d and White elements , promptly THE DICTATORSHIP 333

n bloc dissolved itself, announci g that the had exhausted its duties and that e ach member should resume his post in w hichever group he e e e e e ff to pr f rr d , in ord r to giv more e ective aid ” the work of the new National Government . ’ D e Capitani s action in abolishing the Visocchi

Decree has already had its rep ercussions . All Sicily is bitterly anti -Fascist and numerous dis ee - tu rban ces have occurred . In May str t riots took place in Messina and about fifty p ersons e e n wer arr sted, includi g Deputy Lombardo e e P ll grini . In the labor field Mussolini attempted to effect his plan of taking industrial and labor questions ou t of the hands of Parliament by creating a new technical Council of Labor and ’ w e Production . This a s hail d as Mussolini s great origi nal contribution to the cau se of indus e e trial p ac and progress . e f e It was , in r ality, an e fici ncy reform Of pre V1ou sl e e e The e y xisting ag nci s . National Sup rior Council of Labor was instituted by the Zanardelli 19 02 Law of with advisory powers . It w a s compos ed of forty- four members drawn

the e e the e of e e the from S nat , Chamb r D puti s , e e e th Chamb rs of Comm rc , from e Mutual B en eﬁt e e the e e the o F d ration , coop rative l agues , p p 334 ROME OR DEATH ul an d the e nm e a e ar banks , gov r nt l d p artments

e a e a e a p rtaining to l bor, migr tion , cr dit, soci l

e etc. e e a insuranc , It was mpow red to ex mine l n to questions concerning relations between ca p ital and la bor and to suggest mea sures for the e e of 1 9 10 improv m nt working conditions . In an extensive orga nic reform of the council was

e w a s e e e a e of the propos d , but this d lay d b c us w ar . e e the a e the e e a Dir ctly aft r rmistic , G n r l F ederation of Labor (through D eputy Bianchi) insisted upon the complete reorgani zation of the body so as to make it directly representative of the workers and employe rs and to give it direct a e deliberative powers . This and noth r pro posal were lost sight of owing to the rapid min i ter a e the l s i l shifts . Aft r downfa l Of Nitti , ’ e e e the a e wh n Giolitti return d to pow r , l tt r s min e of e e e e e ist r labor , Labriola , pr s nt d ( Nov mb r,

2 a the a e . 1 9 0 ) a n ew pl n to Ch mb r His action, while not appreciably extending the powers of the ea e e on e council , cr t d two s ctions , for labor

m e e the e e the and co m rc , oth r for agricultur , representatives to be elected by the proportional system dir ectly from the associa tion of propri etors ( one vote for every on e hundred em ployers ) and from the fede rated unions ( on e vote for every ﬁfteen members ) Signor Be ne

336 ROME OR DEATH

e agers ; six. r presentative s of the small propri etors and cultivators ; six representatives Of

a e - e e e e w g work rs , of p asants , small r nt rs , and the e e farm coloni s ; and six exp rts . The section for industry and transportation

e - e e e - e has tw nty ight mployers , tw nty ight

e workers , and six exp rts .

The e for e e a n d insu r s ction comm rce , cr dit , e e u e e e e e e e em anc is mad p of l v n mploy rs , l ven lo ee s u e e . p y , and fo r xp rts Six authorities upon economic science and j urisprudence sit in an advisory capacity on all three sections . The permanent comm ittee consists of eleven e e e e e ee re m mb rs ( six mploy rs and six mploy s , p e sid d over by the president of the council) . On the conciliation commission workers and employers ar e equally re pres ented . These various memb ers are appointed by royal decree on the recommenda tion of the minister of e the e labor in conc rt with minist rs of industry,

e e a e w ho e ee comm rc , and gricultur , must giv h d to the suggestions Of the principa l organizations he l eu of workers and employers . T council wi l

on the e ea dur e e year from dat of its cr tion , and then will be renovated on the basis of new ru les

for the appointment of members . THE DICTATORSHIP 337

The new council will have no organic connec e e n ec tion with Parliam nt , though this is scarc ly e a the ss ry so long as dictatorship endures . It has n o truly organic relation with e ither em lo er e p y s or employe s . Proportional repres enta e n tion is abolish d . Socialist and Communist u ions are denied representation .

’ T he ﬁrst months of Mussolini s dictatorship bear a striking similarity to the ten - ye ar period in which Augustus Caesar gradually assimilat ed th e o th e supr me powers f e Roman Empire . Augustus succe ssfully gained control of the con a e the a e the a ero a sul t , proconsul t s , tribunici l p g tiv es the e e e the he e sen , xch qu r , army ; promot d a torial pre stige while at the same time su per sed ing its members with p ersons loya l to himself ; he

- a built u p and mainta ined a p ersona l body gu rd . the e of ee In short spac thr months , Mussolini “ ” secured full powers and control of ﬁnance s ( taxation and disbursement ) reduced Par liament to a convenient rubb er sta mp ; increase d the e e of the e e e the e e pr stig S nat , whil at sam tim diluting it with newly appointe d Fascisti and Nationa lists ; built up a ha nd - picked group of — — pe rsona l followers a Pretorian Guard armed and paid for by the state ; assumed direct control 338 ROME OR DEATH

Of the army and navy ; curta iled the efficiency a nd importance of previously existing police units ; ruthlessly eliminated officia ls not avowedly pro - Fascist ; reduced a ll the important p arties to the position of sublimated official spittoon

e - e NO e polish rs and boot lick rs . individual sinc Rob espierre and Napoleon has exercis ed such e n e e e e dir ct, u restrict d , and omnipot nt pow rs ov r e e e e a p opl , for in Russia th r is a duumvirate resting on the more or less secure subsoil of the a a a Communist p rty . In contr st to this there h s come about a gra dual rea wa kening of party op position . The Socialists have become less veiled

e The e be a in th ir criticisms . gr at Li r l daily of “ a the e e e e a Mil n , Corri r d lla S r , against which

e e e Mussolini hardly dar s tak action , consist ntly reiterate s its fa ith in li b eralism and democratic e e The a e the P o proc ss s . nation l conv ntion of p a e n e ular p rty h ld this April in Turi , whil show

e e ro- a a ing a d ﬁnit split into p F scists , coll bora tioni sts - a e e i , and anti F scists , r sult d in a tac t

the a o z victory for l st gr up and for Don Stur o , the e of the a n ew e found r p rty, who in his Rom “ a the ha s ea a e d ily , Popolo , st df stly maintain d he a critica l attitude toward the dicta torship . T conclusions of the Turin convention brought about the resignation of the Popul arist memb ers

340 ROME OR DEATH gime of eﬂi cient collaboration and solidarity in e industry and in soci ty. It is doubtful whether such a régime can be established by force any more than the world was made democratic by

. a ea war Actu lly, Fascism is a turbid str m pitch

the sea the e the ing down to unknown of futur , e e e a of e futur not m r ly of It ly but Europ , and the course it will follow is neith er direct nor e e pr vision d . e e the New Old Fascism has cr at d Italy in an , — very old Europe an Italy caught u p in the vi iou s e of e e e e e e c circl isolat d policy, d pl t d r sourc s ,

a ﬁnanci l bankruptcy, and expanding militarism ; an Ita ly stra ngely imbued with a hie rarchal

- et the spirit of Prussian sun worship , y lacking tempera menta l restra int and lacking both the orga nizing a bility and the industria l skill success ful to carry out a policy of aggra ndizement ; an e of e e Italy which , in spit all logic , int nds soon r or later to batte r on the closed ga tes of the h e e a e . t e New M dit rr n an This is Italy, which e e e e only y sterday w lt r d in corruption , dis

z a nd a - organi ation , ch os , which to day has found “ ” a n ew faith in the right of the strong . For b e a e a n d F as Fascism is ack d by good b yon ts , cism is a n ew weight ﬂung in the balance of Eu l o ean . e e ec ec r p politics Som day, som how, the THE DICTATORSHIP 341

z e m of be tic , ha y, mystic id alis Fascism may e the new a salvaged . But at pres nt Italy m rks one more milestone upon the road toward the e general decay of political democracy in Europ .

’ A nnu nzio G a br e e 34 44 61 enera nternationa alinemen d , i l , , , , g l i l 62 171 188 223 of 227 tu rn n - o nt i n for , , , , ; i g p i emocrac o t ca and E u ro t u ne of 256 re u at o for D y, p li i l, s , ; g l i ns

ean o i t c 13 if . mi t a 267 N a e Con p p l i s, li i , pl s a a ! u r a a T e a ter a n vention 1922 274 ft Di n s l h , Mil , , , ; the om - e o on i n 5 ma rc on Rome 285 t e b b xpl si , h , h a ener a 308 F a c t tate 305 o c of Di z, G l, s is s , p li y the of u o i ni 0 Dictator h , , M , 3 8 325 ten enc o s ip ss l — d y 307 E . F a c m 339 41 s is , “ c i na r R e u ation for the F ell ou tier F ern an 17 Dis ipl y g l s , d,

F a c t it a 267 if . Ferr a ra rov n ce of a s is Mil i , , p i , F scis a rt e i n 45 p i s ,

ections in Ita 55 ft. F iu mia m ro o 35 44 El ly, n i b gli , ,

Fore n o c e of Ita 213 ff. ig p li i s ly, Fa c a rem er 262 263 265 F ree om of th e re 319 t , P i , , , , d p ss,

266, 285, 289

F a con ecree 86 l i D , Gar b a 11 14 76 i ldi, , , F a rm a nd a or a oci at on co l b ss i s, C o er ti e 104 G ariba ldia n o p a v ,

er at e in It a 101 ff. op iv , ly, 1 0 1 2 7 , 7 Fa c Com at mento 61 250 s i di b ti , , r a tr of Au u 1921 Gene l s ike g st, F 24 29 30 41 42 ff . a scism, , , , , ; 159 ff. relim na r e n t on of 72 ; p i y d ﬁ i i , o e rt 15 Gi b i, ’ r e of a or 153 ﬂ . is l b , o tt 19 38 234 235 265 Gi li i, , , , , F a c t mar ne orker r e of s is i w s, is , u ett G u e e 104 168 Gi li i, i s pp , ,

168 if . or olin etro u ote 221 G g o, Pi , q d, F a c t and Communi t 4 5 s is i, s s, , — r l e el e 238 9 ; tempo a n y xp l d, a n w a r w t 7 or er pe a s a nt l d i h, ; d 3 18 r ce cu t 42 r e u t of a c p i s , ; s l s G a r R e a 4 315 u dia gi , , i vities 59 60 er o in the t , , ; p i ds o ment of 61 ten devel p , Hegelian ide a lism and violence. f mo ement 68 if dencies O v , 197, 198 o er at e m ovement and co p iv , Hu m er t ! n a a inat on of. h a r a n b , i g, ss ss i 105 if ; rise of t e Agr i , 11 eta r a n 172 c a r 130 iii ; prol i , ; l i

f r o r a m 188 ff . ﬁ ca tion o p g , ; Im er a m Ita a n 215 f conom c ro ra m i lis , li , su mm ary o e i p g , p 2 he A r a c 216 Im ortat on b Ita y, 5 193 ; and t d i ti , ; p i s y l INDEX 345

In u tr a o c of Fa c Gov F a c ti i n 130 r e of d s i l p li y s ist s is , is e rnment 327 a or F a c m in 153 de , l b s is , iii ; In u tr E a n on of in Ita c ne of S oc a t art i n d s y, xp si , ly, li i lis p y ,

28 213 ff . 177 iii c a r ca t o , ; l iﬁ ion f F a scist Ir re ent m 18 ro r a m in 188 ii oc r n d is , p g , i ; d t i e I t tu to C re t er le Co of o enc i 19 o e n 5 ff . fore n s i di di p vi l , ; ig o era t e 100 101 o i c e 213 if the a p iv , , p l i s, ; liber l I t tu to Na zionale er l a Co ory tate 230 if u o n the s i p l s , ; M ss li i, izz a zione I ntern a 87 rea er of a ot- o e 243 i , b k b ll b x s, t ; Ita a n Coo er at e F e erat on row n ten on in 256 ff the li p iv d i , g i g si , . ; 124 m ta r era r c 267 if the ili y hi hy, ; Ita a n F e er at on of Worker Na e Con en t on 1922 274 li d i s, pl s v i , ,

122 ff. the m a r n ome 285 ; ch o R ,

Ita c v tr fe in 3 ff . Un te the ctat or of M u s ly, i il s i , ; i d, di ship ’ c of R e o u t on of 48 14 o n 307 F a c o ic hild v l i , ; s li i, s ist p l y,

- o t w a r 22 if m or tat on s 307 if 325 if . p s , i p i , b 25 c a e of the eo e y, ; l ss s p pl , 25 ff co t of v n 28 ex J u an Veni ce io ence i n 43 . ; s li i g, ; li , v l , a nsion of n u tr 28 Soc a p i d s y, ; i l “ ” i st a rt i n 28 o u ar a rt La Cr A r a r a b er Oc p y , ; P p l p y isi g i , y Pi i n 29 F a c m 29 1919—1920 c n 34 76 80 , ; s is , ; hi i, , , “ ” cr t ca ea r in 30 iii C er ca La Um an ta Nu ov a An arch t i i l y s , ; l i l i , is art in 35 F iu mi an imb r o a er i n a n a tta c u on 6 p y , ; g p p Mil , k p , lio 35 a n a nd factor sei a or F a c m r e of It a , ; l d y L b s is , is , in ly,

zu res 35 if the C ontr o o A ct 153 if . , ; ll , 38 if ta tu of a t end of La n a nd factor e u re in ; s s , d y s iz s 9 0 Ita 35 ff 8 1 2 40 41 tu r a nce i . 4 ff . , , ; dis b s n ly, , 1921 43 ff e ect on in 55 if Lan co on e i n Ita 102 103 , . ; l i s , d l i s ly, ,

re u t of F a c t a ct t e 59 La n ea u e 9 7 if . s l s s is ivi i s, , d l g s, ’ 60 eve o ment f F a c t La n ro rietor or an a t on ; d l p o s is d p p s g iz i s, movement in 61 if A r a r a n 132 , ; g i tru e i n 75 A r a r a n La n the ke to I a an ro er s ggl , g i d y t li p sp

con t on in 76 ff. an it a nd o i t c 75 di i s , ; l d y p l i s, e a u e in 9 1 r f h Lea u e of N at on F a c sti O if . e o t e l g s , ; is g i s, s i p coo er at ve movement in 99 o e 192 p i , p s , r e of the o u a r a rt in Leo ! III o e a nd ro ram of is P p l p y , , P p , p g 112 if r e he A ra r a n en tene reform 113 ; is of t g i ligh d , “346 INDEX

L era a rt 230 232 N a o eon 13 ib l p y, , p l , L era ta te the 230 E a t on a ou nc of La ib l s , , N i l C il b or and Luzz a tti Lu fa t er of the ro u ct on 335 , igi, h P d i , Ita a n coo er at ve movement N a t on a De fen e u rem li p i , i l s , S p 99 E Cou n ci of 326 l ,

N a t ona movement 17 i l , M an c n former F a c t of cer N a t on a S u er or Cou nc of i i, s is ﬁ , i l p i il a f a t of 47 E L a or 333 ﬁd vi , b , M aneotti D e u t u ote 45 N at ona u n t a nd E u r o ean , p y, q d, i l i y p a rc on R ome the 285 E o t c 13 E M h , , p li i s, M a rine w or er coo e r a t on N at ona t 17 k s, p i i lis s, a mon 104 105 g, , “ ” a r n e w or er F a c r e of Occ n er La Cr A rar a M i k s, s ist, is , hi i, Pi , isi g i ,

168 E 34, 76, 80, 149

a r o Anton o 78 M zzi, i , a n 14 15 nu n o S er o u ote 201 M zzi i, , P a zi , gi , q d, e terr anean u e t on 222 E ov ernment ove rt row of M di q s i , P a p a l G , h , e ter ra ne a n m o c of i n 1870 112 M di is , p li y , ,

214 E a n ov a nn con e u en ce of P pi i, Gi i, s q M a n F a c t a nd Commu n t t e or e 195 E u oted il , s is i is s his h i s, ; q , i n 4 5 om —e o on i n — , , ; b b xpl si 231 2

D a na ! u r a a T ea ter 5 S o a tern a m 234 i s l h , ; P lis , ci ali st hea u arter e tro e —F a c t a n w a r 7 dq s d s y d, Pe a s a nt s is l d ,

6 u ! o e 115 Pi s , P p , M ta r hi e ra r c th e i n Ita o t ca em ocr a c a nd E u ro ili y hy, , ly, P li i l d y 267 a ea n o t c 13 E . p p li i s, M issi roli a r o u ote 97 98 o u a r a rt 29 r e of in , M i , q d, , P p l p y, ; is , M u o n en to 20 61 62 64 Ita 112 E a tform of ss li i, B i , , , , , ly, ; pl , 9 56 64 165 17 189 205 6 , 1 , 1 , , 2, , , 117 E

206 207 208 209 210 211 219 o u a t on c a e of in Ital , , , , , , , P p l i , l ss s , y, 2 4 58 262 220, 225 , 2 6, 2 3 E , 2 , , 25 E — 264 275 278 279 84 294 29 7 or to B a r oss 216 , , , , , , P ,

301 302 307 E 326 333 335 o t- w a r Ita 22 E , , , , , , P s ly, ’ 337 E ma t m a nd v o ence 195 ﬁ . Pr a g is i l , re free om of 319 P ss, d ,

Na e Convent on the 1922 P rezz olini u e e in Fascis t pl s i , , , , Gi s pp , et o 138 E 274 E m h ds,