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Downloads/Nat Bruc Surv Plan.Pdf (Accessed May 04, 2013), 3 UCSF UC San Francisco Electronic Theses and Dissertations Title Cows, Cattle Owners, and the USDA: Brucellosis, Populations, and Public Health Policy in Twentieth Century United States Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1244313t Author Kaplan, Rebecca Publication Date 2013 Peer reviewed|Thesis/dissertation eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Copyright 2013 by Rebecca Kaplan ii To my parents iii Acknowledgments This dissertation would not have been possible without the support of the many people who helped me during the research and writing process. First and foremost, I must thank my advisor, Dorothy Porter, for all the wonderful advice and encouragement she provided. I would not have completed the project without her support. I would also like to thank the members of my committee, Paul Blanc, Brian Dolan, and Elizabeth Watkins, for providing thoughtful comments and advice during the dissertation process. My fellow graduate students at the Department of Anthropology, History, and Social Medicine, University of California, San Francisco supplied great feedback as did Susan D. Jones, Jessica Wang, and Abigail Woods. My thanks also go out to all the organizations that allowed me to present at their conferences and all the people who listened and made insightful remarks. Many librarians and archivists assisted me as I conducted the research for this project. I am indebted to the staff of the University of California, San Francisco Library and Archives and Special Collections, the University of California North Regional Library Facility, the Dolph Briscoe Center for American History at University of Texas at Austin, the DeGoyler Library, the Bancroft Library, the National Agriculture Library, the National Archives, and the Library of Congress for their invaluable help in locating materials and records. I would also like to thank all of the people who shared personal and family stories about contracting brucellosis and the disease experience. This dissertation was made possible due to the generosity of the University of California and the University of California Humanities Research Institute. I also received funding from the Dolph Briscoe Center for American History to travel and research at the archives in Austin. The financial support from these institutions allowed me to travel to numerous archives and complete iv my research and writing in a timely manner. I am grateful to my friends and family for providing moral support and for making sure that I had a social life. In particular, I would like to thank Julie and James, Brian and Brian, Alyssa and Shaun, Katherine and Marlies, Bekah and Ryan, Rich, Michele, Pam, Elise, and Robert. They ensured that I thought about something besides brucellosis and cattle from time to time. I would also like to express my gratitude to the staff at University of California, San Francisco who helped me navigate the paperwork associated with the graduate degree process. Last, but not least, I must say thank you to my parents for their constant support and encouragement. v Abstract Cows, Cattle Owners, and the USDA: Brucellosis, Populations, and Public Health Policy in Twentieth Century United States This dissertation explores the conceptualization of brucellosis as a disease and the development of the state-federal brucellosis eradication program. It examines what economic, political, societal, cultural, agricultural, occupational, medical, scientific, and technological factors influenced development of eradication procedures for brucellosis in the United States and which groups of people impacted brucellosis policy. It draws on many different sources including government and organizational records and publications, legal documents, educational material, and trade, scientific, and popular publications. The dissertation serves as a lens to explore the historic relationship between animal and public health, science, agricultural practices, societal norms, and political forces by drawing together research and concepts from history of medicine, public health, science and technology studies, agricultural history, and American political history. Many different stake-holders influenced the understanding of brucellosis as a disease in both animals and humans and eradication policy. Dairy producers, range cattle owners, veterinarians, state and federal animal health officials, researchers in both animal and human health, consumers, and politicians all played a role in the conceptualization of the disease and its eradication policy. Within each of these groups, different factions held various viewpoints on the epidemiology of the disease, the need for brucellosis eradication, and the role of the government in eradication. These positions often evolved based on economic interests, environment and geography, agricultural practices, and interpretation of scientific data. In addition to different groups and organizations, the biology of the bacterium and its transmission between animals and vi species shaped the understanding of the disease and the attempts to control or eradicate it. This dissertation also explores the relationship between animal and human medicine and how the groups involved with brucellosis eradication policy negotiated issues of human health and animal health. The dissertation focuses on how contagious abortion and undulant fever, two seemingly unrelated diseases in two different populations, cattle and humans, became one disease, brucellosis, and under what circumstances the state-federal plan to end the disease in the United States developed and evolved during the twentieth century. vii Table of Contents List of Acronyms ix Introduction 1 Chapter 1: Cattle Raising in the United States and the Development of the Bureau of Animal Industry in the Late Nineteenth Century and Early Twentieth Century 12 Chapter 2: Abortion Storms and Bacteria – The Conceptualization of Contagious Abortion and Its Relationship with Human Disease, 1850 – 1929 52 Chapter 3: A Major Minor Disease – The Relationship of Contagious Abortion and Undulant Fever and Its Control, 1929 – 1941 93 Chapter 4: Development of a State-Federal Cooperative 1942 – 1955 128 Chapter 5: The Accelerated Brucellosis Eradication Program 1955 – 1970 161 Chapter 6: Control or Eradication? The State – Federal Brucellosis Eradication Program, 1970 – 1977 215 Chapter 7: Cutting the Tail Off the Dragon – The Eradication of Brucellosis in the United States, 1978 – 2000 267 Epilogue 335 Bibliography Primary Sources 355 Secondary Sources 397 viii List of Acronyms Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) Associated Milk Producers, Inc. (AMPI) Brucellosis Ring Test (BRT) Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI) Market Cattle Identification (MCI) Market Cattle Test (MCT) National Brucellosis Committee (NBC) National Brucellosis Technical Commission (NBTC) National Cattlemen's Association (NCA) Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Texas and Southwestern Cattle Raisers Association (TSCRA) Texas Animal Health Commission (TAHC) Uniform Method and Rules (UMR) United States Animal Health Association (USAHA) United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) United States Livestock Sanitary Association (USLSA) United States Public Health Service (USPHS) ix Introduction Brucellosis is a contagious disease of livestock and wildlife that has significant consequences for animal and public health and international trade.1 In the first sentence of the National Bovine Brucellosis Surveillance Plan, officials at the United States Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Veterinary Services concisely summarize why the department continues to test domesticated cattle and bison for brucellosis (also known as Bang's disease and contagious abortion in animals) and treats any known cases as a potential epizootic situation. Though no cases of brucellosis have been reported in domesticated cattle or bison since 2012, the federal government, states, and cattle owners invest in active surveillance of cattle for the disease because its return poses an economic threat to the multibillion dollar cattle industry.2 If the United States government and cattle owners allowed brucellosis to reemerge in domestic herds, the loss of calf production, the decrease in milk production, and bans on importing brucellosis-exposed cattle in other countries would significantly damage the economics of the agricultural sector and the supply chain for meat and dairy products.3 Through the active surveillance plan, the USDA hopes to prevent economic loss due to brucellosis and protect the health of American cattle and bison herds. The bacteria Brucella abortus, which causes most cases of bovine brucellosis, is a risk not just to cattle and bison, but also to humans.4 Like the Department of Agriculture, the Centers for Disease 1Veterinary Services, “National Brucellosis Surveillance Plan,” Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/animal_diseases/brucellosis/downloads/nat_bruc_surv_plan.pdf (accessed May 04, 2013), 3. 2“Bovine Tuberculosis and Brucellosis Surveillance Results Monthly Reports, Federal Fiscal Year (FY) 2013 April 1-30,” 2013, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/tb_bruc/downloads/affected_herd_monthly_summary_apr2013.pdf (accessed May 04, 2013), 3. 3Veterinary Services, 7. 4There are multiple
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