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Home , Albert Parker (director), Alice Evans, Alice Terry, Alma Rubens, Anita Stewart, April Folly

Appendix: Partial Filmographies for Lucile and Peggy Hamilton Adams

The following is a list of directly related to my research for this book. There is a more extensive list for Lucile in Randy Bryan Bigham, Lucile: Her Life by Design ( and Dallas: MacEvie Press Group, 2012).

Lucile, Lady Duff Gordon

The American Princess (Kalem, 1913, dir. ) Our Mutual Girl (Mutual, 1914) serial, visit to Lucile’s dress shop in two episodes The Perils of Pauline (Pathé, 1914, dir. Louis Gasnier), serial The Theft of the Crown Jewels (Kalem, 1914) The High Road (Rolfe Photoplays, 1915, dir. John Noble) The Spendthrift (, 1915, dir. Walter Edwin), one scene shot in Lucile’s dress shop and her models Hebe White, Phyllis, and Dolores all appear Gloria’s Romance (George Klein, 1916, dir. Colin Campbell), serial The Misleading Lady (Essanay Mfg. Corp., 1916, dir. Arthur Berthelet) Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm ( Film Corp., 1917, dir. Marshall Neilan) The Rise of Susan (World Film Corp., 1916, dir. S.E.V. Taylor), serial The Strange Case of Mary Page (Essanay Film Manufacturing Company, 1916, dir. J. Charles Haydon), serial The Whirl of Life (Cort Film Corporation, 1915, dir. Oliver D. Bailey) Martha’s Vindication (Fine Arts Film Company, 1916, dir. Chester M. Franklin, Sydney Franklin) The High Cost of Living (J.R. Bray Studios, 1916, dir. Ashley Miller) Patria (International Film Service Company, 1916–17, dir. Jacques Jaccard), dressed Irene Castle (Mary Pickford Company, 1917, dir. Cecil B. DeMille) Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (Mary Pickford Company, 1917, dir. Marshall Neilan) The Little Princess (Mary Pickford Company, 1917, dir. Marshall Neilan) The Price She Paid ( Film Corp., 1917, dir. Charles Giblyn) The Easiest Way (Clara Kimball Young Film Corp., 1917, dir. Albert Capellani) Shirley Kaye (Clara Kimball Young Film Corp., 1917, dir. Joseph Kaufman) ( Productions, 1918, dir. ) The Reason Why (C.K.Y. Film Corp., 1918, dir. Robert G. Vignola) The Misleading Widow (, 1919, dir. John S. Robertson) (Garson Productions, 1919, dir. ), dressed Clara Kimball Young Mid-Channel (Garson Studios Inc., 1920, dir. Harry Garson), dressed Clara Kimball Young Harriet and the Piper (First National, Louis B. Mayer/Anita Stewart Productions, 1920, dir. Bertram Bracken), dressed Barbara LaMarr April Folly ( Film Corp., 1920, dir. Robert Z. Leonard), dressed Marion Davies (D.W. Griffith Inc., 1920, dir. D.W. Griffith), with Henri Bendel; Lucile dressed her models Dinarzade, Arjamande, and actress Mrs. Morgan Belmont

181 182 Appendix

The Forbidden Woman (Garson Studios, 1920, dir. Harry Garson), dressed Clara Kimball Young Heedless Moths (Perry Plays, 1921, dir. Robert Z. Leonard) Nice People (Famous Players-Lasky, 1922, dir. William deMille) The Green Goddess (Distinctive Productions, 1923, dir. ), dressed Knowing Men (, 1930, dir. Elinor Glyn), dressed Elissa Landi and Elinor Glyn

Peggy Hamilton

The following films were costumed by Hamilton when she was employed at Triangle:

The Maternal Spark (1917, dir. Gilbert P. Hamilton) The Gown of Destiny (1917, dir. Lynn F. Reynolds) Smoke (1918, dir. ) Limousine Life (1918, dir. Jack Dillon) Her Decision (1918), dir. Jack Conway) Station Content (1918, dir. Arthur Hoyt) False Ambition (A Woman of Mystery) (1918, dir. Gilbert P. Hamilton) Her American Husband (1918, dir. E. Mason Hopper) Everywoman’s Husband (1918, dir. Gilbert P. Hamilton) The Secret Code (1918, dir. Albert P. Parker) Who Is to Blame? (1918, dir. ) Society for Sale (1919, dir. Frank Borzage) Prudence on Broadway (1919, dir. Frank Borzage) Shifting Sands (1918, dir. Albert Parker) For Better, For Worse (1919)

Non-Triangle films:

The Concert (, 1921, dir. Victor Shertzinger), featuring a Peggy Hamilton fashion revue Little Wildcat (1922, Vitagraph, dir. David Divad), featuring Peggy Hamilton’s shop; she choreographed a fashion show that featured her models A Slave of Fashion (MGM, 1925, dir. Hobart Henley), featuring a Peggy Hamilton revue Making Fashion (Dufay-Chromex Ltd., 1938), about Norman Hartnell, British designer, in which Hamilton makes an appearance Notes

Chapter 1

1. Childhood pictures, Folder 349.4, Papers, Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin. 2. Gloria Swanson, Swanson on Swanson (: Random House, 1980), 25, 27. 3. Baltimore, MD News, 12 Oct. 1919, Box 582a Scrapbook 79; “Tells Secret of Dress; Actress Gives Pointers,” 12-29-19, Box 577, Scrapbook 1917–26, Gloria Swanson Papers, Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin. 4. Box 575, Scrapbook 56, ibid. 5. Folder 357.12, ibid. 6. Eileen Bowser defines the nickelodeon period as lasting from 1907 to 1915. See Eileen Bowser, The Transformation of Cinema, 1907–1915 (Berkeley and : University of Press, 1990), 1, 121. 7. Caroline Rennolds Milbank argues that French couture became more influential in the post- era; see New York Fashion: The Evolution of American (New York: Harry Abrams, 1989), 72. See also Kristen Thompson, Exporting Entertainment: America in the World Film Market, 1907–1934 (: British Film Institute, 1985). 8. Bowser cites a June 1910 New York Dramatic Mirror article as the first known use of the term “motion picture star.” See Bowser, The Transformation of Cinema, 113. See also Richard deCordova, “The Emergence of the Star System in America,” in Christine Gledhill, ed., Stardom: Industry of Desire (New York: Routledge, 1991), 17. 9. The Ny-Fax fashion reel showing the latest fashion from New York designers, for example, was promoted as a film that would be a “very strong draw for the ladies.” See Hugh Hoffman, “New York Fashion Show in Pictures,” Moving Picture World, 4 Oct. 1913, 32. 10. Moving Picture World, 11 Mar. 1911, 527. 11. Swanson, Swanson on Swanson, 106. 12. “She Only has One Love – Her Beautiful Clothes,” unidentified clipping, c. 1919, Box 577, Gloria Swanson Papers, Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin. 13. Gloria Swanson Papers, Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin. 14. “The Big Ten and Their Yearly Earning,” unidentified newspaper clipping, early 1920s, Gloria Swanson Papers, Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin. Swanson is the fourth highest-paid star after Harold Lloyd, Charles Chaplin, and , earning $1 million per year. 15. Elizabeth Wilson, Adorned in Dreams: Fashion and Modernity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987). 16. Walter Benjamin, “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction” (originally published 1936), reprinted in Hannah Arendt, ed., Harry Zohn, transl., Illuminations: Essays and Reflections (New York: Schocken Books, 1968); Walter Benjamin, Arcades Project, Howard Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin, transl. (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1999); I have also drawn

183 184 Notes

on Susan Buck-Morss’s overview of Benjamin, The Dialectics of Seeing: Walter Benjamin and the Arcades Project (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999). 17. Jane Gaines, “Costume and Narrative: How Dress Tells the Woman’s Story,” in Gaines, ed., Fabrications: Costume and the Female Body (New York: Routledge, 1990), 186. 18. Rebecca Arnold, Fashion, Desire and Anxiety: Image and Morality in the 20th Century (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2001). 19. Charles Musser, “At the Beginning: Motion Picture Productions, Representation, and Ideology at the Edison and Lumière Companies,” in Lee Grieveson and Peter Krämer, eds., The Silent Cinema Reader (London: Routledge, 2004), 15–16. 20. Advertising World 16 (March 1912), 11, cited in William R. Leach, “Transformations in a Culture of Consumption: Women and Department Stores, 1890–1925,” Journal of American History vol. 71, no. 2 (Sep. 1984), 327. 21. Miriam Hansen, Babel and Babylon: Spectatorship in American Silent Films (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991).

Chapter 2

1. “Fashion’s Toy,” Moving Picture World (13 Sept. 1913), 1200. 2. The nickelodeon period, 1905–15, is defined as an era that saw the rise of the small moving picture house. Originating in storefront theaters with shows that cost only a nickel, the Vaudeville style of presentation consisted primarily of moving pictures, and often included illustrated song slides and/or live entertain- ment. See Charles Musser, The Emergence of Cinema: The American Screen to 1907 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1990), 417–89. 3. The Progressive era lasted from approximately 1897 to 1920 and was marked by reform movements that addressed a wide variety of social ills caused by indus- trialization and urbanization, including labor issues and the rise of slums in big cities of the . Encyclopædia Britannica Online, http://search.eb.com/ eb/article-77841 (accessed 12 Jan. 2010). 4. Although films that presented high fashion, such as newsreels, were being pro- duced and presented in increasing numbers, they are the subject of Chapter 4. 5. Walter Benjamin, “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction,” (1935) reprinted in Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen, eds., Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings (New York: Oxford University, 1999), 744. 6. Ellen Boris, “Social Change and Changing Experience,” in Pat Kirkham, ed., Women Designers (New Haven, CT: Bard Graduate Center and Yale University Press, 2000), 37. 7. Claudia Kidwell and Margaret C. Christman, Suiting Everyone: The Democratization of Clothing in America (Washington, D.C.: Press, 1974), 53. 8. Grace Rogers Cooper, The Sewing Machine, Its and Development (2004), 13, http://www.sil.si.edu/DigitalCollections/HST/Cooper/CF/ (accessed Dec. 10, 2010). 9. Kidwell and Christman, Suiting Everyone, 75. 10. Joseph J. Schroeder, Jr., ed., The Wonderful World of Ladies’ Fashion (Northfield, IL: Digest Books, 1971) reprint of page from Ladies’ Home Journal 1894, 147–8. 11. Some of the first ready-to-wear garments in the nineteenth century were cloaks, loose-fitting garments that did not require tailoring. As the ready-to-wear industry expanded its offerings, these cloak companies started producing suits, shirtwaists, and skirts, but retained their original business names, which often included Notes 185

“cloak” in the title. See Florence S. Richards, The Ready-To-Wear Industry 1900– 1950 (New York: Fairchild Publications), 5. 12. Kidwell and Christman, Suiting Everyone, 163. 13. Schroeder, The Wonderful World…, Montgomery Ward catalog, 154, 155. 14. Twenty years after its initial capitalization in 1895, the assets of Sears, Roebuck and Company exceeded $100 million; S.J. Perelman, “Introduction,” in Fred. L. Israel, ed., 1897 Sears, Roebuck Catalogue (Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 1993), v. Schroeder, The Wonderful World…, 1905 Sears, Roebuck and Company catalog page reprints, 187–93. 15. Sears archives, http://www.searsarchives.com/catalogs/history.htm (accessed November 27, 2009). As an example of the vast range of products offered on the pages of Sears, the 1902 catalog included the 1901 “Improved Model” of the Edison from the Department of Moving Image Outfits, because “Moving or animated pictures are just as popular and even more so than before.” These were probably offered for rural exhibitors who were showing moving pic- tures in venues such as churches or dance halls. 1902 Amory, introd., 1902 Sears Roebuck Catalog (New York: Bounty Books, 1969), 107. 16. The first shirtwaist factories were established in 1891–92 and after 1895 witnessed explosive growth. In , between 1900 and 1910, the factories began to make dresses as well, with approximately 600 waist and dress manufacturers by 1910, employing approximately 30,000 workers. See Louis Levine, The Women’s Garment Workers (New York: Arno and , 1969 reprint of 1924 book International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union), 145. 17. Maureen Turim, “Seduction and Elegance: The New Woman of Silent Cinema,” in Shari Benstock and Suzanne Ferriss, eds., On Fashion (New : Rutgers University Press, 1994), 143. 18. Edna Woolman Chase and Ilka Chase, Always in Vogue (New York: Doubleday, 1954), 53. 19. Sue Ainslie Clark and Edith Wyatt, Making Both Ends Meet: The Income and Outlay of New York Working Girls (New York: Macmillan and Company, 1911), viii. 20. Ibid., vii. 21. Ibid. 22. Ibid., 7. 23. Ibid. 24. Ibid., 208. Another inexpensive option was the unlaundered twill sateen at 50 cents. 25. Fred. L. Israel, ed., 1897 Sears, Roebuck Catalogue (Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 1993), 207. 26. “Dressmaking at Home,” The Delineator (August 1897), 168–71, details what is needed to produce various types of outing suits and “toilettes,” which consisted of skirts and waists or skirts and jackets. The patterns averaged 35 cents for each article of clothing. The fabric needed to be purchased and often included the outer textile, interfacings, linings, and interlinings, not to mention trims and ribbons. Delineator, which was published by the Butterick pattern company, included extensive instructions on the making of the garment before the con- sumer even purchased the pattern. 27. For an example of a Jacques Doucet afternoon dress, circa 1905, see Elizabeth Ann Coleman, The Opulent Era: Fashions of Worth, Doucet and Pingat (London: Thames and Hudson and the Museum, 1989), 162. 28. Israel, 1897 Sears, Roebuck, 270, 272, 279, 281, 306. 186 Notes

29. Cleveland Amory, introd., reprint of 1902 Sears, Roebuck Catalog (New York: Bounty Books, 1969), 1062, 1101, 1109, 1115. 30. Ibid., 1161. 31. Ibid., 301. 32. 1902 Sears, Roebuck Catalog, 951, 954. 33. Ibid. 955. 34. This information is supported by an article that was originally published in the March 1913 issue of Ladies’ Home Journal entitled “The Dishonest Label: How American Women Are Being Fooled by a Country Wide Swindle,” by Samuel Hopkins Adams. The article recounts how rolls of fake Paris couture labels were being sold by the yard to millinery and dress manufacturers. See Ladies’ Home Journal (March 1913), reprinted in Dress 4, 1978, 17–23. Adams was a successful muckraker, a term that was coined in the Progressive era, who exposed patent med- icine fraud in the early twentieth century, also on the pages of The Ladies’ Home Journal. See Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York: Basic Books, 1994), 156. 35. Adams, “The Dishonest Paris Label,” 17, 21, 23. 36. Advertisement, The New York Times, 21 Sep. 1916, 5. 37. Mme. Simcox was a small importer and custom house in New York City; see Milbank, 66. 38. Leach, “Transformations in a Culture of Consumption,” 328. 39. Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers, and Customers in American Department Stores, 1890–1940 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988), 13. 40. Advertisement, The New York Times, 21 Sep. 1916, 5. 41. Robert Hendrickson, The Grand Emporiums: The Illustrated History of America’s Great Department Stores (New York: Stein and Day, 1979), 65, 66; Macy’s advertisement reprinted in A Perfect Fit: The Garment Industry and American Jewry, 1860–1960 (New York: Yeshiva University Press, 2005), 23. Ellen Leopold argues that the use of the sewing machine encouraged more elaborate embellishment because the garment maker could readily multiply the number of tucks or other fashion details, as evident in the Macy’s ensemble; see Leopold, “The Manufacture of the Fashion System,” in Juliet Ash and Elizabeth Wilson, eds., Chic Thrills: A Fashion Reader (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 105. 42. Macy’s advertisement, A Perfect Fit, 23. 43. Mary Antin, The Promised Land (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1912), 187. 44. Abraham Cahan, The Rise of David Levinsky (New York: Harper Brothers, 1917), Chapter 2, online reprint of book, http://www.eldritchpress.org/cahan/rdl.htm (January 10, 2005). 45. A Perfect Fit, 32. 46. Ibid., 44. 47. Kidwell and Christman, Suiting Everyone, 87. See also A Perfect Fit, 33. 48. Nancy L. Green, “Sweatshop Migrations: The Garment Industry between Home and Shop,” in David Ward and Olivier Zunz, eds., The Landscape of Modernity: Essays on New York City 1900–1940 (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1992), 214. 49. “An Unexploited Field and Its Possibilities: A Chance for Good Exhibitions,” Views and Film Index, 6 Oct. 1906, 3–4. 50. George Mitchell, “The Consolidation of the American Film Industry 1915–1920,” Cine-Tracts 2 (2) (Spring 1979), 28. Notes 187

51. Steven J. Ross, Working-Class : and the Shaping of Class in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999). 52. For Lasky, see Peter Wollen “Strike a Pose,” Sight and Sound 5, no. 3 (March 1995), 14; for Zukor, see http://en.wikipedia.org/ (accessed Jan. 2, 2010); for Loew, see http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0517343/bio (accessed Jan. 5, 2010); for Goldwyn, see Richard Koszarski, An Evening’s Entertainment: The Age of the Silent Feature Picture, 1915–1928, from Charles Harpole, general editor, History of American Cinema, volume 3 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 244. 53. Ibid., 6. 54. While the class status of film viewers in the early has been debated, I am using recent research outlined in Ben Singer’s chapter “ Nickelodeons: New Data on Audiences and Exhibitors,” in Grieveson and Krämer, The Silent Cinema Reader that questions revisionist thinking about middle-class film attendance and provides evidence that the audiences in question were pri- marily drawn from the blue-collar sector. 55. Ross, Working-Class Hollywood, 19. 56. Singer, “Manhattan Nickelodeons,” 146, demonstrates that 75 percent of all mov- iegoers in 1910 came from the working classes and that the activity cost less than Vaudeville entertainment at only a nickel or dime; Richard Abel demonstrates that contemporary writers were unanimous about the viewers at the nickelo- deons and that these were mostly families from the lower through the middle classes; see Abel, The Red Rooster Scare, Making Cinema American, 1900–1910 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 66. 57. Financed by Vitagraph and Pathé, Views and Film Index was the first trade weekly created for exhibitors in the movie industry; see Grieveson and Krämer, The Silent Cinema Reader, 113. 58. “An Unexploited Field…,” 3–4. 59. Abel, The Red Rooster Scare, 57. 60. “An Unexploited Field…”, 4. 61. Edward Alfred Steiner, The Immigrant Tide: Its Ebb and Flow (New York: F.H. Revell, c. 1909). 62. Musser, The Emergence of Cinema, 116. Koster & Bial’s Music Hall then stood at 34th Street and Broadway, the future site of Macy’s department store. 63. Richard Abel, “Pathé Goes to Town,” in Grieveson and Krämer, The Silent Cinema Reader, 104. 64. Ibid., 107, 110. 65. Review of “Keith’s Vaudeville,” Boston Daily Globe, 7 Sep. 1915, 13. 66. Between 1880 and 1920, the required hours in the work day of workers in manu- facturing industries gradually declined and by 1912 the working day for women in such employment was limited to nine hours, with similar changes in retail jobs by 1914. The nine-hour day remained the standard into the 1920s. Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), 42. 67. “Dancing – Preaching: Dr. Annie MacLean Investigates Conditions of the Working Girl,” The New York Times, 29 November 1908, SM2. 68. Ibid. 69. Peiss, Cheap Amusements, 97. 70. Ibid. The film The Gay Shoe Clerk (Edison Manufacturing Co., 1903, dir. Edwin S. Porter) is a good example of a movie directed to men. The shows 188 Notes

a shoe clerk assisting a patron with her shoe selection. The camera lingers on the woman slowly lifting up her skirt and revealing her leg and striped hosiery and he then kisses her, to the shock of her accompanying friend. Edison: The Invention of Movies, 2005. DVD. 71. Charles Musser, “The Edison and Lumière Companies,” in Grieveson and Krämer, The Silent Cinema Reader, 23. 72. Miriam Hansen, Babel and Babylon: Spectatorship in American Silent Films (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991), 3. 73. Lee Grieveson and Peter Krämer, “Cinema and Reform,” in Grieveson and Krämer, A Silent Cinema Reader, 138. 74. Ibid., 139. 75. The original name was Harper’s Bazar, but changed to Harper’s Bazaar in 1929 and has been called that ever since. 76. Musser, The Emergence of Cinema, 138. 77. Short films usually ran from 10 to 15 minutes and comprised one reel of film, while longer narrative multiple-reel films, which were on the rise starting in the early , often lasted more than an hour. 78. Peiss, Cheap Amuseuments, 36. 79. Richards, The Ready-to-Wear Industry, 13. 80. Ibid. 81. 1922 Sears, Roebuck catalog, 722; for The Ghetto Seamstress see Ross, Working-Class Hollywood, 51. 82. Ross, Working-Class Hollywood, 49. 83. http://eirlibrary.utortonto.ca, Representative Poetry On-Line (accessed June 2008). 84. Ibid. 85. Clark and Wyatt, Making Both Ends Meet, 56. 86. “Exhibit a Lesson to Women Shoppers: Fine Garments They Wear Made by Tenement Toilers at Starvation Wages,” The New York Times, 12 Jan. 1910, 16. 87. Richards, The Ready-to-Wear Industry, 14. 88. Levine, The Women’s Garment Workers, 219; see also Clark and Wyatt, Making Both Ends Meet, IX, which revealed that the 1910 study of 30,000 shirtwaist makers the year before brought their presence to the attention of the greater public. 89. In 1909–10, there were two mass movements including a strike of almost 200,000 shirtwaist makers in New York City, the largest strike ever in the United States. In addition, at this point 80 percent of workers in the shirtwaist trade were women, 75 percent of them between the ages of 16 and 25; ibid., 144. 90. Moving Picture World, 16 September 1911, 784; Moving Picture World, 29 April 1911, 947; Moving Picture World, 6 May 1911, 945. See also Bowser, The Transformation of Cinema, 129. 91. This film is presumed lost, but the plot synopsis is available in the American Film Institute Catalogue of Feature Films, 1893–1972, http://www.afi.com/members/ catalog (accessed June 2007). 92. Ross, Working Class Hollywood, 260, 262. 93. Advertisement, Reel Life, 27. Sept. 27, 1913, 25. 94. Moving Picture World, 29 July 1911, 29. The Cry of the Children (Thanhouser, 1912, dir. George Nichols) also used real factories as settings, as noted in The Moving Picture News, 13 Apr. 1912. An Elizabeth Barrett Browning poem (1842) of the same name inspired the storyline of this film, as well as another released the same year by Edison, called Children Who Labour (dir. Ashley Miller). See Q. David Notes 189

Bowers, “Filmography,” Thanhouser Films: An Encyclopedia and History, 19091918 (Thanhouser Company Film Preservation, 2001), CD-ROM. 95. “That’s Happiness,” Moving Picture World, 29 Jul. 1911, 213. 96. Levine, The Women’s Garment Workers, 15. 97. Edna Woolman Chase, the editor of Vogue magazine from 1914–52, provided a brief overview of the evolution of the garment industry leading up to the establishment of the International Ladies Garment Workers Unions, and wrote of the “Pig Market” area around Essex and Hester Streets in New York City, which functioned as an “informal labor exchange” for new immigrants; see Chase, Always in Vogue, 52. In addition, the title “Pig Alley” as it refers to pork was noted by William Dean Howells in “An East Side Ramble,” Impressions and Experiences (New York: Harpers & Brothers, 1896), 127–49, which records a visit he made to the in 1896. Howells was another popular realist writer who promoted the work of Abraham Cahan. 98. The film is understood to be the first gangster film by many film historians, including Lesley Stern in “Paths That Wind through the Thicket of Things,” Critical Inquiry 28: 1 (Autumn, 2001), 347. 99. Clark and Wyatt, Making Both Ends Meet, VIII. The authors considered their study a success because after it was published, companies such as Macy’s then initiated one day of paid rest per month. 100. Kidwell and Christman, Suiting Everyone, 143. 101. Chase, Always in Vogue, 53. 102. For information on the rise of the department store, see Gilles Lipovetsky, The Empire of Fashion: Dressing Modern Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994); Phillipe Perrot, transl. Richard Bienvenu, Fashioning the Bourgeoisie: A History of Clothing in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994); Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers, and Customers in American Department Stores, 1890–1940 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988). 103. It is also important to note that by 1902 charge accounts were the norm in department stores; see Leach, “Transformations in a Culture of Consumption,” 330. 104. Elaine S. Abelson has written at length on the phenomenon of the rise of the nineteenth-century shoplifter and its connection to the rise of the department store; Elaine S. Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving: Middle-Class Shoplifters in the Victorian Department Store (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 148. 105. The Kleptomanic, dir. Edwin S. Porter. Edison Manufacturing Company, 1905, DVD Kino on Video, MOMA Edison: Invention of the Movies, Disc 2. 10 minutes. 106. This appears to be the real entrance to Macy’s, as the New York Herald building (after which Herald Square is named) by architect Sanford White is visible in the background as she enters the department store. 107. Due to the poor quality of the film, it is difficult to make out any details of her garments. 108. Clark and Wyatt, Making Both Ends Meet, 22–3. 109. Review, The Department Store, Kinetogram, 15 Apr. 1911, 10–11. I have not been able to locate this film in archives. 110. The ’ names are not mentioned in the film review, which was common in the early days of cinema before the rise of the “star” system. 111. C.N. and A.M. Williamson, Winnie Childs Shop Girl (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1914). This book was reissued in 1916. Another example of popular 190 Notes

fiction related to the genre is Margaret Böhme, The Department Store: A Novel of To-Day (Toronto: Thomas Langton, 1912). 112. Margaret I. MacDonald, review, Moving Picture World, 18 Jul. 1916, 265; advertise- ment for the film, from the “Blue Ribbon Series,” Photoplay, 1 Jul. 1916, n.p. 113. Tom Gunning, “The Cinema of Attractions: Early Film, Its Spectators and the Avant-Garde,” in Joanne Hollows, Peter Hutchings, and Mark Jancovich, eds., The Film Studies Reader (London: Arnold, 2000), 162. 114. Moving Picture World, 28 Aug 1909, 307; Moving Picture World, 30 Oct 1909, 599. 115. Measurements were taken of a number of hats in the Peabody Essex Museum collection to confirm the actual diameter of the headwear. 116. There is very little written on the picture hat of the early twentieth century. For general information on its popularity, see Valerie D. Mendes and Amy de la Haye, Lucile Ltd.: London, Paris, New York, and , 1890s–1930s (London: V & A Publishing, 2009), 186, and Alison Gernsheim, Victorian and Edwardian Fashion: A Photographic Survey (New York: Dover, 1963), 87. 117. “Her Exclusive Hat,” Moving Picture World, 24 October 1911, 144. Unfortunately, I have not found evidence that the film has survived and all the information is from the synopsis printed in Moving Picture World. 118. If a consumer had the purchasing power to acquire a ready-to-wear version of a designer dress, it would probably have been a copy made by a local dressmaker. 119. Film viewed on D.W. Griffith’s Biograph Shorts (Kino Video, 2002). DVD. 120. acted as a pre-show announcement and was therefore only three minutes long. 121. Lady Duff Gordon, Discretions and Indiscretions (New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1932), 144. 122. Review, A Millinery Bomb, Moving Picture World, 5 Jul. 1913, 68. 123. Ibid. 124. Ibid. 125. Other films addressing fashionable hats in this period include The Easter Bonnet (Éclair, 1912, dir. unknown), see Moving Picture World, 13 Apr. 1912, 270; A Flurry in Hats (Beauty Films, 1912, dir. Harry A. Pollard), see Moving Picture World, 25 Apr. 1912, 579; and Mary’s New Hat (Edison Company, 1913, dir. Charles H. ), see Moving Picture World, 20 Dec. 1913, 1458. 126. “Poiret, Creator of Fashions, Here,” The New York Times, 13 Sept. 1913, X3. In the article Poiret is called the man who “revolutionized the silhouette of gowns” and the inventor of the “narrow skirt,” the “large waist,” and the “corsetless figure.” For Paul Poiret, see Nancy J. Troy, Couture Culture: A Study in Modern Art and Fashion (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003); Harold Koda and Andrew Bolton, Poiret (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2007). 127. An article about a similar incident in Chicago was noted in The New York Times on 24 May 1908, 1. Titled “Girl in Directoire Gown,” the short article noted that an actress for a Chicago theater company was paid $500 to walk down the street in a Directoire gown and a “pushing, scrambling mob” of 10,000 specta- tors came to see her, prompting her to take refuge in a jewelry store. 128. “Two Fools and Their Follies,” Motion Picture Story Magazine, Sept. 1911, 59. 129. Ibid., 60. 130. “Comments on the Films,” Moving Picture World, 2 Sept. 1911, 1626; Moving Picture World, 12 Aug. 1911, 392. 131. Fashion, and Its Consequences is a comedy about the harem skirt in which the wearer is thrown into jail because she is mistaken for a man (see Moving Picture Notes 191

World, 6 May 1911, 1028). Toto – Enthusiast for a New Fashion also deals with a case of mistaken identity due to the wearer’s “pants” (see Moving Picture World, 22 Jul. 1911, 44). The Hobo and the Hobble Skirt is a “screaming comedy” about a man wearing his wife’s hobble skirt in public (see Kalem Kalendar, 15 July 1913, 14, 19). 132. , The Encyclopedia of Vaudeville (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994), 142. 133. Terry Ramsaye, “The Screen and Press Conspire,” in A Million and One Nights: A History of the Motion Pictures to 1925 (1926; reprint, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1964), 648; catalogue entry for film in American Film Institute Catalogue of Feature Films, 1893–1972, http://www.afi.com/members/catalog (accessed February 2, 2005). 134. Edward Wagenknecht, The Movies in the Age of Innocence (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962), 41. 135. William M. Drew, Speaking of Silents: First Ladies of the Screen (New York: Vestal Press, 1989), 65. 136. Milbank, New York Fashion, 56. 137. Variety, 1 January 1915. Review reprinted in Variety Film Reviews, Volume I, 1907–1920 (New York: Garland Publications, 1983), n.p. 138. Within the financial records, the film is the only one with its own account delineated, due to the high cost and high return of the movie. As a point of comparison, the sales value of extra prints of the film was assessed at $123,428, half of the value of Keystone’s land and buildings. The June 15, 1915 records noted that the film turned a profit of $81,000, but the company still had a deficit of $13,000 overall. By June 30, however, the company showed a surplus of $376,570, which was attributed to the sale and distribution of the film. In August, Tillie was still bringing in great profit to the company. Miscellany file, VF-220, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 139. Ibid. 140. , My Own Story (Boston: Little, Brown, 1934), 130. 141. Park Theater, 1916–17, Boston Theater Collection, Special Collections, Boston Public Library. While this is the title of the film in the Park Theater program, it may have been retitled at some point, as there is no information about the plot synopsis available in film catalogs. 142. Grieveson and Krämer, “Cinema and Reform,” 141. 143. Richards, The Ready-to-Wear Industry, 19. 144. Levine, The Women’s Garment Trades, 233. 145. Koszarski, An Evening’s Entertainment, 187. 146. Koszarski, An Evening’s Entertainment, 119; , The Movies, Mr. Griffith, and Me (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1969), 174. 147. “Dancing – Preaching,” SM2. 148. “Rockefeller, John D., Jr,” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica Online, http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9063983 (accessed 3 Mar. 2010). 149. Léon Barsacq, Caligari’s Cabinet and Other Grand Illusions: A History of Film Design (New York: Plume, 1978), 19. 150. American Film Institute Catalogue of Feature Films, 1893–1972, http://www.afi. com/members/catalog (accessed March 24, 2005). 151. Other films that include Poiret-inspired dress include Dance of the Seven Veils (Vitagraph, 1908) and In the Sultan’s Garden (IMP, 1911), among many others. 192 Notes

For various essays about Orientalism on film, see Matthew Bernstein and Gaylyn Studlar, Visions of the East: Orientalism in Film (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997). 152. Grieveson and Krämer, “Cinema and Reform,” 139. 153. Bowser, The Transformation of Cinema, 42. 154. Eustace Hale Ball, The Art of the Photoplay (New York: G.W. Dillingham, 1913), 117. 155. Miriam Hansen, Babel and Babylon: Spectatorship in American Silent Films (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991), 65.

Chapter 3

1. For the global ascendancy of US film during World War I, see Thompson, Exporting Entertainment, 91; for general information on the subject of US film and the war, see Leslie Midkauffe DeBauche, Reel Patriotism: The Movies and World War I (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1997). For American fashion during World War I, see Milbank, New York Fashion, 56, 62; Jessie Stuart, The American Fashion Industry (Boston, MA: Simmons College, 1951), 17. 2. Thompson, Exporting Entertainment, 91. 3. Nancy Troy, Modernism and the Decorative Arts France: Art Nouveau to Le Corbusier (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991). 4. Abel, The Red Rooster Scare, 94. 5. Bowser, The Transformation of Cinema, 22. 6. Abel, The Red Rooster Scare, 131. 7. Bowser, The Transformation of Cinema, 258, 270; Abel, The Red Rooster Scare, 48. 8. Musser, The Emergence of Cinema, 479. 9. Abel, The Red Rooster Scare, 98. 10. December 4, 1909 review reprinted in Variety Film Reviews, Volume I, 1907–1920 (New York: Garland, 1983), n.p. 11. The films of director are a good example of this, including Scandal (Universal Film, 1915), which dealt with infidelity, divorce, and suicide, and Where Are My Children? (Universal Film, 1916), which addressed birth control and abortion. D.W. Griffith also made a number of films dealing with social issues, including (Biograph, 1912) about the use of cocaine in soft drinks. 12. Bowser, The Transformation of Cinema, 49; Musser, The Emergence of Cinema, 250. 13. Thompson, Exporting Entertainment, 6. 14. Ibid., 9. 15. Other Pathé films on “American” subjects included Indians and Cowboys (1904) and The Gold Prospectors (1909). 16. Thomspon, Exporting Entertainment, 18. 17. Bowser, The Transformation of Cinema, 76. 18. Thompson, Exporting Entertainment, 49. 19. Ibid., ix. 20. , From Hollywood with Love (London: Elm Tree Books, 1977), 55. 21. Thompson, Exporting Entertainment, 28. 22. For information on the success of both French and Italian films in this period, see Richard Abel, Americanizing the Movies and “Movie-Mad” Audiences, 1910–1914 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), 13–39. 23. Ibid., 54. Notes 193

24. This is one of the main points in Paula Marantz Cohen, Silent Film and the Triumph of the American Myth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001). 25. Vachel Lindsay, “Patriotic Splendour,” The Art of the Moving Picture (New York: Macmillan, 1915; reprint New York: The Modern Library, 2000), 57–8. 26. Cohen, Silent Film, 4, 58. 27. The movie was a natural offshoot of Buffalo Bill’s live Wild West shows, which were popular Vaudeville spectacles in the late nineteenth and early twen- tieth centuries. The shows were a successful international export that brought the mythology of the American West to a broad audience; see Tom Gunning, “Early Cinema as Global Cinema: The Encyclopedic Ambition,” in Richard Abel, Giorgio Betellini, and Rob King, eds., Early Cinema and the “National” (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2008), 12. There are a large number of Western- themed films from this period, including The Redman and the Child (American Mutoscope and , 1908, dir. D.W. Griffith), ’s The Cowboy’s Baby (1908, dir. Frank Boggs), and The Cattle Rustlers (1908), among many others. See Abel, The Red Rooster Scare, 151–75 for a thor- ough exploration of the genre in the period 1907–10. 28. Thanhouser advertisement, Moving Picture World, 23 April 1910, 629. See also Abel, The Red Rooster Scare, 173 for more discussion of the formation of the American Film Company. 29. Marina Dahlquist, “Teaching Citizenship via Celluloid,” in Abel et al., Early Cinema and the “National,” 123. 30. DeBauche, Reel Patriotism, 76. 31. Dahlquist, “Teaching Citizenship via Celluloid,” 118, 122. 32. Ibid., 122. 33. Review of Mother’s Crime, May 16, 1908, Variety Film Reviews, volume I 1907–1920 (New York: Garland Publications, 1983). 34. “The Exhibitors Tell What They Want,” Motography, 9 Mar. 1918, lead editorial. 35. Lily of the Tenements viewed at the , Motion Pictures, Broadcasting, and Recorded Sound Division, Washington, D.C. 36. Smoking pipe styles changed over time and by 1911 the long stem was out of fash- ion, primarily because of the advent of cigarettes. The use of a long-stemmed pipe would be considered antiquated and, in this context, most likely associated with Eastern . See Eric G. Ayto, Clay Tobacco Pipes (Aylesburg: Shire, 1979), 10. 37. Sumiko Hihashi, “The New Woman and Consumer Culture: Cecil B. DeMille’s Sex Comedies,” in Jennifer M. Bean and Diane Negra, eds., A Feminist Reader in Early Cinema (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002), 301. 38. Amarilly of Clothes Line Alley viewed at the Library of Congress, Moving Picture, Broadcast, and Recorded Sound Division. 39. The name Amarilly derives from amaryllis, a flower of the lily family. Similar to Lily of the Tenements, Amarilly’s name implies purity within the gritty, urban environment. 40. Film viewed at George Eastman House, Rochester, New York. 41. Pat Kirkham, “Dress, Dance, Dreams and Desire: Fashion and Fantasy in Dance Hall,” Journal of Design History vol. 8, no. 3 (1995), 211. 42. Leslie Midkiff Debauche, “The United States Film Industry and World War I,” in Michael Paris, ed., The First World War and Popular Cinema, 1914–Present (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2000), 138. 43. The Peddler (US Amusement Corp., 1917, dir. Herbert Blaché) is one such example that addresses the hardscrabble life of an itinerant Jewish peddler, but by 1920 these films were a rarity. 194 Notes

44. Diane Negra, “Immigrant Stardom in America,” in Jennifer M. Bean and Diane Negra, eds., A Feminist Reader in Early Cinema (Durham, NC: Duke University Press), 380–81; Roger Daniels, Coming to America: A History of Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life (New York: Harper Collins, 1990), 277–8. 45. Paul Poiret, En Habillant L’Epoque (Paris: Bernard Grasset, 1986), 190. 46. The controversy surrounding the Directoire-style dress is evident in a number of newspaper articles that include commentary from French designers such as Worth and Drecoll (not Poiret) regarding the unflattering nature of the design. The dress is also referred to as a sheath and “scabbard” dress. See “French Modistes Differ on the Directoire Gowns: But Even the Parisians Stared When Three Mannequins Appeared in Them at Longchamps – Best Dressed Women in France Opposes the Style,” The New York Times, 24 May 1908, X5, http://www. proquest.com/ (accessed December 30, 2009). 47. An article in The New York Times includes a line about the weeklong fashion show of the American Ladies Tailors’ Association, the purpose of which was to “show that American tailors don’t have to go to Paris after stylish ideas”; “Plenty of Pockets in Suffragette Suit,” The New York Times, 10 Oct. 1910, 5. 48. Marjorie Garber, Vested Interests: Cross-Dressing and Cultural Anxiety (New York: Harper Collins Perennial, 1993), 314; see also Julie Luck, “Trousers: Feminism in Nineteenth-century America,” in Pat Kirkham and Judy Attfield, eds., The Gendered Object (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996). 49. Steven Zdatny, ed., Hairstyles and Fashion: A Hairdresser’s History of Paris 1910–1920 (Oxford: Berg, 1999), 56. 50. Ibid. 51. Boston Theater Collection, Boston Public Library Special Collections, “Park Theater” folder, clipping , 1915. 52. A print of the film does not survive. The plot summary has been taken from a number of sources, including the Boston Globe clipping noted above and The American Film Institute’s Catalog of Feature Films, 1893–1972, http://www.afi.com/ members/catalog (accessed December 22, 2005). 53. This is the description of Bara in the intertitles; A Fool There Was dir. , William Fox Vaudeville Co., 1915 DVD 2002 Kino Video, 67 min. 54. Ibid. 55. To date, no information about the costume designer or supplier for this film, or Fox Vaudeville Company, has been found. 56. The connections between the French designers Paul Iribe, Georges Lepape, and Poiret were well established. Both designers created special-edition pochoir prints of Poiret’s creations, and Lepape designed the house invoice, which showed a woman in one of Poiret’s striped garments. See Troy, Couture Culture, 133. 57. Troy, Couture Culture, 133. 58. Ladies’ Home Journal was the first women’s magazine in the United States to reach one million subscribers; Bok spearheaded campaigns related to patent medicines and sex education, see Salme Harju Steinburg, Reformer in the Marketplace: Edward W. Bok and The Ladies’ Home Journal (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979), xi, 110. 59. See Edward William Bok, The Americanization of Edward Bok (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1922), 328. 60. Ibid., 330. 61. Adams, “The Dishonest Paris Label, 17–23. 62. Milbank, New York Fashion, 62. Notes 195

63. Advertisement, The New York Times, 21 Sep. 1916, 5. 64. Ibid. 65. “New York Dress Shops,” Vogue (1 May 1925), 150. For more information on the New York fashion world and listings of successful couture salons, boutiques, and department stores, see Milbank, New York Fashion, 62–6. 66. “ Modiste to Dress All of Metro Stars,” Moving Picture World, 27 Nov. 1920, 465. 67. Advertisement, The New York Times, 14 Mar. 1907, 4, http://www.proquest.com/ (accessed December 30, 2009); advertisement, The New York Times, 5 Dec. 1909, 10, http://www.proquest.com/ (accessed December 30, 2009). 68. Ibid., 21 Sept. 1916, 5 (accessed December 30, 2009); “Fifth Avenue Modiste to Dress All of Metro Stars,” Moving Picture World, 27 Nov. 1920, 465. 69. See, for example, articles reporting on the New York City social scene, which include descriptions of fashionable garments but do not identify designers; “Timely Hints About Fashion: Lovely and Original Gowns Worn at the Opera by Fashionable Women – These Point to the New Styles,” The New York Times, 13 Mar. 1910, X7, http://www.proquest.com/ (accessed January 1, 2010). Even direct reports on styles coming from Paris did not identify the specific designer responsible for the fashions the newspaper showed; see “Fashions for Next Autumn Are Still Unsettled: Mannequins and Society Women at Fashionable American Resorts Refuse to Discard Tight Skirt for Fuller Garment; Much Confusion Exists over Paris Situation, but Real Styles, as Usual, Will Again Come Out of France...,” The New York Times, 22 Aug. 1915, X3, http://www.proquest.com/ (accessed January 1, 2010). 70. Even in the 1930s and 1940s, the in-house designers of Bergdorf Goodman remained relatively anonymous. The Bergdorf Goodman collection of fashion sketches at the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Costume Institute includes sketches by designers such as Mrs. Gleason, Philip Hulitar, Ethel Frankau, Mark Mooring, and Valentine Tukine, whose names are still relatively unknown to fashion histo- rians. Bergdorf Goodman collection, Irene Lewisohn Reference Library, Costume Institute, Metropolitan Museum of Art. 71. In France, the term “modiste” usually referred to a milliner, although some mil- liners also sold accessories and some ready-to-wear garments. In the United States “modiste” had a broader definition, encompassing couturiers and milliners. See Mary Brooks Picken, The Fashion Dictionary (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1957), 225; Thérèse and Louise Bonney, A Shopping Guide to Paris (New York: Robert M. McBride, 1929), 58. 72. “Paris Fashions and Ours: Mr. Bok Says Modest Women Look Askance at French Designs,” The New York Times, 6 Sep. 1912, 8. 73. Ibid. 74. “Home Fashions for America, Rapidly Growing Demand for Appropriate Native Styles for Women Finds Voice at Last, The Times Design Contest,” The New York Times, 8 Dec. 1912, 12. 75. Ibid. 76. Ibid. 77. See Troy, Modernism and the Decorative Arts, for a thorough discussion of such efforts in France and Germany. 78. Kenneth E. Silver has thoroughly explored these issues in his book Esprit de Corps: The Art of the Parisian Avant-Garde and the First World War, 1914–1925 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), 178–80. 196 Notes

79. Paula Marantz Cohen, Silent Film and the Triumph of the American Myth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 23–31. 80. Ibid.; for Colonial Revival see Richard Guy Wilson, Shaun Eyring, and Kenny Marotta, eds. Re-creating the American Past: Essays on the Colonial Revival (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2006); for Wright see Frank Lloyd Wright, An Organic Architecture, The Architecture of Democracy (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1970), reprint of 1939 writings. 81. “The New York Times’s Prize Contest Winners in American Fashions: Report of the Committee of Award in the Contest to Determine American Designing Ability Declares That Our Designers Fully Equal, and in Some Respects Are Superior to, the Best Paris Has Produced,” The New York Times, 23 Feb. 1913, X1, http://www. proquest.com/ (accessed December 30, 2009). 82. See, for example, Callot Soeurs’ advertisement in The New York Times that lists the impressive number of shops nationwide that carried their official models; advertisement, The New York Times, 21 Sept. 1916, 5, http://www.proquest.com/ (accessed December 30, 2009). 83. Troy, Couture Culture, 239. 84. The general lack of quality in copies was a persistent problem in the American garment industry. It was noted in an article one month later that the French cou- ture industry, represented by Paquin, Lanvin, Doeuillet, Jacques Worth, Poiret, and Redfern, had come to an agreement with the New York retailers, allow- ing their models to be shipped directly to New York houses, rather than going through brokers, which they hoped would prevent the theft of their ideas and control the quality of the copies made. See “To Ship Models Direct,” The New York Times, 4 Mar. 1913, 6. 85. I am grateful to Lourdes Font for elucidating this point. 86. Edward Bok, “Names of the Nine Prize Winners and Descriptions of Their Designs,” The New York Times, 23 Feb. 1913, 84. 87. Ibid. 88. Ibid. 89. Ibid. 90. Ibid. 91. Richard Martin, American Ingenuity: Sportswear, 1930s–1970s (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1998), 9; Rebecca Arnold, The American Look: Fashion, Sportswear and the Image of Women in 1930s and 1940s New York (London: I.B. Tauris, 2009); for information on a specific sportswear designer, see Kohle Yohannan and Nancy Nolf, Claire McCardell: Redefining Modernism (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1998); Yeshiva University Museum, A Perfect Fit: The Garment Industry and American Jewry 1860–1960 (New York: Yeshiva University, 2005), 72. 92. Grace Kingsley, “Clothes,” Photoplay, c. 1915, 99–100; clipping from the Mary Pickford Scrapbooks, 1914–16, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 93. Ibid. 94. “Without Waiting for Paris American Designers Have Issued Certain Edicts for Autumn,” The New York Times, 10 Aug. 1913, X6 95. Ibid. 96. Ibid.; see also Richards, The Ready-to-Wear Industry, 18. 97. Alison Matthews David, “Vogue’s New World: American Fashionability and the Politics of Style,” Fashion Theory 10: 1–2 (March/June 2006), 14, 20. 98. Bowser, The Transformation of Cinema, 8. See also Vachel Lindsay, The Art of the Moving Picture (New York: MacMillan, 1915), 65–66 for contemporary ideas about Notes 197

how film was the most democratic of arts because it was shown in such a wide variety of venues throughout the country and could thus communicate to the widest possible audience. 99. “American Fashions Win Many Converts, Prize-Winning Models in Yesterday’s Issue Taken as Proof of American Originality,” The New York Times, 24 Feb. 1913, 20. 100. “War Crisis Stops Buying in Paris,” The New York Times, 30 Jul. 1914, 2; “Prices of Paris Clothes Now Higher Than Ever,” The New York Times, 24 Oct. 1915, X2. Another article speculated that, with their limited access to American clientele, French designers would establish fashion houses in New York City; “Fashion World Expects Paris Designers to Enter New York,” The New York Times, 18 Oct. 1914, X4. 101. Advertisement, Boston Daily Globe, 9 Apr. 1916, 37. 102. Mlle. Chic, “American Fashion Creators’ Triumph,” Motion Picture Classic, 14 Aug. 1915, 23, 45. 103. Ibid. 104. Ibid. 105. Grace Kingsley, “Clothes,” Photoplay, c. 1915 pp. 99–100. n.d. Mary Pickford Scrapbook, 1914–16; Mlle. Chic, “American Fashion Creators’ Triumph,” Motion Picture Classic, 14 Aug. 1915, 23, 45. 106. Lady Duff Gordon, Discretions and Indiscretions (New York: Stokes, 1932), 242–3. Three of these designers, Robert Kalloch, Howard Greer, and Gilbert Clarke, all eventually designed costumes for Hollywood films (see Chapter 5). 107. Ibid., 212. Couture houses such as Worth closed for the duration of the war. 108. See Randy Bryan Bigham, Lucile: Her Life by Design (San Francisco: MacEvie Press Group, 2012) for the most complete filmography to date. 109. Thompson, Exporting Entertainment, 59, 87. 110. Ibid., 251. 111. This information taken from various scrapbooks in the Duff Gordon archive, Special Collections, The Gladys Marcus Library, Fashion Institute of Technology, and Duff Gordon, Discretions and Indiscretions, 251. 112. Ibid. 113. “The American Princess, Produced in cooperation with Lucile, Ltd., (Lady Duff Gordon) of New York and Paris,” Kalem Kalender, 15 Mar. 1913, 9. 114. Kalem Kalendar, 1 Nov. 1914, back cover. 115. Ibid., 28. 116. Ibid., 28. 117. Mendes and de la Haye, Lucile Ltd., 211. 118. “Our Own Fashions Displayed at Fete: Novelties by New York Dressmakers Since Paris Ateliers Closed by War,” The New York Times, 5 Nov. 1914, 11. 119. Matthews, “Vogue’s New World,” 28. 120. Chase, Always in Vogue, 118. 121. Ibid., 125. 122. Ibid., 127. 123. “Fashion Fete for Charity,” The New York Times, 24 Sept. 1914, 11; advertise- ment, The New York Times, 21 Nov. 1915, RP2. 124. Chase writes of a campaign entitled “The Plight of the Midinette” that was pub- licized in Vogue and helped to raise money for the couture industry workers. See Chase, Always in Vogue, 127. 125. “Paris Holds Fashion Openings Thanks to Patriotic Women,” The New York Times, 6 Sept. 1914, X2; “Prices of Paris Clothes Now Higher Than Ever,” The New York Times, 24 Oct. 1915, X2. 198 Notes

126. Advertisement, The New York Times, 3 Oct. 1915, 32. 127. “War May Aid Paterson: Her Manufacturers are Alert to Push Their Products,” The New York Times, 21 May 1915. Paterson, New Jersey, was a major textile production center in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. 128. Textile historian Madelyn Shaw believes that US mills were fully capable of pro- ducing muslin at this time and were the domestic suppliers of the fabric in the early twentieth century; Gish, The Movies, 153. 129. “Helping the Moving Pictures to Win the War,” Bioscope, 18 July 1918, 8. 130. Thompson, Exporting Entertainment, 95. 131. DeBauche, Reel Patriotrism, 47; American propaganda films also found success in Britain, and were featured in popular magazines such as Vogue. A still from appeared in Vogue in 1918; see Georgina Howell, In Vogue: Six Decades of Fashion (London: Allen Lane, 1975), 4–5. 132. Gloria Swanson, Swanson on Swanson (New York: Random House, 1980), 96. 133. “In the Theaters,” Kokomo, Indiana Dispatch, 30 Sept. 1917, cited in DeBauche, Reel Patriotism, 49. 134. Duff-Gordon, Discretions and Indiscretions, 258. 135. DeBauche, Reel Patriotism, 61. 136. Ibid., 261; Lady Duff-Gordon papers, Gladys Marcus Library, Special Collections, Fashion Institute of Technology, State University of New York; scrapbook 7, 1917. 137. “Trenches Set New Parisian Styles,” The New York Times, 18 Jul. 1915, X4. 138. Ibid.,; see also Milbank, New York Fashion, 59. 139. Duff-Gordon, Discretions and Indiscretions, 226. 140. Donald Hayne, ed., The Autobiography of Cecil B. DeMille (Princeton, NJ: Prentice- Hall, 1959), 183. 141. Cohen, Silent Film and the Triumph of American Myth, 22. 142. The Gown of Destiny was viewed at the George Eastman House, Rochester, New York. 143. Milbank, New York Fashion, 62; Chase, Always in Vogue, 117. 144. This information is presented in the The Gown of Destiny’s intertitles. 145. “Alma Rubens New American ‘Gown of Destiny,’” Columbus Daily Enquirer, 25 Jan. 1918, 6. 146. , 23 Dec. 1917, RO4. 147. Ibid. 148. There are a number of dresses in this period with focused attention on the back, including those garments with the popular barrel skirt. Some forms of this skirt gathered fabric from the front into a semi-bustle at the back, as seen in a 1918 afternoon dress of black charmeuse, by an unknown designer, shown in British Vogue; reprinted in Howell, In Vogue, 30. 149. Similar silhouettes can be seen in Lucile’s garments both before and during the war: see Lucile’s 1913 tango frock “My Sweetheart,” in Mendes and de la Haye, Lucile Ltd., 160; also see Lucile’s 1919 model “Dangerous Ground,” in Museum at FIT, Designing the It Girl: Lucile and Her Style (New York: Museum at FIT, 2005), cover image, 36, cat. 76. Other examples include a c. 1913 dress by an anony- mous maker in the Kyoto Costume Institute Collection, Fashion: A History from the 18th to the 20th Century, vol. II (Köln: Taschen, 2002), 366. 150. Peggy Hamilton Adams Papers (collection 1373), Department of Special Collections, University of California, Los Angeles, Library. 151. Geraldine Farrar, Such Sweet Compulsion (New York: Greystone Press, 1938), 167. Other contemporary references that offered advice on appropriate garment Notes 199

colors for the screen include Jean Bernique Jean, Motion Picture Acting for Professionals and Amateurs (Producers Service Company, 1916), 182. The author noted that white material, if starched or “of silken sheen,” always produced halation, that heavy colors photographed black, and that most pale colors appeared almost white. Bernique also recommended simple, rather than over- elaborate gowns, which did not photograph well. 152. Ibid; for Klieg lights, see Koszarski, An Evening’s Entertainment, 150. 153. Howard Greer, Designing Male (New York: Putnam, 1951), 205. Greer, who began as a sketch artist for Lucile, worked at Hickson for six weeks, before leaving to design for Famous Players-Lasky in Hollywood. He eventually opened his own couture salon in Los Angeles in 1927. 154. Milbank writes about the popularity of the bustle-back and its success as an original silhouette created by a New York fashion salon, but does not mention the film; see New York Fashion, 62. 155. Advertisement, The New York Times, 12 Aug. 1917, X3. 156. Our Mutual Girl Weekly, reel 42, 1915, 10. 157. “The Genius of America in Our Mutual Girl Weekly,” Reel Life, 11 July 1914, 22. 158. Triangle Magazine, 1 Dec. 1917, 18. 159. Ibid. The Unique was also a store promoted by Peggy Hamilton in her weekly rotogravure fashion page of the Los Angeles Times. 160. Ibid. 161. Ibid. 162. Helen Bullitt Lowry, “High Art Home-Made, or Paris Robbed of Its Prey: War- Time Conquest of the Field of American Commercial Design by Native Artists and the New French Invasion That Threatens It,” The New York Times, 9 Nov. 1919, SM3. 163. Ibid. 164. Ibid. 165. Ibid. 166. George Mitchell, “The Consolidation of the American Film Industry, 1915– 1920,” Cine-Tracts vol. 2, no. 2 (Spring 1979), 32. 167. “Three Style Centers: This City, Chicago and Los Angeles Are Figuring as Such,” The New York Times, 26 Sept. 1920, 43. 168. Chapter 6 addresses Hamilton’s career in great detail, with information on her fashion revues. Her interest in an “individual American style” is the focus of an undated newspaper clipping from c. 1920, Peggy Hamilton Adams Papers, Special Collections, University of California, Los Angeles. 169. Banton, cited in 1919 The New York Times article by Lowry, “High Art Home- Made, or Paris Robbed of its Prey,” SM3.

Chapter 4

1. “Poiret, Creator of Fashions, Here,” The New York Times, 21 Sept. 1913, X3. 2. Anne Hollander, Seeing Through Clothes (New York: Viking Press, 1978), 240. 3. The Golden Beetle viewed on The Movies Begin: A Treasury of Early Cinema, 1894– 1913 DVD British Film Institute and Film Preservation Associates, 2002. Annabelle’s Serpentine Dance can be viewed at http://www.youtube.com (accessed January 1, 2010). 4. Musser, The Emergence of Cinema, 176. 200 Notes

5. Ibid., 61. 6. Jenny Hammerton, For Ladies Only? Eve’s Film Review, Pathé Cinemagazine 1921–33 (East Sussex: The Projection Box, 2001), 60. 7. Advertisement, The New York Times, 25 Nov. 1915, 22. 8. Joel H. Kaplan and Sheila Stowell address this phenomenon throughout their book Theatre and Fashion: Oscar Wilde to the Suffragettes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994). 9. “The Costume Play,” Moving Picture World, 3 Dec. 1910, 1279. 10. Kaplan and Stowell, Theatre and Fashion, 8; Museum at FIT, Designing the It Girl, 19. Holding “staged” fashion shows within the couture house pre-dates Lucile and Poiret. As early as 1858, the House of Worth used mannequin parades to show its latest creations, Caroline Evans, “The Enchanted Spectacle,” Fashion Theory vol. 5, no. 3 (Sept. 2001), 273. 11. Park Theater program, 1914–1915 folder, Boston Theater Archives, Special Collections, Boston Public Library. 12. Bowser, The Transformation of Cinema, 225; Robert C. Allen, “A Decided Sensation,” in Patricia McDonnell, Edge of Your Seat: Popular Theater and Film in Early Twentieth Century American Art (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002), 87. 13. Moving Picture World, 29 July 1911, 187. 14. Musser, The Emergence of Cinema, 118, 225. 15. Moving Picture World, 29 Jul. 1911, 187. 16. Abel, The Red Rooster Scare, xii. 17. Musser, The Emergence of Cinema, 9. 18. Promotional intertitle in one of Pathé’s 1915 newsreels (viewed at the Library of Congress, Motion Picture, Broadcast, and Recorded Sound Division); that the company reached this figure by the 1920s is also confirmed in Roger Smither and Wolfgang Claue, Newsreels in Film Archives: A Survey Based on the FIAF Newsreel Symposium (Wiltshire: Flicks Books, 1996), 73. 19. BFI National Film Archive Catalog (London: British Film Institute, 1980). Fashion reel viewed at the British Film Institute, London. 20. Christopher Breward, Fashion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 147. 21. Different Headdresses (1905–06) was found on the Pathé Gaumont archive website, http://www.gaumontpathearchives.com/ (accessed 10 Jan. 2010). 22. Costume à travers les Âges, reconstituté par le Couturier Pascault viewed at British Film Institute, London. 23. For dress reform see Mary Warner Blanchard’s chapter on “Bohemian Boundaries, the Female Body, and Aesthetic Dress, in Oscar Wilde’s America: Counterculture in the Gilded Age (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998). There are also a number of period sources on dress reform, both films and books. A 1914 movie called Diana’s Dress Reform (Vitagraph) that addressed the subject ended with a message that classically inspired dress was more practical than the current modes. See “Diana’s Dress Reform,” Moving Picture World, 3 Jan. 1914, 1. Another contemporary reference is Belle Armstrong Whitney’s What to Wear: A Book for Women (Battle Creek, MI: Good Health, 1916), which promoted the looser fitting, more healthful “Greek”-style dresses of the Spanish-born dressmaker and textile designer Mariano Fortuny. 24. Evans, “The Enchanted Spectacle,” 274. 25. Nancy Hall-Duncan, The History of Fashion Photography (New York: International Museum of Photography, 1977), 26–30. Notes 201

26. Mary E. Davis, Classic Chic: Music, Fashion, Modernism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), 10. 27. Musser, The Emergence of Cinema, 17, 30. 28. Early Fashions on Brighton Pier (viewed at the British Film Institute, London). 29. Fashions at the Race Meeting, 1920, produced by British Pathé, is one such exam- ple. The camera pans the crowd, then closes in on two women in white floor- length dresses and large picture hats (viewed at http://britishpathe.com, accessed Nov. 24, 2008). 30. Gaumont Graphic No. 17 (viewed at the British Film Institute, London). 31. Troy, Couture Culture, 107. 32. Yvonne Deslandres, Poiret (Paris: Editions du Regard, 1986), 41. 33. Many of the couture houses were actually in hôtel particuliers, which were grand, private residences, often dating to the eighteenth century. The house of Patou, for example, was in such a building on the Rue St. Florentin, opposite one of the palaces once inhabited by the Rothschilds; see Bonney, A Shopping Guide to Paris, 35. 34. Duff-Gordon, Discretions and Indiscretions, 50. 35. Gaumont Graphic 289, 1931 (viewed at the British Film Institute, London). 36. “Fashion Show Opens: Foreign and Domestic Styles Exhibited – Moving Pictures to be Made,” The New York Times 25 Jul. 1913, 10. 37. Moving Picture World, 8 November 1913, 669; “New York Fashion Show in Pictures,” Moving Picture World, 4 October 1913, 32; Pathé’s fashion reel “For Afternoon” of 1922 was called a “cinemamagazine” (viewed at the British Film Institute, London); at least one of Pathé’s newsreels of 1915 was called an “ani- mated gazette” (viewed at the Library of Congress, Motion Picture, Broadcast, and Recorded Sound Division, Washington, D.C.). 38. Advertisement, Moving Picture World, 27 April 1912, 342. 39. “Fashion Show in Pictures: Stunning Girls in Gorgeous Gowns Pose in Fort Lee Studio for World Film Production,” Moving Picture World, 9 Oct. 1915, 271. 40. Duff Gordon, Discretions and Indiscretions, 66. 41. Chase, Always in Vogue, 124–5. 42. “Prices of Paris Clothes Now Higher Than Ever,” The New York Times, 24 October 1915, x2. 43. Moving Picture World, 8 Nov. 1913, 669. 44. Triangle Magazine, 14 Jul. 1917, 3. 45. Hoffman, “New York Fashion Show in Pictures,” 32. 46. “Fashion Show Opens. Foreign and Domestic Styles Exhibited – Moving Pictures to be Made,” The New York Times, 25 July 1913, 10. 47. Hoffman, “New York Fashion Show in Pictures,” 32. 48. Ibid. 49. The lack of professional choreography is also evident in the reel Modes of the Moment, production company unknown, from 1917 (viewed on the Prelinger archives, www.archive.org, accessed April 2005). 50. Hoffman, “New York Fashion Show in Pictures,” 32. 51. Ibid. 52. Duff Gordon, Discretions and Indiscretions, 70, 71, 73. Examples of how Lucile’s mannequins displayed garments can be seen in surviving fashion reels, includ- ing “La Mode à Paris, Création Lucile” (1913), and “La Mode: Robes et Manteaux Crées par Lucile” (1914), Gaumont Pathé Archives website, http://pathearchives. com, accessed August 26, 2005. 202 Notes

53. Lucile successfully promoted herself as the inventor of the model walk, and is credited as such in Harmony in Dress, 1924 (Scranton, PA: Woman’s Institute of Domestic Arts and Sciences and International Textbook Company, 1936), 7; “Poiret, Creator of Fashions Here,” The New York Times, 21 Sept. 1913, X3. 54. “Poiret, Creator of Fashions Here,” The New York Times, 21 Sept. 1913, X3. 55. Moving Picture World, 13 Dec. 1913, 1336. 56. Ibid. 57. Ibid. 58. The intertitles were often made of more volatile film stock and may have deterio- rated while the stock with the images survived. Sometimes the film company can provide clues as to whether or not it is Paris fashion, e.g., Pathé Frères most likely featured Paris couture, whether or not the individual couturier is identified. 59. “Advanced Styles for Fall and Winter, 1914–15,”Moving Picture World, 16 May 1914, 995. 60. Elizabeth Leese, Costume Design in the Movies (New York: Dover Publications, 1991), 12. 61. Ibid. 62. Duff-Gordon, Discretions and Indiscretions, 47. 63. Lady Duff-Gordon (“Lucile”), “Dressing the Stage Beauties: Lady Duff Gordon Tells Why the Footlights Surround the Mirror of Fashion and Why the Modes Come Through on the Spot-Lights Path,” Fort Worth Star Telegram, 14 May 1911, 3, http://infoweb.newsbank.com.ezproxy.bpl.org, accessed December 2007. 64. Troy, Couture Culture, 197. 65. “Paul Poiret Here to Tell of His Art, Parisian Creator of Gowns Arrives on the Provence for a Lecture Tour Here, ‘Movies’ of New Models,” The New York Times, 21 Sept. 1913, 11. 66. Ibid.; “Parisian Expert Declares the Vivid Colors Will Lead,” The New York Times, 5 Oct. 1913, X2; department stores also advertised exhibitions of Poiret garments, with both Gimbels and J.M. Gidding & Co. taking out side-by-side advertisements related to his “Le Minaret” costumes in the Sept. 22, 1913 issue of The New York Times, 5. 67. For information on the great success of Queen Elizabeth, see Lee Grieveson and Peter Krämer, “Feature Films and Cinema Programmes,” in Grieveson and Krämer, The Silent Cinema Reader, 190. For the importance of Poiret’s costuming of the film, see Peter Wollen, “Strike a Pose,” Sight and Sound (March 1995), 14. 68. Bowser, The Transformation of Cinema, 228. 69. “Parisian Expert Declares the Vivid Colors Will Lead,” The New York Times, 5 Oct. 1913, X2; for Poiret’s use of Fauvist hues, see Harold Koda and Andrew Bolton, Poiret (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2007), 85. 70. Anthony Slide, The American Film Industry, An Historical Dictionary (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986), 85; Bowser, The Transformation of Cinema, 229. 71. Slide, The American Film Industry, 85. 72. Bowser, The Transformation of Cinema, 228. 73. Ibid. 74. Slide, The American Film Industry, 86. 75. Leese, Costume Design in the Movies, 9. 76. Edna Woolman Chase used a similar strategy for her “Fashion Fête” of 1914, which was organized as a war benefit. Chase succeeded in securing the patronage of top New York society ladies to add some cachet to the event; Chase, Always in Vogue, 124. Notes 203

77. Moving Picture World, 18 Oct. 1913, 311. 78. Information was taken from a promotional brochure, author’s collection, that also notes that arrangements for the American tour were made by William H. Hickey, general manager of the European Kinemacolor companies. 79. “New York Fashion Show in Pictures,” Moving Picture World, 4 October 1913, 32. 80. Paul Poiret, chapter 17, “In America,” En Habillant L’Epoque (Paris: Bernard Grasset, 1930), 186. 81. Troy, Couture Culture, 212. 82. Ibid.; advertisements for J.M. Gidding & Co. and Gimbels, The New York Times, 22 Sept. 1913, 5. 83. Poiret, En Habillant L’Epoque, 186. John Murphy Farley was of New York from 1902 until his death and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1911; “Catholics Rejoice Over Farley’s Honor: Congratulations Pour Into the See House on News That He Is to be a Cardinal,” The New York Times, 30 Oct. 1911, 1; http://www.proquest.com/, accessed February 27, 2010. 84. “Paul Poiret Here to Tell of His Art,” The New York Times, 21 Sept. 1913, 11. 85. “Poiret, Creator of Fashions, Here,” The New York Times, 21 Sept. 1913, X3. 86. Poiret, En Habillant L’Epoque, 187. 87. “Poiret Fashions in Kinemacolor,” Moving Picture World, 25 Oct. 1913, 309. 88. The New York Times, 21 Sept. 1913, 11. 89. The New York Times, 22 Sept. 1913, 5. It is very difficult to find information on the entry prices for fashion shows, but there is one advertisement for “Mrs. Whitney’s Fashion Show” in 1915 at the Park Square Theatre in Boston that had tickets for between thirty cents and two dollars. Advertisement, Boston Daily Globe, 1 Oct. 1915, 13. 90. “Film ‘La Garconne’ Barred: Ministry Forbids Showing of Margueritt’s [sic] Novel,” The New York Times, 12 April 1923, 22. It is unknown whether Poiret dressed only the main character or all of the players. 91. Troy, Couture Culture, 99. 92. As Mary Davis points out, this blurring of the lines between “high” and “low” culture was occurring in various media, including art and theater. Jean Cocteau and Eric Satie’s avant-garde stage performance Parade, for example, had a sec- tion on the “Little American Girl” that was inspired by Mary Pickford’s screen persona; see Davis, Classic Chic, 122–5. 93. Duff-Gordon, Discretions and Indiscretions, 108. 94. The names were gathered from two sources: Lady Duff Gordon papers, Gladys Marcus Library, Fashion Institute of Technology, State University of New York; and Lucile, Lady Duff Gordon Drawings (Collection Number 624), Department of Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, UCLA. 95. Duff-Gordon, Discretions and Indiscretions, 65. 96. Mendes and de la Haye, Lucile, Ltd., 186. 97. Lady Duff Gordon papers, Gladys Marcus Library, Fashion Institute of Technology, State University of New York; scrapbook 15, Lucile sketches, 1915–1925, news- paper clipping, n.d. 98. Ibid. 99. Duff-Gordon, Discretions and Indiscretions, 67. 100. “An American Princess,” Kalem Kalendar, 15 March 1913, 9. 101. Ibid. 102. Review of film from The New York Dramatic Mirror, 10 April 1912, reprinted on www.stanford.com, accessed August 31, 2005. 204 Notes

103. I have only found one image of Alice Joyce in The American Princess and it is from a microfilmed copy of the Kalem Kalender source noted above. Unfortunately, the quality of the image is too poor to make out dress details. 104. The number of films that Lucile costumed may be higher, but to date there have been 26 documented as attributable to her. 105. Slide, The American Film Industry, 309. 106. Terry Ramsaye, “The Screen and Press Conspire,” in A Million and One Nights: A History of the Motion Pictures to 1925 (1926; reprint, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1964), 655. 107. Advertisement, Reel Life, 2 May 1914, reprinted in Q. David Bowers, “Filmography,” Thanhouser Films: An Encyclopedia and History, 1909–1918 (Thanhouser Company Film Preservation, 2001). CD-ROM. 108. Ibid. 109. The Eavesdropper, “Heard in Studio and Exchange,” Reel Life, 13 , 22. 110. “Written On The Screen: Relayed Releases. Clippings And Comments,” The New York Times, 2 June 1918, www.proquest.com/, accessed February 27, 2010. 111. Letter, Reel Life, 25 July 1914, reprinted in Bowers, Thanhouser Films CD-ROM. 112. Ben Singer, “Female Power: Serial Queen Melodrama: The Etiology of an Anomaly” in Abel, Silent Film, 163–93. 113. Marie-Claude Mercier, “ and the Perils of Pauline: A Contemporary Perspective,” www.cadrage.net, accessed March–April 2002. 114. “The Week in Theatres,” The New York Times, 7 April 1914, 9. 115. Bowdoin Square collection, Theater Collection, Boston Public Library, 1913–14 folder. Although Traffic in White Slaves was one of the highly popular white slave films of the 1910s, and indeed the film referred to may have been (Independent Motions Pictures Company, 1913, dir. George Loane Tucker), a film that was distributed widely, the “white slave” genre soon came under fire for its sensationalist nature. For more information on the films, see Christopher Diffee, “Sex and the City: The White Slavery Scare and Social Governance in the Progressive Era,” American Quarterly vol. 57, no. 2 (June 2005), 411–37. 116. Slide, The American Film Industry, 54. Note: Eclectic and Pathé were unified in 1915 under the name Pathé Exchange. 117. Thompson, Exporting Entertainment, 59. 118. Koszarski, An Evening’s Entertainment, 165. 119. Print of film in author’s collection; information on Hearst’s corporate history gathered from http://www.hearstcorporation.org/history, accessed May 12, 2007; the information on the advertising was taken from a survey of 1913–14 microfiche of The Cosmopolitan, Boston Public Library. 120. I am grateful to Dr. Lourdes Font for providing me with this information. 121. Production Files, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences Margaret Herrick Library, Broadway Music Corporation, 1914. 122. Advertisement, Moving Picture World, 28 . 123. See Lady Duff Gordon papers, Fashion Institute of Technology, scrapbook 3; Pat Kirkham and Deborah Nadoolman Landis, “Designing Hollywood: Women Costume and Production Designers,” in Kirkham, Women Designers in the USA, 248. 124. For further evidence of Lucile’s business acumen, see Mendes and de la Haye, Lucile, Ltd., 196. Lucile also did a ready-to-wear collection for Sears, Roebuck in 1917; see Museum at Fit Designing the It Girl, 26. Notes 205

125. Ben Singer, “Female Power: Serial Queen Melodrama: The Etiology of an Anomaly” in Abel, Silent Film, 165. 126. “Gossip of the Film World,” Forth Worth Star-Telegram, Mar. 29, 1914, 15 notes that Lady Duff-Gordon was going to make all of White’s gowns. 127. See Poiret’s 1912 Sorbet dress with modernist rose in François Baudot, Poiret (New York: Assouline, 2006), 37; see also Louis Süe’s and Jacques Palyart’s designs for a boudoir at the Salon d’Automne, Paris, 1913 in Troy, Modernism and the Decorative Arts, 127; for the Mackintoshes, see Wendy Kaplan, Charles Rennie Mackintosh (New York: Abbeville Press, 1996); for the Wiener Werkstätte, see Christian Brandstätter, Wiener Werkstätte, Design in Vienna 1903–1932: Architecture, Furniture, Commercial Art (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2003). 128. Box 8, Drawings 71–80, Lucile, Lady Duff Gordon Drawings (Collection Number 624), Department of Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, UCLA. 129. For The Misleading Lady, see Ladies World, Feb. 1916, 3; for The Strange Case of Mary Page, evidence was found in the film viewed by the author at the Library of Congress and in “Edna Mayo’s Latest Gown by Lucille [sic],” Motion Picture, 1 Dec. 1916, 48–9; for Gloria’s Romance, see advertisement in Fenway Theater folder, 1915–16, Boston Theater Archives, Special Collections, Boston Public Library. 130. “Edna Mayo: Fashions on the Film,” Pictures and the Picturegoer, 15 Apr. 1916, 58. 131. Ladies World, February 1916, cover, 3. 132. Ibid.; Photoplay, March 1916, 159. 133. Film viewed by author at Library of Congress; “Edna Mayo’s Latest Gown by Lucille (sic),” Motion Picture, 1 Dec. 1916, 48–9. The price of $250,000 was probably inflated for publicity reasons, but if all of the dresses did indeed come from Lucile, the cost would have been quite high. If one compares the cost of wardrobe for other films in the same era, this is extravagant. The 1915 produc- tion records for the Majestic Motion Picture Company, for example, included one month’s expenditure on wardrobe at $118.45; see Production Records, Majestic Film Corp., Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 134. Fenway Theater folder, 1915–16, Boston Theater Archives, Special Collections, Boston Public Library. 135. Ramsaye, A Million and One Nights, 730; Boston Park Theater, 1915–16 adver- tisement noting the “beautiful gowns of particular interest to women,” Boston Theater Archives, Special Collections, Boston Public Library. 136. Review, The New York Times, 23 May 1916, 9:2. 137. Ramsaye, A Million and One Nights, 730; Boston Park Theater, 1915–16 folder, Boston Theater Archives, Special Collections, Boston Public Library; advertise- ment for Pantages Theater, Los Angeles Times, 5 June 1916; Pond’s Skin Cream advertisement, Library of Congress online database “Emergence of Advertising in America: 1850–1920,” available from http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/eaa/ ponds, accessed July 10, 2006. 138. Park Theater advertisement “Remarkable Display of the Latest Fashions in Gowns Forms One of the Brilliant Features in This Production. Miss Kitty Gordon Wears Different Gowns in Each Scene” in The Boston Globe, n.d., 1915– 16 folder, Boston Theater Archives, Special Collections, Boston Public Library. 139. “The Fashion in Paris,” Moving Picture World, 5 July 1913, 88; “Fashion in New York,” Moving Picture World, 18 June 1913, no page noted. 206 Notes

140. Laura Mulvey, “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema,” Screen vol. 16, no. 3 (1975), reprinted in Joanne Hollows, Peter Hutchings, and Mark Jancovich, The Film Studies Reader (London: Arnold, 2000), 238–47. 141. A. P. Nelson and Mel R. Jones, A Silent Siren Song: The Aiken Brothers’ Hollywood Odyssey, 1905–1926 (New York: Cooper Square Press, 2000), 138. 142. Ibid., 85. 143. Moya Luckett, “Advertising and Femininity: The Case of Our Mutual Girl,” Screen vol. 40, no. 4 (December 1999), 367. 144. Moving Picture World, 24 Jan. 1914, 423. 145. Advertisement no. 14 for “Our Mutual Girl” for the Saturday Evening Post, Reel Life, 15 Nov. 1913, n.p. 146. “Mutual Girl Series: Mutual Players with Norma Philips in the Leading Role to Do a Serial Fashion Picture,” Moving Picture World, 27 Dec. 1913, 1525. 147. “Making Wardrobes for the Movies,” Reel Life supplement 4:2 (28 March 28, 1914), iii. 148. “Mutual Girl Series: Mutual Players…,” Moving Picture World, 1525. 149. Triangle/Reliance Film Company records, Volume 27, Ledger 1914–1923, New York Public Library shows payments made to Wanamakers on September 19, 1914 and to Bonwit Teller on September 21, 1914. 150. “Our Mutual Girl Has Arrived,” Photoplay Magazine, March 1914, 124–5. 151. Ibid. 152. Ibid. 153. Reel Life, 23 May 1914, 2. 154. Reel Life, 4 Apr. 1914, 2. 155. “The Mutual Girl,” Reel Life, 3 January 1914, 6; Mabel Condon, “The Statuesque Mutual Girl,” Photoplay, March 1914, 51. 156. Nelson and Jones, A Silent Siren Song, 138. 157. Ramsaye, A Million and One Nights, 580. 158. Luckett, “Advertising and Femininity…,” 367. 159. Ibid. 160. Nelson and Jones, A Silent Siren Song, 136. 161. Ibid. 162. The payments to Mindil are sporadic, but it appears that he received between $62.50 and $100 per week, see Triangle/Reliance Film Company records, Volume 27, Ledger 1914–1923, New York Public Library. For a comparison with another actress’s salary, film star Mary Pickford was paid $200 per week after the success of The New York Hat in 1912; Mary Pickford, Sunshine and Shadow: An Autobiography (New York: Doubleday, 1955), 195. 163. “Scene Building for Our Mutual Girl,” Reel Life, 19 Sept 1914, 23. 164. Ibid. 165. Advertisements, Reel Life, 1 Feb. 1914 and 14 Feb. 1914. 166. Volume 27, Ledger 1914–1923, Triangle/Reliance Film Corporation Records, 1912–1923, Manuscripts Division, New York Public Library. 167. See copy of the magazine in the Special Collections, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts. 168. Ibid. 169. For common promotional tactics, see advertisement, Oliver Typewriter Company, The New York Times, 21 Oct. 1916, 4. The advertisement highlights an event with moving picture star Alice Brady, with free paper patterns for an “ideal office gown” (designed by Lady Duff Gordon) offered to all participants. Notes 207

170. In 1902, dress patterns from Sears cost five cents; Sarah A. Godine, “Boundless Possibilities: Home Sewing and the Meanings of Women’s Domestic Work in the United States, 1890–1930,” Journal of Women’s History vol. 16, no. 2 (Summer 2004), 75. In 1912, patterns of Lillian Gish’s summer frocks cost twelve cents; “Lillian Gish’s Summer Frocks Designed by Le Bon Ton with Patterns for You,” Photoplay, 1 Jun. 1922, 56–7. 171. Our Mutual Girl Weekly, Issue 23, reel 42, back cover. 172. “The Genius of America in Our Mutual Girl Weekly,” Reel Life, 7 Nov. 1914, 22. In the article Scotson Clark is described as an Englishman who is traveling to America to design posters for Our Mutual Girl and as a graphic artist with 20 years of poster and advertising experience. James Montgomery Flagg (1877–1970) was a successful illustrator, most famous for his World War I “I Want You” recruiting poster; see “Flagg, James Montgomery,” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica Online, http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9034465, accessed March 5, 2010. Everett Shinn (1876–1953) was an American painter, illustrator, designer, playwright, and and member of the Aschan School of New York City, known for its urban realist imagery; see Janet Marstine, “Shinn, Everett,” in Grove Art Online, Oxford Art Online, http://www.oxfordartonline.com/ subscriber/article/art/T078275, accessed March 6, 2010. 173. “Novel Mutual Posters and Their Makers,” Reel Life, 30 May 1914, 21. 174. Ibid. 175. This expensive, limited-edition publication showcased the talent of illustrators such as Georges Barbier and Paul Iribe and eventually influenced the visual content of a range of more mainstream periodicals, including Harper’s Bazaar; see Mary Davis’s chapter “Le Gazette du Bon Ton,” in Classic Chic, 48–92. 176. Reel Life, 21 March 1914, 19. 177. “Takes a Ride in Air Ship,” The New York Times, 12 July 1914, X7. 178. Numerous articles related to Pathé’s fashion reels, including one about Pathé’s Weekly Number 18 that featured Paris fashions in Moving Picture World, 4 May 1912, 450; “Special for the Ladies,” Moving Picture World, 29 Jan. 1912; and “Millinery Advance Models from Paris,” Moving Picture World, 3 Feb 1912, 414. The quote is from “Pathé Fashion Film to Have Wide Publicity,” Moving Picture World, 22 Jul. 1916, 640. 179. “Berst Plans Fashion Film,” Moving Picture World, 10 Jun. 1916, 1860. 180. Ibid. 181. Ibid. 182. “Pathe [sic] Fashion Film to Have Wide Publicity,” Moving Picture World, 22 July 1916, 610. 183. Ibid. 184. “Pathe [sic] Fashion Films Interest Women,” Moving Picture World, 25 Nov. 1916, 1193; Margaret I. MacDonald, “Florence Rose Fashions: Artistic Film Presentation of Fashions by the Pathe Exchange, Inc.,” Moving Picture World, 12 Aug. 1916, 1099. 185. Advertisement, “Betty Prepares for Cool Weather,” Moving Picture World, 9 Sept. 1916, 1645; advertisement highlighting the “American fashions” shown in “A Day with Betty Young,” Moving Picture World, 12 Aug. 1916, 1065. 186. “Florence Rose Fashions,” Boston Traveler, 7–11 Aug. 1916, 1. 187. C.D. Craine Jr., “Fights for Men, Finery for Women,” Moving Picture World, 29 July 1916, 818. 188. The Triangle, 23 Oct. 1915, 6. 208 Notes

189. The Triangle, 30 Oct. 1915, 6. 190. Ibid. 191. Ibid.; The Triangle, 13 May 1916, 1. 192. Ibid. 193. Boston Public Library Theater Collection, Park Theater Program, folder 1914–15. 194. “Eve’s Film Review,” 1921, viewed at Library of Congress, Motion Picture, Broadcasting, and Recorded Sound Division, Washington, D.C. 195. Ibid.

Chapter 5

1. Gloria Swanson Papers, Box 553, Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin. 2. “Dress and the Picture,” Moving Picture World, 9 July 1910, 73–4. 3. Ibid., 73. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid. 6. Ibid., 74. 7. Grace Kingsley, “Clothes,” Photoplay, 1 May 1915; clipping from Mary Pickford scrapbooks, Special Collections, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 8. “Tricks of Make-Up and Dress in the Movies,” Reel Life, 30 May 1914, 24; “Dressing for the Movies,” The Photoplay Magazine, 1 Mar. 1915, 117–20; Madame Therese Lavoisier, “The Latest Fashions in Moving Pictures: A Review of Dainty Gowns Worn by Studio Stars,” Motion Picture Magazine, July 1915, 118; Charles Fuir, “Costuming a Cinema Spectacle,” Motion Picture Magazine, Jan. 1918, 47–50. 9. Lavoisier, “The Latest Fashions,” 118. 10. The wardrobe department was still in a state of transition and film reviews criticized movies that were not well costumed. For example, the 1915 film Three Roses (Thanhouser), was set in the Colonial period and the review noted that the costumes of the present day mingled “promiscuously” with those of the Colonial era. Review, Moving Picture World, 5 Jun. 1915, reprinted in Bowers, “Filmography.” 11. Gish, The Movies, 77; Vitagraph Brochure “How Moving Pictures are Made,” c. 1912, Hollywood Museum Collection, Special Collections, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 12. The Wardrobe Mistress, “Tricks of Make-Up and Dress in the Movies,” Reel Life, 30 May 1914, 24; “Dressing for the Movies,” Photoplay, Jan. 1915, 1920; see also Kirkham and Landis, “Designing Hollywood,” 247. 13. Gish, The Movies, 77; see Kirkham and Landis, “Designing Hollywood,” 248. 14. Ibid. 15. “Baseball and Bloomers,” Photoplay (Nov. 1914), cited in “Chapter 4, 1911,” Bowers, Thanhouser Films. 16. Gish, The Movies, 68. 17. Ibid., 77–8. 18. “Alice Brady Talks About Dress and Make-Up,” Moving Picture World, 21 Jul. 1917, 426; Lavoisier, “The Latest Fashions in Moving Pictures,”118. 19. Ibid., 85. 20. Ibid.; see also Kirkham and Landis, “Designing Hollywood,” 248. Notes 209

21. http://www.westerncostume.com/history, accessed June 15, 2005. 22. Gish, The Movies, 145; see also Kirkham and Landis, “Designing Hollywood,” 248. 23. Hollywood Museum files, Mutual records, Special Collections, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 24. Mack Sennett Files, Miscellany (VF-220), Special Collections, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 25. Eaves Costume Company was founded in 1863 and was one of New York’s largest and oldest costume shops until 2005, when it was bought out by the Florida- based Costume World. See online collection catalog of the American Museum of the Moving Image, http://collection.movingimage.us/, accessed Jan. 3, 2010. As it pertains to the New York film industry, the company was listed in Trow’s General Directory for New York City from 1903 through 1916. 26. William Fox/Sol Wurtzel Material, July 16, 1919 letter to William Fox in New York, Special Collections, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 27. Ibid. 28. David Chierichetti, “Costume Design in Silent Films,” in Frank N. Magill, ed., Magills Survey of Cinema: Silent Films, vol. 1 (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Salem Press, 1986), 39. 29. “Dressing the Movies. Choosing Clothes a Problem in Psychology,” Photo Player, 25 August 1923, 22. 30. Frederick A. Talbot, Moving Pictures: How They Are Made and Worked (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1914 reprint of 1912 edition), 113. 31. Ibid. 32. Jeanne North, “Job in the Studios?,” Photoplay (May 1931), 70; Leese, Costume Design in the Movies, 36. 33. Coulter’s films include (1927, dir. W.S. van Dyke), The Law of the Range (1928, dir. William Nigh), and Sioux Blood (1929, dir. John Waters), among others. See American Film Institute Catalogue of Feature Films, 1893–1972, http://www.afi.com/members/catalog, accessed June 5, 2005. Coulter probably costumed more films than noted in the catalog because wardrobe credits are mostly cited for post-1925 films. 34. Edith Clark, “Designing Clothes for Movie Folk,” Opportunities in the Motion Picture Industry (New York: Photoplay Research Society, 1922), 79. 35. Old Jane of the Gaiety, “Filmography,” Bowers, Thanhouser Films. Gish, The Movies, 117. 36. Vitagraph brochure “How Moving Pictures Are Made,” c. 1912 (box 46), Hollywood Museum Collection, Special Collections, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences; Gish, The Movies, 77. 37. Sennett/Keystone was an autonomous production arm of the Triangle Studios in the mid-1910s. 38. See the Internet Movie DataBase for a listing of Unholz’s films, http://www.imdb. com/name/nm0881243/, accessed January 10, 2010. 39. Mack Sennett Collection (Folder 1113), Special Collections, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 40. Ibid. 41. This is the only film attributed to Mme. Violet in the American Film Institute Catalogue of Feature Films, 1893–1972, http://www.afi.com/members/catalog/, accessed Jan. 2, 2010. 42. “The Costume Play,” Moving Picture World, 3 Dec. 1910, 1279. 210 Notes

43. Vitagraph Brochure “How Moving Pictures are Made,” c. 1912, Hollywood Museum Collection, Special Collections, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 44. Ibid. 45. Lavoisier, “The Latest Fashions,” 117. 46. Ibid. 47. “Studio Modiste – New Occupation for Women,” The Triangle, 7 Oct. 1916, 2. 48. Ibid. There is one Mme. Clare, a milliner located at 138 Lenox Avenue, listed in the 1912 Trow’s New York Directory. The writer of the article may have changed the address to a more fashionable one. 49. Ibid. 50. Mrs. Frank Farrington, “In the Costume Room,” Moving Picture World, 21 July 1917, 389. 51. Ibid. 52. Jeanne North, “Job in the Studios?,” Photoplay (May 1931), 70. 53. Mlle. Chic, “American Fashion Creators’ Triumph,” The Moving Picture Weekly, 14 Aug. 1915, 23, 45; Advertisement for Harry Collins, “Creator of Art in Dress,” 9 East 57th Street, The New York Times, 10 Sept. 1919, 5. 54. Article from New Rochelle Pioneer, 16 Jan. 1915, cited in Bowers, Thanhouser Films. 55. Bowers, “Into the Film Industry,” Thanhouser Films, has much evidence for this; it cites an article from 21 July 1917 in Moving Picture World that quotes Thanhouser Film Corporation’s founder Edwin Thanhouser commenting on the organization of the studio in the early 1910s, “My wife selected the stories, wrote the scenarios, and cut the films. We had a general staff equipped with more energy than experience.” 56. There is a Helen F. Farrington listed as dressmaker in Trow’s New York City Directory in 1912, although Mrs. Frank Farrington’s first name is still unknown. 57. Farrington, “In the Costume Room,” 389. 58. Ibid. 59. Ibid. 60. Ibid. 61. Valerie Watrous, “Modes for the Movie Stars,” Los Angeles Times, 10 Apr. 1927, J1. 62. The Eavesdropper, “Heard in Studio and Exchange,” Reel Life, 13 June 1914, 22. 63. Farrington, “In the Costume Room,” 390. 64. Elizabeth Nielsen, “Handmaidens of the Glamour Culture: Costumers in the Hollywood Studio System,” in Jane Gaines and Charlotte Herzog, Fabrications: Costume and the Female Body (New York: Routledge, 1990), 174. 65. “June Elvidge’s Clothes Club,” Moving Picture World, 21 Jul. 1917, 459. 66. Ibid. 67. “Written on the Screen,” The New York Times, 23 Jan. 1916, X9; , Silent Star (New York: Doubleday, 1968), 29. 68. Thomas Ince, “In the ‘Movies’ Yesterday and Today: History and Development of the Motion Picture Screen,” Thomas Ince Productions, 1910s Clippings, Hollywood Museum File, Special Collections, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 69. Ibid. 70. Eustace Hale Ball, The Art of the Photoplay (New York: Veritas, 1913), 15; Thomas Ince, “In the ‘Movies’ Yesterday and Today: History and Development of the Motion Picture Screen,” Thomas Ince Productions, 1910s Clippings, Hollywood Museum File, Special Collections, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Notes 211

Picture Arts and Sciences; Deborah Nadoolman Landis, Dressed: A Century of Hollywood Costume Design (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 73. 71. “History of the Motion Picture Studios of California,” The Moving Picture World, 10 March 1917, n.p. 72. Production files for The Dressmaker from Paris (1924), Forbidden Paradise (1924), and Only the Girl (1930) were the source of this information; Special Collections, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 73. Paramount Production Files, The Dressmaker from Paris, 1924, Special Collections, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 74. Only the Girl Production Files (VF 328/9), Special Collections, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 75. Thomas Ince, “In the ‘Movies’ Yesterday and Today: History and Development of the Motion Picture Screen,” Thomas Ince Productions, 1910s Clippings, Hollywood Museum File, Special Collections, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 76. Edgar Dale Smith, “A Visit to a Studio,” How to Appreciate Motion Pictures: A Manual of Motion-Picture Criticism Prepared for High School Students (New York: MacMillan, 1933), 48. 77. This information taken from various financial records of production firms from the Production Files of the Margaret Herrick Library, Motion Picture Academy of Arts and Sciences, including the New York Motion Picture Corporation Statement of Assets and Liabilities, December 31, 1916, Mack Sennett Papers; and the Cost Records, 1920–23. 78. Article from New Rochelle’s Evening Standard, 15 Jan. 1913, cited in Bowers, Thanhouser Films. 79. Ibid. 80. Filmography, clip of film “When The Studio Burned,” in Bowers, Thanhouser Films. 81. “Dressing the Movies. Choosing Clothes a Problem in Psychology,” Photo Player, 25 August 1923, 22. 82. Ibid. 83. Gish, The Movies, 78. 84. Grace Kingsley, “Clothes,” Photoplay, c. 1915, 99; clipping from Mary Pickford Scrapbook, 1914–16, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Such comments appear in other publications as well, with one writer also noting that one no longer sees an actress wearing street wear in a formal ballroom scene, details that would be noticed “especially by the eagle eye of the woman spectator”; Jean Bernique, Motion Picture Acting for Professionals and Amateurs: A Technical Treatise on Make-up, Costumes and Expressions (Chicago: Producers Service Company, 1916), 82. 85. For high cost of Pickford’s salary in 1916–17, see DeBauche, Reel Patriotism, 54. 86. For Lewis see Lavoisier, “The Latest Fashions,” 117; for West see Leese, Costume Design in the Movies, 124; for Mrs. Madden see “Making Wardrobes for the Movies,” Reel Life supplement 4:2 (28 March 28, 1914), iii; for Collins see Mlle. Chic, “American Fashion Creators’ Triumph,” The Moving Picture Weekly, 14 Aug. 1915, 23, 45. 87. For Hamilton, see Chapter 6; for Farrington see Farrington, “In the Costume Room,” 389; for Hoffman, see “Coming from West Coast to Get Fashion Hints,” The Moving Picture World, 29 Dec. 1917, 1968. 88. The Moving Picture World, 31, 1917, 531. 212 Notes

89. “History of the Motion Picture Studios of California,” The Moving Picture World, 10 Mar. 1917. 90. Ibid. 91. “To Display Metro Stars’ Costumes,” The Moving Picture World, 9 June 1917, 1619. 92. Ibid. 93. For Duncan see “Dressed Women,” It (and Photoplay), 1 May 1919, 15; for Chaffin see Grace Kingsley, “King Tut Wins the Hearts of Fair Player Folk,” The Los Angeles Times, 8 Apr. 1923, III25; for Wachner see Edwin Schallert, “Sophie Wachner Signed,” The Los Angeles Times, 18 Sep. 1928, A9; for Leisen see David Chierichetti, Mitchell Leisen: Hollywood Director (Los Angeles: Photoventures Press, 1995). 94. “Dressed Women,” It (and Photoplay), 1 May 1919, 15. The article also noted that Duncan was “imported from New York, where she was a modiste for the ‘Bon Ton.’” 95. The American Film Institute Catalogue of Feature Films, 1893 1972, http://www. afi.com/members/catalog, which is the most comprehensive source of informa- tion for American movies, starts identifying costume designers only from 1925 onward. Ethel Chaffin, for example, is noted as designing four films and Sophie Wachner only eight. Given the length of their careers, and their work prior to 1925, they certainly designed clothing for more than these numbers. 96. Edith Clark, “Designing Clothes for Movie Folk: Information Concerning This Little-Known Department,” chapter in Opportunities in the Motion Picture Industry (New York: Photoplay Research Society, 1922), 79. Clark was then head of the costume department for the Christie Film Company. 97. Ibid., 81. 98. Léon Barsacq, Caligari’s Cabinet and Other Grand Illusions: A History of Film Design (New York: Plume, 1978), 56; for cinematography see Koszarski, An Evening’s Entertainment, 122–30; for a contemporary source on the rise of the art director, see Ruth Wing, ed., The Blue Book of the Screen (California: Gravure, 1923), 377. 99. George Brusinski archive, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 100. Ibid. 101. Ibid. 102. Ibid. 103. Louise Reeves Harrison, review of Carmen from Moving Picture World cited in Bowers, “1913: An American in the Making,” Bowers, Thanhouser Films. 104. The Wardrobe Mistress, “Tricks of Make-Up and Dress in the Movies,” Reel Life, 30 May 1914, 24, 28. 105. Vitagraph Brochure “How Moving Pictures are Made,” c. 1912, Hollywood Museum Collection, Box 46, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 106. Article from New York Dramatic Mirror, Nov. 1912, cited in “Chapter 5: 1912, An $8,000 Production,” Bowers, Thanhouser Catalogue. 107. Ibid. 108. In 1919, the correspondence between William Fox and Sol Wurtzel reveals that the upper-level administration were trying to cut back on films that required expensive, large sets and they were seeking stories that did not require such lav- ish production values. See July 16, 1919 letter to Fox from Wurtzel, in William Fox/Sol Wurtzel Material, Production Files, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Notes 213

109. Donald Hayne, ed., The Autobiography of Cecil B. DeMille (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1959), 212. 110. Chierichetti, Mitchell Leisen, 4. 111. Ibid. 112. Ibid., 20. 113. Bowser, The Transformation of Cinema, 227. 114. Swanson, Swanson on Swanson, 106. 115. Famous Players-Lasky Corporation Studio Directory, May 1923, Special Collections, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 116. Ibid. 117. Leese, Costume Design in the Movies, 124, was one of the first publications to discuss West’s work. 118. Ibid. 119. Olive Gray Moore, “Fairy-Godmothering Film-Ellas,” The Atlanta Constitution, 14 Nov. 1920, 8KC. 120. Ibid. I have not yet been able to find additional information on this organiza- tion. 121. Ibid. 122. Advertisement, Los Angeles Times, 21 March 1923, 118. 123. “Gowning Women for Films More Than Attaining Beauty,” The Los Angeles Times, 20 Dec. 1925, C40. 124. Swanson, Swanson on Swanson, 113. Swanson notes that Mitchell Leisen designed the pearl gown and headdress. 125. was credited as art director for DeMille’s (1919), which is quite early for such credit. Iribe received on-screen acknowl- edgement as art director for (Famous Players-Lasky, 1925), viewed by the author at George Eastman House. Other films with which he is credited include Manslaughter (Famous Players-Lasky, 1922, dir. Cecil B. DeMille) and The World’s Applause (Famous Players-Lasky, 1923, dir. William DeMille). 126. “Coming from West Coast to Get Fashion Hints,” Moving Picture World, 29 Dec. 1917, 1968. Hoffman was also responsible, along with Leisen, for the film ; see Donald Hayne, ed., The Autobiography of Cecil B. DeMille (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1959), 220. 127. “Where Screen Gowns Go,” The New York Times, 13 Jan. 1924, X5. 128. The early fashion industry of Los Angeles is explored in further detail in Chapter 6. Using sources such as the film periodical It (and Photoplay) and The Los Angeles Times, I conducted a survey of shops and fashion suppliers of the late 1910s, which indicated that there was a growing number of fashion retail outlets, some of which carried in-house designs. 129. Information from Lady Duff Gordon papers, Gladys Marcus Library, Fashion Institute of Technology, State University of New York; and , From Under My Hat (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1952), 104. For Herman Tappé, see photo of Mary Pickford in his creation in A Singular Elegance: The Photographs of Baron Adolph De Meyer (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1994), 101; see also Gish, The Movies, 249. For Henri Bendel see Geraldine Farrar, Such Sweet Compulsion (New York: Greystone Press, 1938), 184. For the House of Frances see “Silk Worms Are Busy,” Seattle Times, 9 Nov. 1924, Colleen Moore Scrapbooks 2 “Production Clippings,” Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences; for Maison Maurice see Production Files, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences. 214 Notes

130. “Fifth Avenue Modiste to Dress All of Metro Stars,” Moving Picture World, 27 Nov. 1920, 465. 131. Geraldine Farrar, Such Sweet Compulsion, 184. 132. Ibid. 133. Ibid., 203. 134. Box 87, Gloria Swanson archive, Harry Ransom Center, The University of Texas at Austin. 135. Gish, The Movies, 237. 136. Intertitles, Way Down East (viewed at www..com). 137. Gish, The Movies, 237. 138. Ibid. 139. Belle Armstrong Whitney, What to Wear: A Book for Women (Battle Creek, MI: Good Health, 1916). Whitney’s book is full of garments by Mariano Fortuny, which are offered as examples of more healthful and practical dress. 140. Lucile, Lady Duff Gordon Drawings (Collection Number 624), Department of Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, UCLA. 141. Gish, The Movies, 237. 142. See American Film Institute Catalogue of Feature Films, 1893–1972, http://www.afi. com/members/catalog, accessed April 7, 2009. 143. Advertisement, The New York Times, 26. Feb. 1922, 17. 144. Production files, Way Down East, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 145. Way Down East cost sheets, week ending 14 Feb. 1920, The Papers of D.W. Griffith, 1897–1954, Papers (Sanford, NC: Microfilming Corp. of America, 1982). 146. Survey from the Film Daily Yearbook of Motion Pictures (1924), 351, cited in Koszarski, An Evening’s Entertainment, 29. 147. Ibid. 148. Jean Bernique, Motion Picture Acting for Professionals and Amateurs: A Technical Treatise on Make-up, Costumes and Expressions (Producers Service Company, 1916), 181. 149. Gish, The Movies, 38. 150. Ibid. 151. Ibid., 68. 152. “Dressing for the Movies,” Photoplay, Jan. 1915, 118. 153. Bernique, Motion Picture Acting, 182. 154. See Cari Beauchamp, Without Lying Down: and the Powerful Women of Early Hollywood (New York: Scribner, 1997), 154. Marion was one of the most successful screenwriters in Hollywood, with a career that began in 1912 and extended into the 1930s. She wrote screenplays for films such as The New York Hat (Biograph, 1912, dir. D.W. Griffith), ( Corp., 1920, dir. ), and Son of the Sheik (United Artists, 1926, dir. ). 155. Frances Marion, Minnie Flynn (New York: Boni and Liveright, 1925), 103. 156. Marion, Minnie Flynn, 120. 157. Ibid., 164. 158. Ibid., 120. 159. “Elsie Janis’s Pajamas Worth only $201.50, Judge Decides,” The Los Angeles Times, 30 Sept. 1927, A8. 160. Ibid. 161. Production Files, Margaret Herrick Library, Motion Picture Academy of Arts and Sciences. Notes 215

162. The Eavesdropper, “Heard in Studio and Exchange,” Reel Life, 13 June 1914, 22. 163. Ibid. 164. Ibid. The House of Drécoll originated in Vienna, Austria but was purchased by a Belgian businessman, who opened the couture house under the same name in Paris in 1905. Along with Worth and Doucet, Drécoll was one of the leading Paris couture houses of the early twentieth century. For general information on the house, see Georgina O’Hara, The Encyclopedia of Fashion (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1986), 95. Drécoll also dressed many stars of the Parisian stage, a fact that was reported in New York newspapers. See Mlle. Cachet, “Gowns at the Paris Theatres,” The New York Times, 31 Jul. 1910, X1. 165. Ibid. 166. “Promoting the Serial,” article from June 6, 1914, cited in Bowers, “Biographies,” Thanhouser Films. 167. Grace Kingsley, “Clothes,” Photoplay, 1 May 1915, 100. 168. Pearl Gaddis, “Screen Fashion Plates and I?,” Motion Picture, April 1917, 34–6. 169. Hedda Hopper, From Under My Hat (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1952), 104; Gaddis, “Screen Fashion Plates and I?,” 35. The prices of Lucile’s dresses are comparable to what French importers were charging in the mid-1910s. In 1914, Lord and Taylor on Fifth Avenue in New York City charged between $235 and $650 for their imported French models; see Milbank, New York Fashion, 64. 170. Kingsley, “Clothes,” 100. 171. Essanay News, 6 Nov. 1915, 1. 172. “Gowns Insured for 8000 pounds!,” Pictures and the Picturegoer, 17 Jun. 1916, 238; Louise Lester Vertical File, newspaper clipping “Her Wardrobe Worth $30,000,” Portland Oregon Telegram, 2 May 1916; Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 173. William Drew, Speaking of Silents: Ladies of the Screen (New York: Vestal Press, 1989), 15. 174. Ibid; Bellamy is recalling this later in life, which explains why she is mentioning Mainbocher, a designer who did not open his house until the late 1920s. Some actresses also personally absorbed additional expenses related to the filming of their stylish public personae. When Bessie Love moved from Ince Productions to Vitagraph in 1918, she brought her cameraman with her because she considered him the “best in the business” and important to the presentation of her on-screen image. As Vitagraph could not provide the same salary he had received at Ince, Love made up the difference out of her own pocket. Love, From Hollywood with Love, 74. 175. Margaret McDonald, “Alice Brady Talks About Dress and Make-up,” Moving Picture World, 21 July 1917, 426. 176. Ibid.; Adela Rogers St. Johns, “From the Skin Out,” Photoplay, 1 May 1919, 32–5, 97–101; Maude Cheatham, “Kitty Gordon’s Fashion Parade,” Motion Picture, 1 Mar. 1919, 40–41. 177. “June Elvidge’s Clothes Club,” Moving Picture World, 21 July 1917, 459. 178. Ibid. 179. Kirkham and Landis, “Designing Hollywood,” 247–8. 180. “Written on the Screen,” The New York Times, 23 Jan. 1916, X9. 181. The AFI catalog lists four films in which she acted, including The Combat (1916), The Destroyers (1916), Virtuous Wives (1918), and Mind the Paint Girl (1919). 182. Born in , Norden trained in New York City acting schools and appeared in at least two Thanhouser films in 1912, Baby Hands (director unknown) and 216 Notes

For the Mikado (dir. Albert W. Hale). In 1914 Norden created costumes for a play in London entitled Adele. This information taken from a New York Morning Telegraph story, 3 Jul. 1914, cited in Bowers, “Biographies,” Thanhouser Films. 183. “Helen Rosson, Designer,” Moving Picture World, 4 Mar. 1916, 1446. 184. ”Clothes – Clara Kimball Young – And More Clothes,” Theatre Magazine, Nov. 1917, 119–30; Lillian Gish worked in a similar way, noting in her autobiography that D.W. Griffith had to be involved in all sartorial decisions in the 1910s; see Gish, The Movies, 78. 185. Ibid. 186. “Miss Young Creates Fashion Show for Display in ‘Forbidden Woman,’” Moving Picture World, 14 Feb. 1920, 1112. 187. Ibid. 188. Lucile, Lady Duff Gordon Drawings (Collection Number 624), Department of Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, UCLA. 189. This film was viewed at the Library of Congress. 190. “Miss Young Creates a Fashion Show,” Moving Picture World, 1112. 191. Hopper, From Under My Hat, 17. 192. Ibid., 102. 193. Ibid., 103. 194. Ibid., 103. 195. Ibid. 196. Ibid. 197. Mme. Frances was a Fifth Avenue custom dress salon that was a favorite haunt of actresses; see note 129 in this chapter. Evelyn McHorter worked for Lucile at one point in her career and, after Lucile closed her New York salon in 1920 and some of the staff was absorbed into J.M. Gidding, McHorter continued to advertise that she was formerly employed by Lucile (advertisement, The New York Times, 10 Jun. 1923, 2). After Lucile’s work in the film industry, McHorter evidently remained involved in both film and theater, providing clothes for Potash and Perlmutter and at least one Broadway production, The Captive, in 1926 (advertisement, The New York Times, 30 Sep. 1926, 23). Mme. Stein and Mme. Blaine referred to a fashion house, Stein and Blaine, in business in New York from at least the first decade of the twentieth century. E.M.A. Steinmetz was the in-house designer and thus “Mme. Blaine” may be the promotion department’s attempt to expand the number of “French” designers involved in the produc- tion. For information on Steinmetz see Milbank, New York Fashion, 86. Stein and Blaine started as a furrier, but by 1912 was advertising itself as a tailor and creator of “exclusive models” (advertisement, The New York Times, 31 Mar. 1912, 12, www.proquest.com, accessed January 7, 2010. By 1915, Stein and Blaine was carrying Paris models, including Callot (advertisement, The New York Times, 5 Apr. 1915, 8). Around this time it was also advertising itself as an originator of truly American garments and as a house on a par with Paris couture designers (“The Only New York Designed Gowns Competing at the San Francisco Fair,” The New York Times, 29 Aug. 1915, X3). In 1922, the date closest to the film, Stein and Blaine advertised itself as “Furriers, Dressmakers, Tailors” on 57th Street (see advertisement, The New York Times, 12 Feb. 1922, 18). 198. “Big Films to Come,” The New York Times, 15 July 1923, X2. The article includes a sub-section entitled “Gowns in Films.” 199. Ibid. 200. Ibid. Notes 217

201. Frank H. Webster, “The Art of the Art Director,” in Wing, The Blue Book of the Screen, 342. 202. Love, From Hollywood with Love, 79. 203. file, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, includes a “Standard Form Artist’s Contract” dated July 16, 1928 for the film “The Love Song.” 204. Ibid., Standard Form Artist’s Contract, dated July 16, 1928. 205. The document related to this meeting is not dated but, given that all the corre- spondence in the Goudal files date to the late 1920s, this document is probably also from that date. 206. Jetta Goudal file, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 207. Ibid. 208. Ibid. Goudal also refers to DeMille’s blacklisting of her in a 1928 letter in the file. 209. Thompson, Exporting Entertainment, 89. 210. Valerie Watrous, “Meet Your Neighbor,” The Los Angeles Times, 28 Feb. 1927, A9; “Happy New Year, Peggy Hamilton Poses Her in Latest Fashions from Local Shops,” The Los Angeles Times, 2 Jan. 1927, 13. 211. Gish, The Movies, 284.

Chapter 6

1. Beth Ann Krier, “The Scrapbooks of a Fashion Crusader,” The Los Angeles Times, 18 January 1973, G1. 2. After her marriage to John Quincy Adams IV in 1958, she became known as Peggy Hamilton Adams. 3. Clare West and Mme. Clare were both costumers at Triangle Kay-Bee Studios by 1916 (The Triangle, 7 October 1916, 2) and Jane Lewis worked at Vitagraph by 1915, but none received as much publicity and/or film credit as Hamilton (see Chapter 5). 4. Peggy Hamilton Adams Papers (collection 1373), box 6, undated, unmarked newspaper clipping, Department of Special Collections, University of California, Los Angeles, Library. The collection comprises 115 scrapbooks, photo albums, and boxes of ephemera related to Hamilton’s personal life and her career. Bequeathed to the university in 1984, the collection forms the basis for much of the research for this chapter; hereafter it will be referred to as the Hamilton papers. 5. Frederick Wingfield was born in New York and Lillian Armstrong was born in Kentucky. See “Broker’s Burial Planned Today,” The Los Angeles Times, 8 May 1940, A16; “Former ‘Times’ Writer’s Final Services Set,” The Los Angeles Times, 21 Jun. 1944, A3. 6. “Events in Local Society,” The Los Angeles Times, 4 February 1904, A3. 7. There are numerous articles included in Hamilton’s scrapbooks attesting to the family’s prominence in Los Angeles high society. Mention of May’s 9th birthday was noted in “News of Society,” The Los Angeles Times, 8 January 1905, VI3. The article also detailed her “dainty gown of pink accordion silk.” 8. “Broker’s Burial Planned Today, Frederick Armstrong Tribute to be Read by Long- Time Friend,” The Los Angeles Times, 8 May 1940, A16. 9. “Events in Local Society,” The Los Angeles Times, 23 July 1909, II6. 10. Hamilton papers, box 18; Krier, “The Scrapbooks of a Fashion Crusader,” G1. 218 Notes

11. “Fashion Revue Soon to Allure,” The Los Angeles Times, 6 March 1921, II12. 12. Hamilton papers, box 6. 13. Advertisement, Motion Picture World, 20 July 1918, 446. 14. Krier, “The Scrapbooks of a Fashion Crusader,” G1. 15. I conducted an interview with Scott Hamilton, the grandson of Peggy Hamilton, January 16, 2008. 16. Hamilton was married to Crosby until at least 1940, but there is no information on their wedding date, see “Brokers Burial Planned Today: Frederick Armstrong Tribute to Be Read by a Long-Time Friend,” The Los Angeles Times, May 8, 1940, p. A16); Krier, “The Scrapbooks of a Fashion Crusader,” G1. 17. “Los Angeles Fashion-Setter Peggy Hamilton Dies at 90,” The Los Angeles Times, 27 February 1984, OC-A4. Rosalind Schaffer, “Glimpses of Hollywood,” 15 Nov. 1925, D3. Although there is a general lack of information regarding Hamilton’s personal life in the archive, with very little information about her various hus- bands, there is one photograph of her in her wedding dress when she married Billy Crosby in 1922; 1974 article in Modern Maturity magazine on “World’s Most Photographed Woman.” 18. “John Quincy Adams, 76, Alaska Hunter, Dies,” The Los Angeles Times, 11 March 1959, III2. 19. Untitled article, The Los Angeles Times, 23 Dec. 1917, RO4; Hamilton papers, box 7, 1922–23, undated article on actress Pauline Starke and the Triangle Film Beauties. 20. Virginia Norden is another example of an actress who moved into film costume design. She was appointed by to head the wardrobe department of Ince Productions in 1916 (see Chapter 5). 21. Hamilton papers, box 30, scrapbook 1. 22. Mme. Clare, for example, was noted as a costumer for Triangle Kay-Bee Studios in the Triangle in-house publication; The Triangle, 7 October 1916, 2. 23. Hamilton papers, box 30, scrapbook 1. 24. Hamilton’s job at the The Los Angeles Times may have been facilitated by her mother, who was a writer at the newspaper for part of her life; see “Former ‘Times’ Writer’s Final Services Set,” The Los Angeles Times, 21 June 1944, A3. 25. Although Hamilton noted her role as “social advisor” at Triangle, there is no further mention of this in other sources. The term may refer to her directing of fashion shows in films. 26. The Triangle, 6 Oct. 1917, 7. 27. Jane Lewis was identified as costume designer at Vitagraph in 1915 also, see Lavoisier, “The Latest Fashions in Moving Pictures,” 117. This is explored in depth in Chapter 5. 28. To date, the first mention of West found in a widely circulated newspaper is in the The Los Angeles Times for her work with Cecil B. DeMille on The Ten Commandments; “Seek Data for Great Film Idea,” The Los Angeles Times, 21 Dec. 1922, p. III1. 29. The lavish costumes for the DeMille film Don’t Change Your Husband, for example, are noted in a 1919 article in the The Los Angeles Times, but the costume designer is not credited; The Los Angeles Times, 4 Feb. 1919, II3. 30. The Los Angeles Times, 23 Dec. 1917, rotogravure section, 4. 31. The Los Angeles Times, 10 Mar. 1918, VIII4; 28 Jul. 1918, VIII4. 32. The Los Angeles Times, 23 Dec. 1917, rotogravure section, 4.; 17 Feb. 1918, VIII3. Notes 219

33. This film is presumed lost. Lady Duff-Gordon archive, scrapbook 15, Special Collections, Fashion Institute of Technology. 34. “Olive Thomas at New American in Triangle Feature,” Columbus Daily Enquirer, 1 , 6; “Olive Thomas at the Crown Today,” The Daily Herald, 9 March 1918, 2. 35. Press books were in use at least by 1916, as Triangle sent out “Exhibitors Pocket Books” to exhibitors that included a variety of suggestions for publicity as well as sample stories for local newspapers; see Betty Marsh Hellikson Material, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 36. The Triangle, February 1918, 11. 37. Hamilton papers, box 6, 1921 scrapbook. 38. The Triangle, March 1918, 4. 39. Swanson, Swanson on Swanson, 84. 40. Kirkham and Landis, “Designing Hollywood,” 247. 41. Krier, “The Scrapbooks of a Fashion Crusader,” G12. 42. The screenplay was based on a story of same name by Ida M. Evans, originally pub- lished in Red Book Magazine, October 1917; American Film Institute Catalogue of Feature Films, 1893–1972, http://www.afi.com/members/catalog, accessed June 2005. 43. Swanson, Swanson on Swanson, 85; American Film Institute Catalogue of Feature Films, 1893–1972, http://www.afi.com/members/catalog, accessed June 2005. 44. Hamilton papers, box 19, 1922 scrapbook. 45. “Triangle’s Male Impersonator,” Triangle Magazine, 25 Aug. 1917, 14. 46. The Gown of Destiny, 1918, print held by George Eastman House, Rochester, New York. 47. Triangle Magazine, 1 December 1917, 18. 48. Thompson, Exporting Entertainment, 49. 49. The Los Angeles Times, 28 July 1918, VIII4 shows the garment “Motochi” for Swanson designed by Hamilton. 50. Milbank, New York Fashion, 62. 51. Thompson, Exporting Entertainment, 81. Triangle was eventually replaced by Universal and Paramount by the end of the war; ibid., 92. 52. Nelson and Jones, A Silent Siren Song, 181. 53. “Movie Facts and Fancies,” Boston Daily Globe, 26 September 1921, 11. Hamilton is described as “well-known costumer” in an article on the Hollywood Studio Club, which was founded in 1916 by aspiring actresses who wanted a commu- nal place to share living expenses. The club’s original location is unknown, but a new building, designed by architect Julia Morgan, located at 1215–1233 Lodi Place, was constructed in 1926 to house the organization. See David Wallace, Hollywoodland (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2002), 72. 54. Hamilton papers, album 6, 1922–23, advertisement. 55. It is not clear whether this was the Paloma Avenue in Venice Beach or in Southern Los Angeles proper. 56. Pat Kirkham, Charles and Ray Eames: Designers of the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998), 101–2. See also Turning the Tide: Early Los Angeles Modernists (Santa Barbara, CA: Santa Barbara Museum of Art, 1990). 57. The Los Angeles Times, 13 June 1920, III1. 58. The modiste is not noted in the article; Hamilton papers, Box 18, Scrapbook “Personal Photos.” 59. Hamilton papers, various scrapbooks with clippings including “Fashion Fads and Fancies,” Silver Screen, 16 April 1922; The Los Angeles Times, 18 July 1926, 220 Notes

rotogravure fashion page; “Peggy Hamilton’s Fashion Dreams,” The Los Angeles Times, 24 Sept. 1927. 60. For the star system see Richard DeCordova, “The Emergence of the Screen Star in America,” in Christine Gledhill, ed., Stardom: Industry of Desire (New York: Routledge, 1991); for Mary Pickford see DeBauche, Reel Patriotism, 50–74; for the Colonial Revival see Wilson et al., Re-creating the American Past; for Lucile see Mendes and de la Haye, Lucile Ltd. 61. There are numerous examples of Hamilton’s frequent use of her own image for the column, from “paste-ups,” or mock-ups, to the printed page. One example is in box 3, a “paste-up” dated August 5, 1928. 62. Hamilton papers, the “Fashion Dreams” title appeared in her October 1927 col- umn (box 2); the butterfly ensemble appeared in the July 23, 1923 issue (box 7); and she was referred to as a “fashion butterfly” in a clipping (n.d.) on page 37 of box 6. 63. Hamilton papers, box 18, scrapbook “personal photos.” 64. This information is taken from various clippings of Hamilton’s rotogravure fash- ion pages in the Hamilton papers, including box 7, 1922–23 scrapbook, The Los Angeles Times, 20 July 20, 1924; 17 Feb. 1918, p. VIII3; scrapbook 18, caption accompanying 1920 photo regarding the “Peggy cap.” 65. Hamilton papers, “Society Captivated by Dolls,” undated clipping, box 6, “Peggy Hamilton Fashions Los Angeles Times, 1921.” 66. Models from most of these designers were featured in her column between 1921 and 1923 and references to them can be found in box 2, box 6, and box 7. The “Patour” [sic] reference is from an article titled “L.A. to be Fashion Center of the World Claims Speaker,” The Lincoln Railsplitter, 3 Apr. 1925 in box 20, Scrapbook 1925. 67. “Coming from West Coast to Get Fashion Hints,” The Moving Picture World, 29 Dec. 1917, 1968. 68. American Film Institute Catalogue of Feature Films, 1893–1972, http://www.afi.com/ members/catalog, accessed January 5, 2010. 69. Meredith Etherington-Smith and Jeremy Pilcher, The “It” Girls: Elinor Glyn, Novelist and her sister, Lucile, Couturière (San Diego, CA: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1986), 214–50; Elinor Glyn, Romantic Adventure: Being the Autobiography of Elinor Glyn (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1937), 292–308. 70. Hamilton papers, box 18, personal photos. 71. Hamilton papers, box 19, 1922 scrapbook. 72. Advertisement, Motion Picture World, 20 July 1918, 446. 73. “Los Angeles, the Local Paris of America,” Los Angeles Times, 3 Sep. 1922, 5; “Los Angeles, the Logical Paris in America,” The Los Angeles Times, 18 Feb. 1923. 74. Hamilton papers, box 7, “Peggy Hamilton Fashions Los Angeles Times 1922–23.” 75. Krier, “The Scrapbooks of a Fashion Crusader,” G12. 76. Ibid. 77. Ibid. 78. Ibid. 79. Hamilton papers, box 18, scrapbook “Personal Photos.” In comparing the year 1926 with previous years, it does appear that there was a marked increase in her promotion of Callot Soeurs. There are other photographs of Hamilton in Callot, but they are infrequent. The Dec. 31, 1922 The Los Angeles Times column, for example, includes a photograph of her wearing a Callot gown and carrying one of the Poiret-inspired “da-da” dolls; box 7, “Peggy Hamilton Fashions Los Angeles Times 1922–23.” Notes 221

80. Hamilton papers, box 20, scrapbook 1925, clipping from Lincoln Railsplitter, 3 April 1925, n.p. 81. Caroline Evans, “The Enchanted Spectacle,” Fashion Theory vol. 5, no. 3 (Sept. 2001), 287. 82. Meredith Etherington-Smith, Patou (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1983), 81, 104–6. 83. Hamilton papers, box 6, Dec. 28, 1923 letter. 84. Hamilton papers, box 8, 1924. 85. Ibid., box 6. This was a substantial fee for Hamilton as it supplemented her income as a journalist. For comparison, female clerks typically made between $15 and $18 a week in 1924, and “attractive” models could make up to $35 per week; see classified ads, The New York Times, 6 Jan. 1924, W8. Around 1921, Howard Greer, then a fashion designer with the high-end custom salon Hickson in New York, could make up to $50 a week; see Greer, Designing Male, 207. 86. All of these actresses worked for various studios from the mid to late 1920s, including Paramount, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, First National, Goldwyn Pictures, and Warner Brothers, among others. It appears that most of them did not had exclusive contracts at specific studios in this period. See American Film Institute Catalogue of Feature Films, 1893–1972, http://www.afi.com/members/catalog, accessed March 2, 2010. 87. Letter, dated April 24, 1924, from Pete Smith in the Publicity and Exploitation department located at United Studios, Hollywood, to Hamilton, asking if Miss could model some fashions for her column, box 8, 1922 scrap- book, Hamilton papers. 88. Hamilton papers, box 8, 1922 scrapbook; box 6, letter from Arthur Q. Hagerman to Peggy Hamilton, February 19, 1924. 89. Ibid., box 8, clipping from Picture Play; letter from Mabel Lunde at Regal Pictures Inc. to Hamilton, June 16, 1924. The film could be The Chorus Lady (1924, Regal Pictures, dir. Ralph Ince) with a changed name, as this appears to be Livingston’s first starring role. 90. “Beware of Fake Peggy Hamilton,” The Los Angeles Times, 27 September 1923, II1. 91. “Hand-Dyed Fabrics and Designs: Growing Popularity of Batik and the Like as an Essential Part of Every Woman’s Wardrobe,” The New York Times, 6 Jun. 1920, 79; Hamilton papers, box 6, brochure. 92. Hamilton papers, box 7, correspondence dated July 2, 1922. 93. Hamilton papers, box 19, 1922 scrapbook. 94. Ibid. 95. Ibid., box 6, letter from Charles Kurzman to Hamilton, January 24, early 1920s. 96. O’Rossen was a couture house in Paris that specialized in tailleurs, or tailored suits; see Bonney, A Shopping Guide to Paris, 47. The popularity of the suit is evident in a number of department store and fashion shop advertisements, including Franklin Simon (The New York Times, 7 Aug. 1921, 4), Saks & Co. (The New York Times, 13 Jan. 1924, 12), Russeks (The New York Times, 24 Jan. 1924, 10), and Wanamaker’s (The New York Times, 17 May 1924, 9). 97. Hamilton papers, box 19, 1922 scrapbook. 98. Ibid.; I conducted a Proquest survey of online newspapers including The Atlanta Constitution, The Boston Globe, The Chicago Tribune, The Monitor, The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Hartford Courant, and The Wall Street Journal. 99. Ibid., box 8, 1924, The Los Angeles Times clipping dated August 6, 1924, C16. 222 Notes

100. Ibid., box 6, 1921. 101. “Biloxi Movies: Oliver Thomas at the Crown Today,” Daily Herald (Gulfport and Biloxi, Mississippi Coast), 9 Mar. 1918, 2; article notes that the fashion show in the film Limousine Life featured designs by Peggy Hamilton. 102. Ibid., box 19, 1922 scrapbook; letter to Pat Dowling, publicity director of the Christie Film Company, from Hamilton, August 28, 1922. 103. Ibid., box 6, letter indicating that she was paid $75 for each fashion show she organized for Colburns in 1923. Box 20, 1925 scrapbook contains a letter speci- fying that she was paid $350 for one of her annual Biltmore fashion shows in 1925. Hamilton’s first Biltmore show was in 1924 (“Fashion Show Is Success, First Annual Peggy Hamilton Affair Pleasing to Large Crowd at Biltmore,” The Los Angeles Times, 30 March 1924, E13). 104. “Models Club Planned for Los Angeles,” The Los Angeles Times, 17 July 1921, III43. 105. “Times’ Parade Captivates Multitude,” The Los Angeles Times, 20 October 1926, A1. The trend to promote one’s mannequins was indeed becoming more preva- lent; the publicity related to the 1915 World Film Production of “Mrs. Whitney’s Fashion Show” included the names of all of the mannequins. See “Fashion Show in Pictures,” Moving Picture World, 9 Oct. 1915, 271. 106. Hamilton papers, box 7, newspaper clipping. 107. Ibid., box 18, scrapbook and personal photos. 108. It is difficult to determine the name of this film, as there were numerous films produced by Semon for that particular year and none of the relevant entries in the American Film Institute catalog notes a fashion revue. The situation with the Bryant Washburn film is similar. Washburn produced approximately 172 productions and therefore the Hamilton film is difficult to identify. 109. Hamilton papers, box 18, Scrapbook and personal photos. In the American Film Institute’s catalogue entry for A Slave of Fashion, only Cedric Gibbons receives credit for art direction; no credit for costume design is noted. 110. When Saul Bass was employed to as a visual consultant on five films between 1960 and 1968, for example, there was no established term for that broad role. Like Hamilton, he helped in the visual look styling of particular scenes – from the famous shower sequence that he designed and storyboarded in Psycho (1960) to the racing montages in Grand Prix (1966), which he directed and shot for the film director John Frankenheimer. I am grateful to Pat Kirkham for this reference (see her forthcoming book on Saul Bass, Laurence King Publishing). 111. Two examples of press outside of Los Angeles include “L.A. to be Fashion Center of the World Claims Speaker,” The Lincoln Railsplitter, 3 Apr. 1925; and “Biloxi Movies: Oliver Thomas at the Crown Today,” Daily Herald (Gulfport and Biloxi, Mississippi Coast), 9 Mar. 1918, 2, which mentioned Hamilton as designer of the gowns in the fashion show in the movie Limousine Life. 112. Hamilton papers, box 19, 1922 scrapbook. 113. Ibid., box 19, 1922 scrapbook has photograph with caption noting 1920 fashion revue at the California Theater as her first organized show. 114. Hamilton papers, box 8, 1924, unidentified clipping. 115. Ibid., “Paris Bows to Los Angeles Peggy Hamilton back for Europe, Complimented on Designs by Famous Couturiers,” The Los Angeles Times, 10 Sept. 1924, n.p. 116. Hamilton, box 8, 1924 scrapbook. 117. Hamilton papers, box 18, scrapbook and personal photos. 118. “To Display Metro Stars’ Costumes,” The Moving Picture World, 9 June 1917, 1619. Notes 223

119. Advertisement, The New York Times, 15 Feb. 1927. 120. “Film Mode Show for East,” The Los Angeles Times, 8 January 1927, A8. The film companies Inspiration Pictures, Inc. and Edwin Carew Productions were also mentioned in the article, but with no associated designers. 121. Ibid. 122. Advertisement, The New York Times, 15 Feb. 1927, 23. 123. It is important to note that Los Angeles was still a relatively “new” city, and only with the opening up of rail lines in the 1880s did it begin to witness dramatic growth. For this information and more on the growth of the city between 1900 and 1920s, see Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (New York: Vintage Books, 1992), 111; and Cary McWilliams, Southern California Country: An Island on the Land (New York: Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1946). 124. Advertisement, It (and Photoplay Art), 14 Dec. 1918, 13. 125. For Vogue and Company, see Hamilton Papers, box 7, 1923 and box 1, clippings; for The Unique, see box 6, 1921 and box 7, 1923. The Unique was also the shop that showed the Hickson bustle-back dress from The Gown of Destiny in its window. 126. It (and Photoplay Art), 1 Feb. 1919, n.p. 127. Advertisement, The Los Angeles Times, 16 September 1919, II5. 128. Ibid. 129. “Crowds Visit Hamburger’s: Moving Stairway and Many Other Ingenious Innovations Excite the Admiration of Vast Throng of Customers,” The Los Angeles Herald, 11 August 1908, n.p. 130. Ibid. 131. Ibid. 132. Ibid. There is no specific information as to how the gown was modified. 133. Hamilton Papers, box 2, 1921. 134. Robert Hendrickson, The Grand Emporiums: The Illustrated History of America’s Great Department Stores (Briarcliff Manor, NY: Stein and Day, 1979), 164. 135. Dana Webster Bartlett, The Better City: A Sociological Study of the Modern City (Los Angeles: Neuner Company Press, 1907), 209. 136. Charles Dwight Willard, The Herald’s History of Los Angeles City (Los Angeles: Kingsley-Barnes & Newuner, 1901), 351. 137. Willard, The Herald’s History of Los Angeles City, 1911 edition, V. 138. Carey McWilliams, California: The Great Exception (New York: A.A. Wyn, 1949), 235. 139. Bowser, Transformation of Cinema, 150. 140. McWilliams, California, 236. 141. “Dry Goods Body for Bullock’s: Wholesale Association Backs Proposition Three; Acceptance of Donation Urged in Firm Resolution; Associated Apparel Men Join in Indorsement [sic],” The Los Angeles Times, 28 April 1921, II1. 142. Ibid. 143. Ibid. 144. “Market Week Speeds Trade: Los Angeles Is Recognized as Apparel Center; Fifteen Hundred Buyers in City Tendered Dinner; Round-Trip Fares Refunded to Purchasers, The Los Angeles Times, 8 March 1922, II3. 145. Ibid. 146. Ibid.; for 25 percent increase in railroad freight rates in 1918, see Dr. Chris Matthew Sciabarra, “Government and the Railroads During World War I: Political Capitalism and the Death of Enterprise,” Historical Notes No. 4, http:// www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/histn/histn045.htm, accessed Jan. 2, 2010. 224 Notes

147. “Hundreds Are Here to Buy: Annual Autumn Market Week Expected to Attract Many to City During Next Seven Days, The Los Angeles Times, 31 July 1923, II2. 148. “Clothes Makers Strut Their Stuff,” The Los Angeles Times, 13 December 1925, B18. 149. “Film Mode Show for East,” The Los Angeles Times, 8 January 1927, A8. 150. “Clothes Makers Strut Their Stuff,” The Los Angeles Times, 13 December 1925, B18. 151. “Style Show Lures Buyers: Representatives of Retail Stores Flocking Here to Attend Local Fashion Exhibit,” The Los Angeles Times, 10 Jan. 1926, C27. 152. “Fall Fashions Will Be Shown: Film Stars to Be Models at Buyers’ Review,” The Los Angeles Times, 28 July 1933, A5. 153. Eckert notes that 1934 was the starting point of Los Angeles’ participation in the garment industry on a national scale, but evidence has been found to establish that starting date as earlier. Charles Eckert, “The Carol Lombard in Macy’s Window” (first published in 1978), in Jane Gaines and Charlotte Herzog, eds., Fabrications: Costume and the Female Body (New York and London: Routledge, 1990). 154. McWilliams, California, 219. 155. Ibid., 218. 156. “Sales Soar: Registrations Go to New Peak,” The Los Angeles Times, 31 Jul. 1935, A3. 157. Ibid. 158. Ibid. 159. Hamilton papers, scrapbook 8, 1924. 160. Ibid. Another sketch noted that a design by Hamilton and sketched by Andre- Ani had sold out. 161. Advertisement, The Los Angeles Times, 21 March 1923, 118. The advertisement shows he was then located at 948 West 7th Street in Los Angeles. 162. “Gowning Women for Films More than Attaining Beauty Asserts Designer André-Ani,” The Los Angeles Times, 20 Dec. 1925, C40. 163. Advertisement, The Los Angeles Times, 23 May 1926. 164. Leese, Costume Design in the Movies, 63. 165. Hamilton papers, box 36, “Drawings and Photos”; Leese, Costume Design in the Movies, 63. 166. American Film Institute Catalogue of Feature Films, 1893–1972, http://www.afi. com/members/catalog, accessed December 10, 2006. 167. “Fashions Salon to Be Opened,” The Los Angeles Times, 22 July 1930, A3. 168. Greer, Designing Male, 265. 169. Hamilton papers, scrapbook 20, 1925 includes a clipping noting that one of the gowns Hamilton wore in the show was either lost or stolen. 170. Leese, Costume Design in the Movies, 26. 171. “Mme.” Alpharetta Hoffman (explored in Chapter 5) was another film costume designer who left studio work to open her own fashion salon; see Grace Wilcox, “The Dressing Room,” It, 10 July 1920, 12, 30. 172. Campbell MacCulloch, “Beating the Fashion Clock: If You’d Know What Women Will Wear – Watch the Movies!” Liberty, 25 Feb. 1928, 57–60. Liberty was a popular “Weekly for Everybody” similar to the Saturday Evening Post in both content and circulation. The magazine was in print from the 1920s through the 1940s. 173. See Paramount Press Sheets, 1926–28 for examples of a large variety of fash- ion tie-ups in local shops to coincide with the showing of a particular movie, Margaret Herrick Library, Motion Picture Academy of Arts and Sciences. Notes 225

174. Alice Terry Scrapbooks, circa 1925, Margaret Herrick Library, Motion Picture Academy of Arts and Sciences. 175. Hamilton papers, scrapbook 2, letter dated October 4, 1929. 176. Eckert, “The Carole Lombard in Macy’s Window,” 107. 177. Ibid. 178. Advertisement, The New York Times, 3 May 1934, 5. 179. Advertisement, The New York Times, 19 June 1934, 5. 180. Advertisement, The New York Times, 25 Jun. 1933, 11. For comparison, a crin- kled crepe evening dress from Macy’s in 1934 cost $18.54, see advertisement, The New York Times, 15 Jan. 1934, 5. For the effects of the Depression on the fashion industry, see Rebecca Arnold, The American Look: Fashion, Sportswear and the Image of Women in 1930s, and 1940s New York (London: I.B. Tauris, 2009), 75–82. 181. American Film Institute Catalogue of Feature Films, 1893 –1972, http://www.afi. com/members/catalog, accessed Jan. 3, 2010. 182. “Discuss Screen Fashions: Group Decides Hollywood Influence Limited to Promotion,” The New York Times, 24 Mar. 1933, 14. Elizabeth Hawes was then a successful custom clothing designer who had her own fashion house called Hawes-Harden at 8 West 56th Street. After working for a US copy house in Paris, she opened her house in 1928 in New York in the hope that she could help “liberate” the US fashion industry from the dictates of Paris couture. See Bettina Berch, Radical by Design: The Life and Style of Elizabeth Hawes (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1988); Elizabeth Hawes, Fashion Is Spinach (New York: Random House, 1938), 135–7. 183. Ibid. 184. Ibid. 185. Ibid. 186. “Oh, Sailor Be [sic],” Sheboygan Press, 8 Nov. 1930; http://www.newspaper archive.com, accessed March 30, 2012. 187. Hamilton devoted an entire notebook to her appointment and the dress she created for the Olympics. 188. “Rights to Life Story of Peggy Hamilton Sold,” The Los Angeles Times, February 3, 1956, A28.

Chapter 7

1. Duff Gordon, Discretions and Indiscretions, 75. 2. “Englishman Frankly Admits Intention of Invading American Picture Market,” Moving Picture World, 1 May 1920, 659, cited in Thompson, Exporting Entertainment, 127. 3. Douglas Gomery, The Hollywood Studio System (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1986), 15. 4. Joan Blondell, Center Door Fancy (New York: Delacorte Press, 1972), 201. 5. Ibid. 6. Jane Gaines, “Costume and Narrative: How Dress Tells a Woman’s Story,” in Gaines and Herzog, Fabrications, 199. 7. Greer, Designing Male, 209. 8. Grace Corson, “Photoplay’s Fashion Review of the Month,” Photoplay, Dec. 1924, 61–3. 226 Notes

9. A comparison of Callot Soeurs advertisements between 1919 and 1920 demonstrates that the number of houses carrying its line was down to 31 in 1919 as a result of the war. In one year, however, the number had substantially improved, with 77 fashion houses carrying its models. See advertisement, The New York Times, 22 Oct. 1920, 3; advertisement, The New York Times, 20 Apr. 1919, E4; advertise- ment, The New York Times, 20 April 1919, E4. 10. Carolyn Van Wyck, “Photoplay’s Fashions for Famous Screen Star Design by Le Bon Ton with Patterns for You,” Photoplay, March 1922, 52–3. 11. Paramount Production Files, The Dressmaker from Paris, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 12. Greer, Designing Male, 226; Leese, Costume Design in the Movies, 26. 13. In his autobiography Greer writes that when he started working for Famous Players-Lasky he was making a sizable sum, $200 per week, up from $50 as a designer at Hickson; Greer, Designing Male, 207. 14. Ibid., 207. 15. Greer, Designing Male, 265; Leese, Costume Design in the Movies, 26. 16. Leese, Costume Design in the Movies, 26. 17. The synopsis information is taken from the synopsis in The Dressmaker from Paris, Paramount Production Files, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. The term midinette refers to a shop girl, usually one who works in a dress shop; see Mary Brooks Picken, The Fashion Dictionary (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1957), 223. 18. The Dressmaker from Paris, “Summary from the synopsis of the clothes needed for the production,” Paramount production files, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. The wardrobe plot is dated December 9, 1924. 19. Ibid. 20. Ibid.; the wardrobe summary is from Henry Hathaway. Hathaway’s role at Famous Players-Lasky is not known, but he went on to become a successful director and producer of 70 films. A Tom White appears in the AFI catalog in various produc- tion roles from 1929 –62, but none is identified specifically as costume related. H.H. Barter is identified as an art director for one film, 20,000 Leagues under the Sea (Universal Film Mfg. Co., 1916, dir. Stuart Paton); see American Film Institute Catalog, http://www.afi.com/members/catalog, accessed Jan. 2, 2010. 21. “Set Interiors,” Paramount Production Files. 22. Ibid. 23. Jeanne Lanvin (1867–1946) started her career as a milliner and opened her own couture house in 1909, joining the Syndicat de la Couture in that year. Lanvin was one of the most successful Parisian couturières of the 1920s and the house is still in operation. See Élizabeth Barillé, Lanvin (Paris: Editions Assouline, 1997), 9. 24. As Lanvin’s biographer Jérôme Picon points out, the term “de style” refers not to one particular era, but a historicist pastiche. As it relates to Lanvin, there were two inspirations behind her robe de style: her daughter Marguerite and the eighteenth- century silhouette. See Jérôme Picon, Jeanne Lanvin (Paris: Flammarion, 2002), 141. 25. A 1922 article from Photoplay presented 49 gowns Pickford brought back from Lanvin in Paris, which she intended to wear both personally and in her films, see “Mary’s New Clothes,” Photoplay, 1 June 1922, 76. 26. Madeleine Delpierre, Marianne de Fleury, and Dominique LeBrun, French Elegance in Cinema (Paris: Musée de la Mode et du Costume, Palais Galliéra, 1988), 111. Notes 227

27. For the effect of the Depression on the film industry, see Thomas Patrick Doherty, Pre-Code Hollywood: Sex, Immorality and Insurrection in American Cinema, 1930–34 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), 17. 28. For the couture industry after the stock-market crash, see Amy de la Haye and Shelley Tobin, Chanel: The Couturière at Work (Woodstock, New York: Overlook Press, 1994), 59. 29. See Harry Waldman and Anthony Slide, Paramount in Paris: 300 Films Produced at the Joinville Studios, 1930–33 (Lanham, MA: Scarecrow Press, 1998) for a detailed exploration of the studio’s production of films in the suburbs of Paris. 30. A. Scott Berg, Goldwyn (New York: Knopf, 1989), 214. 31. Laura Mount, “Designs on Hollywood,” Collier’s, 4 Apr. 1931, 21, 69. 32. Ibid., 21. 33. Delpierre et al., French Elegance in Cinema, 111. 34. Ibid. 35. Ibid. 36. American Film Institute Catalog of Feature Films, 1893–1972, http://www.afi.com/ members/catalog, accessed Jan. 2, 2010. 37. Ibid. 38. Berg, Goldwyn, 213. 39. Tonight or Never Pressbook, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. 40. Ibid. 41. Gloria Swanson, Swanson on Swanson, 409–10, 414. 42. Ibid. 43. Valerie Steele, Women of Fashion: Twentieth-Century Designers (New York: Rizzoli, 1991), 39. 44. Tonight or Never review, Variety, 22 Dec. 1931; de la Haye and Tobin, Chanel: The Couturière at Work, 67. This film was viewed at the UCLA archives. 45. Berg, Goldwyn, 214. 46. Leese, Costume Design in Film, 14. 47. American Film Institute Catalog of Feature Films, 1893–1972, http://www.afi.com/ members/catalog, accessed Jan. 2, 2010. 48. Ibid. 49. The Greeks Had a Word for Them review, Variety, 9 Feb. 1932. 50. “Here, Girls, Are Screen Clothes That Will Start Something! First You See These Goldwyn-Chanel Styles Here – then See Them on the Screen,” Photoplay, 1 Nov. 1931, 38–41. 51. See Janet Wallach, Chanel: Her Style and Her Life (New York: Nan A. Talese, 1998) for images comparing Swanson’s tailored suit in Tonight or Never with Chanel’s 1932 line. 52. I corresponded with the reference librarian at the University of Texas, which houses the Swanson archive. This also turned up very little information on the Chanel’s work with Goldwyn. 53. Edmonde Charles-Roux, Chanel (London: Harvill, 1989), transl. from French by Nancy Amphoux, 270; Berg, Goldwyn, 234–5. 54. Cited in Roux, Chanel, 271. 55. Gaines, “Costume and Narrative,” 189, 191. 56. American Film Institute Catalogue of Feature Films, 1893–1972, http://www.afi.com/ members/catalog, accessed Jan. 2, 2010. 57. Picon, Jeanne Lanvin, 251. 228 Notes

58. Walter Benjamin, “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction,” in Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen, eds., Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 745. 59. Susan Buck-Morss, The Dialectics of Seeing: Walter Benjamin and the Arcades Project (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999), 81. 60. Elizabeth Cowie, “Pornography and Fantasy, Psychoanalytic Perspectives” (1992), quoted in Rebecca Arnold, Fashion, Desire and Anxiety (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002), 71. 61. Stig Bjorkman, Bergman on Bergman: Interviews with Ingmar Bergman (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1973), 44. Bibliography

Notes on Sources

My findings have been gathered from a wide range of primary sources, including surviving film footage, trade periodicals, fan magazines, autobiographical documents, film production records and archive material relating to individual designers. With regard to the film footage, the approximately one hundred and twenty movies I viewed represent a very small portion of what originally existed.1 I looked at varied genres, though with an emphasis on those that had a relationship to fashion and dress. For films that no longer exist, information has been garnered from articles, film reviews, stills, company records and archive material relating to individual designers. The film catalog of the American Film Institute is the most comprehensive source of production and synopsis information on Hollywood films. It does not, however, contain thorough records for all the pre-1920 films I investigated, and only identifies costume designers after 1925. My resources included both American and European films because, prior to 1911, the United States industry faced considerable competition from both French and English filmmakers and newsreels by companies such as British Gaumont and French Pathé were imported and widely distributed in the United States. I have also included certain European narrative films that had wide distribution in the United States because they had an influence on how producers and directors in the U.S. viewed fashion in film. When I originally started my research, I was hoping to shed more light on some of the unknown early designers. Frustratingly, although names emerged, there was little biographical information on most of the individual design- ers beyond the films for which they can be credited. One of the exceptions is Peggy Hamilton Adams, whose archive is held at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA). It includes important information related to costume design in the early days of film, including information about the early careers of studio system designers such as Howard Greer and Max Ree, as well as the California fashion industry in the 1910s and 1920s. The Margaret Herrick Library of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in Los Angeles and the New York Public Library’s division of Performing Arts were invaluable resources for material related to various early cinema stars, production com- pany records, oral histories, microfilmed film magazines, rare books, as well as special archives related to specific designers. Rare films were viewed at the Library of Congress in Washington D.C., the George Eastman House in Rochester, N.Y., the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, the University of California, Los Angeles, and the British Film Institute in London, England. From the time I started this research in 2003, great progress has been made in terms of the availability of silent films on-line and on DVD. Compilations of the Biograph and , for example, have been very helpful.

1 There are very few production records from the very early days of film but cur- rent statistics indicate that of all the feature-length films in the 1910s and 1920s, approximately 20% survive; Scott Simmon, More Treasures from American Film Archives, 1894–1931 DVD (San Francisco: National Film Preservation Foundation, 2004), xii.

229 230 Bibliography

In addition, today there are silent movies available on-line through member and non- member sites such as Youtube.com and Netflix. For movies that are considered “lost,” still photographs were enormously helpful and these and were available in various archives. The Boston Public Library also has an early theater archive in their Special Collections that contains relevant ephemera including clippings, playbills, and memo- rabilia not found elsewhere. Archives related to the fashion designer Lucile were consulted in the special collec- tions of the Gladys Marcus Library at the Fashion Institute of Technology in New York and the Arts Library at the University of California at Los Angeles. In terms of second- ary resources, histories of filmmaking companies proved useful, as did the extensive literature in film studies and fashion, although there are very few studies on film and fashion that specifically address the period before 1925. Film and fashion magazines, both of which gained in popularity and circulation in the period under discussion, were important resources for understanding the female consumer and changes taking place in both industries. Another important source of information was the autobiog- raphies of people who worked in those industries, which often filled in information about fashion and costume that could not be found in archives.

SOURCES CONSULTED

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Mutual Film Corporation Reel Life New York Dramatic Mirror Photoplay The Triangle Variety Universal Weekly (Motion Picture Weekly) Views and Film Index

Fashion Periodicals: Cosmopolitan Delineator Gazette du Bon Ton Harper’s Bazar Ladies’ Home Journal McCalls Vanity Fair Vogue Women’s Home Companion

Special Collections and Film Archives Boston Public Library, Fenway Theater Collection, Special Collections, Boston, Massachusetts British Film Institute, London, England Museum of Modern Art, Celeste Bartos Film Study Center, New York, New York Fashion Institute of Technology, Gladys Marcus Library, Special Collections, New York, New York George Eastman House, Film Study Center, Rochester, New York Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin Library of Congress, Motion Picture, Broadcasting, and Recorded Sound Division, Washington, D.C. Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, Los Angeles, California Museum of the City of New York, New York, New York New York Public Library, Billy Rose Theater Collection and Special Collections, Performing Arts Library, New York, New York University of California, Los Angeles, Charles Young Research Library, Special Collections; Film and Television Archive, Los Angeles California Index

Note: page references in bold refer to figures/illustrations; page references in italics refer to notes. actualities 10, 24, 77–9 Bullocks Wilshire 152, 153, 163. See Adams, Peggy Hamilton. See Hamilton, also department stores Peggy Burke, Billie 63, 95, 105, 133 Adrian 9, 141, 159, 163, 169, 178, 179. See also costume designers Cahan, Abraham 20 Aitken Brothers 105. See also Triangle Callot Soeurs 18, 56, 57, 83, 102, 151, Film Corporation 153, 171 Amarilly of Clothes-Line Alley 51, 126 and fake labels 18, 56 “American” design 6, 18, 20, 36, 42, Castle, Irene 1, 39, 63, 95, 101, 137 45–73, 104, 147, 158, 160, 169. See Censorship 23, 41, 47, 90, 177. See also also Hamilton, Peggy; Ladies’ Home National Board of Review Journal; World War I Chaffin, Ethel 121, 124, 132, 163 American Association of Costume Chanel, Coco 151 Designers 125 work in film 174–9. See also American Princess, The 63, 88, 181 Swanson, Gloria; Goldwyn, Samuel; André-Ani 125, 159, 163. See also Tonight or Never; Three Broadway costume designers Girls; Annabelle’s Serpentine Dance 75 Chaplin, Charlie 37–40, 76, 183 Art et Decoration 79 views on costume 38 “character” costume 4, 110–12, 119, Banton, Travis 73, 159, 162–5, 169, 124, 127–28, 139, 146 171–4, 180. See also costume Chase, Edna Woolman 14, 29, 64, 80 designers Cinderella stories 12, 31, 51, 52, Bara, Theda 54–5, 172 112, 126 Baumann & Company 111. See also cinema of attractions 5, 31–2, 36, 76, costume rental 81, 90, 115 Beauty Parlor Graduate, A 82 relationship to fashion shows 31, 36, Benjamin, Walter 10, 13, 149, 179–184 76, 81, 90 Bergdorf Goodman 56, 64. See also Clark, Scotson 102–3 department stores Clark, Sue Ainslie, with Edith Wyatt, Biograph Film Company 8, 43, 96, study of the working girl 14, 16, 101, 110, 112, 118, 130–1 28, 30. See also shop girl Birth of a Nation, The 41, 49, 110, 111 Collins, Henry 155, 120. See also Blondell, Joan 169, 177–8 costume designers Bok, Edward 18, 55–9, 61, 66. See also Conway, Jack 107, 108, 145–6, 182 Ladies’ Home Journal Cosmopolitan magazine 90, 94 Bonwit Teller 4, 56, 97, 98. See also Costume Designers Guild 116 department stores costume rental 111–2, 160. See also Brady, Alice 134 Bauman & Co.; Eaves Costume Brusinski, George 43, 122–3, 123. See Company; Western Costume also costume designers Company

241 242 Index

Coulter, Lucia 112, 115, 160. See also Edison Film Manufacturing Company costume designers 10, 23, 89 costume design 4–5, 42–4, 46, 50, 55, and Pathé 47–8 57, 65–67, 73, 97, 107–40, 143–8, Edison’s Vitascope 22 160, 162–6, 169–80 Elsie, Lily 84, 87 as fashion designers 115 Elvidge, June 116, 134 See also Adrian; Andre-Ani; Banton, Erté 125 Travis; Brusinski, George; Coulter, Eve’s Film Review 106 Lucia; Duncan, Irene; Farrington, exploitation 175. See also cross- Mrs. Frank; Greer, Howard; promotion, marketing Hamilton, Peggy; Hoffmann, Alpharetta; Iribe, Paul; Kalloch, Famous Players-Lasky 21, 116, 120–3, Robert; Kay, Kathleen; Leisen, 124, 125, 139, 151, 171, 172 Mitchell; Lewis, Jane; Mrs. Madden; Fararr, Geraldine 69, 126 Max Ree; Mme. Violet (Mrs. Farrington, Mrs. Frank 115–6, 119–20, George Unholz); Nordon, Virginia; 134. See also costume designers Wachner, Sophie Fashion Fete 64, 80. See also fashion cross-promotion 71, 82, 90. See also show exploitation fashion model 61, 74, 78–82, 88, 98, 152, 154, 181. See also mannequins, danse du ventre 75 fashion show DeMille, Cecil B. 4, 8, 50–2, 66, 67, fashion photography 75, 79, 102 123–5, 128, 139, 144, 159 fashion play 76. See also Rue de la Paix Department Store, The 31 fashion serials 7, 23, 72–5, 103, 145, department stores 16, 29–3, 98, 170–72 172. See also Our Mutual Girl, on film 170–172 Florence Rose Fashions See also The Department Store, The fashion show 6, 63–4, 72, 74–105, Kleptomaniac The Shop Girl; shop 127–8, 145, 151, 152, 155, 157–8, girl; Bergdorf Goodman; Bonwit 162–68, 171–4. See also fashion Teller; Bullocks Wilshire; Filene’s; show on film Gidding, J.M.; Hamburger’s; fashion show on film GO BACK I. Magnin; Macy’s, Wanamakers Filene’s 169. See also department directoire dress 5, 36, 53, 55, 78, 83, stores 160 , 190, 194. See also Poiret, Paul Florence Rose Fashions 71, 103–4. See Directoire Gown, The 36 also fashion show on film Doucet, Jacques 16, 17, 83, 102 Fool There Was, A 54–6 dreams, Hollywood as manufacturer Forbidden Woman, The 135–6, 173 of 9–10, 53, 149, 168, 171, 180 Fox Production Company/Studios 111, “dream dresses” 15, 87–8, 145, 168. See 120–1, 139, 151, 163 also Lucile Drecoll, House of 89, 116, 133 garment industry in film 23–9, 52–3. Dressler, Marie 37–40 See also The Ghetto Seamstress, The Dressmaker from Paris, The 9, 119, Golden Chance, Lily of the Tenements, 171–3, 173 The Musketeers of Pig Alley, The Duncan, Irene 4, 121. See also costume Song of the Shirt, That’s Happiness, designers Triangle Shirtwaist Company garment industry, New York City 13– Early Fashions on Brighton Pier 79 16, 22, 27, 41, 56, 71 Eaves Costume Company 111, 209. See garment industry, Los Angeles 8, 72–3, also costume rental 149–162. See also Hamilton, Peggy Index 243

Gaumont 77, 79–80, 83 Henri Bendel 56–7, 62, 64, 71, 98, Gazette du Bon Ton 103 126–30 Georgenne, Mme. 105 in films 98, 129. See also department Ghetto Seamstress, The 24 stores; Way Down East Gidding, J. M. 18, 19, 56, 86, 130. Her Exclusive Hat 32–3 See also department stores Hickson 68–72, 147–8, 171 Gish, Lillian 28–9, 32, 57, 65, 110–11, High Road, The 26 118, 120, 126–8, 129, 130–1, 133–4, hobble skirt 37, 39, 39, 43, 54–5, 59, 139–40 191. See also Poiret, Intolerance, Gloria’s Romance 41, 95–6, 105, Tillie’s Punctured Romance, The Hobo 133, 181 and the Hobble Skirt Golden Beetle, The 75 Hoffmann, Alpharetta 116, 120–1, 125, Golden Chance, The 51–2, 54 151. See also costume designers Goldwyn Pictures 21, 120, 126, 138 Hoffmann, Hugh 81–2 Goldwyn, Samuel 21, 124, 169, 174–8 Hopper, Hedda 63, 137 Goudal, Jetta 138–9, 169 Hubert, Rene 9, 159. See also Gloria Gown of Destiny, The 68–72, 70, 143, Swanson 147–9, 155, 182 Greeks Had a Word for Them, The 177. I. Magnin 152, 160. See also See Three Broadway Girls department stores Greer, Howard 62, 70, 124, 141, 159, illustrated slides 26, 32–3, 81. See also 163–4, 169, 171–2, 180, 197. See cinema of attractions also costume designers immigration, immigrants 18, 61, 20–7, Griffith, D.W. 4, 21, 24–5, 27, 29, 49–50, 53, 131 41–4, 46, 49, 52, 57, 65, 101, 111, Ince, Thomas 117, 119, 133, 134, 117–19, 118, 124–7, 144 Intolerance 4, 41–3, 120, 122, 124 Iribe, Paul 55, 86, 125, 194. See also Hamburger’s 160. See also department costume designers stores Hamilton, Peggy 4, 6, 8, 11, 68–73, 82, J.M. Gidding 18, 19, 56, 86, 130. See 107–8, 112, 120, 126, 134, 141–180, also department stores 144, 167 Joyce, Alice 63, 88, 182 filmography 182 jupe-culottes 54, 79, 84. See also harem and costume design 68–73, 70, pants 107–8, 108, 120, 126, 134, 141–8 and California fashion industry Kalem Pictures 80, 83, 88, 181 149–67 Kalloch, Robert 62, 163–4, 197. See also fashion shows 156–9 costume designers and the Los Angeles Times Kay, Kathleen 139, 151, 159, 163, 169. 149–56, 150 See also costume designers harem pants 37–9, 39, 43, 53–4, 79, Keystone film company 38, 111, 113, 190. See also jupe-culottes, Poiret, 121, 143 Paul, Tillie’s Punctured Romance Kinemacolor pictures 7, 84–6. See also Harper’s Bazaar 23, 90, 102, 104, 188 Poiret, Paul haute couture 16–18, 23, 29, 41, 60–6, kinetoscope 16, 49, 75 71–86, 156, 170–9 Kleptomaniac, The 29–30 and satire 32, 36–7, 39–41 Kurzman, Charles 56, 64, 155 and anti-French sentiment 45–6, 53–9. See also Bok, Edward La Badie, Florence 89, 132 Hearst Corporation 90 Ladies World magazine 95 244 Index

Ladies’ Home Journal 14, 17–18, 55, Mayo, Edna 63, 95, 133 61, 101 McGeachy, Cora 159. See also costume lampshade tunic 38–9, 54, 84–5, 93 designers Leisen, Mitchell 121–2, 124, 125. See Méliès, Georges 23 also costume designers middle-class audiences 4–5, 12–13, 29, Lent, Arthur B. 101 32, 38, 41, 44, 47, 49, 75, 90, 106, Lewis, Jane 8, 114, 120. See also 109, 143 costume designers Mindil, Phillip 100–2. See also Our Liars, The 83 Mutual Girl Lily of the Tenements 50–2 Minnie Flynn 131–2 Limousine Life 145–6, 156 Misleading Lady, The 71, 95 Lindsay, Vachel 48–9 Mllinery Bomb, A 34 Little American, The 63, 66–67. See also Mme. Frances 56, 62, 66, 126, 138, 171 World War I Mme. Violet (Mrs. George Unholz). Little Wildcat 152 See also costume designers Lisette, Mme. 129 Moth and the Flame, The 54 Los Angeles Times, The 132, 141–156, Motion Picture Patents Company 47 159, 161–2, 166. See also Peggy Moving Picture World 81, 98, 101, 105, Hamilton 107, 115–16, 134, 136 Lucile (Lady Duff Gordon) 6, 34, 41, 51, Musketeers of Pig Alley, The 27–29, 32 62–7, 71, 75–6, 79–84, 87–90, 92, Mutual Film Corporation 63, 71, 75, 93, 94, 95–8, 105–6, 126–30, 133, 80, 96–106, 120, 134 135–7, 136,142, 145, 149, 151–3, 156–7, 163–4, 168, 171, 172, 180 National Board of Review 47. See also as designer for film 6, 41, 63, 66–7, censorship 87–98, 92, 93, 94, 106, 127–30, Nationalism 45–6. See also World War I 135–7, 180 National Photoplay Exposition 121, 159 and fashion show 64, 75–84 New York Hat, The 34–36, 35 filmography 181 New York Times, The 22, 45, 56–61, 66, Ludlow massacre 42. See also Intolerance 72–3, 85 Newsreels 23–4, 37, 46, 71–9, 106 Macy’s 18, 29, 165–6, 168. See also nickelodeons 22, 85 department stores nickelodeon era 5, 12, 21 Macy’s Cinema Shops 165–6 , 168 Norden, Virginia 112, 117, 134. See Madden, Mrs. 97, 120. See also costume also costume designers designers Normand, Mabel 37, 60 Maison Maurice 56, 65, 89 126, 132 Nugent, Wilbur R. 82 Male and Female 125 Ny-Fax Films 80–2, 86 mannequins 6, 17, 75–88, 142, 149, 157, 174. See also fashion models O’Rossen suit 155–6, 221 Marie Antoinette 141, 149 Old Jane of the Gaiety 112 Marion, Frances 131–2 Orientalist dress 5, 13, 43, 53, 55, 58, marketing 7, 73, 83, 84, 94–95, 97, 66, 84–5, 87, 173. See also Poiret, Paul 106, 143. See also exploitation, Our Mutual Girl 63, 71, 75, 96–106, 99, cross-promotion 100, 106, 144, 145, 152, 164 and Lucile 83–4, 94 Our Mutual Girl Weekly 71, 101–4 and Poiret, Paul 83–4 Mauritania 98 Palmy Days 174–5. See also Chanel, Max Ree 163. See also costume Coco designers Paquin, House of 17, 64, 83, 153 Index 245

Paris Fashions 77, 79 Shifting Sands 65, 148. See also World Pathé Film Company 46–7, 53, 62, War I; Swanson, Gloria; Hamilton, 76–80, 89–90, 103–4, 122 Peggy Patou, Jean 134, 153, 154, 157, 172 shirtwaist 13–18, 24–9, 32 Perils of Pauline, The 62–3, 89–94, 96, shop girl 31, 34 98, 165, 181 Shop Girl, The 31 Phillips, Norma 97, 99, 100, 100, Slave of Fashion, A 158, 182 101, 103 Smoke (You Can’t Believe Everything) 108, Photoplay magazine 98, 101, 160, 164, 145–7, 182 169, 170, 171 Snow, Marguerite 89, 110, 119–20, Pickford, Mary 34–6, 35, 51, 63, 66–7, 132, 133 72, 120, 149, 154, 173, 181 Song of the Shirt, The 24–9, 50 picture hat 13–14, 29, 31–2 St. Denis, Ruth 43, 124 piecework 5, 12, 24, 26, 28, 41, 50. See Stein & Blaine 71, 138, also garment industry, New York Strange Case of Mary Page, The 95, Poiret, Paul 6, 36–8, 41, 43, 53–5, 133, 181 55–9, 64, 66, 68, 74–84, 85–7, 98–9, Swanson, Gloria 1–4, 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 65, 99, 156–7, 160, 172 107, 108, 124–6, 131, 145–6, 154, and anti-French sentiment, 53–5, 175–6, 176 55–9, 86–7 as costume designer 84, 86 talkies 174–5 and Kinemacolor fashion show 85–7 Tappé, Herman 56, 64 as subject of satire in film 36–8, 43, Thanhouser Film Corporation 49, 110, 53–5 115–6, 119, 120, 133 See also The Directoire Dress, harem Thanhouser Heroine, A 129–30 pants; jupe-culottes, orientalist That’s Happiness 27 dress; fashion show on film; Tillie’s Theft of the Crown Jewels 63, 181 Punctured Romance Those Awful Hats 33–4 Potash & Perlmutter 138 Three Broadway Girls 177, 178. See also Chanel, Coco Queen Elizabeth 84, 86 Thurn 56–7, 62 Tillie’s Punctured Romance 37–40, 43, 53 ready-to-wear 7, 13–14, 16, 20–21, Tonight or Never 9, 174–6, 176. See also 28–33, 37, 53, 60–61, 63 Chanel, Coco; Swanson, Gloria Reboux, Caroline 17 Triangle Film Company 6, 8, 65, Reel Life magazine 98, 99, 102, 133. 68–70, 72, 105, 114–5, 118, 139–49, See also Our Mutual Girl 153, 182 Reutti, Florence 104 Triangle Magazine 72 Rosson, Helen 134 Triangle shirtwaist fire 5, 26 Rue de la Paix 55 on film 26–7 Two Fools and their Follies 36–7. See also Saturday Evening Post 101, 146 harem pants Seamstresses 24, 26–8,52, 112, 114, 117, 120, 139, 177. See also The Unholz, Mrs. George (Mme. Violet), 4, Ghetto Seamstress, The Song of the 113–14. See also costume designers Shirt; That’s Happiness; Triangle Unwritten Law, The 46–7 shirtwaist fire Sears, Roebuck 14, 16–17, 24, 28 Vaudeville 21–2, 32, 49 serial dramas 23, 63, 71–5, 87–98, and relationship to fashion on 115, 132 film 5, 36, 75–6, 90 246 Index

Vitagraph Film Corporation 7, 76, 112, Where is my Daughter? 41 114, 120, 122 White, Pearl 63, 90–3, 91, 92, 93, See Vogue 14, 23, 56, 61, 64, 102 also Lucile; The Perils of Pauline, fashion serials Wachner, Sophie 120–1, 163. See also Whitney, Bell Armstrong 80 costume designers Who Loved Him Best 96, 111 Waldman’s Modern Merchandising Williams, Kathlyn 133 Bureau 165 working-class audiences 2, 5, 7, 12–16, Wanamaker’s 18, 56, 82. See also 21–41, 44, 49, 52–3, 112 department store World War I 5, 41, 45–73, 102, 107, wardrobe department 9, 29, 45, 98, 147–8, 161, 169, 170, 174 101, 107–22, 118, 124–6, 130–43, Worth, House of 16, 17, 68 146, 169, 172. See also Who Loved Wurtzel, Sol 111 Him Best Wyatt, Edith. See Clark, Sue Ainslie wardrobe mistress. 8, 115–16. See also Old Jane of the Gaiety Young, Clara Kimball 63, 134–6, 136, Way Down East 57, 126–30, 129 149, 158. See also Lucile Weber, Lois 41 Western Costume Company 111, Zeigfeld Follies 62–3, 75 122 Zeigfeld, Florenz 76, 174 ? 89 Zola, Emile 30–1