Tradition of Interdisciplinary Research : from Al-Kimiya to Rasayana

Home , Digestion (alchemy), Ibn Wahshiyya, Khalid ibn Yazid, Stephanus of Alexandria

International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science Society and Culture(IJIRSSC) Vol: 1, No.:1, 2015 ISSN 2395-4335, © IJIRSSC www. ijirssc.in ______-______Tradition of Interdisciplinary Research : From Al-Kimiya to Rasayana

Dr. Dinesh Baishya Former , Principal, B Borooah College, Guwahati, Former Dean, Media Sciences and Cultural Studies University of Science and Technology, Meghalaya, India ______

ABSTRACT : Al-kimiya‟ is the origin of the word alchemy which preceded modern chemistry. Kimiya‟ without the Article “al” is the origin of the word chemistry. The word khemeia occurred for the first time in a decree issued by the Roman Emperor Diocletian (c. 245–c. 312), to burn all Egyptian books of khemeia that deal with alchemy and the manufacture of gold and silver. Chemical knowledge started with the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt, since the fourth millennium B.C.E. Metallic bodies such as gold, silver, copper and iron were used from an early date for various purposes. Several kinds of raw materials that were used in the chemical industries were known. Most historians of science believe that the science of alchemy and chemistry started and developed principally in the Nile Valley, and that it was practiced also in Syria, Mesopotamia and Persia. Alchemy became a prominent science in Alexandria in the early years of the Christian era. The majority of the inhabitants of Alexandria and the other cities in Egypt were Egyptians, with small communities of Syrians and Greek. The Egyptian industrial skills in metallurgy, dying and glass making were combined with the Syrian, Babylonian and Greek philosophical contemplations in formulating the science of alchemy. Rasayana is the traditional chemistry studied in ancient India . In early Assam there was a kind of traditional biochemical research . Early folk researcher of Assam researched and produced different types cosmetics by using herbal elements. They used herbal extracts from different sources and use in different ways to produce perfumes, Tooth powder, Face cream, Body cologne and so on . The aim of this paper is to study about the alchemy, and the Indigenous Hindu Chemistry along with folk biochemistry in Assam. The paper also high light the importance and uses of traditional biochemical research in early Assam.

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______I.Introduction: The practices towards transmutation of metallic bodies such as iron copper and lead into silver and gold by using chemical preparations with the help of the elixir in ancient Arab There was also a kind of occult or mystical aspects of .(الخيمياء) was known as Alchemy alchemy in Arab. The Arabic form al-kimiya‟ is the origin of the word alchemy which preceded modern chemistry. Kimiya‟ without the Article “al” is the origin of the word chemistry. The word khemeia occurred for the first time in a decree issued by the Roman Emperor Diocletian (c. 245–c. 312), to burn all Egyptian books of khemeia that deal with alchemy and the manufacture of gold and silver. Chemical knowledge started with the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt, since the fourth millennium B.C.E. Metallic bodies such as gold, silver, copper and iron were used from an early date for various purposes. Several kinds of raw materials that were used in the chemical industries were known. Among these were alums, various kinds of salts and nitrates .This indicates that chemical knowledge was known since the rise of ancient

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International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science Society and Culture(IJIRSSC) Vol: 1, No.:1, 2015 ISSN 2395-4335, © IJIRSSC www. ijirssc.in ______-______civilizations. It was however an empirical knowledge and alchemy and chemistry were not yet developed into sciences. It is well established that the beginnings of science in general including chemistry started in Mesopotamia and Egypt, and from thence they were transferred into Greece. The Babylonians believed that the universe originated from water. They noticed also that the universe contains opposite elements. Thus there is day and night; light and darkness; male and female; hot and cold; wet and dry. The Babylonians were keen observers of the stars; and from their early history they believed that the gods are in control of the planets. They believed also that the sun, the moon and the other planets have influence on what happens on earth. This was the beginning of astrology. The influence of the planets involves metals; thus sun influences gold, and the moon influences silver, and the other planets control the remaining metals. This linkage between the planets and metals was the biggest contribution of the Babylonians to alchemy or the Art. The principle of the two opposites of the Babylonians was inherited by Greek philosophers. Aristotle was one of the latter Greek philosophers who benefited from those who preceded him and believed in the existence of four principal properties which are composed of two opposites: hot and cold, wet and dry. Aristotle explained that one can obtain four main elements; fire (from hot and dry); earth (from dry and cold); water (from cold and wet) and air (from wet and hot). This theory of Aristotle prevailed until the middle of the seventeenth century and it exerted a great influence on the possibility of transmuting one element into another. Most historians of science believe that the science of alchemy and chemistry started and developed principally in the Nile Valley, and that it was practiced also in Syria, Mesopotamia and Persia. Alchemy became a prominent science in Alexandria in the early years of the Christian era. The majority of the inhabitants of Alexandria and the other cities in Egypt were Egyptians, with small communities of Syrians and Greek. The Egyptian industrial skills in metallurgy, dying and glass making were combined with the Syrian, Babylonian and Greek philosophical contemplations in formulating the science of alchemy.

Arabian Alchemy: Khalid Ibn Yazid was the first Arab to work on alchemy or „ilm al saná ( the Art). His exact birthday is not accurately known, but we know that when his brother Mu‟awiya Ibn Yazid had died in 64/683, Khalid was not able to become a caliph because of his young age. According to Ibn al-Nadim, Khalid summoned from Egypt a number of Greek scholars who are well versed in Arabic and commissioned them to translate works on the Art of alchemy into Arabic. Khalid learnt the Art of alchemy under Maryanus the Hermit, who was either an Egyptian or a Syrian. Maryanus was in turn a pupil of Istfan (Stephanus) of Alexandria. After Khalid, more translations of alchemical works emerged in Arabic, and many Arabic alchemists appeared. There are several alchemical treatises attributed to Ja‟far al-Sadiq. Jabir Ibn Hayyan was the greatest Arabic alchemist, and the most celebrated, East and West, until the rise of modern chemistry. Jabir is from the Arab tribe of Azd, and Kufa was his principal residence. He is known as al-Sufi because he was a follower of one of the Sufi orders. Jabir was an

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International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science Society and Culture(IJIRSSC) Vol: 1, No.:1, 2015 ISSN 2395-4335, © IJIRSSC www. ijirssc.in ______-______alchemist at the court of the Caliph Harun al-Rashid. The fame of Jabir is due mainly to his works on alchemy, but he wrote also on industrial chemistry, medicine, physics, mathematics, philosophy and all branches of science that were known at his time. Abu Bakr al-Razi was the greatest Arabic alchemist after Jabir. He was also one of the greatest physicians in Islam and was an accomplished philosopher. Ibn Wahshiyya is Abu Bakr Ahmad Ibn „Ali Ibn Qays Ibn Wahshiyya. He lived in the third/ninth century, and was active in alchemy, astrology and agriculture, among other things. Thus there were hundreds of famous alchemists in Arab who contributed towards the development of traditional chemistry in Arab. Most people dismiss alchemy as the fake Art of transmuting base metals, such as tin and lead, into silver and gold. This superficial view may be contrasted with the notion of some modern historians of science and chemistry who assert that alchemy was never anything different from chemistry and that it was essentially the chemistry of the Middle Ages. According to alchemical theory, all forms of matter are one in origin; and are transmutable. These views bear a close resemblance to those of modern physical science. Indeed modern science has shown the possibility of bringing about many transmutations of elements. The sulphur–mercury theory was the basis upon which the alchemy of Jabir was based. This theory appears basically as a derivative of the Greek theory that matter was composed of the four elements of earth, air, fire, and water.

Indian Alchemy or Hindu Rasayana : Alchemy (the older form of chemistry) had made great strides in India. Ayurveda, which used a variety of minerals, also played an important role in the development of chemistry. It developed as iatrochemistry, which was closely related to medicine. The two main incentives for the development of chemistry were the age-old desires of human beings: to live forever and to get rich. Much of chemistry grew out of the early efforts to develop an elixir and to turn base metals into gold. It is also interesting to note that Needham claimed that earliest distillation of alcohol is attested to through the archaeological finds at Taxila. In fact, the ancient name of alcohol is khola, which sounds so similar to it! The Indus valley civilization was the earliest society, which had developed an elaborate urban system depicted in terms of streets, public baths, temples and granaries etc. They also had the means of mass production of pottery, houses of backed bricks and a script of their own. So we can say that the story of early chemistry in India begins from here. The Indus valley people used a number of minerals for a variety of useful products such as medicinal preparations, plasters, hair washes etc. Faience, which is a sort of proto-glass, was quite popular with the Harappans and was used for ornaments. They also smelted and forged a variety of objects from lead, silver, gold, and copper; and also used tin and arsenic to improve the hardness of copper for making artefacts According to Rgveda, tanning of leather and dyeing of cotton was practised during this period. During the period c.1000-400 BC they made a particular kind of polished grey pottery known

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International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science Society and Culture(IJIRSSC) Vol: 1, No.:1, 2015 ISSN 2395-4335, © IJIRSSC www. ijirssc.in ______-______as Painted Grey Ware. Other varieties of pottery, for example, red or Northern Black-Polished (N.B.P.) Ware (600-200 BC), were also made later. These Wares indicate their mastery of control of kiln temperatures as also of the reducing atmosphere. The golden gloss of the NBP Ware is still a chemical mystery and could not be replicated. After the Vedas, came the classical texts like Brahmanas, Upanishadas and Puranas, which also give valuable information about the chemical activities of this period. Kautilya's Arthasastra (KA) was a scientific landmark of this period. KA described the production of salt from the sea and collection of shells, diamonds, pearls and corals. Charaka Samhita and Susruta Samhita were two celebrated Ayurvedic treatises on medicine and surgery. Chemical knowledge of the times especially that related to medicine was compiled in them. A number of classical texts like Atharvaveda (1000 BC) mentioned some dye stuffs. Dyes were extracted from inorganic substances by repeatedly soaking and mixing them in water and allowing the materials to settle. Then the solution was taken out and spread on a pot and evaporated to get the dry dye. Some other substances having tinting properties were Kampillaka (Mallotus phillippinesis), Pattanga (Cesalpinia sappan) and Jatuka (a species of Oldenlandia). A large number of other materials were also used for dyeing. References to cosmetics and perfumes in Sanskrit literature were found like in Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira. Cosmetics and perfumes making were mainly practised for the purpose of worship, sale and sensual enjoyment. The Bower Manuscript (Navanitaka) contained recipes of hair dyes which consisted of a number of plants like indigo and minerals like iron powder, black iron or steel and acidic extracts of sour rice gruel. Gandhayukti gave recipes for making scents. It gives a list of eight aromatic ingredients used for making scents. They were: Rodhara, Usira, Bignonia, Aguru, Musta, Vana , Priyangu, and Pathya. The Gandhayukti also gave recipes for mouth perfumes, bath powders, incense and talcum powder. Somarasa, which was mentioned in the Vedas, was probably the earliest evidence of the use of intoxicants in India. Kautilya's Arthasastra listed a variety of liquors such as Medaka, Prasanna, Asava, Arista, Maireya and Madhu. Caraka Samhita also mentioned sources for making various Asavas: cereals, fruits, roots, woods, flowers, stems, leaves, barks of plants and sugar cane. About 60 Tamil names were found in Sangam literature, which suggest that liquors were brewed in south India since the ancient times. Medieval alchemical texts also mentioned fermented liquors and their methods of preparation. Alcoholic liquors were classified into the following categories depending on their applications in alchemical operations: 1. Dasanapasani Sura: used in dyeing operations 2. Sarvacarani Sura: used in mixing operations of all kinds 3. Dravani Sura: used in dissolving substances 4. Ranjani Sura: used in dyeing operations 5. Rasabandhani Sura: used in binding mercury 6. Rasampatani Sura: used in distillation of mercury

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International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science Society and Culture(IJIRSSC) Vol: 1, No.:1, 2015 ISSN 2395-4335, © IJIRSSC www. ijirssc.in ______-______Susruta-Samhita used the word khola for alcoholic beverages; perhaps the modern word alcohol is derived from it. A large number of alcoholic preparations were described in various texts. Medicines were chiefly derived from plants, although a few ingredients originated from animals. Preparations of medicines involved collection of the ingredients, their purification, extraction of their essences and compounding of these extracts by means of processes like grinding, pasting and maceration. Processes like dissolution, distillation, sublimation, precipitation, combustion, dilution and decocting were carried out in these preparations. Mercury and gold were also used in a number of drugs. The discovery of saltpetre (i.e. potassium nitrate) and its chief application in gunpowder was a crucial factor in the history of chemistry. Firearms were mentioned in ancient Sanskrit texts like Rgveda, Atharvaveda, Kautiliya's Arthasastra and Manusmrti. A verse in the Sanskrit alchemical text Rasopanishada narrated the preparations of a gunpowder mixture. Tamil texts also describe the preparation of fireworks using sulphur, charcoal, saltpetre, mercury, arsenic, camphor etc. Alchemy in India flourished in the medieval period. The Indian alchemy had two characteristic streams: gold making and elixir synthesis. The two faces of the alchemical practice, the metallurgical and the physico-religious, were superimposed to get a single picture wherein mercury and its elixirs were used in the so called transmutation of the base metals into noble ones, as well as for internal administration for purifying the body, rejuvenating it and taking it to an imperishable and immortal state. Numerous alchemical texts were written between the ninth and the fourteenth centuries AD. Some texts are such that the alchemical ideas form only a part of them, while some other texts are wholly devoted to alchemy. Those that come under the second category include the following: 1. Rasahrdayatantra by Govind Bhagwatpad 2. Srasaratnakara by Siddha Nityanatha 3. Rasarnava by an unknown author 4. Srasendracudamani by Somadeva 5. Rasaratnasamuccaya by Vagbhatta 6. Rasaprakasasudhakara by Yasodhara 7. Rasarajalaksmi by Ramesvara Bhatta 8. Rasendracintamani by Dhundukanatha 9. Rasendracintamani by Ramacandra Guha 10. Rasasara by Govind Acarya 11. Rasakaumudi by Sarvajnacandra 12. Rasabhesajakalpa by Surya Pandita 13. Rasasamketakalika by Camunda 14. Lohapaddhati by Suresvara 15. Kankaligrantha by Nasirshah

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International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science Society and Culture(IJIRSSC) Vol: 1, No.:1, 2015 ISSN 2395-4335, © IJIRSSC www. ijirssc.in ______-______16. Rasamuktavalina by Devanatha Besides, there are several works whose authorship and dates have not yet been established. Among them may be mentioned Dhatukalpa, Dhatumanjari, Dhatumaranam, Rasagrantha, Rasakalpalata, Rasanibhandha, Suvaranatantra, Tamrakalpa, Abhrakakalpa, Paradakalpa, Jaranamaranadi, Sutapradipa etc. These texts are either fragments of major texts or generally based on them. Practitioners of the Siddha system of medicine wrote a number of alchemical texts known as Mappu texts in the Tamil language. The more prominent Siddhas were Agastyar, Bogar, Ramdevar and Karuvurar. There were alchemical texts written in other Indian languages as well, for example, in Hindi, Telugu, Kannada, Marathi, Bengali and Oriya. The texts of Indian alchemy (rasavidya) reveal that a wide variety of inorganic and organic substances were used and plant as well as animal products, but more of the former. The important minerals are generally referred to as rasas and, in later texts they are classified into maha (superior) and upa (subsidiary) rasas. Mercury, though a metal, is extolled as the king of rasas, the maharas, and has several names in the rasasastra texts: parada, sita, rasendra, svarnakaraka (maker of gold), sarvadhatupati and, more significantly in a mythological setting, Sivaja (born of Siva); Siva virya (semen of Siva) and Harabija (seed of Siva). More than two hundred names of plants have been mentioned in the texts, but many of them have not been properly identified from the point of view of modern botanical nomenclature. Generally their roots, leaves or seeds are used for aiding digestion processes. As for the animal products, their excreta flesh or some other parts of their bodies were diligently processed and used. The texts written in the medieval period primarily dealt with gold-making and elixir syntheses. Elixir or Rasayana was a substance that could transform other base metals in to gold and silver, as well as confer longevity and immortality when taken internally. If an elixir proved successful in transmutation of metals it was supposed to be safe for internal administration as well. Owing to its heavy weight, silvery white and shiny appearance, fluidity, and its property of readily combining with other substances, mercury was considered as the most potent of all substances and as possessing divine properties. The potions containing mercury were supposed to give longevity and immortality, thus making it the main ingredient of the powders used in the transmutation and as elixirs. Mercury had to undergo 18 processes before it could be used for transforming either metals or human body. These processes were as follows: 1. Svedana: steaming or heating using water bath 2. Mardana: grinding 3. Murchana: swooning or making mercury lose its form 4. Utthapana: revival of form 5. Patana: sublimation or distillation 6. Rodhana: potentiation 7. Niyamana: restraining 8. Sandipana: stimulation or kindling

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International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science Society and Culture(IJIRSSC) Vol: 1, No.:1, 2015 ISSN 2395-4335, © IJIRSSC www. ijirssc.in ______-______9. Gaganabhaksana: consumption of essence of mica 10. Carana: amalgamation 11. Garbhadruti: liquefaction (internal) 12. Bahyadruti: liquefaction (external) 13. Jarana: calcinations 14. Ranjana: dyeing 15. Sarana: blending for transformation 16. Sankramana: acquiring power of transformation or penetration 17. Vedhana: transmutation 18. Sevana: becoming fit for internal use

The earliest available alchemical text in Sanskrit, Rasaratnakara by Nagarjuna was probably part of a larger text Rasendramangala written by the same author. Nagarjuna was the most prominent scholar in the field of Indian alchemy. There appeared a number of alchemical treatises in the eleventh to twelfth century AD namely, Rasarnava, Rasahrdaya, Rasarnavakalpa etc. Among them, Rasopanisad and Rasarnava were the largest consisting of about 2600 verses.

Indigenous Chemistry in Assam: Evidence of the study of chemistry for preparation of medicine, concerning human as well as animal, are found both in the early and medieval sources. In early Assam, we find one Nagarjuna whose name is associated with the compilation of a medical work called Yoga Satake. According to K.L. Baruah there are still certain specific remedies, in the Kamarupi Ayurvedic pharmacopoeia, which are associated with the name of Nagarjuna. It is further believed that Nagarjuna was contemporary of Ratnapala of the 11th century A.D. and belonged to the Vajra-yana school. Moreover, Nagarjuna of Assam was a different person from the Nagarjuna of the 2nd century B.C. who is believed to have revived the Susruta-Samhita (Choudhury, 1959: 403 ). In the „Subhankara-pataka‟ grant of king Dharamapala, there is reference to a vaidya named Prasthana Kalasa, who composed the grant. Like the present terms bej and oja, the term vaidya stands for a professional class of physicians. The Nowgong grant of the king Balavarman mentions Bhisaja, a class of physicians (Barua, 1933:159). Assamese physicians used to refine poisons, metals and other materials to be used for medicinal purpose. Some poison materials are often used as ingredients of medicine; these materials are used in medicine only after refining. Some of the important poison materials are refined traditionaly using the following methods: Opium : Soaked in extract of ginger and sun dried at least 21 times. Datura seed : Partially grinded datura seeds soaked in cow‟s urine and dried. Konibih : Seeds of konibih contains a leaf which is deadly poisonous. This leaf is to be removed carefully. After removing the leaf, seed is to be boiled in fine cow‟s milk. Gul gul latex : To be boiled in cow‟s milk.

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International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science Society and Culture(IJIRSSC) Vol: 1, No.:1, 2015 ISSN 2395-4335, © IJIRSSC www. ijirssc.in ______-______

Traditional method of refining of metals for medicinal use : Gold, silver, copper, brass, tin, iron, mica etc. are used for preparation of medicine. No metals can be used in preparation of medicine until it is refined. There are different traditional methods of refining of metals. Gold : Fine leaves of gold are made and burnt. Burnt gold leaves are boiled at least seven times in each of the following materials - mustard oil, curd water, cow‟s urine, lemon juice, decoction of kutthi (a pulse). After boiling in the above materials the gold leaves are cut into pieces and made into a solid ball with mercury. This gold mercury ball is then put into a closed bottle along with sulphur, the tube is put into fire and the gold is burnt in presence of sulphur. This process is done again and again for fourteen times. The ultimate result, the ashes of gold is used as ingredient in medicine. Silver : Silver is refined in the same process as gold. Silver leaves are burnt in fire and treated with a mixture of mustard oil, curd water, cow‟s urine, lemon juice and extract of kulthi (pulse), for three times. Silver, treated thus, is again treated with two parts of sulphur and one part of mercury and burnt inside a bottle. This treatment and burning continues for fourteen times. Finally silver is obtained in the form of ash and is used as ingredient of medicine. Copper ash : Copper may be refined by boiling thin copper leaves in cow‟s urine. Equal amount of refined copper leaves are treated with mercury, citrus juice and sulphur. After this treatment, copper leaves are burnt inside a bottle in fire to obtain copper ash with lemon juice and then put inside a tuber of alocacia, wrapped with a thin layer of mud, dried in sun and burnt inside metallic tube. Copper ash does obtained is edible. Bell metal : Bell metal is an alloy of copper and tin. Thin leaves of bell metal is first burnt in fire. Hot bell metal leaves are treated with mustard oil, curd water, lemon juice, cow‟s urine and decoction of kulthimah (a pulse), three times each separately. After this treatment bell metal leaves are burnt inside a bottle. Refining of iron : Thin leaves of iron burnt and treated with oil, curd water, lemon juice, cow‟s urine and decoction of kulthimah three times, each separately. Each time iron is to be made hot. After this, again the iron leaves are to be boiled in a mixture of milk, lemon juice, cow‟s urine and decoction of triphala (amlakhi, bhomora and xilikha). Iron leaves thus treated are again mixed with cow‟s urine and burnt inside a bottle. After several times of burning, iron leaves will turn into ashes and may be used as ingredients of medicine. Mica : Mica is another important ingredient of medicine. There are four different types of mica. These are white, yellow, red and black mica. Only black mica is useable in medicine. Some black mica when burnt in fire produce sound, such mica is not used. Mica which when put in fire does not produce any sound is used as medicinal ingredient. Burnt mica is treated with milk and kept two nights and a day in a decoction of jhil mil salt and lemon juice. After this treatment, burnt mica is powdered, mixed with cow‟s urine and burnt inside a bottle. Ultimately, mica turns into fine ashes which is useable as medicinal ingredient.

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International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science Society and Culture(IJIRSSC) Vol: 1, No.:1, 2015 ISSN 2395-4335, © IJIRSSC www. ijirssc.in ______-______Refining of sulphur : Sulphur powder is mixed with ghee or clarified butter and boiled in a frying pan for some times. Sulphur thus boiled is mixed with milk and then washed after some time. The product thus obtained is useable as medicinal ingredient. Mercury( Para ) : To refine mercury it is rinsed with extract of betelvine leaves and garlic. Preparation of „Makarddhaj‟ : „Makarddhaj‟ is a kind of life saving drug used in critical condition of patient suffering from any diseases. Traditionally “makaraddhaj” was prepared with the following method : Some amount of sulphur is boiled in a frying pan till it form liquid. Equal amount of mercury is added to the liquid sulphur in the pan. Gradually, in a stepwise manner, more sulphur is added to it. Amount of sulphur should be around six times of the amount of mercury. Mercury powder thus obtained is known as “makaraddhaj” (Tahsildar,1910:57) .

Indigenous Metallurgical Chemistry of Assam: Metallurgical chemistry was vogue in Assam since very early. Khasis manufactured iron implements since last two thousand years. Khashi iron was of equal quality to European iron. Gold and silver washing and manufacturing is also dated back to 4th century in Assam as per available historical records. Saltpeter and gunpowder manufacturing is attributed by historians not to china but to ancient Assam. The traditional chemistry of manufacturing khar is as ancient as the people of Assam. The natives of Assam, specially the hill tribes traditionally smelted iron ores and manufactured iron implements for many purposes. No scientific study on iron culture of ancient Assam has been conducted so far. Therefore, it is difficult to date the period when the people of this area started smelting iron ores and manufacturing iron implements. According to Robinson, Khasis were manufacturing iron since the last 2000 years in traditional methods. There are many references on iron culture of the people of Assam in the writing of many historians. Well -known historians like Plinny, Ammianus Marcellinus and Oldham remarked on the iron culture of the Assamese people. According to Plinny, the iron of Serica (Assam) was considered to be the best. The articles of merchandise mentioned by Ammenius Marcellinus, from Serica (Assam ) consisted of skin, iron, aloe, musk and horns of the rhinoceros. The classical sources, therefore point to the working on iron from ancient times. It is believed that the people of this area learnt the art of smelting iron from the people staying in the hills of this region. The Khasis in particular, produced it in considerable quantities. As opined by Oldham, Khasi iron was excellent for all purposes as the Swedish one, and huge quantities were exported to other parts of the state either in lumps or in the shape of hoe ( Choudhury,1959:354).

Indigenous Cosmetic Chemistry of Assam:

Use of cosmetics and aromatics by the people of ancient Assam has been described in many books. There are descriptions of use of cosmetics and aromatics by ancient Assamese people in Arthasastra, Kalika Purana, Yoginitantra, Harshacharita and others. It has been

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International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science Society and Culture(IJIRSSC) Vol: 1, No.:1, 2015 ISSN 2395-4335, © IJIRSSC www. ijirssc.in ______-______mentioned in Arthasastra that aromatics were manufactured in many places of Assam. Jonga, Donga, Grameruka, Suvarnakundya, Parnadeepaka, Parlouhityaka Antarbatya etc. were some of the famous Assamese aromatics mentioned in Arthasastra( Goswami,1981:15). There are description of using powder (churnikrita), paste (ghrista), ash (dehakarshita) and scented liquid (Rasa) in Kalikapurana. It is stated as follows: “Gandha churna, Gandhapatrang churnang Samanasastatha Prasasta gasdhayuktanang patrachurnasi yanitu Tanigandha vahanishya sugandha prathama smrita. Ghristomalayajo gandha suchurnikrita meruna Agaru prabhitishrapi jashya pattaka pradiyate.”- Kalika Purana It is known that scented powder was manufactured from different plants in Assam. Scented paste was manufactured from agaru, chandana, sarala and other wood. Liquid extracts of devadaru, chandana, agaru, padum and other plants were used as scented cream. Body lotion was also prepared from extracts of karabira, bel, til, gandhiri, turmeric, pulses and other vegetable materials ( Goswami,1981:17).

Perfumes: Strong perfumes were manufactured from oil glands of musk deer. It has been mentioned that perfume of musk was extensively used in worshipping of gods and goddesses. Assam was famous for musk in ancient India. Kumar Bhaskar Barmana, the famous king of ancient Kamrupa offered musk made materials to king Harshavardhana. It has been mentioned in Raj Nirghanta that the musk of Assam was second in quality to the musk of China. Many historians mentioned that musk of Assam was exported to many countries of the world. People of Assam used musk perfume to repel serpents. They believed that serpents dislike the smell of musk. French traveller Travernier, wrote in his travelogue that the population of musk deer in the forest of Assam was very high. Travernier brought 7673 bags made of musk skin. The tribal kings of Assam always offered musk oil along with other presentation. The vaidyas of ancient Assam used musk oil for preparation of medicines. They used it for preparation of medicine for asthma, rheumatic pain, cough etc. Agaru : Use of agaru wood for manufacturing of perfume is a very old process. The agaru tree (Aquilaria agalocha) was considered as most precious in Assam from ancient times. The bark of agaru tree was used for writing. It was popularly known as sanchipat. Agaru tree was very common in the forest of Assam. It is a very big tree of 60-70 feet in height and 10-12 feet in circumference. It has been mentioned in Mahabharata that Bhima brought agaru and chandan wood from Kamrupa. Kautilya mentioned about the agaru wood of Kamrupa in his Arthasastra. The Banamala inscription of Tezpur describes about use of agaru wood in Assam. King of Pragjyotishpura, Bhaskar Barmana offered agaru oil in bamboo nodes along with other presentations. It has been mentioned in Ain-E-Akbari, that Arabians knew Kamrupa as a place of agaru forest (Goswami,1981:20). Till today, agaru is exported from Assam to different parts of India and abroad, particularly to Arabian countries. A particular species of insect infest the aged agaru tree. The insect secret a special type of resinous material inside the tree. This secretion hardens and produce resinous logs of agaru tree. When agaru trees are put in water, they sink if they carry the agaru resin, because this

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International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science Society and Culture(IJIRSSC) Vol: 1, No.:1, 2015 ISSN 2395-4335, © IJIRSSC www. ijirssc.in ______-______resin is very heavy. When it is proved that there are agaru resin inside a log then it is split carefully and the resin is collected. Oil is produced from this material with a special method. Agaru oil was used as perfume. Now a days, the scented sticks are known as agarbatties, this name has been derived from agar as the sticks were made with the perfume extracted from agaru tree. Sandal wood : Chandan or sandal wood was used in Assam as raw material for manufacturing of perfumes. It is not sure, whether sandal wood tree was available in the forest of Assam or brought from other place, but the people of ancient Assam were using sandal wood for cosmetic purposes from a long time. They used sandal wood paste for beautification of face and other body parts. Sandal wood oil was also used very popularly as a perfume. Fifteen different varieties of sandal wood has been described in the Arthasastra. All these sandal woods are of different colours and scents. Again it has been described that three varieties of sandal wood were found in Kamrupa. These were jap, jongak and tourup. These varieties of sandal wood produced mild scents. Sal wood : Sal (Shorea robusta) is a common hard wood of Assam. There are large number of sal trees in the forest of Assam. Sal tree secrets a special type of resinous material known as saldhuna. Saldhuna is widely used for production of perfumed smoke in religious functions. When powdered saldhuna is sprinkled on fire, it produce scented smoke. In ancient Assam, people produced a kind of oil from sal seeds. Oil produced from sal seed was also used as a perfume, as it has a characteristic fragrance. People of Assam used to make bathing soaps from sal oil.

Tooth powder : In the days of yore, people of Assam used branches of some trees as tooth brush. Branches of sarua tree, bhotera (Jatropa gossipifolia), neem (Azadiractus indica) etc. were commonly used for brushing teeth. mustard oil mixed with powdered salt was also used for brushing teeth. A special type of tooth paste was prepared with charcoal of tobacco, chalk and camphor. Ashes of citronella plant was also used as tooth powder. Ashes of groundnut shell mixed with neem and black pepper powder was also used as tooth powder. Dry pieces of betelnut fried sufficiently, powdered finely, and mixed with fine camphor powder is also used as tooth powder. Ashes of betelnut, bamboo charcoal and burnt borax mixed and powdered is used as tooth powder. Khasis and some Assamese people use peel of betel nut as tooth brush. Powered root of bagari tree ( Zizyphus jujuba) and powder of used and dried tea leaves are mixed together and is used as a medicated tooth powder specially for pyorrhoea. Long pepper, black pepper, xilikha (Terminalia chebula) powder mixed with rock salt and mustard oil is used as a tooth paste ( Kamaratna Tantra : 23).

Face cream : It has been known from Ahom buranjis that Ahom queens used facial cream for beautification of their face. Rind of orange, white mustard seeds, flower of pirika sak a kind of green leaf vegetable, extract of raw turmeric, powder of agaru and sandal wood are boiled in

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International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science Society and Culture(IJIRSSC) Vol: 1, No.:1, 2015 ISSN 2395-4335, © IJIRSSC www. ijirssc.in ______-______ghee (oil of cows milk) and made a paste. This paste was used as facial cream ( Kamaratna Tantra: 23).. Hair oil : Ahom queens also used a kind of scented hair oil for beautification of hair. This oil was made from a large number of ingredients. The most popular among them were : 1. Matimah (Phaseolus mug), extract of bhim plantain, extract of ou fruit (Dillenia indica), paste of ghrita (Enteda gigas), gunraj, bhimraj (Wadelia calendularia), kehraj (Eclipta alba), mutha (Eiperus botundus), gandh birina (Lemon grass), satmul (Asparagus racemosus), seeds of kenwa ban, meethiguti (Ferugreek), saguni lata (Tinospora cordifolia), bagh achora ban (Martinia annua), pathali komora, chal kunwari (Aloe vera), kol dil . A scented oil is obtained when these ingredients are crushed and the extract is boiled in mustard oil. This oil was used as hair oil, which was known as gondh tel ( Kamaratna Tantra: 30).

Materials used for bath and face wash : In the days of yore, no soap was used by the people of Assam for bath. But pastes or oil was used as detergents for bathing purpose. Paste made of some materials was applied on the body during bath. The materials from which the bath paste were prepared are – 1. Gram powder, 2. Rice powder, 3. Mustard oil, 4. Olive oil, 5. Sal mogora oil, 6. Ground nut oil , 7. Til oil . A special type of face wash was made with cream of milk, yolk of egg and lemon juice. Fine river silt was also used for washing hand, face and body in a bath. Silt was rubbed all over the body before a bath.

Body cologne: To stop body odour due to sweating, the following may be prescribed - 1. Filaments of nageswar (Mesua ferra), roots of lemon grass and sirisha (rain tree), and the leaf of coconut are grounded to powder, should be rubbed all over the body. 2. Roots of lemon grass, the black aloe and bay leaf, taken in equal proportion should be ground and made into a paste and then rubbed all over the body, to get a sweet scent. 3. Paste of masoor dal (Lens culinaris) should be applied all over the body before a bath. 4. Decoction of lazukilata (Mimosa pudica) must be applied on the body, specially on the arm pits. 5. Finely made paste of tezpat (Cinamomum tamala) can be applied on the body and arm pits. 6. Lemon juice mixed with powder of camphor, applied on the body also helps. 7. Extract of burnt bottle gourd (Lageneria risereria) mixed with honey must be applied on the body. 8. Extract of vasaka (Adhatoda vasica) leaf when applied all over the body gives satisfactory results. 9. Extract of bel leaf (Aegle marmelos) must be applied all over the body and taken orally (two tea spoon) twice daily ( Kamaratna Tantra : 32).

For beautification of female body in general:

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International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science Society and Culture(IJIRSSC) Vol: 1, No.:1, 2015 ISSN 2395-4335, © IJIRSSC www. ijirssc.in ______-______1. Linseed, sorghum and long pepper is mixed in equal amount and powdered. A paste is prepared out of this mixture with clarified butter, and is applied all over the body to enhance brightness and beauty of the body. 2. Extract of amlakhi (Embelic myrobalan) and jamu mixed with honey, applied on the body, enhances brightness and beauty of the skin. 3. Tamarind, boch, kur, long pepper, joni (Trachyspermum), black pepper, ginger, and rock salt taken in equal amounts and ground together. When this powder is taken with honey, the brightness of skin and beauty of body is enhanced. 4. Paste made of dhaiphul and haithaguti, taken with milk helps in curing extreme thinness of body ( Kamaratna Tantra : 33)..

For a slim waist: Paste of one tola of bark of the root of madhabilata, should be taken with curd or milk every morning at least for a month. The waist tied tightly with a cloth, also helps in narrowing the waist.

To beautify facial skin: 1. Raw turmeric paste, powder of red sandal wood, buffalo milk, mixed and made to a paste, applied regularly on the face, may beautify the face. 2. Masoor dal‟s (Lens culimaris) paste mixed with honey applied on the face regularly will beautify the face with brightness. 3. Thorns of the silk cotton tree (Simalu), is ground finely and mixed with milk to make a paste. This paste when applied on the face and all over the body, beautifies the skin. It also produces a sweet fragrance. 4. White mustard seed and sesame seed (Til) ground, and made into a paste with milk, is applied on the face for brightening facial skin and is used as a mouth wash to stop bad breath. 5. Masoor dal is popularly used as a facial cosmetic. Paste of masoor dal and raw turmeric, when mixed with curd and applied on the face, removes black spots and improves brightness of the skin. 6. Burnt ashes of “sankha” (sea shell) mixed with extract of vasaka leaves, applied all over the body 2-3 hours before bath may result in brightening of the skin. 7. Extract of khutura sak (Amaranthus spinosa) mixed with turmeric powder applied on the face, improves the brightness of the skin. Such care may reduce dryness of skin. 8. Extract of leaves of khutura sak mixed with milk and lemon juice, applied on the face at night, kept for an hour, washed with lukewarm water, enhances brightness of the skin. 9. Extract of tezpat (Cinamomum tamala) diluted in water, filtered and drunk regularly, helps in enhancing brightness of skin. 10.Gram powder mixed with milk to make a paste, is applied on the face, hand or body, kept for some time, and then washed off with lukewarm water enhance the brightness of the skin ( Kamaratna Tantra : 35).

For brightness of eyes : 1. The eyes becomes bright by application of extraction of bark of leteku (Baccaurea sapida) tree. 2. Haziness of eyes may be removed by application of the paste made from the roots of white hog weed (Boerheavia chinensis) with clarified butter.

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International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science Society and Culture(IJIRSSC) Vol: 1, No.:1, 2015 ISSN 2395-4335, © IJIRSSC www. ijirssc.in ______-______3. Paste made with onion, ashes of four cowri shells, powder of long pepper and cardamom mixed with scum of milk and cows urine, applied to the eyes enhances the brightness of the eyes. Application of this medicine is also believed to help in curing of cataract. 4. Brightness and curing of cataract may also be attained by application of a paste made from roots of myrobalan mixed with cream of milk. 5. Application of the medicine made from the following ingredients enhance brightness of eye and eye sight-- The meat of black goat should be first cooked in clarified butter along with black pepper and long pepper. Decoction of these material should be ultimately mixed with honey, mustard oil and clarified butter. Paste made in this way should be applied to the eyes. 6. Blood shot type of eyes and tumour in the eyes may be cured by application of the medicine made with following ingredients, in the eyes: The paste obtained by mixing equal amounts of roots of jayanti flower, jaha rice, one rati of gold powder and honey ( Kamaratna Tantra : 39).

Hair care: For healthy hair : Clarified butter, extract of bhringaraj (Eclipta prostrata) and its root and mustard oil is mixed in equal amount, and boiled till it is reduced to one third its volume. This should then be kept in a new earthen receptacle, with the mouth closed carefully and then buried underground for a month. Care should be taken so that water does not seep into the receptacle and the mixture does not come in contact with air. Oil prepared in this way helps in maintaining healthy hair. For maintaining black colour of hair : A buffalo horn is first filled with black cumin seeds and kept buried after closing the open end tightly. The horn should be extracted after six months and the contents of the horn should be made into a paste and applied on hair. Continuous application of this material for a fortnight helps in blackening of the hair. (Kamratnatantra : 28) For fragrance of hair : When root of lemon grass, amlakhi (Embelica myrobalan), the root of jamu (Engenia jamubulana) and lotus leaf are ground together and the hair is anointed with it, the hair gives out a sweet fragrance. For strong hair roots : Roots and leaves of jamu tree are ground and mixed with urine of black cow, the paste is applied to the roots of hairs to get strong roots. Paste of China rose mixed with urine of black cow, applied on the roots of hairs, also ensures stronger hair roots. For alopacia : Latex of xiju plant (Euphorbia neriifolia) mixed with warm Til oil or coconut oil, applied on the head, helps in growth of hair. For greying and falling of hair : Application of extract of khutura sak (Amaranthus spinosus) on hair cures untimely greying and falling of hair. To prevent untimely greying of hair : Amlakhi (Embelica myrobalan) cut into pieces, dried in sun, boiled in coconut oil for a long time, gives a black coloured oil solution. Regular application of this oil on hair prevents untimely greying and falling of hair and also enhances brightness. Application of neem seed oil may also prevent untimely greying of hair ( Tahsildar, 1910:82).

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International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science Society and Culture(IJIRSSC) Vol: 1, No.:1, 2015 ISSN 2395-4335, © IJIRSSC www. ijirssc.in ______-______To cure acne : Extract of gutimali (Jasminum sambac) flower applied on the acne affected face, cure acne. Application of finely ground paste of gram on acne affected face regularly for few days, cure acne ( Kamaratna Tantra : 56).

References :

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