Map 56 Pergamum Compiled by C. Foss, S. Mitchell (north) and G. Reger (islands), 1994 Introduction The western seaboard of Asia Minor north of Ionia comprises Aeolis, the Gulf of Adramyttium and the Troad. Greek settlements were established at coastal sites here between about 1000 and 500 B.C., but none developed into a center on the scale of the leading Ionian cities. There were four major coastal plains, around Elaea at the mouth of the R. Caicus, in the broad delta of the R. Grylios, on either side of the R. Euenos north of Adramyttium, and in the lower basin of the R. Scamander around Ilium/Troia. It is clear that there have been changes to the water courses and to the position of the ancient coastline in these alluvial areas. In general, however, it appears that since classical times the increase in alluvial deposits at the river deltas has been matched by a rise in the sea level, with little resultant change to the position of the ancient shoreline. There has been considerable discussion concerning the original course of the Caicus between Pergamum and the sea. Dörpfeld (1911) argued that in antiquity the river ran north of Mt. Kane through the gap between Kane and Atarneus, and this course is thus marked with approximate linework. Dörpfeld’s view, however, was contested by Philippson (1911). No detailed geomorphological investigation of the area has been carried out, and the dispute remains unresolved. The river valleys of north-west Asia Minor extend eastwards into the thinly inhabited interior of the Troad and of Mysia, which is dominated by the forested mountain ranges of Ida, Pindasos, Temnon and Aspordenos. The mountains of the Troad were noted for timber as well as for mineral deposits, especially iron, lead and silver (Pernicka 1984). The evidence for the ancient topography of the region is hard to interpret. Only four of the ancient settlements in the entire area between Pergamum and Ilium and across inland Mysia are identified by epigraphic evidence (Alexandria Troas, Assos, Aureliane, Pericharaxis). The best information for the overall pattern of settlement has come from detailed archaeological exploration, notably of the Troad by Cook (1973), of the Gulf of Adramyttium by Stauber (IK 50), and of the territory of Pergamum by Schuchhardt (1912). Assigning names from the ancient sources to these sites is usually a matter of informed guesswork, however, and modern reconstruction depends heavily on the interpretation of the literary evidence. Much of this, including the work of Strabo, reflects the attempts of ancient commentators to make sense of Homeric geography (Leaf 1923). The southern part of the map comprises Lydia and northern Ionia. The latter is a region of typical Mediterranean climate and vegetation, with a long indented coastline and two major rivers, the Hermus and Cayster. It contains one large mountain, Mimas on the peninsula of Erythrai; otherwise it is broken country of small, but highly fertile, coastal and interior plains interrupted by craggy limestone hills. Communication was consequently easiest by sea. Because of its agricultural wealth, favorable maritime communications, and presence of numerous suitable harbors with adjacent hills for defense, this was the earliest area of the Greek colonization that produced a network of towns and cities. The interior is Lydia, a land characterized by the massive range of the Tmolus, the broad and extremely fertile plains of the Hermus and Cayster, and a rough, rather arid hilly country in the north-east. This country has enormous agricultural and mineral resources, as well as good communications with both coast and interior. Its most important roads follow the Hermus and radiate from Sardis. Already under the Lydian kingdom, the plains and valleys supported numerous settlements. In many cases, their presence is indicated by the tumuli which adorned important graves, a practice continuing into the Hellenistic period. Under the Romans, Lydia was densely occupied. The largest settlements were always in the Hermus valley, but the Cayster had many villages and towns, as did the hills. Mt. Tmolus, which contains numerous alpine valleys perpendicular to the main range, supported settlements too, although it was perhaps of greatest value for transhumance and for its mineral resources, of which the most famous was the gold of the R. Pactolus. 842 MAP 56 PERGAMUM Lydia has been well explored over the past century, notably by Buresch, Keil and von Premerstein, Louis Robert, and Herrmann. Their researches have produced an unusual quantity of inscriptions, which provide many of the toponyms marked. This epigraphic material is now being published, with the full context of historical geography, in TAM. Inscriptions of the Cayster valley appear in IK 17. Islands The three large islands of Lemnos, Lesbos and Chios dominate the western side of the map. Study of their topography has been uneven, and the map reflects these differences. For Lesbos, Koldewey’s survey (1890), conducted in the 1880s, remains the primary basis for the identification of many sites; its beautiful, large-scale maps and plans by Kiepert are as pleasurable as profitable to study. Some additional information appears in Kontes (1978), but many of his identifications must be treated with caution. Excavations have been conducted at some sites, and recent work has done much to increase our knowledge of Mytilene (Williams 1991). Most recently, however, three new studies deal with Lesbos in a comprehensive way: Axiotes’ (1992) extremely full descriptions of sites with sketch maps and illustrations; Spencer’s (1995) gazetteer of sites, which now replaces Kontes; and TIB Aigaion Pelagos (1998), which also covers Lemnos. These volumes represent a considerable advance on earlier work. Spencer, in particular, has collected and published an immense amount of data, including material in Axiotes; only the more significant sites newly brought to light by these two scholars can be marked at this scale. On Chios, many sites have been excavated, including notably Emporio (Boardman 1967). Ongoing work in the town of Chios has permitted a very useful summary by Tsarabopoulos (1986). The island as a whole was the subject of an intensive survey by Yalouris (1986), which is the basis for many of the identifications on the map. Since exploration early in the twentieth century by Fredrich (1906) and Sealy (1918), Lemnos has unfortunately remained neglected for the most part. There have been excavations, however, at the Kabeirion (Levi 1966). Two groups of sites largely are omitted. First, ancient farms, many of which are known for the island of Chios (Boardman 1958; Lambrinoudakis 1986); Dotion, however, is marked because its ancient name is known. Second, the many toponyms appearing in the Diocletianic (or later) land surveys (IG XII 2.76-80, IG XII Suppl.; Charitonides 1968, 70; LaBarre 1996, 223-37 for a recent study and bibliography). This second group poses a particular problem for Lesbos, since a remarkable number of toponyms there can reasonably be claimed to preserve names from those lists (Mantzuranis 1951; Kontes 1978). Kontes especially has been very quick to equate modern sites bearing these toponyms with the ancient ones. But in many cases, the modern sites have revealed no evidence of ancient occupation. Since toponyms can wander, the mere existence of a modern one resembling a known ancient one seems insufficient for the identification of a site without supporting archaeological remains. Kydonia provides a good example; a recent suggestion makes it the name of a region, not an island (Pliny, NH 2.232, 5.140; Koldewey 1890, 42; Mason 1993, 244-45). In general, I have been conservative in this matter, even rejecting some identifications (Mesos Agros, for example) that most scholars have accepted. Another problem arises from the large quantity of toponyms attested from antiquity whose identification is disputed or entirely uncertain. Lesbos has attracted numerous names of cities, indeed probably more than were ever established there. On Chios, some Hellenistic inscriptions published (in a bad state) by Zolotas (1908) offer a plethora of names. Only such toponyms as seem securely enough identified are marked; the rest remain Unlocated Toponyms. In addition, some famous sites, notably Leukonion (Thuc. 8.24.3) and the Lesbian site of the action in Daphnis and Chloe (Mason 1979; Green 1982), remain unlocated. Considerable shoreline change has occurred in the Aegean since antiquity, including the silting-up of harbors or bays, and loss of land to the sea. Most of these changes are too minor to show at this scale–for example, the shoreline at Eresos on Lesbos (Schaus 1994, 421-24). An exception is the strait between island and shore (euripos) at Mytilene, now silted up. Otherwise, the landscape of these islands has remained relatively unchanged. MAP 56 PERGAMUM 843 Directory All place names are in Turkey unless otherwise noted Abbreviations IK 1 H. Engelmann and R. Merkelbach, Die Inschriften von Erythrai und Klazomenai I, Bonn, 1972 IK 2 H. Engelmann and R. Merkelbach, Die Inschriften von Erythrai und Klazomenai II, Bonn, 1973 IK 5 H. Engelmann, Die Inschriften von Kyme, Bonn, 1976 IK 8 T. Ihnken, Die Inschriften von Magnesia am Sipylos, Bonn, 1978 IK 17.1-2 R. Meriç et al., Die Inschriften von Ephesos VII, Bonn, 1981 IK 24.1 G. Petzel, Die Inschriften von Smyrna II, Bonn, 1982 IK 50 J. Stauber, Die Bucht von Adramytteion, Bonn, 1996 Robert, Hell. L. Robert, Hellenica,13vols.,Paris,1946-65 Robert, OMS L. Robert, Opera Minora Selecta, 7 vols., Amsterdam, 1969-90 TIB Aigaion Pelagos J. Koder, Tabula Imperii Byzantini 10, Aigaion Pelagos (Die nördliche Ägäis), DenkWien 259, 1998 Names Grid Name Period Modern Name / Location Reference G3 (...)aleia? H near Sındırgı Robert 1962, 77 C2 Achaiion ACHR Hantepe Cook 1973, 195-96 E4 Achaion Limen HR Haci Ahmet Ağa RE ’Αχαιῶν λιµήν C2 Acheloos fl.