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Changes in Glass Consumption in Pergamon (Turkey) from Hellenistic to Late Byzantine and Islamic Times

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Changes in Glass Consumption in Pergamon (Turkey) from Hellenistic to Late Byzantine and Islamic Times Journal of Archaeological Science 55 (2015) 266e279 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Archaeological Science journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas Changes in glass consumption in Pergamon (Turkey) from Hellenistic to late Byzantine and Islamic times * Th. Rehren a, , P. Connolly a, N. Schibille b, 1, H. Schwarzer c a UCL Qatar, Georgetown Building, PO Box 25256, Doha, Qatar b Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK c Institut für Klassische Archaologie€ und Christliche Archaologie€ / Archaologisches€ Museum Westfalische€ Wilhelms-Universitat€ Münster, Domplatz 20-22, D-48143 Münster, Germany article info abstract Article history: We present compositional data for nearly 100 glass samples from Pergamon, western Turkey, spanning Received 23 August 2014 1500 years from the Hellenistic to Late Byzantine and Islamic periods. The data shows the use of already- Received in revised form known Roman glass groups during the first half of the time frame, for imported vessels as well as locally 26 December 2014 worked glass. No compositional change is seen related to the introduction of glass blowing for either of Accepted 27 December 2014 the glass groups in use during this time. During the first half of the 1st millennium AD, two previously Available online 22 January 2015 little-known boron- and alumina-rich compositional groups emerge. These glass groups, thought to be regionally produced, dominate glass compositions in Pergamon during the mid-to late Byzantine and Keywords: Mineral natron glass Islamic periods, indicating a major shift in glass supply and a fragmentation of the economy into more High-boron glass regional units. Plant-ash glass, from the 9th century AD replacing mineral natron glass in the Levant, Glass working plays only a minor role in Byzantine and Islamic Pergamon. Pergamon © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 1. Introduction suggesting that individual large-scale producers operated only for a few centuries before giving way to others. For nearly two millennia, from 1000 BC to the late 1st millen- Much of the literature concerning relatively early glass compo- nium AD, glass making in the Eastern Mediterranean was based on sitions (pre-5th century AD) is based on glasses from the northern mineral natron from the Wadi Natrun in Egypt. Little is known and western provinces (e.g. Foster and Jackson, 2005, 2009, 2010; about Hellenistic glassmaking, with production evidence so far only Paynter, 2006), and Italy (e.g. Mirti et al., 1993; Silvestri et al., known from Rhodes (Rehren et al., 2005, and references therein). At 2005, 2008; Silvestri, 2008; Gallo et al., 2013). Here, dominating least from the Roman period it seems to have been concentrated in compositional groups include Roman blue/green glass (Rb/g), a relatively small area stretching from lower Egypt (Nenna, 2000; antimony-decoloured glass and manganese-decoloured glass, and Nenna et al., 2005) to the northern Levant (e.g. in Bet Eli'ezer, HIMT glass. In contrast, much of the later analysed glass has been Freestone et al., 2002a; Beirut, Kouwatli et al., 2008), where it was found in the Eastern Mediterranean, with dominating groups fused with local sand (Fig. 1). The glass composition directly reflects including Levantine I and II, HIMT, and more regionally restricted, impurities in the sand used by each producer, resulting in chemi- Egypt I and II (e.g. Freestone et al., 2002b, 2008; Foy et al., 2003; cally distinct glass groups (Freestone, 2005, 2006; Degryse et al., Freestone, 2005, 2006; Nenna et al., 2005; Kato et al., 2009, 2010; 2009). From these primary production centres the finished glass Abd-Allah, 2010; Rehren et al., 2010; Rosenow and Rehren, 2014). was then exported to the consumption centres for working into In contrast, and despite its economic and political importance artefacts. Significantly, the various compositional groups have and its closeness to the primary production centres, relatively little limited life spans, as documented from archaeological finds, is known about the composition of glass used in Asia Minor. The analyses published up to now are predominantly from southwest Turkey; Brill (1999) lists some 35 analyses of glasses from Sardis and seven from Aphrodisias; Uhlir (2004; Uhlir et al., 2010) reports * Corresponding author. Tel.: þ974 7777 0275. glass compositions for 106 glass samples from Hanghaus 1 in E-mail address: [email protected] (Th. Rehren). Ephesos, ranging from the 2nd century BC to the 6th and 7th 1 Current address: Art History, University of Sussex, Falmer/Brighton, UK. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.12.025 0305-4403/© 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Th. Rehren et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 55 (2015) 266e279 267 Fig. 1. Map of the Eastern Mediterranean with some primary glass production sites and the position of Pergamon and Sardis. The region of major borate deposits is shaded in grey, east of Pergamon. Drawing: Robert Dylka. century AD; and Degryse et al. (2006) report 11 analyses of mid-1st this important city, spanning more than 1500 years from the millennium glass from Sagalassos in southern Turkey. This situation Classical era to the Islamic period. is corroborated by a similarly inadequate situation concerning typological studies of ancient and mostly Byzantine glass from Asia 1.1. Research aims Minor, and stands in contrast to the cultural and economic importance and prosperity of the region. Only recently research Long-term trends in the production, consumption and trade of concentrates on these aspects (e.g. Laflı,2009). A comprehensive glass in a particular site or region have so far been largely ignored typological study of glass from Pergamon (Schwarzer, 2009; by analytical studies. Fischer and McCray (1999) traced glass Schwarzer and Rehren, 2015; Schwarzer, in preparation) revealed compositions at Sepphoris in modern-day Israel over more than a a complex picture of imported and locally produced luxury glasses millennium, identifying a marked change in glass composition as well as every-day mass-produced vessels, and changing prefer- around the BC/AD turn which they link to the introduction of glass ences for the use of glass as a medium to produce functional or blowing and an associated adjustment of the glass recipe. A further decorative items of a wide spectrum. It also provided an opportu- major change occurred during the 8th to 9th century AD when nity to investigate the change in composition of the glass used in glassmaking in the Levant reverted to plant-ash based recipes (e.g. typologically de and one fused ceramic. Samplingwere intended to arti cover all visuallyTurkish and authorities exportedsouthern for slope of chemical the analysis; acropolissection hill of of and the with these, material the found 96 permission in of the the so-called Stadtgrabung on the uated near the western coast of modern Turkey ( 1.2. Pergamon ( jewellery and unformed chunks. Asblown a result, and the samples mould-blown) represent worked and in different different techniques colours, (core-formed,sequence mould-formed, window free- present. panes, Theas some material extraordinary chosenSchwarzer pieces, and includes covering Rehren, the 2015; glass Schwarzer, entire vessels, in chronological preparation cataloguing these glass fragments, from almost all periodsGerman of the Archaeological city's Institute history. During have yielded many thousands of 2. Materials and methods to more than 60,000 people. lower city, are now coveredEmpire. by Parts the of modern the city archaeologicalconquered of site of Bergama, by Pergamon, home especially the the spacious Seljuks forti and thenByzantine period absorbed (12th/13th into century AD),Widespread the mostly building culminating Ottoman activities in took a placean again interruption in the of middle/late Umayyads who enslaved the the inhabitants. settlement This dramaticchurches event up led were to to erected.however, the the In seat 10th 716 of century a ADthe Byzantine bishopric AD. the realm. was Since established city thenRoman here Pergamon Empire was and became in less several sacked important; theespecially late by 4th during the century the ADpowerful the 2nd metropolis city and century became prospered part AD. inbecame of the With part Roman Imperial the of period, divisionbequeathed the by of new the province the last of comprised ruler a Attalos major III part to ofthe the Asia 2nd Minor. Roman century In BC people, 133 during and dynasty BC the of the the reign kingdom Attalids of who was king madeThe Eumenes it city the II capital this obtained of realm supra-regional theirBronze kingdom. signi Age, In and prospered during the Archaicearliest and settlement Classical on periods. the acropolis hill goes back at least to the Late clearly in different levels of prosperity enjoyed by the city's inhabitants thought to havepolitical changes, in such as thevalidity schism of of the observations the made Roman in Empire, theand are earlier studies. what not Other major thelevel Pergamenian how assemblage these tells eventsmaking us may in have about the affected the Levant glasslatest wider and use samples Egypt. in post-date We Pergamon, the want introductionearliest to samples of pre-date see plant-ash the on based invention glass on a of the glass qualitative nature blowing, of while the the glassboth worked these and major consumed developments in which Pergamon.only may The due have to had the an city's in importance, but also because it encompasses 268 2006 production of mineral natron ( Kato et al., 2009, 2010 Schwarzer, 2009 Pergamon, one of the most important cities in antiquity, is sit- The long-term excavations in Pergamon conducted by the The assemblage from Pergamon is of particular signi ).
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