Francesco Giomi, Damiano Meacci, Live Electronics in and Kilian Schwoon Centro Tempo Reale Luciano Berio’s Music Villa Strozzi–Via Pisana 77 50143 Florence, Italy {fg, dm, kilian}@centrotemporeale.it

Luciano Berio has made significant contributions ones for each composition, namely Outis in Milan to the development of electronic music, from the (September 1999, La Scala Theater) and Paris (No- Studio di Fonologia Musicale of the RAI in Milan, vember 1999, The´aˆtre du Chaˆtelet), Ofanı`m in to IRCAM in Paris, to the Italian Centro Tempo Milan (October 2000, Sala Verdi), and Altra voce Reale, founded in Florence in 1987 with the objec- in New York (March 2001, Carnegie Hall), Tokyo tive of creating a structure in which to investigate (October 2002, Kajimoto Music), and Rome (March the possibilities of real-time interaction between 2003, Renzo Piano’s Auditorium). live performance and programmed digital systems. Tempo Reale is today a center of musical produc- tion, research, and education where many major Technology Serving Music Italian composers, in addition to Berio himself, cre- One of the major features of Berio’s work is un- ate their works and where important works from doubtedly his search for continuous mobility in the electroacoustic repertoire are performed. music. The possibilities of physical movement of In this article, we focus on three compositions by sound offered the composer by new technologies Berio that are not only particularly significant in are many, involving, for instance, the trajectories themselves but also represent an important testi- followed by sound events through space, continu- monial to the production activity of the center in ous modulation on harmonic and dynamic levels, recent years: Outis, the azione musicale composed and various types of proliferations of sound layers. in 1996 for La Scala theater and then performed But what truly interests Berio are not these situa- again in 1999; Ofanı`m (1988–1997) for female tions in themselves, but rather the relationships voice, two children’s choirs, two instrumental that are established between such physical–acoustic groups, and live electronics; and finally, Altra voce sound mobility and the effective mobility of the (1999), a chamber music composition for mezzo- musical thought. soprano, flute, and live electronics. The electronic Another fundamental aspect in the use of tech- parts of these compositions were totally revised be- nology is what Berio himself defines as ‘‘adaptabil- ginning in 1999, and various updated musical– ity of the musical thought to different spaces and technological contributions have been presented in listening situations.’’ Computer technologies and their recent performances. They are in any case those of sound diffusion allow the composer to in- works that, ranging from musical theater to cham- habit new, unconventional acoustic spaces, as well ber music, clearly exemplify Berio’s approach to as to open up and render flexible spaces that are composing for live electronics in different contexts. typically closed (such as traditional theaters) and This article discusses the problems involved in often strongly linked to standard modes of music this approach within the context of the musical– presentation. technological solutions designed and implemented by Tempo Reale for the live performance of the three works. The techniques adopted are first de- Analytical Listening: Principles of Amplification scribed in relation to their use in music; they are and Sound Spatialization then viewed within their proper context in a more detailed description of the three specific works. The simple amplification of a sound should be The performances in question are the most recent viewed, according to Berio, in the light of its musi- cal consequences:

Computer Music Journal, 27:2, pp. 30–46, Summer 2003 Our listening is today conditioned by top- ᭧ 2003 Massachusetts Institute of Technology. quality recording. A recording of this type al-

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Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/014892603322022655 by guest on 27 September 2021 ways has an analytic nature and therefore my factor in his catalogue, considering works such as ideal is that of creating a type of acoustics and Allelujah II (1956–1958), Sinfonia (1968–1969), of sound that is typical of a great recording stu- Coro (1974), and Formazioni (1985–1987). The mu- dio. (Berio 1999b) sical use of space can serve very different functions. The modification of the listening perspective and This consideration implies a series of conse- the determination of a multiplicity of sound levels quences for the entire electroacoustic chain, from in continuous transformation are among its most microphone techniques to sound diffusion systems. important aspects. This is exemplified by the third These decisions must, however, take account not group of violins in Sinfonia, placed behind the or- only the maximum possible quality of the sounds chestra, and the two harps in Formazioni posi- reproduced through the loudspeakers but also the tioned at the two far ends of the stage, as close as interaction between these and the natural sounds possible to the audience. A spatial organization of of instruments and voices: this type leads to greater acoustic transparency, whereas in other cases it is possible to suggest a Technologies interest me when they become different mode of perception, capable of rendering an extension of human work, of the perfor- listening ambiguous and orienting it toward a mance, the sound, the voice, but not as an end greater fusion of timbres. This happens in Coro, for in themselves, not as ‘‘effects.’’ In fact, I have example, where a group of 40 singers and 40 instru- no interest in searching for new sounds. A new mentalists (not counting the keyboard and percus- sound is created when there is a new musical sion instruments) is divided into 40 pairs, each idea to produce it. What interests me is extend- composed of a voice and an instrument in the same ing the possibilities of instruments, of the register, thus contributing to the creation of a sin- voice, but in an organic manner, which is not gle quasi-hybrid ensemble of voices and instru- in conflict with the sources of sound. (Berio ments. As a result, the organization of space in 1999b) music results at times in a greater acoustic trans- This concept differs profoundly, for example, parence, at times in a more tight-knit perceptive from the traditional amplification of a rock-and-roll unity—characteristics that even without electronic concert. In fact, here it serves not so much to in- means confer a more ‘‘analytic’’ perspective on lis- crease the loudness of the sound, but rather to tening. modulate the natural acoustics of a space. This The effect which in the orchestral writing is calls for great homogeneity between the natural achieved through static dispositions can acquire a and the amplified sound—homogeneity that can be new dimension of mobility through electronics: by achieved only by analyzing the acoustics of each artificially moving different sound structures closer individual space and adapting accordingly all of the or further away in space, it is possible to continu- parameters important to the spatial perception of ously modulate the degree of affinity between the sound: the number of sound loudspeakers used sound layers. This principle holds true for the in- for amplification and sound spatialization, their po- teraction between natural sound and amplified sitions, equalization, delaying systems—even slight sound as well as between different electronic lay- reverberations to avoid excessive superimposition ers, but can also be emphasized through suitably of the more directional sound emanating from the differentiated systems of reverberation serving to loudspeakers over the natural one. vary the degree of perception of each sound source One of Berio’s special interests is the potential by the listener. The ‘‘trajectories’’ of the move- for mobility in space of the amplified sound. Al- ments can also become significant, as is already the ready in his works without electronics there exist case in Berio’s compositions without electronics, many examples in which the positioning of the per- where at times he creates ‘‘virtual’’ movements of formers in space is used as a compositional parame- sound. Formazioni is, for example, dense in situa- ter. It might almost be said that this is a constant tions where identical notes or similar figures pass

Giomi, Meacci, and Schwoon 31

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/014892603322022655 by guest on 27 September 2021 between groups that are similar in timbre, but a variable number of sound sources to be moved. It separated in space, thus creating the illusion of a consists of a series of engines which operate on the shifting of the sound. But it is expressly in works amplitude of the audio signal, redirecting it toward such as Ofanı`m that the sound trajectories, created a variable number of outputs according to a series artificially, can acquire further significance, as will of musical models of movement. In the works ex- be seen in the final part of this article. amined here, predominant use is made of se- In the works featuring electronics, many parame- quences (path between sound loudspeakers selected ters of the sound spatialization or transformation with determined times of stasis and of movement) systems are not established in detail by the com- and some types of random algorithms (random poser. However, the sound locations are fixed in times and localizations, weighted randomness on relatively precise manner in an ‘‘electronic score’’ the localizations, permutation of localizations and thanks to a notation that defines sequences of con- time). The reverberation parameters associated figurations of loudspeakers. (This term ‘‘electronic with each sound source (natural or transformed) are score’’ will be used repeatedly in this article: in ad- controlled separately by the module for general dition to the normal, traditional score, Berio con- management of events described in the following structs an annexed document containing a general sections. description of the points where electronics inter- vene and provide cues, including also the spatiali- zation of sounds.) In this regard, the traditional Ramifications and Accumulations: score is enriched by a series of pointers that indi- The Use of Harmonizers cate the starting and ending points of the cues and of the groups of instruments progressively involved The creation of a homogeneous path between (see Figure 1). Accordingly, the electronic score is acoustic sources on the one hand (voices and in- not a score in the traditional sense, but rather it struments) and electroacoustic sources on the other constitutes a list, in symbolic form, of the general (live electronics) is undoubtedly one of the main instructions to be carried out for each individual concerns of Berio’s recent composing with electron- action of electronics. ics. In this sense, his decisions are oriented toward In the diagram in Figure 2, an example of sound processing algorithms that do not radically trans- spatialization can be seen. Each box represents a form the sound but are akin to the procedures of certain loudspeaker, while the numbers indicate vocal and instrumental composing. This is certainly the order in which each configuration appears for the first time. To each diagram corresponds a defi- true of the use of harmonizers, algorithms that transpose the pitch of the input signal a certain in- nition of holding times tp and movement times tm (i.e., of the passage from one configuration to an- terval, thus adding to the input one or more trans- other). The sequence proceeds the first time in the posed signals. Berio is well aware of the possible order in which it is written, after which various hazards of this type of processing, consisting primar- types of permutation may succeed each other in ily in the rigidity of a fixed transposition, at times the electronic score. The sequences may stop at the resulting in parallelisms that may easily become last configuration, or begin again from the start annoying. To render the perceptive effect of harmo- (loop option). nizers more mobile in time, he often uses asyn- For these three works in particular, but also in chronous time sequences of intervals, describing general for all of the latest works realized by them in detail in the electronic score (see Figure 3). Tempo Reale, a general-purpose system of sound Fixing the tempo in such a precise manner may spatialization called Smov (Sound Movement) has seem like excessive control, but in reality, owing to been developed that, while retaining basically the the freer performance times of the interpreters, the same structure from one piece to another, allows result is never ‘‘mathematical.’’ Rather, it consists the realization of compositions where the arrange- of a certain indetermination in the effective har- ment and number of loudspeakers for spatialization monic results that break away from the algorithm differs substantially. The system can be applied for in time. To give even greater range to the use of

32 Computer Music Journal

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/014892603322022655 by guest on 27 September 2021 Figure 1. Excerpt from the score of Outis. (Copyright 1996 by Ricordi-BMG. Used with permission.) The elec- tronic processing refers to woods (cues 9–11) and brasses (cues 10 et seq.).

Giomi, Meacci, and Schwoon 33

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/014892603322022655 by guest on 27 September 2021 Figure 2. Excerpt from the Figure 3. Harmonizer addition to the holding sando). In the scores of

manuscript electronic sequence in an excerpt time tp, Berio specifies the Ofanı`m and Altra Voce,

score of Altra voce con- from the manuscript elec- movement time tm, which, this element is omitted taining a description of the tronic score of Outis (cue in the case of time values and is considered always sound spatialization (cue 4). (Copyright 1996 by Ri- other than zero, refers to a equal to zero. 24). (Copyright 1999 by cordi-BMG. Used with per- gradual passage between Universal Edition A.G. mission.) In this score, in two transpositions (glis- Used with permission.)

(2)() (3)()

this technique, Berio also requests continuous modulation of the relationship between the original signal and the transformed signal. As a general principle, their contributions should be practically the same (as with two orchestral groups, for exam- ple). However, the relationship between the levels should never sound mechanical but constantly in motion. The harmonizer is used mainly in two types of musical situations, the first linked to the concept of heterophony, the second to that of sound crucial importance. The so-called ‘‘real-time masses. In the case of heterophony, a melodic line freeze’’ processes are one of the most distinctive appears simultaneously with other lines derived features of the newest versions of Altra voce and from it. This principle can be easily applied by su- Ofanı`m. This involves the real-time recording of perimposing on a line played live its transforma- selective fragments of the performance in process tions from the harmonizer. The example appearing and their reappearance in loops at subsequent in Figure 4, taken from Altra voce, shows the part times shown in the score. In some cases, the dura- of the mezzo-soprano line with one of the possible tion of the recorded fragment is established inde- results of its electronic transformation. pendent of a particular performance, while in In other situations, characterized instead by the others it is deduced from the sampled event (as, for presence of sound masses, the harmonizer serves to example, in every case in Altra voce). augment the vertical density of structures already Usually, the freeze operation concerns the con- very rich harmonically. This is the case, for exam- tinuous reproduction of individual notes, individ- ple, of Section V of Ofanı`m: in the harmonic ex- ual chords, or notes and chords with rhythmic cerpt shown in Figure 5, the results of the articulation or internal melodic profile. This situa- transpositions are not explicitly indicated, but it is tion results in the perception of prolonged, inter- instead possible to see the temporal development woven, dynamically variable textures of sound that of the harmonic shifting in relation to the chords of function as structures of continuity in the econ- the first of the two instrumental groups. omy of the compositions. In other cases, the freeze may operate instead on the reproduction of longer fragments articulated rhythmically and melodically Memory and Continuity: (entire musical phrases, for instance). This use of Delay and Sampling Algorithms sampling, which plays on the stratification of In the relationship between instrumental sound memory, resembles the use made by Berio himself and transformed sound, delay and sampling are of of delay algorithms with relatively long delay times 34 Computer Music Journal

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/014892603322022655 by guest on 27 September 2021 Figure 4. A fragment of the of the possible results that Figure 5. A fragment of the with permission.) with in- vocal part of Altra voce. can be obtained by apply- part of the first orchestral dication of the transposi- (Copyright 1999 by Uni- ing real-time transposition group of Ofanı`m (Copy- tion intervals (without in- versal Edition A.G. Used through the harmonizer al- right 1988, 1997 by Uni- dication of the overall with permission.) The line gorithms. versal Edition A.G. Used result). at the bottom shows one

(4)()

(5)()

(up to 8 sec at some moments in Outis). This also parameters of the algorithms, times and modes of reiterates the concept of the dialogue and of prolif- their input and output, etc.) and on the other the eration in time of the sound events in question, global management of the score. Regarding the lat- characteristics common to all of the works ana- ter aspect, some of Berio’s scores often call for, at lyzed here. least in two of the cases described, large orchestras Concerning other sampling systems, in Ofanı`m with electronics that at various times operate on and Outis we find among the performers a sampler different instrumental and/or vocal groups. These (‘‘keyboard’’ in the score) that is used with instru- scores also call for very large amplification systems mental or vocal timbres to augment the potential for both the sheer number of instruments involved of the originals in both harmonic aspects and and the number of diffusion groups. In addition, the rhythmic articulation (e.g., clusters of large size, high degree of stratification of the electronics (i.e., particular glissandi, rhythmic figures). In both of the number of individual operations in parallel), the compositions, the sampled sounds never stand which evolves continuously during the playing of out alone from those of the orchestra but blend the pieces, contributes still further to the general with the rest of the live sounds and serve the func- complexity, making it necessary to devise very tion of both sound enrichment and orchestral ex- highly evolved solutions for managing the plurality tension. of events. Over the years, Tempo Reale has developed a system based on a number of fundamental charac- Algorithms and Musical Events: System teristics: versatility and adaptability to different Management and Technological Solutions musical contexts, simplicity and rapidity in bring- ing about changes in events (changes that become The algorithms employed by Berio are not in them- necessary in regard to compositional requisites and selves complex but belong to the classical reper- potentially at any stage in production), stability toire of live electronics. The possible problems of of the entire system, and overall sound quality. In implementation regard on the one hand a series of the general construction of the system, a primary micro-level details (e.g., selection of the individual goal was that of attaining the maximum degree of Giomi, Meacci, and Schwoon 35

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/014892603322022655 by guest on 27 September 2021 Figure 6. General logical systems’’ refers to MIDI diagram of the hardware keyboards, sensors, fader and software system used controllers, display inter- by Tempo Reale for live faces, and so on. electronics. ‘‘Additional

automation possible, but without excessively con- spatialization system, thus obtaining the greatest straining the freedom of the performers, both in- possible degree of flexibility in signal routing. strumental and electronic. For signal processing operations that are particu- The system has a central management core with larly computationally demanding, dedicated com- a series of collateral elements whose interaction mercial hardware systems have been selected that and integration ensure easy management of a wide share with the entire system the characteristics of range of musical and control events. The logical programmability and reliability in the majority of scheme of the control structure (see Figure 6) is operational situations. These devices have been conceptually simple, which guarantees its adapt- used basically for the reproduction of recorded sam- ability to numerous situations. The central node of ples and for three types of algorithms—harmoniza- the system consists of an audio matrix including tion, delay, and reverberation, as well as for one or more mixers within which converge all au- different combinations of the three. In all cases, the dio signals to be processed or to be amplified. In various parameters are controlled by MIDI. For Altra voce, the work that calls for the fewest per- other operations, a different approach has been formers (flute and voice) of those discussed here, a used: that of programming workstations in the single digital mixer is used, while Outis (a musical Max/MSP environment. This is the case with the theater composition involving, in addition to cho- reproduction of ‘‘playlists’’ of long duration, of rus and an orchestra, numerous soloists), requires freeze algorithms, and of the sound spatialization two digital mixing boards, an analog mixer of large system. The management module (Cue Manager), size for the orchestral premix, and an additional which controls all of the elements of the system, is small analog mixer for the vocal group. The struc- also programmed in Max/MSP. Through internal ture of the audio matrix can thus vary substan- messages, MIDI, and Ethernet, it controls all of the tially, but the central core always consists of one other subsystems, opening and closing the channels or more digital mixers entirely controlled by MIDI. of the matrix, sending sequences of intervals to the Thanks to this feature, it is possible to remotely harmonizers, actuating the spatialization engines, manage the quantity of each individual signal to be controlling the sampling systems, generating moni- sent to the signal processors and to the diffusion or toring signals, and so on.

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Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/014892603322022655 by guest on 27 September 2021 The Cue Manager is based on a structured se- Inside the Music quence of events in which each block represents a precise point in the score (cue) along with all of the Although many of the musical concepts in the electronics events associated with it. During a live three works are in some way correlated, and the performance, the list is scrolled manually by means guidelines for designing their electronics comply of a computer keyboard or through a MIDI periph- with a unifying logic, it seems useful to describe in eral. (In Ofanı`m, for example, the keyboard player greater detail the relationship between music and in the orchestra controls the Cue Manager.) To the technologies within the context of the three com- possibility of sequentially scrolling the list of positions which, as a whole, offer a panorama of events, the system adds that of jumping directly to different aspects of making music, from chamber any point in the score, instantaneously recalculat- music to musical theater. In this article, the three ing the lines of the electronics enabled at that works are examined in chronological order based point, and repositioning itself at the musical situa- on the first drafting of the scores. Actually, the tion requested. This characteristic is highly useful evolutionary cycle of the latest revisions of the in the testing stage and during rehearsals with the electronic parts should follow a different order instrumentalists. (Outis–Ofanı`m–Altra Voce). This indicates how The structured list of events is normally complex Berio constantly reconsiders each performance with and thus difficult to write and to edit. A specially electronics; in this sense, each new version is in- designed relational database (Meeg, or Max Elec- evitably influenced by previous experience and tronic Events Generator) is used expressly for the work. purpose of facilitating writing and subsequent edit- ing. This database can be automatically generated after the formalization of the electronics com- Inhabiting Space: Ofanı`m mands. Through interaction between Meeg and the Cue Manager, it is possible to recreate the entire Ofanı`m for two children’s choirs, two instrumental configuration of the system and the ensemble of in- groups, a female voice, and live electronics can be structions specifically used in each composition considered a work in progress. The first version without having to act directly on the database was presented in Italy, at Prato, in 1988, and it has code. Thanks to this approach, Meeg, like most of since undergone various processes of rewriting of the system, can be used in a broad range of situa- not only the electronics but also the entire score tions without requiring modifications in its code, (Bernardini 1995). In the latest versions, the vocal and it allows rapid changes in the sequence of and instrumental parts have undergone no changes, events to satisfy new musical or technical requi- but Berio already specified the ‘‘open’’ nature of the sites. electronics part in these terms: The problem of stability is particularly important Musical thought today must be able to interact in musical systems having a high degree of integra- with the new technologies and to adapt itself tion between software and hardware devices and creatively to every kind of space, exploring its has been the subject of special attention. Usually, virtualities and reshaping acoustically. The im- the weak point lies in the computer sub-systems, age of music as sound architecture is no longer which may be subject to complications of various a mere metaphor: it represents a concrete pos- kinds not always easily predictable. To lessen the sibility, realizable in all its aspects. It is, of possibilities of a system crash, redundant subsys- course, a mobile and flexible architecture, ca- tems that function as backup devices have been in- pable of adaptation to different situations and tegrated into the structure. These subsystems, environments. Therefore, the acoustic strategy proceeding synchronously with the main ones, can of Ofanı`m has to be modified with each new be used instantly in case of problems during a per- performance and consequently several aspects formance. of the entire work are recomposed. (Berio 1992)

Giomi, Meacci, and Schwoon 37

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/014892603322022655 by guest on 27 September 2021 Figure 7. Configuration of the loudspeakers in Ofanı`m (top view).

very strong contrasts. The fragments of Ezekiel are linked to very rapid movements of striking physi- cal impact, while the fragments of the Song of Songs are often distinguished by fixed sound loca- tions. Table 1 illustrates the formal scheme, in- cluding very simple verbal descriptions of the spatialization, and gives some idea of the dramatur- gical relationship between the various sections of the piece. The table also shows how at certain mo- ments the spatialization anticipates textual and musical elements of the next section (IrII, VIIIrIX) or reiterates and develops characteristics from the previous section (IIIRIV, VRVI). To investigate the function of electronics in Ofanı`m, we may consider some details of the com- position. The score begins with a continuous prolif- eration of elements. The whole originates from a single note sung by the soloists in the chorus, which is sampled and immediately reproduced in loop. At the moment in which the recorded version becomes perceptible, the soloists begin a melodic In his program notes, Berio also explains the use path that arises from this central note, while subse- of the texts: quently other ‘‘ramifications’’ of the clarinet and the sampling of the children’s choir are added. In The text of Ofanı`m (in Hebrew both ‘‘wheels’’ this fragment, marked by a strong timbral affinity and ‘‘modes’’) alternates fragments from the between the instrumental and vocal elements, the book of Ezekiel with verses from the Song of electronic amplification contributes to a very amal- Songs. The dramatic vision of Ezekiel (Chapter gamated acoustical result. The process of sound 1)—the most personal and apocalyptic of all ‘‘opening,’’ both harmonic and timbral, is accompa- prophets—stands in strong opposition to the nied by spatial projections that slowly oscillate be- earthly sensuality of the verses from the Song tween the front loudspeakers, creating a sense of of Songs (Chapters 4 and 5). The phantasma- inner motion along the vast stereo front. At a fol- goric apparitions of Ezekiel’s vision whirls lowing stage, onto this sound texture are superim- around in perpetual motion against a burning posed more lively figurations of the two clarinets sky: the poetic images from the Song of Songs as well as rototoms, diffused with ‘‘zig-zag’’ mo- dwell longingly on the face and body of the be- tions around the circle of loudspeakers—a moment loved. (Berio 2000) of great surprise which seems a preparation for the explosion of sound at the beginning of the second Sound spatialization assumes a crucially impor- part, a sort of presentiment of Ezekiel’s vision of tant role in characterizing the formal sections mu- the hurricane. sically, while amplification is entrusted to a Another section of Ofanı`m of great importance specific stereophonic system (see Figure 7, groups for the electronics part is the clarinet solo (Section L–R). The eight groups of loudspeakers employed IV). Throughout the preceding fragment, taken for movement in space form a circle around the au- from the Song of Songs, the first clarinet emerges dience (see Figure 7, groups 1–8), thus reinforcing strongly with figurations that are almost arpeggia- the initial concept of the wheel. Alternation be- tions, very sweet and played pianissimo, but that tween the two levels of the text (Ezekiel and the remain well integrated into the overall harmonic Song of Songs) takes place formally by blocks with structure. From this series of figurations emerges

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Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/014892603322022655 by guest on 27 September 2021 Table 1. Formal diagram of Ofanı`m and of the relevant distribution of the text with respect to the individual sections. The third column contains a verbal description of the sound movements. I. EZEKIEL (1:28) And I heard a voice of one that spake. frontal calm movements; rototoms with fast ‘‘zig-zag’’ movements through full space II. EZEKIEL (1:4–10) And I looked, and, behold, a whirlwind fast movements of various kinds (full space) came out of the north, a great cloud, and a fire infolding itself . . . four living creatures . . . and every one had four faces, and every one had four wings . . . and the sole of their feet was like the sole of a calf’s foot . . . they four had the face of a man, and the face of a lion . . . the face ofanox...theface of an eagle. III. SONG OF SOLOMON (4:16) Awake, O north wind; and fixed diffusion (frontal) come, thou south; blow upon my garden, that the spices thereof may flow out. Let my beloved come into his gar- den, and eat his pleasant fruits. IV. CLARINET SOLO fast movements (softly ‘‘blowing’’ ) EZEKIEL (1:28) ...Avoice . . . V. EZEKIEL (1:14–21) And the living creatures ran and re- fast movements (full space) turned as the appearance of a flash of lightning . . . be- hold one wheel upon the earth by the living creatures . . . and when the living creatures went, the wheels went by them: and when the living creatures were lifted up from the earth, the wheels were lifted up . . . and when those stood, these stood. VI. INSTRUMENTAL ‘‘TUTTI’’—‘‘ROTATING’’ fast movements VII. SONG OF SOLOMON (5:3–4) I have put off my coat; fixed diffusion (frontal) how shall I put it on? I have washed my feet; how shall I defile them? My beloved put in his hand by the hold of the door, and my bowels were moved for him. VIII. TROMBONE SOLO fast movements on the first four loudspeakers IX. EZEKIEL (1:22–24) And the likeness of the firmament fast movements (full space) upon the heads of the living creature was as the colour of the terrible crystal ...and...Iheard the noise of their wings, like the noise of great waters, as the voice of the Almighty . . . as the voice of an host. X. SONG OF SOLOMON (4:1–9) Behold, thou art fair, my fixed diffusion (frontal) love; behold, thou art fair; thou hast doves’ eyes ...thy teeth are like a flock of sheep, which came up from the washing . . . thy lips are like a thread of scarlet; and thy speech is comely: thy temples are like a piece of pome- granate . . . thy neck is like the tower of David ...thy two breasts are like two young roes . . . how fair is thy love . . . thou hast ravished my heart, my sister, my spouse. XI. EZEKIEL (1:26–28) And above the firmament . . . was the fast movements (full space) likeness of a throne . . . and the appearance of a man above upon it ...astheappearance of fire...and... brightness round about ...astheappearance of the bow that is in the cloud in the day of rain . . . A voice . . . XII. EZEKIEL (19:10–13) Thy mother is like a vine in thy calm movements (full space, gradually moving blood, planted by the waters: she was fruitful and full of away from the female voice, then returning to branches by reason of many waters. And she had strong her) rods . . . and her stature was exalted among the thick branches, and she appeared in her height with the multi- tude of her branches. But she was plucked up in fury, she was cast down to the ground, and the east wind dried up her fruit; her strong rods were broken and withered; the fire consumed them. And now she is planted in the wil- derness, in a dry and thirsty ground.

Giomi, Meacci, and Schwoon 39

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/014892603322022655 by guest on 27 September 2021 Figure 8. Processing algo- output of delay A (with rithm for the clarinet solo feedback) is opened and in Ofanı`m (cue 17). The closed alternatively, while two delays have the same that of delay B remains delay time (3 sec). The constantly open.

ery of acoustic space. Regarding the electronics, only the physical arrangement of the sound loud- speakers still alludes to the concept of ‘‘wheel.’’

Electronics for Musical Theater: Outis

the solo passage, accompanied only by a few Outis is one of Berio’s two more recent works of ‘‘punctuations’’ of the two choirs, the percussion, musical theater, along with Cronaca del Luogo, and the sampler. The entire section is treated with which inaugurated the Salzburg Festival of 1999. It a single algorithm of live electronics, a combina- is a complex work lasting nearly two hours with tion of spatialization, harmonization, and delay texts by Berio himself and by the renowned Italian with variable feedback (see Figure 8). The se- Hellenist Dario Del Corno, whose title is evocative quences of spatialization, harmonization, and the of Homer’s Odyssey and of Ulysses’ answer to amount of feedback in the delay are all looped and Polyphemus: ‘‘Outis emoi g’onoma’’ or ‘‘My name superimposed in an irregular manner, both among is no one’’ (Del Corno 1999). However, the work each other and with the original sound. The result does not follow the narrative path of the Odyssey is a kind of dialogue of the clarinet with its elec- but is instead distinguished by a division into five tronic double. The score oscillates between zones cycles within which emerge a plurality of histories dense in arpeggiation and other more rarified ones and plots, referring to the most widely differing au- (see Figure 9), continuously shifting attention be- thors, from Homer himself to Catullus, from Au- tween the original clarinet sound and its electronic den to Brecht, to Joyce, Melville, Sanguineti, and transformation. Celan. The multiplicity and variability of both text Lastly, consider Section VI, a fragment without and scene—but above all of the music—are to be voices that follows the central movement of the considered the true narrative constants of Outis, text of Ezekiel, the vision of the wheels. This sec- characteristics that make it possible to ‘‘perceive tion begins with a great crescendo of the tremolos different figures and episodes in the same light or reinforced again by electronics that proceed with ir- to grasp the sense of a single element in constantly regular ‘‘zig-zag’’ spatialization and with harmoni- changing lights and musical perspectives’’ (Berio zation sequences that are different for the two 1999a). This pertains to all elements of the musical orchestral groups. The very particular orchestral path, whose amplitude and continuous transforma- writing (combinations of whirring trills, very fast tion bear witness to their complexity, suggested repetitions, and arpeggios), the use of slide whis- also by the relatively large number of performers: tles, the rhythmically asynchronous organization, 19 soloists (13 singers, 1 actor, 5 instrumentalists and the almost ‘‘circular’’ melodic profile of the in- on the scene), a vocal group of 8 singers, chorus, or- dividual parts create, as a perceptive result, a single chestra, and live electronics. mass of sound, overwhelming, turbulent, and al- Performed for the first time at La Scala in Milan most in ‘‘rotation.’’ Through the various electronic in 1996, directed by Graham Vick, Outis was pre- shifts (in pitch, time, and space) it becomes even sented again in 1999 first at La Scala and then at more agitated and teeming with life. the The´aˆtre du Chaˆtelet in Paris, where it was di- At points such as these, an important change has rected by Yannis Kokkos. For these two perfor- been made in the latest version of Ofanı`m pre- mances, Berio designed a new electronics part more sented in Milan. Whereas the former versions were suitable to both solving problems typical of elec- always distinguished by real rotations in the spa- tronics for the musical theater and the identifica- tialization, these have now been abandoned in fa- tion of the particular musical and sound features of vor of much more irregular movements that confer the work itself. The basic premise for electronics in a somewhat ‘‘probabilistic’’ nature on the sense of Outis is an attempt to free the sound from the un- spatialization, conveying a striking sense of discov- desirable tube-like effect deriving from the posi-

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Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/014892603322022655 by guest on 27 September 2021 Figure 9. Clarinet solo ex- sion.) The electronics be- cerpt from the score of gin pianissimo after letter Ofanı`m. (Copyright 1988, K (cue 17) with the algo- 1997 by Universal Edition rithm shown in Figure 8. A.G. Used with permis-

tioning of the orchestra in the theater pit, an effect ure 10). The four side groups are also used to which undoubtedly conflicts with the ideal of ana- achieve sound diffusion with horizontal, vertical, lytical listening. What finds application here is the and diagonal movements. Furthermore, a group of general concept of an orchestral sonority, which, loudspeakers is placed inside the chandelier located thanks to amplification and proper equalization, at the center of the ceiling over the stalls and is can approach the character of a perfect studio re- used to play particular recorded sequences of chil- cording. In this case, however, the sound diffusion dren’s voices. As a whole, this is a diffusion system must be such as to prohibit any perception of the that, on the one hand, reiterates structural features presence of loudspeakers or of evident electronic of the work, while on the other interacts with and transformations; the processing of the sound is is grafted onto the most classic and difficult sce- something that appears but which the audience nario, that of the traditional theater space. Berio should not have time to identify and recognize: himself clearly explains this dual function of the diffusion techniques: In this work—where there is not, in effect, any ‘‘real’’ live electronics, but there is a great re- An acoustical dimension is created which no spect for the musical acoustic substance of the longer corresponds to that of the orchestra pit. work and also for space itself—the technolo- There are loudspeakers concealed at the sides gies tend to prolong certain aspects, to develop of the stage and above the stalls, of which the them interiorly in a way that might almost be audience will be unaware, but which will serve called devious and concealed. (Berio 1999b) to enlarge the sound perspective. The central interest of these sophisticated systems occurs In this sense, the difference between this concept when they are adapted to the musical work. and the electronics of Ofanı`m, where the presence There can be no indifference toward this type of loudspeakers constitutes an element of great dra- of technology in relation to the work repre- matic impact, is striking. sented[;] it must enter into it and be redesigned In the case of Outis, amplification and diffusion in accordance with the nature of the work. systems adapted to the scenic space of La Scala and (Berio 1999b) of the The´aˆtre du Chaˆtelet were used. The frontal arrangement of the loudspeakers provides four Although the computer music environment uses groups of loudspeakers placed in the stage boxes, to conceptually simple algorithms, it is their relation- which is added a central cluster serving to close the ships with the musical score and with the orches- stereo front and for diffusion of the voices (see Fig- tral sound that determine their functioning. The

Giomi, Meacci, and Schwoon 41

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/014892603322022655 by guest on 27 September 2021 Figure 10. Configuration of the loudspeakers in Outis (front view).

spatialization and the harmonizing as well as, the the vocal group. ‘‘Microphoning’’ has the objective microphone choice and placement, thus contribute of capturing the signals both for sound reinforce- to a process of extending the orchestral sound and ment and for the live electronics algorithms. The projecting it into a dimension of continuous mobil- electronics includes the spatialization and a series ity and transparency: of delay and harmonization algorithms that are ap- plied at various times to different orchestral groups. I have always tried to renew the instrumental In addition, recorded sequences (playlists) contain- sound, the one produced by known and ac- ing both recited phrases and real sounds of various cepted instruments. I have tried to transform it kinds (animal sounds, a ship’s foghorn, birds, and to make listening more analytical, with several so on) are reproduced. layers interacting with each other. . . . There The setup also includes a sampler placed in the are articulations which are harmonically very orchestra pit with which a keyboard player exe- complex and the microphone can, in effect, cutes sound events with mainly instrumental or contribute to better listening. Basically, it is choral timbres. During the second, fourth, and fifth used as a microscope, for the enlargement of cycles, the work uses a motion detection system minimal aspects, acoustic and musical, of the (realized already for the first version of Outis by work. (Berio 1999b) the Musical Informatics Laboratory of DIST in All of the instruments in the orchestra, the choir, Genoa). The system is based on two footboards and the instrumental soloists are given individual placed at stage level that, when activated by a microphones, whereas the voices all sing without movement of the foot, effect reproduction of per- amplification with the exception of the speaker and cussion samples.

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Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/014892603322022655 by guest on 27 September 2021 Figure 11. Configuration of the loudspeakers in Altra voce (front view).

Many aspects thus make Outis a complex and there is a virtual love duet. Two voices and important work among the recent musical achieve- several instruments ‘‘fall in love’’ and follow ments of Berio: the fragmentation of the texts, the one another in a constantly renewing many ways of singing them, the concealed but in- relationship. . . . As we all know, in true po- tense use of live electronics, and the adaptability of lyphony each voice contributes to the whole, technologies to the work and to the scenic space. yet retains its own identity, if not complete au- In this sense, the electronics function to enrich a tonomy. In Altra voce, I have liberated one sound organism that, albeit moving with relatively voice (mezzo-soprano) and one instrument (alto traditional characteristics, is enhanced by continu- flute) from the whole and developed their re- ous mobility and variability over time, with the re- spective autonomies and harmonic premises sult of constantly drawing the listener’s attention by, among other means, using live electronics. back to the musical dimension of the work, mak- (Berio 2001) ing sound, more than the other parameters of musi- cal theatre, the true protagonist of the long and The choir, the orchestra, and the loudspeakers of complex dramaturgical process (Giomi 2000). Cronaca del Luogo are placed behind the stage at various heights, forming a kind of ‘‘wall’’ of sound. In Altra voce, this idea of a wall is translated into a The Live Electronics ‘‘da Camera’’ of Altra voce configuration with two diverging diagonal lines of loudspeakers that, adapting themselves to the per- Altra voce for contralto flute, mezzo-soprano, and formance space, are positioned at the farthest possi- live electronics is an example of Berio’s use of elec- ble distances (see Figure 11, groups 1–6). To the tronic techniques within a chamber music context. diagonals are then added two groups of loudspeak- This composition, however, is derived from a work ers positioned at the performers’s feet for sound re- of musical theater: inforcement (see Figure 11, groups L–R). In one episode, namely Il Campo (The Field), In this composition, the electronics play a crucial from my azione musicale[,] Cronaca del luogo, structural role and are characterized by three types

Giomi, Meacci, and Schwoon 43

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/014892603322022655 by guest on 27 September 2021 Figure 12. Formal diagram in loop are indicated (for vals used are shown (e.g., -f with the seםof electronics in Altra example: #1 ||:4Љ:||). For 0, 2–F,2 voce. For sampling, an in- the spatialization, the quences which work on dex and an approximate loudspeakers are denoted permutations of these in- duration of the fragment by Roman numerals. For tervals). recorded and reproduced the harmonizers, the inter-

of processing: the live sampling of various frag- zone in which, in general, continuous rarifying of ments, spatialization, and the use of harmonizers. the sound layers occurs. From the formal diagram of the electronics part The sound spatialization is characterized by a (see Figure 12), it is immediately apparent that the process of expansion of the loudspeakers closest to various kinds of processing do not take place one the performers (1 and 2) up to the ensemble of all of after another but tend to overlap and interweave. the loudspeakers, reached at beat 49. From this mo- The first sample, a single F for voice and flute, is ment on, various differentiations in the use of actually held from the third beat (see Figure 13) to space take place based on the type of movements the last. Regarding the function of this continuous (speed and regularity) and on the use of pairs of note, Berio speaks of a sort of ‘‘tonic,’’ an always- loudspeakers alternating with individual loud- present element that gives a common perspective speakers. to all other events. This F is accompanied at vari- In addition to these ideas of movement, Altra ous times by other samples falling into two catego- voce is undoubtedly an important example of how ries: fragments of held notes, which played in a Berio operates with electronics on degrees of affin- loop create continuous events (#1, #2, #3, and #6); ity between different sonorities: initially, with the and entire musical phrases (#4, #5, #7, and #8), long F held on the loudspeakers closest to the per- which appear instead as repeated musical struc- formers, the already intense fusion between the tures. This creates various reference elements that timbre of the mezzo-soprano and the contralto could be described as ‘‘attraction poles,’’ compared flute is reinforced still further, while subsequently, to the precise delimiting of the traditional tonic. with the accumulation of layers of samples (freeze) The musical discourse moves within the gap that and of harmonizers, the various signals are increas- opens between these poles. ingly separated in space, thus rendering transparent Following the formal scheme it can be seen how an ensemble of layers so homogeneous as to be oth- the first category of samples has an almost sym- erwise almost impenetrable to the ear. Concerning metrical distribution (#1-#2-#3-#3-#6-#2-#3-#2-#1), the harmonizers, the formal diagram demonstrates while those with phrasing (#4, #5, and #7) mark the the progressive augmentation of the intervals and beginning or the end of formal accumulations. of the number of intervals per sequence. In beats Sample #8 should be considered a special case, as it 94–109, the degree of parallelism of the harmoniz- consists of a structure recorded ‘‘off-line,’’ that is, ers also increases, up to a maximum of three on the not during the performance, and enriches the final flute and two on the voice. In the final part of the

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Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/014892603322022655 by guest on 27 September 2021 Figure 13. A preliminary the authors for Universal version of the first page of Edition. (Copyright 1999 the Altra voce score, real- by Universal Edition A.G. ized by Paul Roberts and Used with permission.)

composition, the harmonizations progressively dis- among the three dimensions of sound: vocal, in- appear in favor of the exclusive presence of spatiali- strumental, and electronic music, which, while re- zation alone. taining their individual autonomy, seem almost to The overall form can be described as two arches, abandon themselves to each other, creating hybrid with the first climax underlined predominantly by situations of striking intensity. progressive spatial expansion and the second, thanks to the harmonic stratification, achieved by the augmenting of intervals, the length of the har- Acknowledgments monizer’s transposition sequences, and their degree of parallelism. The superimposition of freeze tech- Many people have contributed over the years to the niques on these elements creates for the listener a development of the computer music systems of texture that extends and develops throughout the Tempo Reale in relation to the works described; entire composition, a ‘‘harmonic wall’’ in ceaseless among these are Nicola Bernardini, Alvise Vidolin, evolution. All of these aspects of Altra voce may be Thierry Coduys, Lamberto Coccioli, and Sylviane viewed within the light of the initial perspective: Sapir. An important role for the success of the Ital- the simple metaphor of ‘‘falling in love’’ leads to a ian performances has also been carried out by the complex polyphony and to a surprising interaction technicians of the BH-audio company who have

Giomi, Meacci, and Schwoon 45

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/014892603322022655 by guest on 27 September 2021 provided audio services. Special thanks also to Paul Berio, L. 1999a. ‘‘Morfologia di un viaggio.’’ Outis: Cata- Roberts, transcriber of Luciano Berio’s scores, for logue of the Opera. Milan: Teatro alla Scala. his invaluable aid with constant reference to the Berio, L. 1999b. Interview for the television program ‘‘Su- perquark.’’ RAI–RadioTelevisione Italiana. most updated versions. The authors are grateful to Berio, L. 2000. ‘‘Ofanı`m.’’ Luigi Nono e il suono elettron- Universal Edition and to Ricordi-BMG for their per- ico. Milan: Milano Musica/Teatro alla Scala. mission to publish the excerpts from the scores. Berio, L. 2001. ‘‘Altra voce.’’ Carnegie Hall Stage Bill. New York: Carnegie Hall. Bernardini, N. 1995. ‘‘Ofanı`m di Luciano Berio.’’ Lecture Notes for Electronic Music. Padova: Conservatory of References Music. Del Corno, D. 1999. ‘‘Nessuno.’’ Outis: Catalogue of the Opera. Milan: Teatro alla Scala. Berio, L. 1992. ‘‘Ofanı`m.’’ Concert program. Jerusalem: Giomi, F. 2000. ‘‘Musical Technologies in Luciano Be- Gala concert in honour of the dedication of the Su- rio’s Outis.’’ Proceedings of the XII Colloquium of preme Court Building. Musical Informatics. L’Aquila: Istituto Gramma/AIMI.

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