Reconstructive Postmodernism, Quotation, and Musical Analysis: a Methodology with Reference to the Third Movement of Luciano Berio’S Sinfonia

Home , Luciano Berio, Musical quotation, Sinfonia (Berio), Universal Edition

Reconstructive Postmodernism, Quotation, and Musical Analysis: A Methodology with Reference to the Third Movement of Luciano Berio’s Sinfonia

A dissertation submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

in the Division of Composition, Musicology and Theory of the College-Conservatory of Music

John Wesley Flinn

M.M., University of Cincinnati, 1996

B.M., Morehead State University, 1994

June 2011

Committee Chair: Steven J. Cahn, Ph.D. Reconstructive Postmodernism and Musical Analysis: A Methodology with Reference to the Third Movement of Luciano Berio’s Sinfonia

ABSTRACT

The problem of analysis of postmodern works has generated many different analytical techniques, most of which concentrate on either structure or meaning. This project is an attempt to create an analytical technique that will examine both structure and meaning. Thus, it attempts to answer the following questions: How does quoting a piece of music change its meaning? How can an analyst compare the same or similar material in disparate contexts? What are the technical, musical and extra-musical markers of certain tropes or ideas? Finally, what methodologies or tools can be used or created to effectively carry out these analyses? This study will culminate with an analysis of quoted materials in the third movement of Luciano Berio’s Sinfonia for 8 voices and orchestra (1968

- 69).

Postmodernism is historically viewed through the lens of deconstruction, as explicated by

Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida and others; this approach promotes the idea of “incredulity toward metanarrative” and usually concentrates instead on technical aspects rather than meaning. This study

instead concentrates on Frederic Ferré’s reconstructive model of postmodernism, which has its roots

in ecology. In this model, disparate elements of a piece of music - including quotations from other

musical works - are examined as if they were life forms and landscapes interacting with each other.

This approach allows the analyst to create graphs showing how the life forms from a quoted piece of

music alter and are altered by the landscape of the quoting piece.

Chapter 1 is a brief examination of the history of quotation in music, including authoritarian

versus anti-authoritarian uses of quotation. In Chapter 2, the project looks at the development of

iii postmodernist thought and compares deconstructionism to reconstructionism. Following that, there is a discussion of postmodernism and quotation in music, and an overview of the literature on discontinuous forms. Chapter 3 gives background on the concept of irony, drawing upon the work of

D. C. Muecke, Richard Rorty, Linda Hutcheon and others. Chapter 4 develops the methodology using

Ferré’s reconstructive postmodernism as a model and the concept of “timbral space” or

“orchestrational space” as a launching point, and Chapter 5 applies this methodology in an analysis of the third movement of Luciano Berio’s Sinfonia through formal, motivic and harmonic structure. The final chapter details the conclusions - there are moments of high, medium and low levels of irony in the work, based on the number of parameters (form, motive, harmony) that are altered in the transfer.

The graphic analyses present yield many interesting pieces of data about the work, and the methodology can be adjusted to look for other important information in a given piece of music.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks are given to the following publishers for permission to use score excerpts:

“Diminished Fifth” from Mikrokosmos by Bela Bartok. Used by permission of Boosey and Hawkes.

Violin Concerto by Alban Berg. © 1936 by Universal Edition. Renewed. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission of European American Music Distributors, LLC, U.S. and Canadian agent for Universal Edition.

Sinfonia for 8 Voices and Orchestra by Luciano Berio. © 1972 by Universal Edition (London) Ltd. Renewed. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission of European American Music Distributors, LLC, U.S. and Canadian agent for Universal Edition.

The Unanswered Question by Charles Ives. Used by permission of Peer International Corporation.

I would also like to thank my dissertation adviser, Dr. Steven J. Cahn, and the members

of my committee: Dr. Catherine Losada, Dr. Miguel Roig-Francolí, and Dr. Edward

Nowacki. Their patience and insights strengthened this document immensely. Thanks also are due to the faculty, staff, and music students at Northern Kentucky University,

Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts, and Clayton State University for the constant support and understanding. Dr. Robert Zierolf of the University of Cincinnati has been a mentor and role model for nearly two decades. Dr. Joel Plaag of Lyon College provided additional editing and moral support. Dr. Mike Berry of Texas Tech University served as a sounding board, as did Craig Doolin, Dr. Bill Howard, Aaron Kerley, and Dr. Nathan

Long, all of Cincinnati. Amy Kendall of Providence, RI tracked down a hard-to-find article.

Michael and Lauretta Philhower, the best in-laws anyone could ask for, provided not only intangible support but a place to stay during the many trips to Cincinnati during the final stages of this process. My parents, John and Linda Flinn, never stopped believing in me, even during those many times that I did. I can never repay them for the many sacrifices they have made for me over the years, but I hope that the completion of this project is a step in that direction.

Finally, I must acknowledge my wife, Amanda. There simply aren’t words to describe what she has put up with while I have been working on this, so I will simply say this: I love you - and thank you.

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Reconstructive Postmodernism, Quotation, and Musical Analysis: A Methodology with Reference to the Third Movement of Luciano Berio’s Sinfonia

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ...... iii Copyright notice ...... v Acknowledgments ...... vi Table of contents ...... viii List of tables/examples ...... x Chapter 1 A brief overview of quotation and analytical problems ...... 1 1.00 Introduction ...... 1 1.01 On quotation ...... 2 1.02 Listening to music, and listening to other music ...... 5 1.03 Other uses of musical quotation ...... 12 1.04 Analysis of quotation ...... 14 1.05 Conclusion ...... 17 Chapter 2 Background and ideas ...... 19 2.00 Introduction ...... 19 2.01 Postmodernism: the worldview ...... 20 2.02 Frederick Ferré and the ecological model ...... 27 2.03 Postmodernism in discontinuous forms; Berio ...... 31 2.04 Conclusion ...... 39 Chapter 3 Irony ...... 40 3.00 Introduction ...... 40 3.01 Some interpretations of irony ...... 41 3.02 Musical irony and musical meaning ...... 49 3.03 Conclusion ...... 53

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Chapter 4 Developing the methodology ...... 54 4.00 Introduction ...... 54 4.01 Lifeform vs. landscape ...... 55 4.02 Creating a model: Bakhtin and Zappa ...... 56 4.03 Meaning ...... 59 4.04 Assumptions in the development of the methodology ...... 60 4.05 The methodology ...... 65 4.06 Summary of methodology ...... 94 Chapter 5 Analysis ...... 95 5.00 Introduction ...... 95 5.01 Analytical techniques ...... 96 5.02 Midlevel analysis: the source material ...... 99 5.03 Musical borrowing and issues of form ...... 111 5.04 Midlevel analysis: Berio, Sinfonia, III ...... 114 5.05 Further analysis of borrowed material - form and higher levels of irony ...... 122 5.06 Further analysis of borrowed material - possible medium levels of irony ...... 131 5.07 Further analysis of borrowed material - harmony and lower levels of irony ...... 156 5.08 Small lifeforms ...... 170 5.09 Final thought ...... 181 Chapter 6 Conclusions and derivations ...... 183 6.01 Irony and Berio ...... 183 Bibliography ...... 190 Appendix A ...... 196 Appendix B ...... 235 Appendix C ...... 273

LIST OF TABLES Chapter 5 Table 5-1. Formal sections of Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III ...... 100 Table 5-2. Comparison of formal structure of the two movements………………...... 130 Table 5-3. Comparison of original small lifeform with its evolutions……………..…177 Chapter 6 Table 6-1. Ironic moments in Berio, Sinfonia, III ...... 183

LIST OF EXAMPLES Chapter 1 Example 1-1. J. S. Bach, Es ist genug ...... 6 Example 1-2. Berg, Violin Concerto, mm. 136 - 145 ...... 7 Example 1-3. Malheur me bat, mm. 1 - 11 ...... 9 Example 1-4. Josquin, Missa Malheur me bat, “Gloria,” mm. 1 - 11 ...... 10 Chapter 3 Example 3-1. Half-step motion in Prokofiev, Violin Sonata ...... 50 Chapter 4 Example 4-1 Cowper, CLEANSING FOUNTAIN ...... 63 Example 4-2. Ives, General William Booth Enters Into Heaven, mm. 82 - 88 ...... 64 Example 4-3. Alterations of CLEANSING FOUNTAIN in Booth ...... 65 Example 4-4. Opening gesture of “Diminished Fifth” ...... 67 Example 4-5. Octatonic scale drawn from opening gesture of “Diminished Fifth” ...... 67 Example 4-6. Comparison of two gestures in “Diminished Fifth” ...... 68 Example 4-7. Scales used in “Diminished Fifth” ...... 68 Example 4-8. Ives, The Unanswered Question, mm. 1 - 13 (with tonal analysis) ...... 70 Example 4-9. Ives, The Unanswered Question, mm. 16 - 17...... 71 Example 4-10. Chopin, op. 64, no. 2 (excerpt) ...... 72 Example 4-11. Dvorak, op. 54, no. 2 (excerpt) ...... 73 Example 4-12. Britten, op. 3 (Juvenilia), no. 3 (excerpt) ...... 73 Example 4-13. Schubert, op. 18, no. 1 (D. 145) ...... 76 Example 4-14. Reduction of Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 5 - 31 ...... 77 Example 4-15. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 12 - 29 ...... 78 Example 4-16. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 44 - 56 ...... 79 Example 4-17. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 212 - 219 ...... 79 Example 4-18. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 5 - 12 ...... 80 Example 4-19. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 57 - 60 ...... 80

Example 4-20. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 212 - 222 ...... 81 Example 4-21. Ives, General William Booth, mm. 82 - 88 ...... 85 Example 4-22. Ives, General William Booth, mm. 4 - 8 ...... 87 Example 4-23. Ives, General William Booth, mm. 13 - 19 ...... 88 Example 4-24. Ives, General William Booth, mm. 34 - 38 ...... 89 Example 4-25. Cowper, CLEANSING FOUNTAIN, mm. 1 - 4 ...... 91 Example 4-26. Ives, General William Booth, closing ...... 92 Example 4-27. CLEANSING FOUNTAIN in General William Booth ...... 93 Chapter 5 Example 5-1. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, opening ...... 102 Example 5-2. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 148 - 156 ...... 104 Example 5-3. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 104 - 111 ...... 105 Example 5-4. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 190 - 202 ...... 105 Example 5-5. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 157- 165 ...... 106 Example 5-6. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 271 - 289 ...... 107 Example 5-7. Comparison of mm. 190 - 202 and mm. 480 - 489 ...... 108 Example 5-8. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 577 - 581 ...... 110 Example 5-9. Berio, Sinfonia for 8 Voices and Orchestra, III, mm. 1 - 2 ...... 117 Example 5-10. Berio, Sinfonia, III, m. 210 ...... 118 Example 5-11. Berio, Sinfonia, III, m. 429 ...... 119 Example 5-12. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 591 - 594 ...... 120 Example 5-13. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 255 - 259 ...... 121 Example 5-14. Graphic representation of Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 168 - 183 ...... 123 Example 5-15. Stravinsky, Le sacre du printemps, I, mm. 511 - 519 ...... 124 Example 5-16. Graphic representation of Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 292 - 305 ...... 126 Example 5-16a. Ravel, La valse, rehearsal 44 - 45 ...... 127 Example 5-16b. R. Strauss, Der Rosenkavalier, rehearsal 104 - 105 ...... 128 Example 5-17. Berio, mm. 96 - 101 ...... 132 Example 5-18. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, 97 - 103 ...... 133 Example 5-19. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 99 - 101 ...... 134 Example 5-19a. Graphic representation of Example 5-18 ...... 135 Example 5-20. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 97 - 103 ...... 136 Example 5-21. Comparison of Mahler, mm. 93 - 99 and Berio, mm. 98 - 101 ...... 137 Example 5-22. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 96 - 101 ...... 138 Example 5-23. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 101 - 107 ...... 139 Example 5-23a. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 101 - 105 ...... 139 Example 5-23b. Graphic representation of Example 5-23a ...... 140 Example 5-24. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 106 - 113 ...... 141 Example 5-25. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 103 - 112 ...... 141 Example 5-26. Graphic representation of Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 141 - 153 ...... 142

Example 5-27. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 148 - 156 ...... 143 Example 5-28. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 146 - 150 ...... 144 Example 5-29. Mutation of rhythm from Mahler/Berio to Stravinsky ...... 144 Example 5-30. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 187 - 188 ...... 145 Example 5-31. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 193 - 195 ...... 146 Example 5-32. The chromatic collection from Agon ...... 146 Example 5-33. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 230 - 232 ...... 147 Example 5-34. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 271 - 282 ...... 148 Example 5-34a. Graphic representation of Example 5-34 ...... 149 Example 5-35. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 327 - 340 ...... 150 Example 5-36. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 334 - 345 ...... 151 Example 5-37. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 328 - 338 ...... 151 Example 5-38. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 357 - 367 ...... 153 Example 5-39. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 510 - 518 ...... 154 Example 5-40. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 480 - 489 ...... 155 Example 5-40a. Graphic representation of Example 5-40 ...... 155 Example 5-41. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 10 - 18 ...... 157 Example 5-41a. Graphic representation of Example 5-41 ...... 158 Example 5-42. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 8 - 10 ...... 159 Example 5-43. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 96 - 101 ...... 160 Example 5-44. Comparison of Berio, mm. 210 - 218 and Mahler, mm. 212 - 220 .....162 Example 5-45. Comparison of horn lines at same points ...... 164 Example 5-45a. Graphic representation of Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 210 - 219 ...... 165 Example 5-46. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 224 - 229 ...... 166 Example 5-47. Tonal progress in Berio, mm. 210, 230, and 255...... 167 Example 5-48. Tonal motion in Berio, mm. 270 - 295 ...... 168 Example 5-49. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 375 - 377 ...... 170 Example 5-50. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 57 - 63 ...... 171 Example 5-51. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 75 - 79 ...... 172 Example 5-52. Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III, mm. 176 - 180 ...... 173 Example 5-53. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 50 - 61 ...... 174 Example 5-54. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 89 - 100 ...... 175 Example 5-55. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 408 - 427 ...... 176 Example 5-56. Graphic representation of Berio, mm. 50 - 61 ...... 177 Example 5-57. Graphic representation of Berio, mm. 89 - 100 ...... 178 Example 5-58. Graphic representation of Berio, mm. 408 - 427 ...... 178 Example 5-59. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 73 - 77 ...... 179 Example 5-60. Berio, Sinfonia, III, mm. 134 - 137 ...... 180 Example 5-61. How Mahler adapts in Berio’s landscape ...... 182

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CHAPTER 1

A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF QUOTATION AND ANALYTICAL PROBLEMS

1.00 Introduction

This project will examine what happens to musical material when it is transferred to a new context, specifically, how quotation-based music can be analyzed in such a way that shows changes in musical structure and meaning from the original context of the quoted material to its new context, and how meaning and musical structure affect each other. The project will consist of a survey of the existing literature on musical borrowing, development of an analytical methodology for interpreting musical quotation in multiple contexts, and application of this methodology. Further, the project will examine how interactions between musical quotations and the landscape into which they are placed can affect the structure and meaning of the quoting piece. Finally, it will show a new way to look for the presence of a trope or extra-musical idea

(in this case, irony) via a graphic presentation of the interaction of quoted material. This project shows that the greatest amount of irony generated in a piece occurs when form, motive and harmonic structure are all substantially altered; lesser amounts of irony occur when only one or two of these three elements are altered by a significant amount.

The study asks questions about the nature of quotation as it relates to musical structure and interpretation; thus, this analyst will address issues of form and timbre as well as pitch and rhythm. To provide the philosophical underpinning of the analysis, the project will look at the

1 literature on reconstructive postmodernism and how it might provide a framework for discussion of these issues.

1.01 On quotation

The historical use of quotation, broadly speaking, can be motivated by different attitudes toward authority; quotation can be either a form of acceptance or rejection. On one hand, it can be used to tie a work into the shared consciousness of a society and to show knowledge of cultural norms and acquiescence to prevailing authority - rote recitation of facts and figures has long been a hallmark of education. On the other hand, it can be used by cognoscenti as a means of making sure a social circle stays closed (if one doesn’t get the reference, one isn’t a member of the club) and as a marker of rebellion - either by quoting forbidden material or by using recitation as a means of learning when these means of learning are out of favor (owing to philosophical, educational, or political trends). Composers, writers, artists and other creative individuals have often paid homage to (accepted) or parodied (rejected) pre-existing works by quoting all or part of those works.

One of the major uses of quotation as a marker of acceptance of authority has been its use

as a pedagogical tool. Writing on memory and compositional techniques in the medieval period,

Anna Maria Busse Berger has pointed out “music of this period constantly makes use of the

same material,”1 the same pieces of music. The standard view of this practice, as first articulated by Friedrich Ludwig, is that the use of quoted material shows poor compositional skill and is

1 Anna Maria Busse Berger, Medieval Music and the Art of Memory. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005, p. 27.

2 “unartistic.”2 Busse Berger takes the alternative point of view, first expressed by Jacques

Handschin, that “paraphrasing” or borrowing from other sources was an acceptable compositional choice of the era, and as such should be discussed and understood on its own terms.3 As Busse Berger says, “He was probably the first scholar to recognize the central

importance of the practice of reusing the same material again and again in medieval polyphony.

He never tries to excuse this practice (so questionable from the standpoint of modern demands

for artistic originality), but rather accepts ‘paraphrasing’ as a legitimate practice of composers of

the period.”4 Busse Berger considers this view to be germane to discussion of quotation in

medieval music, since it is not reliant on a Romantic ideal of the single great composer blazing a

new path.5 Rather, by considering the use of pre-existing material as a compositional technique,

Busse Berger proposes that quotation seemed an acceptable means of teaching composition

according to the general pedagogical principles of the time.6

Busse Berger further postulates that using quotation as a specific compositional device – namely, a device used in oral composition as described above - diminished over time, even as

memorization of smaller contrapuntal patterns continued to inform composition throughout the

ars nova and later periods. In her words:

This [requiring notated music for analysis] represents a significant step in the evolution from oral composition to written composition. Most of the pieces to which the dissonance rules apply are compositions that could have not come into existence without writing. … Without notation, whether written out or visualized in front of the eyes, theorists would not have been able to formulate and apply detailed dissonance rules. Thus, while Notre Dame “composers”

2 Friedrich Ludwig, “Studien über die Geschichte der mehrstimmigen Musik in Mittelalter,” in Sammelbände der internationalen Musikgesellschaft 5, 1903-4, pp. 177 - 224. Quoted in Busse Berger, pp. 27 - 28. 3 Jacques Handschin, “Zur Frage der melodischen Paraphrasierung im Mittelalten,” in Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft 10, 1928, pp. 513 - 19. Quoted in Busse Berger, p. 36. 4 Busse Berger, p. 36. 5 ibid., p. 25. Busse Berger attributes this to the Palestrina revival in Europe at the time, and Ludwig’s belief that polyphony had at its heart a series of composers leading inexorably to Palestrina. 6 ibid., pp. 115 - 6. Busse Berger describes the teaching of grammar in the Middle Ages, demonstrating that it is rooted in memorization and quotation.

3 memorized entire pieces and quoted extensively from one another, composers of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries memorized an enormous number of possible note-against-note progressions that would allow them to work out the frameworks of entire compositions in their minds. But there is little evidence that they memorized examples of diminished counterpoint in order to learn how to compose.7

Busse Burger suggests that compositional modeling remains an effective pedagogical

device, but actual copying or quotation of a work or significant section has long fallen out of

favor in the pedagogy of composition.

J. Peter Burkholder discusses modeling as a compositional tool as well as other

techniques of musical borrowing. Burkholder’s article, “The Uses of Existing Music: Musical

Borrowing as a Field” delineates fourteen possible uses of musical borrowing as drawn from his

study of the music of Charles Ives, who used both art music and popular tunes of his time (1874 -

1954) as source material for his own works. These uses are: (1) modeling a work on an existing

piece, (2) variations on an existing piece, (3) paraphrasing an existing piece, (4) arranging an

existing piece for new ensemble, (5) setting an existing piece with a new accompaniment, (6)

using an existing piece as a cantus firmus, (7) placing existing tunes in succession as a medley,

(8) placing existing tunes in a contrapuntal situation or quodlibet, (9) allusion to a style of music

as opposed to an individual work, (10) using fragments of an existing piece as developmental

material before giving the full quotation (also known as cumulative setting), (11) using

quotations in a programmatic fashion, (12) collage, or using fragments organized around a

central theme, (13), patchwork, or the joining of multiple fragments through paraphrase and

elision, and (14) extended paraphrase, in which a theme is used in or close to its entirety as the main thematic material for a piece or large section of a piece.8 Techniques (1), (4) and (6) are

7 Busse Berger, p. 157. 8 J. Peter Burkholder, “The Uses of Existing Music: Musical Borrowing as a Field” in Notes, second series, vol. 50, no. 3, 1994, p. 854.

4 often used as pedagogical tools, and technique (12) has become fashionable in the last half-

century. Techniques (1), (6), (10), (11), (12), and (13) are relevant to this project, as they are

used often in the third movement of Luciano Berio’s Sinfonia for 8 voices and orchestra.

Any of these techniques can be used to reinforce either authoritarian or anti-authoritarian

impulses, based upon the musical context and desires of the composer or performers. Ives most

likely trended toward the anti-authoritarian (or rather, toward the individual), since his use of

both art music and popular music ignored the dividing lines between repertoires.9 This is not to

say that these techniques are more effective in anti-authoritarian settings; rather, it is only to say

that Ives was predisposed to use these techniques in an anti-authoritarian way.

1.02 Listening to music and listening to other music

For the purposes of this study, quotation is a near-exact recreation (within 90%) of pitch

(both melodic and harmonic) and rhythmic material from a pre-existing piece of music, and paraphrase as a less-exact recreation. Further, timbre plays an important role in the understanding of quotation; many composers do include the original or reasonable facsimiles of the original timbre when quoting a different piece of music, while others use timbres completely unrelated to the timbre(s) of the original material in the new piece. In this study, timbre will be

taken into account as a non-essential but still important aspect of quotation. Is it enough that only the melody - or even a fraction of the melody - of one piece of music be present in a different piece, as in the use of a fragment from J. S. Bach’s “Es ist genug” (from the Funeral Cantata) in

Alban Berg’s Violin Concerto? Berg’s use of Bach is quotation because the melodic line makes

the transition to the piece, but also because the entire harmonization as written by Bach makes an

9 Ives’s acceptance of Transcendentalism, which will be discussed in Chapter 4, shows this idea in greater detail.

5 appearance in the clarinet section as the entire melody is performed.10 The melody itself is evocative enough; the harmonization strengthens the connections between the two pieces of music.

Ex. 1-1. Bach, “Es ist genug”11

Melody with full harmonization

10 Alban Berg, Violin Concerto. Vienna: Universal Edition, 1966, pp. 47 - 48. 11 J. S. Bach, “Es ist genug.” From 371 Four Part Chorals. New York: Edwin F. Kalmus, 1960, p. 17.

6 Ex. 1-2. Berg, Violin Concerto, II, mm. 136 - 145.12

Melody alone

Melody with full harmonization

12 Berg, ibid.

7 One can listen to Berg’s Violin Concerto without knowledge of Es ist genug and derive

enjoyment and musical satisfaction from the experience. However, being aware of Es ist genug

colors everything that happens musically after the quote appears (and before too, as the listener

then proceeds to filter his memories of the music with the newly-gained knowledge). To those who have knowledge of the earlier piece, the listening experience is altered wholly.

A similar phenomenon occurs in certain pieces from the Renaissance. One example is the

“parody mass,” in which all voices of a preexisting piece of music would be borrowed and adapted for a setting of the five movements of the Ordinary of the Mass.13 Pieces chosen for

quotation and adaptation were well-known popular and folk tunes, as well as other composed

works. Example 1-3 shows the theme from the chanson Malheur me bat, and example 1-4 shows

Josquin’s parodistic treatment in the Missa Malheur me bat.

Comparing the two pieces, one can see the similarities, especially in the opening

measures. After measure 5 of the Gloria, the lines develop in a different direction than in the

original chanson, in some ways sounding more representative (especially rhythmically) of the

low voice. While these developments take the original theme in new directions, the rhythmic and

contour similarities to the low voice in the original piece demonstrate a further level of allusion.

In this way, perhaps the chanson does invites a moment of recognition in the listener, which

causes said listener to pay closer attention to the music (and the words).

13 New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, vol. 14, p. 240. London: MacMillan, 1980. Andrew Kirkman discusses cyclic Masses in general in his article “The Invention of the Cyclic Mass” in Journal of the American Musicological Society, vol. 54, no. 1 (2004), pp. 1 - 47.

8 Ex. 1-3. Malheur me bat, first eleven measures.14 Theme, imitation at octave

Theme

14 M. Jennifer Bloxam, “Masses on Polyphonic Songs” in The Josquin Companion, ed. Richard Sherr. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 179.

9 Ex. 1-4. Josquin, Missa Malheur me bat, “Gloria,” first eleven measures.15

Theme, imitation at octave

Theme

In both of the situations described above (Berg’s use of Bach and Josquin’s use of

Malheur me bat), the basic pitch and rhythmic structure of the source material remains intact.

However, there are transformations in other ways - text, timbre, location within the new piece of

music vis-à-vis location within the original piece. In these situations, there are changes to the musical material based on the changed meaning in the new context.

15 Josquin des Prez, Missa malheur me bat, “Gloria.” Utrecht: Koninklijke Vereniging voor Nederlandse Muziekgeschiedenis, 1994, p. 6.

10 Another issue present with musical quotation is the lack of a clear marker of quotation.

The techniques of musical borrowing described above by Burkholder are aural descriptions, not

visual elements. There are no quotation marks in music, though some composers have used them

in printed scores.16 Not every listener or performer would have been aware of the use of

quotation. The absence of modern recording or transmission methods meant that the main

method of idea transmission was the oral tradition, which may not always be the most accurate.

To experience musical quotation, one must hear the new music and recognize the original

statement within the new composition.

Nelson Goodman engages this line of thinking in an essay entitled “Some Questions

Concerning Quotation.”17 Goodman concludes the music notation characters involved in

quotation need to be standardized so that everyone may be aware that something is being

quoted.18 Though he makes some interesting points, it seems that the aural perception need not

be instantaneous to be fully appreciated; after all, one need not hear the quotation marks in a

sentence to know that something is being quoted. Indeed, one cannot hear quotation marks at all;

in most conversations, we are only aware of a quotation when the speaker says “Person x says

(quoted material) or when the speaker makes what are known as “air quotes” or “scare quotes,” using his or her fingers to signify that quotation is taking place. In the former situation, the statement “Person x says” can be used with both sincere intent or to cast aspersions on the quoted material, while in the latter situations, air quotes or scare quotes are most often used in the second way (to cast aspersions).

16 For one such example, see George Crumb, Makrokosmos, vol. 1, no. 11 (“Love-Death Music”), New York: C. F. Peters, 1974. 17 Nelson Goodman, “Some Questions Concerning Quotation,” in Ways of Worldmaking. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1978, pp. 41 - 56. 18 ibid., p. 51.

11 In the conversation described above, the people engaged in the conversation do not provide citations for their quotations. The quotations are stated with the full knowledge that the receiver knows and understands original context, inflection, and content. A listener who does not share that knowledge may find the quotation humorous, but will not receive the full effect of the quotation. So how then is one to listen to music that requires familiarity with other music? That is the question at the heart of this study. One starting point, though by no means the only such point, is the use of musical quotation in highly surreal or comic contexts. In similar literary constructs, scare quotes are the most chosen marker for subversion. Since music lacks quotes as a notation (as discussed by Goodman), another marker must be used. Many times, timbre takes on the role of this marker, though it is by no means the only way. (Timbre as a musical element/marker of quotation will be discussed in chapters 4 and 5 of the project, as the analytical methodology is developed further.) How a listener will interpret that is discussed in the next section.

1.03 Other uses of musical quotation

One of the more common uses of musical quotation is for humorous effect; this is usually done with an anti-authoritarian mindset, with the intent of mocking or somehow undercutting the original context of the music. Most humorous quotations also rely on knowledge of the original context of the music, and transplant the meaning derived by the listener based on his or her understanding of both the original and new contexts (with only minor changes, if any) to the new context. This does not preclude deeper levels of understanding of the quotation (humorous or otherwise), but it does privilege the humorous aspects. Further, one can argue that the humorous use of the quotation is more well-known (at least from a pop-cultural standpoint) than

12 the material from which it is taken. The meaning does not change, so the listener is not required to examine contextual issues. This process is, as mentioned above, effective, but not necessarily pathbreaking or consciousness-raising. Other musical quotes are chosen because of their

incongruity to the overall situation – they serve as a shock to the system and exist to draw sharp

contrast to the prevailing meaning. The fact that the material used is a quotation is secondary to

its effect, though the presence of the quotation can add a touch of humor as well. This is not

strictly the same thing as ironic quotation, which will be discussed in greater detail in successive

chapters.

In the field of jazz improvisation, quotation is often used, but usually not for any issues of

meaning and interpretation as described above. Improvisers use quotes in their improvisation

simply because the melodic patterns or patterns present in the quoted material fit over the chords

over which the soloist is improvising. While these quotes often generate a response in the listener

similar to the process described above (in which the listener’s interpretation of the quoted

material changes how the music is listened to), the actual act of quotation tends to be more

automatic and based on harmonic structure and less based on any rhetoric that draws upon

musical meaning, musical memory, or context.

Not all music that relies on quotation requires the listener to be aware of the quoted

material, though it certainly allows the informed listener to be “in on the joke.” An example of

this type of music would be the Renaissance and Baroque form called the quodlibet, which draws

upon pre-existing thematic material. The quodlibet (Latin for “what you please”)19 is historically a piece of music which ties together musical ideas from other sources, and as such is not meant

19 “Quodlibet” in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan Publishing, 1980, vol. XV, p. 515.

13 to be interpreted in a cohesive fashion. In literature, the cognate to the quodlibet is the cento,20

which is a poem constructed entirely of lines from other poems. The quodlibet remained a

popular form throughout the Baroque era, and J. S. Bach closed the Goldberg Variations with a

quodlibet based on two popular German songs (“Kraut und Rüben” and “Ich bin so lang nicht bei

dir g’west”).21 Though each of the tunes used has its own history and context, those contexts are not important to the fabric of the piece.

Sometimes, especially in a theatrical work, composers will reuse musical material from

earlier in the work with a new text or in a new context. This technique is called contrafactum,

and while it generates musical memories within the context of the work itself, it is entirely self- contained and therefore not relevant to the idea of quoting other works.

1.04 Analysis of quotation

Within the past thirty to forty years, the idea of postmodernism has emerged in philosophical circles. Postmodernism can be defined in literary terms as a movement “that oppose[s] commonly accepted canons regarding the unity and coherence of narratives and artistic styles.”22 In purely postmodern works, concepts and materials do not need to have any larger connections than proximity. For example, the two words:

air plane mean different things alone and in combination - and the meaning is also subject to the ordering of the words (“plane air” is completely different than “air plane”). In postmodernism, effect is derived from the juxtaposition of the two words; thus,

20 ibid., p. 516. 21 ibid., p. 517. 22 David Ingram, “Postmodernism” in Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2nd ed., vol. 7, Donald M. Borchert, editor-in- chief. Detroit: Thomson Gale/Macmillan Reference USA, 2006, p. 729.

14 “air plane” and “plane air” are equally valid concepts, to say nothing of the derivation of

similarly sounding words. With a few metamorphoses, the following combinations are possible

and of equal weight and sensibility:

air plane

airplane

plane air

plain air

planar

What seems to be a nonsensical juxtaposition removes the weight of metanarrative from the work and allows the listener to concentrate on the ideas as they appear without a prejudicial ordering.

Put another way, postmodernism is a pastiche, which like parody features “the imitation, or better still, the mimicry of other styles and particularly of the mannerisms and stylistic twitches of other styles.”23 The difference between parody and pastiche is that parody “mocks

the original”24 while pastiche is value-neutral. As Jameson puts it,

Pastiche is, like parody, the imitation of a peculiar or unique style, the wearing of a stylistic mask, speech in a dead language: but it is a neutral practice of such mimicry, without parody’s ulterior motive, without the satirical impulse, without laughter, without that still latent feeling that there exists something normal compared to which what is being imitated is rather comic. Pastiche is blank parody, parody that has lost its sense of humor: pastiche is to parody what that curious thing, the modern practice of a kind of blank irony, is to what Wayne Booth calls the stable and comic ironies of, say, the eighteenth century.25

Postmodernism removes order and conceptual ranking, but it does not remove memory.

One of the ways in which postmodern works create their appeal is the use of familiar ideas in

23 Frederic Jameson, “Postmodernism and Consumer Society” in Postmodernism and its Discontents, ed. E. Ann Kaplan. London and New York: Verso, 1988, p. 15. 24 ibid., p. 16. 25 ibid. Wayne Booth will be discussed in Chapter 3.

15 new, unexpected, and decontextualized ways. In much modern literature and popular culture,

quotations are used either as the familiar ideas themselves or as markers of the familiar ideas.

The original context of the quotations is important, but not for its own sake; the new context

colors the memory of the original context, and the original context colors the content of the new

context. The most telling aspect of the conversation will be the assumption that the original

source need not be identified. This is not necessarily a new idea - consider the last lines of

Wilfrid Owen’s poem “Dulce Et Decorum Est,” which predates postmodernism by nearly a half- century:

If in some smothering dreams you too could pace Behind the wagon we flung him in, And watch the white eyes writhing in his face, His hanging face, like a devil’s sick of sin; If you could hear, at every jolt, the blood Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs, Obscene as cancer, bitter as the cud Of vile, incurable sores on innocent tongues,-- My friend, you would not tell with such high zest To children ardent for some desperate glory, The old Lie: Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori.26

Owen’s use of the Latin phrase “Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori” (“It is sweet and

honorable to die for one’s country”27) did not need citation even though it is a quotation for two reasons: (1) The intended audience would have been familiar with Horace’s Odes, from which

the phrase is initially drawn, and (2) Owen wrote the poem as a response to the British poet

Jessie Pope, who wrote pro-war poetry as a means of encouraging young men to sign up for the

26 Wilfred Owen, “Dulce Et Decorum Est.” In The Collected Poems of Wilfred Owen. New York: New Directions Publishing Company, 1963, p. 55. 27 Horace, Carmina, Book 3, chapter 2, verse 13. In Concordance of the Works of Horace. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1961, p. 140.

16 British Army in World War I.28 Pope’s poem was entitled “Dulce Et Decorum Est Pro Patria

Mori;” This is also identical to the lines from Horace. Owen’s use of the poem reflects back on the sentiments expressed by Pope, but recontextualizes them in a way which is bitterly ironic.

Notice that Owen did not provide a direct citation for his use of “Dulce Et Decorum Est” in his poem. Citing quotations is a necessity in scholarly writing, where the lineage of ideas serves a valuable purpose in research and understanding. In creative works, however, citation is only necessary when the creator of the work wishes to elucidate the original context of the quotation further, so as to play up the differences in context.

There is another aspect to quotation. Owen’s use of “Dulce Et Decorum Est” does require the reader to understand the meaning of the phrase, and to know that it was originally used in a propagandistic fashion, but he does not make that explicit in his own work. Thus, while anyone with a serviceable knowledge of Latin could translate the lines and understand that Owen is making a mockery of them, those who have shared the experience of reading Pope’s poem will experience the meaning that much more strongly; in order to truly understand on a deep level, one must have experienced the other poem first.

1.05 Conclusion

Quotation can be used to great effect in filmed productions (animated or otherwise), since not only words but also scenery, lighting, and color can be translated wholly into other media, thus giving what was described earlier as the original context, inflection and content. An observer can examine the material in both its original and new contexts, and derive a meaning from the juxtaposition.

28 John Stallworthy, Wilfred Owen. London: Oxford University Press, 1974, pp. 226 - 8.

17 This technique can also be used musically as well; an analysis of Luciano Berio’s

Sinfonia for 8 voices and orchestra is submitted as evidence. In order to provide this analysis,

this study will first explain the philosophical underpinnings of quotations, and develop an

analytical methodology based on certain ideas presented. Next, an analysis will be presented

with constant reference to the underlying philosophy. Finally, this analysis will be translated to

other ideas, such as allusion.

Though many tropes can be investigated using this technique, irony, especially the irony

present when the original context of the quoted material cannot be reconciled wholly with the

new context, will be of particular interest. It is this author’s belief that irony CAN be created

musically, and thus can be SHOWN using musical examples. Part of the process will be to

discuss how irony can be shown musically.

As stated above, irony and humor are not the only possible outcomes that can be derived

from an analysis of quotations, and the analysis may indeed show that irony does not always

result from the use of quotation. If the history of quotation as described by Busse Berger and

others shows anything, it is that each era has a different approach to quotation. This study is by

no means comprehensive; indeed, it should serve as a launching rather than a landing point for

new studies of quotation in different musical contexts. As quotation evolved over a millennium

from a compositional and pedagogical idea (“making,” or an authoritarian approach; material should be used this way, because it reflects prevailing norms) to a method of reinterpreting the purpose of the notes in new contexts (“meaning,” or an anti-authoritarian approach; material need not be used in the same way as it was originally), so too must analytical techniques and approaches. This project will offer one possible path.

18 CHAPTER 2

BACKGROUND AND IDEAS

2.00 Introduction

Effective use of quotation requires reference, or knowledge of the original source; in musical quotation, references can change meaning based on context, making the act of quotation or paraphrase reliant on fully-developed understanding of context. Quoted material can appear in germane or absurd contexts. In some cases, the absurdity of the context debases the original meaning of the quoted material; in other cases, it amplifies and comments on it. The present study examines how quotation changes a piece (and how the piece receiving the quotation changes the quotation), and shows how an analytical technique rooted in postmodernism can generate reverberant data about various elements in a piece based on discontinuity. The methodology is constructed in chapter 4, the analysis undertaken in chapter 5, and conclusions about the presence of irony are given in chapter 6.The purpose of this project is to develop a way of determining context musically and quantitatively, to allow for more in-depth analysis of borrowed material across a variety of settings. In doing so, the project will show how quoted material affects and is affected by its surroundings; the model will be ecological in nature. An analytical methodology with a hermeneutic derived from postmodernism will be devised. This hermeneutic owes much of its existence to the ideas of Frederic Ferré; Richard Rorty also looms

19 large in the background, as does Mikhail Bakhtin. Musically, this draws upon the work of

Catherine Losada, Peter Burkholder and Michael Cherlin.

While this project will periodically examine irony and ironic situations, irony is not the central focus of this project; rather, the analytical methodology developed in this study can be used to examine various effects of quotation, and irony is one such effect. Therefore, the study will include a chapter on irony, in particular its relationship to quotation.

Ultimately, the project will show the points of irony in the third movement of Luciano

Berio’s Sinfonia for 8 voices and orchestra by use of a series of graphs; this technique will demonstrate the effect of Berio’s compositional devices and use of quotation on the structure of the movement over time.

2.01 Modernism and Postmodernism

Jonathan Kramer states something is postmodern when it “challenge[s] a previous modernism.”1 To understand postmodernism, one must understand its place in the history of ideas, especially its relationship with its immediate predecessor - modernism. Stephen Toulmin addresses the growth of modernism by comparing the development of thought in the 16th and

17th centuries, contrasting the humanist approach to knowledge of the 16th century with the idea of knowledge as an exact science in the 17th century.2

To use some terminology from Chapter 1, this desire for certainty, for authority in knowledge, is in sharp contrast to the anti-authoritarian nature of postmodernism, which is

1 Jonathan Kramer, “The nature and origins of musical Postmodernism” in Current Musicology, no. 26. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999, p. 8. 2 Stephen Toulmin, Cosmopolis: The Hidden Agenda of Modernity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990, pp. 36 - 44.

20 based on what Jean-François Lyotard described as “incredulity toward metanarratives,”3 or a

belief that one event does not have to lead to any other specific events. Metanarratives serve as

cultural markers in a society’s belief that knowledge of events is, if not preordained, at least a

logical and necessary result of those historical events. Lyotard derives this skepticism not from a

study of history, but from his study of the structure of language and how that structure may assist

in the creation of cybernetic learning networks (a step on the road to artificial intelligence).

Lyotard has also codified various methods of “language games”4 as a means of understanding

knowledge. For Lyotard, knowledge required a “sender” and “receiver.”5 This duality required

the sender to know the information and the receiver to be in “the position of having to give or

refuse his assent”6 This understanding of language games is central to the idea of “incredulity

toward metanarratives” described above, since the sending and receiving of knowledge (in

Lyotard’s view) is affected by the ability to process information in and out of context. Once

something can be decontextualized, it is no longer necessary that it be part of a metanarrative.

This decontextualization allows for the creation of works where physical proximity does not

equal narrative connection. To put it another way, postmodern works are to be read as a series of

side-by-side events that are not related by anything other than proximity. In this way, a postmodern work would be the opposite of a rebus, an art form where seemingly discontinuous ideas are linked together because they phonetically create a larger narrative.

3 Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition. Trans. Geoff Bennington and Brian Massumi. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984, p. 24. 4 ibid., p. 9. 5 ibid. 6 ibid.

21 Frederic Jameson describes postmodernism as actually being postmodernisms, or

“specific reactions against the established forms of high modernism.”7 To Jameson, “there will

be as many different forms of postmodernism as there were high modernisms in place, since the

former are at least initially specific and local reactions against those models.”8 Assuming that

postmodernist thought is monolithic in its substance is invalid; postmodernism, to Jameson, is a

localized line of inquiry and appears in many different but equally valid forms. The idea of

multiple postmodernism is central to this inquiry, as it postulates an approach different from

deconstruction and decontextualization.

Ultimately, any analysis is also contingent upon genre, or under which category a work

can be said to fall. This is not always an easy categorization, as many works (as an example,

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s singspiel Die Zauberflöte) fall into multiple categories.

Specifically, Die Zauberflöte contains elements of opera seria and opera buffa. This duality is

possible because the elements of seria and buffa exist side by side (thus being contingent-

relational phenomena), but do not overlap and are not forced into conformity with each other. A

further discussion of what genre is and is not takes place in chapter 4 of this project.

One of the distinguishing characteristics of postmodernism to Lyotard is not only the use

of material from other eras, but also the use of allusion to other events, works of arts, or

historical periods. If one is incredulous toward metanarratives, one may draw materials from all

historical eras without associating a sense of causation between the materials. “Allusion…is

perhaps a form of expression indispensable to the works which belong to an aesthetic of the

7 Frederic Jameson, “Postmodernism and Consumer Society” in Postmodernism and its Discontents, ed. E. Ann Kaplan. London and New York: Verso, 1988, p. 13. Jameson’s ideas on pastiche versus parody were discussed in Chapter 1. 8 ibid., p. 14.

22 sublime.”9 The use of allusion and reference as a device to break down the meaning of a given passage is common in postmodern works, where the knowing wink of familiarity couples with the humor of acontextuality to dissolve and reframe original meanings. In this situation, these allusions are used to humorous ends, but they often reveal a larger truth about the world and worldview that created them. We are, after all, products of not just our time and place but also of the complete history of the world. In that sense, postmodernism thrives on bringing the manifold influences together into one discontinuous yet cohesive whole.

One genre that shows development in both modern and postmodern eras, and thus may be germane to any discussion of the competing worldviews, is the novel. Though many trace the origins of the modern novel to the rise of the bourgeoisie in Europe and America,10 Margaret

Anne Doody postulates the novel as being an example of continuous development of a form over more than two millennia.11 Whatever the origins, the novel is regarded as the highest achievement of literature in the Western world, and therefore is the subject of most literary criticism and theory. It is appropriate to look at the writings of the Russian writer and theorist

Mikhail M. Bakhtin and his thoughts on the nature of the novel, based on his studies of the works of Dostoevsky. These works are important to our discussion because they postulate the possibility of ideas - in this case, the words, thoughts and action of various characters - being transferred into the context of narration. This transfer of material bears a striking resemblance to quotation, and thus provides an analytical model that can be adapted for study of musical quotation.Mikhail Bakhtin defined the novel (and separated it from other forms of literature) by the use of three basic techniques:

1. Stylistic three-dimensionality and multi-languaged consciousness;

9 Lyotard 1984., p. 80. 10 Margaret Anne Doody, The True Story of the Novel. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1996, p. 1. 11 ibid.

23 2. Radical change it causes in the temporal coordinates of the literary image; and

3. The new zone opened by a novel - the “maximal zone of contact with the

present” - for organizing literary ideas.12

Bakhtin proposed that Dostoevsky’s novels were polyphonic (many-voiced), because

“Dostoevsky was capable of representing someone else’s idea, preserving its full capacity to

signify as an idea, while at the same time also preserving a distance, neither confirming the idea

nor merging it with his own expressed ideology. The idea, in his work, becomes the subject of

artistic representation, and Dostoevsky himself became a great artist of the idea[.]”13 In

Dostoevsky, as interpreted by Bakhtin, an idea is not limited to the narrator or main voice of the novel; it can be put forth by any character and treated with the same respect and capability for development as an idea put forth by the narrator or main voice. Dostoevsky’s novels feature shaz, or “narration that imitates the form of an individual oral narrator.”14 Shaz allows

Dostoevsky to present multiple points of view (with all their attendant backgrounds and biases) while not disrupting the overall narrative flow.

Bakhtin also explored the use of signs and signifiers in language, especially in the

possibility of duality (this may be reflective of a belief in “double-voiced” speech - see below) of words. “In actual fact, each living ideological sign has two faces, like Janus. Any current curse word can become a word of praise, any current truth must inevitably seem to some people like the greatest lie.”15 This understanding of duality is confirmed further in Bakhtin’s theories on

reported speech. “Reported speech is regarded by the speaker as an utterance belonging to

12 Mikhail M. Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, ed. M. Holmquist, trans. C. Emerson and M. Holmquist. Austin; University of Texas Press, 1981, p. 11. 13 Bakhtin, Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics, trans. C. Emerson. Minneapolis; University of Minnesota Press, 1984, p. 98. 14 Bakhtin 1984, p. 90, note. 15 Bakhtin, The Baktin Reader, ed, Pam Morris. London; Edward Arnold, 1994, p. 55.

24 someone else, an utterance that was originally totally independent, complete in its construction, and lying outside the given context. Now, it is from this independent existence that reported speech is transposed into an authorial context while retaining its own referential content and at least the rudiments of its own linguistic integrity, its original constructional independence.…Thus, what is expressed in the forms employed for reporting speech is an active relation of one message to another, and it is expressed, moreover, not on the level of the theme but in the stabilized constructional patterns of the language itself.”16

Believing that an idea was “inter-individual and inter-subjective,”17 Bakhtin described his ideas as a way of understanding works with this kind of rich and yet dispassionate quotation, which he referred to as a “heteroglot novel.”18

Bakhtin was fascinated by the uses of multiple voices (polyphony) in the works of

Dostoevsky, because they demonstrated an effect of quotation – “Someone else’s words introduced into our own speech inevitably assume a new (our own) interpretation and become subject to our own evaluation of them; that is, they become double-voiced.”19 This double- voiced phenomenon led to a question of what happens when one voice becomes imbedded inside another and the complications that result. “The second voice, once having made its home in the other’s discourse, clashes hostilely with its primordial host and forces him to serve directly opposing aims.”20 Being forced to serve directly opposing aims - an anti-authoritarian approach - is one possible interpretation of irony, but for Bakhtin not all interpolations of voice were ironic.

Yes, the words of one voice could be used by a second voice “in the direction of its own

16 Bakhtin 1994, p. 63. 17 ibid., p. 98. 18 Bakhtin 1981, p. 11. 19 Bakhtin 1984, p. 106. 20 ibid.

25 particular aspirations,”21 but those aspirations are not necessarily at cross purposes with the

intent of the original speaker. Regardless of unanimity of purpose, the end result is that “[w]ords

and language began to have a different feel to them; objectively they ceased to be about what

they had once been.”22

Once words “ceased to be about what they had once been,” and interpretation was

separated from context (though knowledge of the original context certainly was used in some

interpretive situations), they could be placed into still-different contexts and manipulated further.

This quality leads to a commonly lodged criticism of postmodernism: it lacks values. In a postmodern mindset, if there is no linear view, no hierarchy, or no grand design, how then is one thing to be valued over another thing? A postmodernist might reply that nothing is to be privileged over anything else, and that in itself is a positive value; it allows for a greater diversity of thought. This is one definition of postmodernism. Others would opt for a definition that is based on the evolution of modernism, though that definition is a touch ironic, as postmodernism is most popularly defined as ahistorical and not interested in what has come before (except as context-free material for current expression).

This idea is reflected in the work of Jairo Moreno, who observes, in his study of Zarlino,

Descartes, Rameau and Weber, the idea of the musical “subject,” or listener. Using the works of

Foucault as a starting point, Moreno examines how the aforementioned theorists approached the issues of temporality and relationships to other pieces of music.23 This examination, while

thorough, lacks one critical point: By basing his analysis on Foucault, Moreno uses a

deconstructive model. This model does not take into account the possibility of cohesion in

21 ibid. 22 Bakhtin 1981, p. 12. 23 Jairo Moreno, Musical Representations, Subjects and Objects: The Construction of Musical Thought in Zarlino, Descartes, Rameau, and Weber. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004.

26 disunity, and - while it makes several feints in that direction - does not truly discuss networks of

connections between discontinuous ideas. Rather, Moreno speaks of (as an example) Zarlino

“deftly cobbl[ing] together heterogeneous sources that hold prior meetings, rearranges them in

novel combinations which give the unified notions of modern music’s naturalness and

universality a mythical character.”24 This model is a textbook example of deconstructionism,

focusing on the appearance of unity in discontinuity rather than examining relationships that

actually exist - or that may develop - in a highly discontinuous musical situation. One of the

issues with postmodernism, therefore, is its use of a deconstructive model. If we are indeed the

product of all that has come before, the process of analysis runs headlong into the belief that a

thing can and should be greater than the sum of its parts. As Jameson says, postmodernism must

be defined on its own terms. A better definition - one not dependent on any existing context -

must be found.

2.02 Frederick Ferré and the ecological model

Frederick Ferré proposes such a definition by turning to the world of ecology for a model.

First, Ferré paraphrases Derrida with “Texts, unlike speech, allow infinite commentary and

‘displacement’ to illustrate the hopeless gap between the written words and any single, totalizing

idea behind the text.”25 Then, drawing upon the work of Eugene Odum, Ferré infers a

postmodern ecology. Ferré writes (in his summation of Odum), “The key to ecological science

… is relationship. Systems are networks of relations. Ecosystems are domains of relationships

among plants and animals and between these biota and the inorganic environment: chemicals,

24 ibid., p. 44. 25 Frederick Ferré, Being And Value: Toward A Constructive Postmodern Metaphysics. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996, p. 282.

27 energy, atmosphere, water, soils, etc. The proper study for ecology defined ecosystematically is

the totality of these relationships.”26 Ferré then describes ecosystems as being “constituted by

‘physical environment’ and ‘biota.’ Already, these two terms are collective nouns. The ‘physical environment’ is the phrase we use to refer to mineral, chemical, atmospheric components in a so- called ecosystem. The ‘biota’ are all the species of living things that live and interact with each other and with the physical environment in the area of interest.”27 Why take such an approach?

Ferré offers the following rationale:

What if astronomy and physics, Copernicus and Newton, had not been such early triumphant sciences? Consider astronomy. What if earth’s atmosphere had been a bit more moist and warm so that our skies were constantly overcast with thick glares miles deep with cloud? Then there would never have been a chance to watch and ponder the great remote regularities of the fixed stars or to have been goaded into curiosity by the slight irregularities of the planets or by the phases of the moon. Observational astronomy is, after all, immensely simple in its noble cycles. It is a domain of negligible friction. We cannot interfere. Nothing seems able to interfere. It is perfectly isolated from earth life. It is a domain of vast order, with only rare tantalizing exceptions. But there are changes; night to night, month to month, season to season, year to year. Even amid these stately changes, order can be found after long inspection and reflection. What more perfect subject matter after the first attempt to the science? But what if we had never been able to see the stars and planets? In a world with billowing clouds above and buzzing bees below, would anyone have had the inspiration to see the constant order within the constant flux?28

Without astronomy, the early scientists would have looked earthward to find

observational phenomena:

Here is no cry to return to something pre-modern. Fully state of the art research is called for, but requires ecologists to go far beyond the specialist linear modes of thinking characteristic of the worldview offspring/defender: the modern university. In this, ecosystem ecology is neither pre-modern nor modern, but fully post-modern. Ecology so defined will use the latest refined discoveries and instruments of approaches, including mathematics and computers, but will use them in integrated ways worthy of pre-modern

26 ibid., p. 311. 27 ibid., pp. 314 – 315. 28 ibid., p. 308.

28 ideals, emphasizing the working together of domains of knowledge to match the working together of biological and physical relationships in nature.29

It is then that Ferré fleshes out the relationships described above in greater detail. Ferré’s summation of the balance of biota and life forms (and the interaction thereof) in an ecosystem is given as:

The sufficient condition for being an organic entity in my sense is that it is or has been a living system. The system seen as a whole with eternally related parts. That is, some parts are what they are or in the state they are because of feedback from other parts, which in turn are what they are or in the state they are because of the first parts. By such coordination of parts, the system as a whole is enabled to carry out some function. What then is added by the problematic word ‘living?’ All living organisms are made up of parts that are internally related. All are governed by wholistic feedback systems that allow homeostasis. In manifesting these two traits, wholism and homeostasis, they are no more than systematic entities. Living systems have one more central characteristic that sets them apart from nonliving systems. They are capable of novelty, improvisation, evolution, growth. In a word: creativity. This is their defining characteristic.30

It is worth examining this statement again: “That is, some parts are what they are…because of feedback from other parts.” To understand an ecosystem, one must understand relationships between entities, and how entities inform and alter each other. Further quoting

Ferré: “Organisms are not only related importantly to their own parts. Changes outside organic entities regularly enter into nonreciprocal internal relation with organisms, altering their states.”31 What is a piece of music but the results of interaction between and alterations created by melody, harmony, rhythm, timbre, etc.? This approach can be quite successful in generating information that will lead to more (and more valid) interpretations in performance and analysis.

Though the idea of an ecological model based on interrelationships seems contradictory to the idea of incredulity toward metanarratives, this is not the case. As Ferré states, “[s]ome who consider themselves ‘holists’ make a special point of denouncing and excluding analytical

29 ibid., p. 311. This is not unlike the “Gaia Hypothesis” as proposed by Dr. James Lovelock. 30 ibid., p. 331. 31 ibid., p. 332.

29 methods in principle. But this is an unfortunate mistake…[i]t simply sets up a new dichotomy

between ‘analysis’ and ‘holism’ while aiming to get beyond all such dichotomies.”32 There is no

need to create a tension between analysis and incredulity. This idea of an ecological model for

postmodernism that is connected with contingent-relational phenomena will form the basis of an

analytic technique for discontinuous forms. Closer inspection shows that there is no

contradiction because metanarratives and interrelationships are not the same thing - metanarratives presuppose telos, while interrelationships simply are. The proposed method of analysis looks at the discontinuity as transplanted life forms, not native to the surface of the landscape, and therefore not subject to the existing metanarrative. Thus, no such incredulity need be part of the philosophical or analytical approach. It may also be applicable to more traditional

(and traditionalist) forms; that is a topic for another time.

Eric Clarke has postulated a similar ecological model for music, based on James Gibson’s

work in ecological perceptual theory.33 According to Clarke, “[i]n ecological theory, perception

and meaning are closely related. When people perceive what is happening around them, they are

trying to understand, and adapt to, what is going on. In this sense, they are engaged with the

meanings of the events in their environment.”34 Thus information (a musical theme, for example)

must constantly interact with its surroundings to know how to react or adapt.

32 ibid., p. 307. 33 Eric Clarke, Ways of Listening: An Ecological Approach to the Perception of Musical Meaning. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 5. 34 ibid., pp. 6 - 7.

30 2.03 Postmodernism in discontinuous forms; Berio

Let us turn our attention now to the Sinfonia for 8 voices and orchestra by Luciano Berio

(1925 - 2003). The Sinfonia was first performed in its original form on October 10, 1968 by the

New York Philharmonic and the Swingle Singers under the direction of the composer.35 A

revised version, expanded from four to five movements, was given its first performance by the

same orchestra and vocal group, under the direction of Leonard Bernstein, on October 8, 1970.36

Almost immediately, it became the subject of analysis and study, and this section examines

multiple analytical approaches to the piece, beginning with Berio’s own thoughts on the work

and continuing through David Osmond-Smith, Michael Hicks, David Metzer, and Catherine

Losada, with additional information from Robert Hatten. Each of these authors is concerned

about the structure of the piece, and each one examines the structure through a different

analytical lens. This approach will also look at the structure, but through an ecological model

postulated later in this project; this will provide yet one more lens for examination of musical

structure and musical interpretation, one which showcases the nature of the relationships present

between the work and the pieces it quotes, and how these relationships affect the quoting piece.

Berio himself spoke of the Sinfonia in the book Two Interviews.37 In one of the interviews, he discussed his approach to the form of the third movement. Though collage-based analyses will be examined later in this chapter, Berio did not consider the piece to be a collage:

I’m not interested in collages, and they amuse me only when I’m doing them with my children: then they become an exercise in relativizing and “decontextualizing” images, an elementary exercise whose healthy cynicism won’t do anyone any harm. … it’s [the third movement of Gustav Mahler’s Second Symphony] accompanied throughout

35 Program notes by Michael Steinberg, Brooklyn Philharmonic Orchestra, November 15, 1998. 36 ibid. 37 Luciano Berio, Two Interviews. With Rossana Dalmonte and Bálint András Varga, trans. and ed. David Osmond- Smith. New York: Marion Boyars, 1985.

31 by the “history of music” that it itself recalls for me, with all its many levels and references – or at least those little bits of history that I was able to keep a grip on, granted that often there’s anything up to four different references going on at the same time. So the scherzo of Mahler’s Second Symphony becomes a generator of harmonic function and of musical references that are pertinent to them which appear, disappear, pursue their own courses, return to Mahler, or hide behind it. The references … are therefore also signals which indicate which harmonic country we are going through [.]38

Indeed, the idea of using quotations (what Berio called the “history of music” above) was not to be the organizing force at all. The original plan was a “harmonic exploding” of “the last three movements of Beethoven’s Quartet in C-sharp minor, op. 131 - though without quotations, and with ‘little flags’” composed by Berio.39 Berio refers to the Mahler movement as the

“skeleton” of the piece,40 and the text - primarily drawn from The Unnamable by Samuel Beckett

- was chosen because “one of the most important proliferations of the Beckett text (though not the only one) is the sequence of verbal signs which describe, sometimes metaphorically, sometimes explicitly, the various stages of the harmonic voyage, musically marked and punctuated by the quotations.”41 The “little flags” are still very much there, though now they provide the musculature and skin for the Mahler “skeleton.” Berio seems to take an authoritarian approach to the use of quotation, since the quotes are designed to invoke “the history of music” and place his piece firmly within the canon. Notice also Berio’s exhortation against

“decontextualizing” material; this indicates that a standard deconstructionist model of postmodern analysis will be at cross-purposes to Berio’s stated goals with regard to the piece.

Berio’s use of words like “signs,” “marked” and “punctuated” indicates a strong consanguinity with the field of semiotics, or the study of signs and signifiers. Robert Hatten has explored this field extensively, and his work may inform our analysis of quotation-laden music.

38 ibid., pp. 106 – 107. 39 ibid., p. 107. 40 ibid., pp. 106 - 107. 41 ibid., p. 109.

32 Hatten, drawing upon the works of Michael Shapiro and Ferdinand de Saussure, uses the concept

of “markedness,”42 or the inevitability of an opposition structure resulting in asymmetry (one part of the opposition will be more specific in meaning, one will be more abstract),43 to examine various pieces by Ludwig van Beethoven, including the third movement of the Op. 106 piano sonata.44 Hatten proposes a system for identification of markers and interpretation of their

meaning based on the following approach, an approach designed for not just analysis but

performance:

1. Identification of the structural types that exist in the style and their correlation with

expressive types;

2. Idenfication of tokens in words, and their potential correlations as tokens of stylistic

types;

3. Interpretation of the contextual relationship among tokens in terms of their strategic

usage;

4. Generalization of those features insofar as they define new types;

5. Incorporation of some of the new types (and their correlations) in one’s stylistic

competency for interpreting later works in the style (style growth), as opposed to

those which remain piece-specific; and

6. Speculation about how to interpret the unique features of a work that are not (as yet)

generalizable.45

42 Robert Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven: Markedness, Correlation, and Interpretation. Bloomington; Indiana University Press, 1993. 43 ibid, p. x. 44 ibid, pp. 13 - 14. While Hatten explores Beethoven, his ideas on markedness can be applied with relative success to other repertoires as well. 45 ibid., pp. 32 - 33.

33 Hatten’s basic approach to performance is to decode these tokens, apply them to the style and nature of the piece and its context, and then interpret the piece as it is now understood through the use of these tokens.46 Hatten explores the differences between “levels of discourse” in music by attempting to find the points where the musical discourse shifts to a different level, and then examining the changes in the music at those points. As Hatten says,

Levels of discourse are created in literature by shifting from direct to indirect discourse or narration. Music may signal analogous shifts, although not necessarily narrative ones, by means of certain contrasts of style or stylistic register: successively (in which case the latter music seems to “comment” upon the former), or interruptively (in which case an entity appropriate to a context is displaced by an inappropriate one).47

Berio states a similar idea when he says in an earlier interview, “A musical work always has an impalpable zone with which we can only come to grips through the mediating influence of works that we have already assimilated.”48 Berio, like Hatten, believes that musical material can be a signifier of other concepts or ideas, and that the interpretation of that material can be deduced by the context of the musical ideas. Further, if musical context alone is enough to guide interpretation, then we can devise a means of investigating the musical material in various musical contexts and draw conclusions from that investigation. Hatten’s concept of “levels of discourse” draws a strong parallel to Berio’s “mediating influence,” in that both ideas concern themselves with using context as a marker of both form and interpretation.

In contrast to Berio’s quasi-semiotic understanding of the work, David Osmond-Smith, writing in The Musical Quarterly, draws upon James Joyce’s Ulysses and Claude Lévi-Strauss’

Mythologiques to understand the structure of the piece in its entirety.49 Osmond-Smith takes the

46 ibid., p. 33. 47 ibid, p. 174. 48 ibid., pp. 17 - 18. 49 David Osmond-Smith, “From Myth to Music: Lévi-Strauss’s Mythologiques and Berio’s Sinfonia” in The Musical Quarterly, vol. 67, no. 1 (1981), p. 232.

34 sound of Joyce’s text as being equally important to (if not more important than) the meaning of

the words, pulling forth the idea that “the possibility of thus effecting not merely a parallelism

but a synthesis between text and music.”50 Osmond-Smith then examines the piece using the structure of the text of the outer movements (derived from Lévi-Strauss’ Le cru et le cuit) as the basis for analysis of the musical structure. By taking the analysis of myths used by Lévi-Strauss as one idea, coherent word groupings as another, and isolated words from the myths as a third,

Osmond-Smith creates a series of charts describing the relationship between the skeletal structure of Lévi-Strauss’s text and the musical structure in Berio.51 This approach informs the

development of the analytical methodology shown later in this project, in that it compares two

different but similar works through graphic means, but it ultimately does not directly address

quotation. This approach is neutral on the question of authoritarianism vs. anti-authoritarianism.

In an article in Perspectives of New Music, Michael Hicks approaches Sinfonia’s third

movement via a study of Berio’s “models” - Mahler (the musical source material), Beckett (the

source material for most of the text), and James Joyce (a longtime source of inspiration for

Berio).52 Hicks describes Mahler’s eclecticism and use of allusion as creating a “nostalgic

panorama, the center of which is the composer’s own intensely personal experience.”53 This same experience, according to Hicks, permeates the work of James Joyce, who also used quotation and allusion to take an existing form (for Mahler, the symphony; for Joyce, the

Homerian epic) and meld it with his own experiences, creating a new synthesis. Hicks also explores similarities in program between the Mahler symphonic material and the text from

50 ibid. 51 ibid., pp. 240 - 245. Osmond-Smith also graphs several elements of the third movement in Playing on Words: A Guide to Luciano Berio’s Sinfonia (London: Royal Music Association, 1985, p. 45). 52 Michael Hicks, “Text, Music and Meaning in the Third Movement of Luciano Berio’s Sinfonia,” in Perspectives of New Music, vol. 20, no. 1/2 (1982), pp. 199 - 224. 53 ibid., p. 208.

35 Samuel Beckett - specifically, the idea of an afterlife.54 Finally, Hicks explores Berio’s views on

the union of art and artist; for Berio, the crisis of mid-20th century music occurs because composers have separated themselves from art-making.55 Hicks interprets Mahler and Berio

through the prism of anti-authoritarianism, since the “intensely personal experience” he describes

is, by nature, individualistic. Mahler and Berio hope to share their experiences with the listener,

to be sure, but not to the exclusion of other experiences.

David Metzer tackles Sinfonia by calling the Beckett text and Mahler quotes contained

therein as “two equals that run side by side in their new musical environment,” and thus they

provide commentary on each other.56 Metzer’s use of the term “musical environment” evokes the writings of Ferré mentioned above, though Metzer is not using an explicitly ecological model.

Metzer also states that the movement engages in an essential contradiction, constantly expanding while the Mahler source material itself falls apart.57 Though this analysis is neither inherently

authoritarian or anti-authoritarian, Metzer’s conclusion that Mahler falls apart while Berio

expands hints at an anti-authoritarian approach. The analysis undertaken later in this study points

to something similar, but based more on the idea that the landscape created by Berio becomes

increasingly inhospitable to Mahler’s music. This will be developed further in Chapter 5.

In her study of Berio, Zimmermann, and Rochberg, Catherine Losada examines works

which “incorporate a variety of literal and recognizable quotations from diverse sources within a

single movement”58. Losada’s interpretation of Berio (and others) leads to her state that

collage compositions often exhibit an underlying structure that is derived from their borrowed material through the concept of modeling [basing the structure, themes, or

54 ibid., pp. 209 - 210. 55 ibid., p. 218. 56 David Metzer, Quotation and Cultural Meaning in Twentieth-Century Music. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 131. 57 ibid., p. 134. 58 ibid,, p. 23.

36 harmonic motion of a work on a pre-existing work]. This practice, which has been described in the music of individual composers (such as Davies, Ives, and Zimmermann), constitutes one of the major factors underlying the organization of a musical collage. However, the existence of an underlying structure and in these works does not necessarily imply that the music should somehow project some kind of underlying “unity” to the listener.59

Losada gives a thorough analysis of the formal processes involved in musical collage-

making and examines formal structure and musical contour of the Sinfonia, comparing it both to

the structure and contour of the Mahler 2nd movement and to other quoted materials. In doing so,

she addresses one of the points mentioned earlier in the discussion of postmodernism - the need

to understand the relationship between disparate ideas. This need exists not to find an underlying

unity, but rather to explore how the composer gets from point A to point B. Like Losada’s

approach, which observes that “the presence of an underlying structure in these works does not

necessarily imply that the music should somehow project some kind of underlying ‘unity,’”60

this approach is concerned with interpretation of discontinuity as an expression unto itself -

without necessarily tying that interpretation to a larger interpretation. Losada shows connections

between the quoted material by the use of what she terms “modulation” - a process that

manipulates pitch collections and rhythmic motives that bridge the gaps between various ideas.61

Losada, like Peter Burkholder, also discusses similarities in form between Mahler’s source

material and Berio’s appropriation of it.62 Finally, in a recent article, Losada goes one step further and states that “composers [of collage works] do not necessarily defy the idea of unity, but instead critically engage in the postmodern debate over the function of unity in music by

59 ibid., p. 38. 60 ibid., p. 38 61 ibid., pp. 100 - 122. 62 ibid., pp. 58 - 74.

37 making it an essential aspect of the expressive content.”63 This critical engagement, coupled with the technical aspects of chromatic saturation as a device to connect ideas (Losada’s “modulation” as described above), leads Losada to state that collage pieces bridge the gap between the cohesion demanded by modernism and the discontinuities so prevalent in postmodernism.64 This approach is neutral on the question of authority as well, choosing instead to concentrate on the technical aspects and issues of unity.

Hatten’s study, while not directly connected to Berio, takes meaning as its primary concern. Hicks and Metzer examine meaning of the movement as it relates to models. Losada,

Osmond-Smith and others focus on technical aspects of the work. This project is an attempt to find a new path that stresses what Ferré term “complexities of relationships”65 While issues of form are addressed in this analysis, this is done so only to establish musical context for the placement of quotations and interactions of those quotations with larger musical context. This study aims to develop a methodology that will take into account structure and interpretation.

Those methodologies which predate this study are not rejected; rather, this project is looking for something different, and as such relies on the design of a methodology that will take into account both structure and interpretation, especially with regard to tropes and extra-musical ideas. The unique nature of this methodology and its applications to formal, motivic and harmonic ideas show the relationships that inform the structure and interpretation of the work.

63 Losada, “Between Modernism and Postmodernism: Strands of Continuity in Collage Compositions by Rochberg, Berio, and Zimmerman" in Music Theory Spectrum, vol. 31, no. 1. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2009, p. 96. 64 ibid., p. 97. Many of these ideas are also developed in Losada’s article “The Process of Modulation in Musical Collage” in Music Analysis, vol. 27, no. 3. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008, pp. 295 - 336. 65 Ferré, p. 312. Ferré states that “complexities of relationships” is a marker of ecology as a postmodern science.

38 2.04 Conclusion

This chapter examined historical and current trends in our understanding of

postmodernism and discontinuity. In addition, critiques of these trends have been offered, and

alternate solutions to the problems raised in the study of quotation-laden music have been

suggested. Thus, the following principles may be observed:

(1) Quotation-laden music, even music from premodern and pre-postmodern times, can

be examined by observing the melodic, harmonic, rhythmic, formal and timbral structure of the

quoted material in its original context and comparing that observation to the structure of the

quoted material in its new context.

(2) The methodology used to compare the quoted structure in its original and new

contexts should be based on the study of interactions between the quoted material and its new

context; thus, the methodology must show how the musical ideas in the quotations transform and

are transformed by the context.

(3) Since this methodology is being used to examine structure and interpretation, any analysis generated by ecological principles should clearly show the effects of any interpretative

tropes. For example, an analysis demonstrating irony should show a subversion of expectation,

such as a section of extreme instability in the midst of a relatively stable larger section.

In order to satisfy the above conditions, a potential methodology will be developed in

Chapter 4. Chapter 5 will offer a test of this methodology.

39 CHAPTER 3

IRONY

3.00 Introduction

As was stated at the opening of Chapter 2, irony is one possible area of inquiry via the methodology under development. Thus, the first step on the path to understanding the use of quotation and the ironic possibilities thereof is to define the term “irony” in both a literary sense

(i.e., how irony is understood in literature, both musical and written) and historical (how irony has been understood throughout history). To this end, this chapter shall take a small detour from the overall narrative to review two writers on the topic of general irony, in order to show that musical irony not only does exist, but can also be examined via the proposed analytical methodology. The project will also attempt to answer some basic questions about irony. Is irony a trope that is located in the foreground or surface of the material, is it a background idea, or is level not as important as interaction? Is it something which happens to the individual or to a community? Or is it simply its own thing, relying on a system of vocabularies and understanding?

Further, if irony is a target of investigation, it is necessary to ask: What are the markers of irony? The knowledge that an ironic event is about to occur does the impartial observer no good if the irony is not recognizable from the outside of the conversation; the observer won’t experience it. The outside observer has to be able to recognize that there is a meaning beyond the

words through the use of those markers, and must know the desired result is the negation of

surface meaning and appearance. The question of meaning and markers will be revisited later in

this chapter.

3.01 Some Interpretations of Irony

D. C. Muecke, one of the foremost scholars on irony, takes the view that irony is NOT just the province of humor, but also can be part of the tragic:

The concept of irony is also observed by the frequent and close conjunction of irony with satire and with such phenomena as the comic, the grotesque, the humorous, and the absurd. As a result, there is a tendency to define irony in terms of the qualities of these other things, some of which defy definition even more successfully than irony. But irony is not essentially related to satire, and when it is related in practice it is a relationship of means to end; and although irony is infrequently found overlapping with the absurd or comic it may also be found overlapping with the tragic.1

Muecke further goes on to state that “… the art of irony is the art of saying something

without really saying it,”2 which is as good a definition of irony as can be found in the literature.

Irony is not in and of itself part and parcel of the grotesque; indeed, according to Muecke, “the

grotesque is usually, perhaps essentially, more emotional and irony usually, perhaps essentially,

more intellectual.”3 Irony is a thing unto itself, and therefore operates under its own kinds and

categories.

To create a large scale analytical system for irony, Muecke postulates two different kinds

of irony, Simple and Double Irony. Simple Irony is an opposition of apparent intent at the

surface level,4 whereas Double Irony creates an opposition at a deeper level.5 This particular idea

1 D. C. Muecke, The Compass of Irony. London; Metheun & Co., Ltd., 1969, p. 5. 2 ibid. 3 ibid., p. 29. 4 ibid., pp. 20 – 21. 5 ibid., p. 25. 41

reinforces the belief of Morton Gurewitch, who states “Irony, unlike satire, does not work in the

interest of stability.”6 Irony, whether single or double, is a destabilizing force, with the purpose

of negating intent via the subversion of expectation. Satire, on the other hand can be either

stabilizing or destabilizing, depending on context, and does not have to rely on a subversion of

expectation to make its point.7

Muecke further postulates two categories of irony within each kind - Verbal Irony and

Situational Irony.8 In Verbal Irony, the ironist is taking part in the ironic process as an active

participant. Socratic irony, as an example, would be Verbal Irony (at least from Socrates’

standpoint), because Socrates (as shown through Plato) is himself using irony to make points in

his dialogues. Situational Irony requires the ironist to be detached from the act of irony itself;

instead, the ironist will be observing a situation with knowledge that none of the participants in

the situation itself shares. It is that extra, observer-only knowledge that allows the ironist to

explore the irony.

Within each category are three steps, or (in Muecke’s terminology) grades - overt, covert,

and private. Overt irony exists when “victim or reader or both are meant to see the ironist’s real

meaning at once.”9 Covert irony exists when the irony is “intended not to be seen but rather to be

detected.”10 Private irony, the most subtle of the three, exists when the irony is “not intended to

be perceived by either the victim or anyone else.”11 These three grades are used to gauge the

level of perception of irony, with overt being the most obvious and private being the most

hidden.

6 Morton Gurewitch, The Ironic Temper and the Comic Imagination. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1994, pp. 11 - 13. 7 For examples of satirical music that may or may not be ironic, refer to the works of Peter Schickele writing as P.D.Q. Bach. 8 Muecke, pp. 42 - 52. 9 ibid., p. 54. 10 ibid., p. 56. 11 ibid., p. 59. 42

Finally, Muecke postulates four modes of irony within each grade, which are used to

locate the context of the irony. The four modes are impersonal, self-disparaging, ingénu, and

dramatized irony. Impersonal irony, the most common type, is demonstrated best by sarcasm.

There is no “knowing wink,” and impersonal irony “does not demand length or a dramatic

imagination.”12 Self-disparaging irony requires the ironist to take on the role of the naïf, or one

who knows nothing and wishes to learn. This is closest to Socratic irony in approach - “His

ironic naivety is not that he presents himself falsely as knowing nothing, but falsely as supposing

he will learn something.”13 Ingénu irony is similar to self-disparaging irony, but the ironist has

created a character to serve as the naïf instead of taking that role for himself/herself. The

character of Huck Finn in Mark Twain’s novel is an example of ingénu irony, as Huck takes on

the role of innocent questioner to explore the ironies of race and class in Mississippi River

culture of the 1800s.14 The last node, dramatized irony, requires no active participation from the

ironist - rather, the ironist creates an ironic situation and immediately removes himself/herself

from the proceedings, allowing the irony to play out on its own.15

This last mode is worth exploring further, since music behaves in a manner closest to a

dramatized situation (i.e., the composer is rarely a direct participant in the action of the piece;

with few exceptions primarily in computer-based or popular music, a composer does not insert

himself/herself directly into every performance of a piece by rewriting the piece during the

performance, and the listener is not expected to take an active role in the performance either).

According to Muecke, four conditions are necessary for an ironic situation to occur:

1. There must be some kind of duality;

12 ibid., p. 63. Muecke includes a list of different approaches to impersonal irony on pp. 67 - 86; some of the techniques include ambiguity, internal contradiction, understatement, and overstatement. 13 ibid., pp. 87 - 88. 14 ibid., p. 81 and p. 109. 15 ibid., pp. 91 - 98. 43

2. There must be an opposition of terms within the duality at work, and the two parts cannot be wholly complimentary; 3. Alazony (here defined as imperception or ignorance on the part of the victim) must be present; and 4. An observer with a sense of irony must be present as well.16

The ironic situation can be classified in five different ways, according to Muecke. The

first ironic situation is the Irony of Simple Incongruity. This is the simplest form of irony – a

basic opposition or incongruity between two ideas or things. The next ironic situation, the Irony

of Events, occurs when there is an incongruity between expectation and event (such as preparing

oneself for a piece of chocolate cake and taking a bite only to discover it is carrot cake). The

third ironic situation, Dramatic Irony, occurs when either an impartial viewer is aware of the

impending irony while the victim is not or when an allusion is used without realizing the allusion

will be of major importance in the future. The fourth ironic situation, the Irony of Self-Betrayal, is fascinating. Unlike self-disparaging irony, where the ironist paints himself as a rube to lull the victim into a false sense of intellectual security, in irony of self-betrayal ironist and victim are one and the same. The ironist/victim reveals, through his actions, “his own weaknesses, errors, or follies”17 without being aware that he is doing it. The final ironic situation is the Irony of

Dilemma. This situation requires the victim to act in an ironic fashion in order to solve or

ameliorate a problem. The victim is not aware he is acting ironically, but the end result is still

ironic.18

An interesting study of multiple types of irony is in Giuseppe Verdi’s opera Rigoletto, in

the aria “La donna è mobile.” While on the surface the irony concerns the Duke singing about

the fickleness of women, seemingly unaware of his own towering fickleness in relationships, the

16 ibid., pp. 99 - 100. 17 ibid., p. 107. 18 ibid., pp. 113 - 115. 44

larger irony of the aria manifests itself later in the third act. At this point, the assassin

Sparafucile, who had been paid by Rigoletto to kill the Duke, promises his sister Maddalena

(who was being seduced by the Duke) that he will spare the Duke’s life if someone else is in his

(Sparafucile’s) house at midnight, so he can give Rigoletto a dead body. Later, Rigoletto drags

the dead body to the river, when he suddenly hears the Duke singing “La donna è mobile.”

Realizing the Duke is still alive, he cuts open the sack containing the body and realizes in horror

that it is his daughter Gilda, who was in love with the Duke and had snuck into Sparafucile’s

house to take the Duke’s place as the murder victim. In this case, the tune “La donna è mobile” is

a double irony; the first appearance is an example of Muecke’s fourth type, the Irony of Self-

Betrayal, since the Duke is unaware of his own fickleness. The later appearance is Dramatic

Irony, since the audience is all too aware that the body inside the sack is that of Rigoletto’s

beloved daughter Gilda.

A summation of Muecke’s understanding of irony can be found in the second part of The

Compass of Irony. In this section, Muecke writes of Specific Irony (irony that is limited to one specific incident)19 and contrasts it with General Irony, which is “life itself or any general aspect

of life as fundamentally and inescapably an ironic state of affairs.”20 This approach to life has

become commonplace in the post-modern era (which will be discussed in greater detail later in

this chapter). General Irony is useful for understanding the incongruities that face us every day –

the divisions between art and life, the opposition between free will and determinism, the issue of

balance between society and the individual, etc. These incongruities are further deepened by the

fact that for a human being to understand General Irony, he must both keep a certain level of

detachment AND take an active part in these incongruities - thus:

19 ibid., p. 119. 20 ibid., p. 120. 45

he is at the same time involved and detached, both within and without the ironic situation […], and his response therefore will not be a simple one. If he feels equally involved and detached, this may find expression in self-mockery, in ambivalent fictional characters, such as the hero-villain, or even in doppelgänger motifs. But perhaps it is more common to find either the feeling of involvement or the feeling of detachment prominent.21

A person simply cannot, in Muecke’s view, understand irony without himself being

ironic and taking part in the mechanisms that create irony. Actively taking part in such events

can lead to situations where the experience creates more than one conclusion, and the

conclusions may contradict each other on the surface, but the multiple conclusions are

nonetheless present and must be factored into the total experience.

Muecke’s opinion of the oppositions that create irony can be summed up quickly in his

own words: “Desire is poetry; reality is science; their confrontation makes for irony.”22 To those

who would cast aspersions on irony as a valid worldview, Muecke responds “Irony, again, may

not merely be the natural or merely the best way but perhaps the only way to deal with life.”23 In

an age where there is no certainty, irony’s uncertainty becomes the sole outlet for understanding.

Wayne Booth, writing in response to Muecke, puts forth a proposal for “ironic

reconstruction” in his book A Rhetoric of Irony. Booth’s proposal includes the following four

steps:

1. The literal meaning of the text must be rejected;

2. The reader must try out alternative interpretations or explanations of the text;

3. The reader must make decisions about the belief system, values, and knowledge of

the writer; and

21 ibid., p. 122. 22 ibid., p. 123. Former New York Governor Mario Cuomo once summed up the political equivalent of this statement with “We campaign in poetry, but we govern in prose.” 23 ibid., p. 235. 46

4. The reader chooses a new meaning or cluster of meanings (that is in opposition to the

literal meaning) from the alternative interpretation that is most suited to the

knowledge, values, etc. of the writer.24

This methodology works well so long as both writer and reader are aware of the

intent of the text.

Booth also postulates a system of analysis to study rhetorical irony (irony that exists for

general consumption, not just for the author25 - this is similar to Muecke’s General Irony) that

looks at the level of open-ness in the text (“covert” vs. “overt,” using the same definitions as

Muecke), the level of stability in the reconstructive process (stable, or designed to reinforce a

worldview, vs. unstable, or designed to poke holes in a worldview), and the nature of the truth

revealed by the irony (local vs. universal or “infinite”).26

Booth describes stable-covert-local irony as being the most common type of irony

throughout history, and states that once the true (ironic) meaning of a passage is discovered, it is

immovable in interpretation (“solid as a rock”).27 This stability in interpretation leads to a communal view of stable-covert-local irony; everyone is in on the process of discovery of the true meaning, and the larger community shares the experience. Booth says the following about unstable irony: “We can say that all truths can be undermined with the irony of contrary truths either because the universe is essentially absurd and there is no such thing as coherent truth or because man’s powers of knowing are inherently and incurably limited and partial.”28 Put another way, either everything is absurd and therefore a multiplicity of readings is required and

24 Wayne Booth, A Rhetoric of Irony. Detroit; Wayne State University Press, 1971, p. 12. 25 ibid., p. 234. 26 ibid., pp. 234 - 235. 27 ibid., p. 235. 28 ibid., p. 267. 47

no difference of interpretation matters or there is some value to difference of interpretation. The

whole of existence is NOT absurd, but our claim to know something about it is.29 The possibility

of erroneous reporting on behalf of the narrating character also creates unstable ironic situations,

and Booth discusses Othello, Tartuffe, and Samuel Beckett’s The Unnamable in his study.30

Philosophically, irony evolved from didacticism (Socratic irony) to Romanticism

(Kierkegaard); beyond that, studies of irony have branched off in manifold ways. Irony has been

interpreted as a complex multi-level structure that relies on the distinction between surface and

background (Muecke) and its opposite, where the distinctions are not front to back but rather side

to side and thus part of a balanced worldview instead of background noise (Alan Wilde31); a

question of stability versus instability as rooted in individual experiences (Booth) and its

opposite, a communality of understanding in spite of - or perhaps because of - a variety of

individual experiences (Linda Hutcheon32); finally, as a system of comparative vocabularies

(Richard Rorty33). All of these approaches have the potential to be used alone in understanding

what happens when a musical quotation is used in ironic fashion, but a combination of

approaches may be more germane to our understanding.

29 ibid., pp. 268 - 9. 30 ibid., pp. 255 - 60. 31 Alan Wilde, Horizons of Assent: Modernism, Post-Modernism, and the Ironic Imagination. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981. 32 Linda Hutcheon, Irony’s Edge: The theory and politics of irony. New York and London: Routledge, 1994. 33 Richard Rorty, Contingency, irony and solidarity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. 48

3.02 Musical irony and musical meaning

Robert Hatten’s ideas, mentioned in chapter 2 of this project, can be applied to a piece of

music in which irony may be present; one need only determine what the markers of irony are

within that piece. This is not limited to just irony; in fact, Hatten often argues against a strictly

ironic interpretation of any piece, opting instead to consider the possibility that something

viewed as ironic is simply a metaphor for something else (and is not subverting the expectation

or negating the intent of that for which it is serving as a metaphor).34 Of the authors mentioned

above, Hatten is closest to Muecke’s multi-level structure, since he relies on an oppositional structure creating multiple levels of interpretation.

Ronald Woodley, who calls irony the “dominant mode within a postmodernist

aesthetic,”35 takes the Kierkegaardian view that irony is properly used (and ethically justifiable) as a stabilizing force or corrective;36 this is similar to Booth’s ideas described above. He

postulates that tonality takes on the role of ironic language in the op. 80 sonata of Prokofiev, and

that it is the stabilizing role of tonality that makes Prokofiev use it in an ironic fashion - what

Woodley calls the “residual metaphysical aura.”37 Yet Prokofiev also rejects Kierkegaard’s “de-

aestheticization” of irony, choosing instead to incorporate an “eroticization” of irony as part of

the work’s aesthetic trajectory.”38 Woodley asks a question of motive - did Prokofiev choose to

self-ironize to avoid the possibility of misinterpretation or ironicization on the part of the

34 Hatten, p. 174. See note 45. 35 Ronald Woodley, “Strategies of Irony in Prokofiev’s Violin Sonata in F minor, op. 80” in The Practice of Performance: Studies in Musical Interpretation. John Rahn, ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 170. 36 ibid., p. 172. 37 ibid. 38 ibid. 49

Stalinist critics?39 While that discussion is beyond the scope of this project, it is a fascinating

question nonetheless.

In response to the views put forth by the Russian philosophers Viktor Shklovsky (who

proposes that art forms die off when they cease to “defamiliarize” experiences40) and Boris

Asafiev (who promotes the view that art is a dialectic between equilibrium and the postponement

of equilibrium41), Woodley cites as example of self-ironization the motion G-A flat, which first appears in measure 4 of the violin part of the F minor sonata.

Ex. 3-1. Half-step motion in Prokofiev.42 G-A flat motion G-Ab G-Ab

This figuration appears at key structural points (particularly when the prevailing tonal structure moves in this fashion: i – iii – V – i); when it happens, invariably the music becomes non-diatonic, as though it “periodically manages to achieve some kind of temporary enlightenment through an altered (ironized) consciousness of the basic interval.”43 This tension,

between tonality and non-tonality (or, in Woodley’s words, the “romantic quest for full, organic

39 ibid., p. 174. 40 ibid., p. 173. 41 ibid., p. 173. 42 Sergei Profkofiev, Sonata No. 1 in F minor, op. 80 for Violin and Piano. New York: International Music Company, 1960, p. 3. 43 Woodley, p. 177. 50

connectivity and a Bakhtinian resistance to any such unequivocality”44) is the essence of irony

for Prokofiev.

Why focus on one motive out of so many in the op. 80 sonata? Prokofiev would have

been familiar with the writings of Asafiev, who regarded the leading-tone motion as the “chief

motive force in European music.”45 In this situation, Prokofiev is arguably using leading-tone motion as the primary arbiter of tonality (instead of the dominant-tonic relationship) to filter the perception of tonality.

Stephen Hefling, in a paper on Mahler’s Sixth Symphony, interprets the ending of the

Finale as ironic46 because of the subverted expectation that the instrument known as the hammer

will hit a third time. The hammer is used twice before at critical moments in the final movement

(rehearsal 129 and rehearsal 140)47 and all indications point to a third hammerblow at rehearsal

164. Expectations are dashed, however, and Hefling believes that as a sign the meaning of the

entire movement is to be negated, since the movement then trails off into resignation and

nothingness.

Esti Sheinberg has written on irony in Shostakovich, referring to Shostakovich’s music as

a “double-layered musical discourse.”48 This term is evocative of the Bakhtinian heteroglot novel described in Chapter 2, and as Sheinberg points out, there was considerable overlap in the intellectual circles of Bakhtin and Shostakovich before, during, and after the Stalinist era, even

44 ibid., p. 178. See Chapter 2 for a discussion of the Bakhtinian polyphonic novel. 45 Woodley, p. 178. This author has explored the importance of the leading-tone as a substitute for the dominant in the creation of tonality in a paper on the Chichester Psalms of Leonard Bernstein (J. Wesley Flinn, “Layers of Tonality in Leonard Bernstein’s Chichester Psalms” in Music Research Forum, vol. 18. Cincinnati; University of Cincinnati College-Conservatory of Music, 2002, pp. 63 - 74). While Prokofiev was using leading-tone motion for irony, Bernstein, in this author’s opinion, was using it wistfully to recall the earlier sound of simple tonality in a sincere fashion. 46 Stephen Hefling, “Techniques of Irony in Mahler’s Oeuvre,” in Actes du Colloque Gustav Mahler Montpellier 1996, ed. André Castagné, Michel Chalon, and Patrick Florençon. Castelnau-le-Lez; Editions Climats, 2001. 47 Gustav Mahler, Sixth Symphony. New York; Edition Eulenburg Inc., 1968. 48 Esti Sheinberg, Irony, Satire, Parody, and the Grotesque in the Music of Shostakovich. Aldershot; Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2000, p, 316. 51

though none of Shostakovich’s own writings mention Bakhtin.49 The “double-layered” nature of

Shostakovich’s music manifests itself (in Sheinberg’s view) mostly through parodistic compositional practices, though with a strong ironic presence, albeit one that transcends analogy, which Sheinberg describes as “musical correlatives of structures, i.e., its elements correlate with elements that are not only contradictory to each other, but also bear a definite purport in themselves.”50

Yayoi Uno Everett has taken some of the above ideas and developed a method for

understanding irony and parody in dramatic works of Kurt Weill, Peter Maxwell Davies and

Louis Andriessen.51 Everett develops a model for analysis taking Hutcheon’s idea of ethos (“an

inferred intended reaction motivated by the text”52) which determines whether the intent of a

work is parodistic, satiric, or ironic. To Everett, most music involving quotation actually is

neutral in its ethos (i.e., the new context does not generate significant opposition to the original meaning).53 This analytical method works especially well for pieces that feature quotation and

deformation of preexisting material; however, Everett’s statement that “the backgrounded

referent is trans-contextualized through incongruous juxtaposition or superimposition of other

elements, yet it does not generate expressive or topical opposition in meaning”54 does not seem

an appropriate conclusion from the analysis given below. Interpreting works such as Berio’s

Sinfonia within the frameworks described by Hutcheon allows the analyst to hear the

49 ibid., pp. 168 - 170. Sheinberg discusses Solomon Volkov’s Testimony as being a Shostakovich biography in which the composer mentions familiarity with Bakhtin’s ideas; the veracity of Volkov’s work is questionable, though that argument will not be discussed in this work. 50 ibid., p. 316. 51 Yayoi Uno Everett, “Parody with an Ironic Edge: Dramatic Works by Kurt Weill, Peter Maxwell Davies, and Louis Andriessen” in Music Theory Online, Vol. 10, no. 4 (2004). Available at http://societymusictheory.org/mto/issues/mto.04.10.4/mto.04.10.4.y_everett.html. 52 Hutcheon, p. 55. 53 Everett, ibid. 54 ibid. 52

“incongruous juxtaposition or superimposition” as generating opposition in meaning - or at least having a strong potential to do so. The incongruities may not always rise to the level of ironic subversion, but they do provide enough information to justify placing the background material out of the realm of the neutral ethos and into the satiric or ironic one.

3.03 Conclusion

Ultimately, the interpretation generated by this analysis is closer in spirit to Rorty’s. As one can see in the literature on irony and quotation, multiple vocabularies develop - the vocabulary of the source of the quotation, the vocabulary of the context in which the quotation is used - and this study aims to explore the interactions between those vocabularies. This approach is also closest to the reconstructive postmodernism and ecological model put forth by Ferré; this satisfies the need for a non-deconstructive view of postmodernism, and allows an investigator to fully explore relationships between quoted material and its new context.

CHAPTER 4

DEVELOPING THE METHODOLOGY

4.00 Introduction

There are models for a postmodern aesthetic that could facilitate avenues of analysis not yet explored. The primary model explored in this chapter is the ecosystem model, drawn from the works of Frederick Ferré. This model draws upon the reconstructionist view of postmodernism, which posits a discussion of the interrelationships between materials and their environment. This will first require a discussion of structural issues, concerning the categorization of musical material in one or both of two major conceptual groups - "life form” or

“landscape” - in order to establish guidelines; after this, a methodology will be constructed according to these guidelines.

Postmodernism can best be described as an opposition to the philosophy of deep structural principles (instead, all principles are contingent on time, place, society, individual experience, and institutional pressure1) and is built around the idea of incredulity toward

metanarrative,2 the meaning of a quotation in a postmodern work is contingent upon the material

being quoted and the context in which the quotation occurs. Indeed, postmodern represents the

final triumph of the use of quotation as anti-authoritarian, since t specifically eschews authority

1 Jacques Derrida, Writing and Difference, trans. Alan Bass. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978, pp. 278 - 282. 2 Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition. Trans. Geoff Bennington and Brian Massumi. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984, p. 24.

54 of source material. In this aesthetic, there is no underlying structure (an underlying form dictated

by an institutional principle).

4.01 Life Form and Landscape

This project proposes a methodology based on the writings of Ferré as expounded upon in Chapter 2.3 To remind the reader, Ferré’s proposed ecosystemic model of postmodernism was

based not on deconstruction or the breaking down of a text into constituent parts with no concern

about relations, but rather on reconstruction - the assembling of a whole from disparate parts and

the relationships between those disparate parts. Ferré used ecology, with its networks of

interactions between biota (or life forms) and landscape, as the basis for his theories, and it is

those networks of interactions that will serve as the framework for an analytical model.

A reconstructionist approach is one that examines musical events, ideas and textures, and

then examines the relationships between them (including how one may affect the other). How

could a reconstructionist approach be applied to musical analysis? First of all, the analyst must

decide the role (for example, primary material, subordinate material, or background) of every

musical event. These decisions need not be cast in stone, and events may change roles from one

minute to the next, though certain events tend to remain in their original roles (this will be

examined later in the chapter). To use Ferré’s terms, one could label musical material as either

landscape or life form (or some combination of the two), contingent on context, and then

examine the structures based on those roles. This project will define all musical material in a

3 Frederick Ferré, Being And Value: Toward A Constructive Postmodern Metaphysics. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996, p.305 et seq. As was shown in Chapter 2, Ferre’s "reconstructionist" approach to postmodernism devises a system based not on literary criticism, but on ecology.

55 work as life form, landscape, or a systematic entity (a structure that has both wholism and homeostasis - see chapter 2 of this study).

4.02 Creating a model - Bakhtin and Zappa

The next stage requires the examination of the interaction of life form with landscape and

life form with life form. One possible means of examination is reading a piece of music the same

way Mikhail Bakhtin would read a heteroglot novel. Bakhtin, who was discussed in some detail

in Chapter 2, described the novel in its culture in this way:

I find three basic characteristics that fundamentally distinguish the novel in principle from other genres: (1) Its stylistic three-dimensionality, which is linked with the multi- languaged consciousness realized in the novel; (2) The radical change it effects in the temporal coordinates of the literary image; (3) The new zone opened by the novel for structuring literary images, namely, the zone of maximal contact with the present (with contemporary reality) in all its openendedness.4

By approaching a piece of music (or, in the case of the Berio Sinfonia, a movement of a

piece of music) in this fashion, the analyst may elucidate the meaning of the quotes not just as

quotes, but in the larger context of the new piece of music. In order to accomplish this task, each

characteristic must be defined in terms that reflect Ferré’s ecological model and then translated

into a form which will be relevant to musical analysis. Characteristic (1), “stylistic three-

dimensionality,” can be best understood as the presence of both life forms and landscape and the

interaction between the various components. In musical terms, the analyst will interrogate the

quoted material as well as the original material and formal structure of the piece under

investigation to determine interaction (e.g., how quoted material adapts to harmonic and formal

4 M. M. Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981, p. 11.

56 structures). The cognate of characteristic (2), “radical change” in the “temporal coordinates of the literary image,” in Ferré’s philosophy is the ongoing change in how a world is understood based on the continuous development of the relationships between life forms and landscape.

Musically speaking, the analyst should examine how the musical role of quoted material changes from original source to new piece. Characteristic (3), “the zone of maximal contact with the present,” is the equivalent to Ferré’s cosmology - the sum total of all interrelationships and understanding. In musical analysis, one could then draw conclusions about musical and extramusical effect.

This is not unlike the approach taken by Frank Zappa and his use of “Archetypal

American Icon Modules,”5 which were sound units consisting of either musical or timbral

quotations (reproducing the orchestration of a musical idea exactly). Zappa used these units in

both his Rock band and in his orchestral compositions. Another technique of Zappa’s, similar to

Bakhtin’s idea of being “double-voiced,” is “putting the eyebrows on it [a piece of music].”6

When “the eyebrows” are put on a piece of music and/or the music is filtered through one or more of the Archetypal American Icon Modules, the music is to be interpreted in the light of those timbres or of that level of performance, which adds a parenthetical level of interpretation beyond the notes themselves. Or, in Zappa’s own words:

There’s an assortment of “stock modules” used in our stage arrangements. … These “stock modules” include the “Twilight Zone” texture (which may or may not be the actual Twilight Zone notes, but the same “texture”), the “Mister Rogers” texture, the “Jaws” texture, the Lester Lanin texture, Jan Garber-ism, and things that sound exactly like or very similar to “Louie Louie.”

5 Zappa, Frank with Peter Ochogrosso. The Real Frank Zappa Book. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990, p. 166. 6 Ibid., p. 164.

57 These are Archetypal American Icon Modules, and their presence in an arrangement puts a spin on any lyric in their vicinity. When present, these modules “suggest” that you interpret those lyrics within parentheses. 7

And:

I’ve developed a “formula” for what these timbres [harmon-muted trumpet, bass saxophone in its lowest register, and slide trombone, among others] mean (to me, at least), so that when I create an arrangement – if I have access to the right instrumental resources – I can put sounds together that tell more than the story in the lyrics, especially to American listeners, raised on these subliminal clichés, shaping their audio reality from the cradle to the elevator.8

To elaborate further: we hear nothing in a vacuum. HOW something is stated is as

important to meaning as WHAT is stated. Zappa’s altering of the timbre to create a filter for the

material changes the intent of the musical material. This idea links with Bakhtin’s description of

the novel quoted above; it is three-dimensional and multi-voiced, with differing and often

competing ideas occupying the same space and (arguably) in service of the same ultimate

musical goal, it effects radical changes in the musical area it occupies (indeed, all quotation-

laden music has the potential to effect radical changes in the musical and cultural space it

occupies) and it opens a “new zone” of structuring musical images (indeed, the new zone

maximizes the interactions with contemporary culture, a concept celebrated by Bakhtin).

The idea of telling “more than the story in the lyrics” is nothing new; an opera is judged

in part on how well the music both reinforces and adds layers of meaning to the libretto. To my

knowledge, though, this statement marks one of the first times that a composer has been so

upfront about the timbral aspect of his music. Zappa speaks of creating “a constantly mutating

7 Ibid., p. 166. 8 Ibid., p. 171.

58 collage of low-rent Americana”9 in his stage arrangements just by adjusting the timbre and style of the music in the middle of performance. By manipulating the attitude (“eyebrows”) and timbre

(“Archetypal American Icon Modules”) of music, Zappa creates a mutation in the musical material which causes the listener to approach the musical material differently than he/she would without the adjustment in attitude and timbre (Bakhtin’s “radical change,” or the result of the new networks of comprehension and connectedness generated by the shifts). This, to use Ferré’s terms, means that the interaction between life form and landscape changes the structure - and meaning - of the life form.

4.03 Meaning

The idea of “contact with the present,” as described above, leads to the final step in the creation of the methodology: the determination of musical effect, both within the original context and within the context of quotation. Anytime quotation (or its near kinsman, allusion) factors into a piece of music, the theory of musical memory as put forth by Michael Cherlin provides a basis for understanding. The first type of musical memory consists of “intra-piece” memory; that is, the return of material from an earlier part, section, or movement of the same piece of music.

The second type consists of “intra-musical” memory; the connection of material to the totality of the musical literature/experience. The third type consists of “extra-musical” memory; the connection of material to situations in which the same or similar material was experienced

(Cherlin uses the phrase “this is our song” as an example).10 When dealing with quotation from other pieces of music, the most prevalent kind of musical memory is Type 2 - memory of the

9 Ibid., p. 172. 10 Michael Cherlin, “Memory and Rhetorical Trope in Schoenberg’s String Trio,” Journal of the American Musicological Society, vol 51 (1998), pp. 562 - 3.

59 entirety of musical literature. Where tropes such as irony intersect with this is in Type 3 - extramusical situations. Any methodology will have to take into account the issues involved with musical memory to determine intent.

It is clear that a good methodology for analysis will take as a priori assumptions an ecosystematical model (after Ferré), a reading involving the study of manifold voices in context

(after Bakhtin), and an understanding of differing types of musical memory (after Cherlin). Let us turn our attention now to the construction of a methodology that will fit these parameters.

4.04 Assumptions in the development of the methodology

The first step will be to define what is landscape, life form, or a combination entity. Since the pieces to be examined under this methodology all involve quotation, the following is a good starting point:

1. All musical material is assumed to be part of what Ferré terms a systematic entity unless proven otherwise, as determined by the material’s structure and relationship to the rest of the landscape.

The basis for this is that quotations may or may not be related to the original piece of music, but have moved into it and as such are now part of the systematic entity that is that piece.

Quotations, by definition, are from extraneous sources. It is possible to consider large quotations as landscape, as we will see in Chapter 4, but our discussion at this time is about non-quoted material.

2. Musical material can be either landscape or life form, or some combination of the two.

Since non-quotation musical material can take on functions both of physical characteristics and of biota, it is not necessarily part of the landscape. Indeed, some of the most interesting and creative parts of music involve quotation (outside life forms) interacting with original musical material (life forms native to that particular systematic entity) within a landscape. Ferré says “drawing boundaries is necessary but dangerous […] no system is fully impenetrable,”11 and while in most cases the analyst can point to clear distinctions between landscape and life forms (see below for some clear distinctions), there are moments where landscape and life form create such a symbiotic relationship that they must be addressed as one unit.

3. Life form material can cause changes in landscape material.

Just as different species (such as mankind) can alter the nature of the landscape in which they live (through absorption of habitat, damming of rivers, etc.), musical material, by the way in which it is developed or interpolated, can impact the sphere in which it is located. This draws upon Ferré’s idea that “changes outside organic entities regularly enter into nonreciprocal internal relation with organisms, altering their states.”12 One example of this is jazz improvisation, whereby the extensions and patterns chosen by the soloist elucidate reactions in the rhythm section, the members of which are “comping” on pre-existing chord patterns. The

11 Ferré, p. 315. 12 Ibid., p. 332.

61 rhythm section may then choose to revoice chords or, more potently, use chord substitutions to add to the harmonic richness of the landscape.

In jazz, interpretations and improvisations over a given chord progression can vary widely (and wildly) within the course of the same solo. There are those who would consider the act of improvisation a form of ironic commentary. That, however, is best kept for another discussion.

4. Landscape material can affect development of life form material.

Just as evolutionary traits can be dictated by environmental and geological conditions, so too can the “biosphere” of a piece of music impact the direction the musical material takes. The concept of a biosphere works within a piece as well as within the totality of the musical literature. Biospherical material may include preexisting harmonic structures or formal demands; one example is that of sonata form, where the second and all later themes are recomposed into the tonic key during the recapitulation. Below, the reader will find two examples of how landscape can affect development of life forms. In the first such example, the landscape will be fecund and nourishing for life forms that fit into it in a tonal sense; in the second, the landscape will be inhospitable because the tonal nature of the life forms will be radically different than the tonal nature of the landscape.

5. Quoted musical material must be understood in both its original context and its new context.

62 To properly analyze quoted material, the analyst must be aware of the original purpose of the musical material and how it fits into the new biosphere. Compare the hymn CLEANSING

FOUNTAIN in its original context with its appearance in a work by Charles Ives:

Ex. 4-1. William Cowper, CLEANSING FOUNTAIN.13

13 Cowper, William. CLEANSING FOUNTAIN. Public domain. 1770. In Anthology for Musical Analysis, Sixth Edition. Edited by Charles Burkhart. Belmont, CA; Wordsworth, 2003, pp. 436 - 7.

63 Ex. 4-2. Charles Ives, General William Booth Enters Into Heaven, mm. 82 - 8.14

To paraphrase what Frank Zappa said above, in the Ives piece CLEANSING

FOUNTAIN is heard “within parentheses,” and those parentheses change how we hear the tune.

Ives alters the tune (see ex. 4-3 for the alterations) and those alterations (rhythmic truncation, syncopation, additional pitches), which challenge our expectations, give a different sense to the tune. Ironically, this is the most “normal” presentation of the tune within the song; this challenges our expectations further. This will be discussed further below. Also, while parentheses and quotation marks are different kinds of punctuation, in this case the terms are interchangeable. Zappa uses the term “parentheses”; “quotation marks” would work just as well.

14 Ives, General William Booth Enters Into Heaven. New York; Merion Music, 1935. Reprinted in Burkhart, pp. 438 - 42.

64 Ex. 4-3. Alterations of CLEANSING FOUNTAIN.

4.05 The methodology

The first step in the methodology is to define the essential components. The landscape of

a piece of music is the underlying structure on which the music “lives,” and is also capable of

supporting potential structures that make musical sense (i.e., in a tonal piece, the landscape

would allow for different thematic material in the original key). A landscape then must have

enough harmonic and rhythmic resources to support the musical material that is placed on it. The

composer must craft a harmonic and rhythmic structure that will be germane to the musical

material as well as allow for new ideas to take root without destroying the previous ones. The term “underlying structure” should not be taken in a Schenkerian sense (Ürsatz, for example), for

two reasons. First, Schenkerian theory is applicable only to a portion of the musical literature

(that being tonal music from the Common Practice and Romantic periods, primarily), and most

of the pieces that can be analyzed according to this methodology (though certainly not all) would

fall outside that portion. This statement is not meant to be contrary or divisive; it is simply a

statement of the widely accepted parameters of Schenkerian theory. Second, the landscape is not

necessarily strictly harmonic underpinning. Indeed, in many cases the landscape is a vital and

active part of the music; to imply that the landscape is simply background is to do a disservice to

the music, on a par with saying the rock formations in Zion National Park in Utah (or any similar

65 natural wonder) are of secondary importance to the way in which humans react to and interact

with them. A better definition might be Schoenberg’s Grundgestalt, or “basic shape,”15 in which

a musical gesture so saturates a piece that the shape of that gesture informs and bears a close

resemblance to the overall shape of the piece itself.

To properly define the landscape, one must look at the music and determine what is

absolutely essential for the piece to function. In an ecosystem, the condition of a landscape will

determine what crops are most likely to grow and what life forms can survive. As Ferré says

about the “physical characteristics” of an ecosystem, “the ‘physical environment’ is the phrase

we use to refer to mineral, chemical, atmospheric components in a so-called ecosystem.”16 All of

those elements factor into what can exist in a specific location. The first step in defining the

landscape is to study the piece and determine the essential characteristics of the piece. One

potential example of an essential characteristic is the matrix used in the creation/analysis of

dodecaphonic music; other, more permanent characteristics include genre, ensemble, meter,

tempo, key (though modulations are allowed), or, in the absence of key, unifying structure.

Number 101 in Book IV of Béla Bartók’s Mikrokosmos (“Diminished Fifth”) is one example of this kind of background material. In this piece the landscape consists of the octatonic scale. Every “living thing” (theme, motif, gesture) results from the use of an octatonic scale. The scale saturates the piece, and thus forms the structural underpinning for it, very much like a

Grundgestalt. Consider the opening gesture:

15 Arnold Schoenberg, Style and Idea. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984, pp. 113 - 24. 16 Ferré, pp. 314 - 315.

66 Ex. 4-4. Opening gesture of “Diminished Fifth.”17

The octatonic scale is present in one form or another in each gesture, expressing itself via

two TST tetrachords a tritone apart. The eighth notes of the two moving lines move in an inverse

canon at the diminished fifth. In the fourth measure, the canon ceases to be inversional and the

comes moves in a parallel fashion, though this does not change the TST tetrachord that permeates the two lines. Every gesture, thus, is part of the octatonic collection OCT (2,3)B (see example 4.5).

Ex. 4-5 Octatonic scale drawn from the opening gesture - OCT (2,3)B

The emphasis switches in future sections from opening at the interval of a diminished

fifth to opening at the interval of a minor second so that the line climaxes with a diminished fifth, which is possible because of the alternating-interval nature of the octatonic scale. The next phrase (mm. 6 - 11) shows a similarity to the opening gesture, but with some noticeable changes, specifically, the comes moves in the same direction instead of inversionally and later ceases simple imitation to become truly contrapuntal:

17 ibid.

67 Ex. 4-6. Comparison of first two gestures in “Diminished Fifth.” Up diminished 5th

Up major 7th (down minor 2nd)

The piece is constructed of different versions of octatonic scales, as shown here:

Ex. 4-7. Octatonic scales used in “Diminished Fifth.” mm. 1 - 5: OCT (2,3)B mm. 6 - 11: OCT (2,3)B

mm. 12 - 19: OCT (0,1)B mm. 19 - 25: OCT (2,3)B

mm. 26 - 29: OCT (1,2)B mm. 30 - 34: OCT (0,1)B

68 (ex. 4-7 cont.) mm. 35 - 44: OCT (2,3)B

While there are some small deviations from these scales, a discussion of those is beyond

the scope of this project. The conclusion stands - the octatonic collection, through the various

scales, permeates the entire piece. Thus, it can be stated that the “landscape” of the piece is

defined by the use of octatonic collections, specifically the B (whole-half) collections. The “life

forms” are the lines that are presented in canon.

A counterexample, one of an inhospitable landscape, is The Unanswered Question by

Charles Ives. Though this piece (ironically, given Ives’s propensity for quotes) does not use

quoted material, it does use an inflexible background (the strings, representing what Ives called

"the Silences of the Druids - who Know, See, and Hear Nothing”18) and thematic material that is

superimposed over this background. The trumpet states "the eternal question..."19 and the

woodwinds respond, first interested, then mockingly, then finally in a hostile fashion.20 This

piece allows us to test certain ideas about Ferré's approach. The strings form what Ferré would

call the landscape, or the general tonal space in which all other thematic material will be

residing.21 This landscape, which Ives repeats several times over the course of the work without

change, is shown in Example 4-8:

18 J. Peter Burkholder, liner notes to Deutsche Grammophon 429 220 - 2, p. 4. 19 ibid. 20 ibid. 21 It should be stated that a “life form” need not fit absolutely perfectly into a “landscape” - indeed, the way in which dissonances are treated in a given context is indicative of just how much or little fit is needed for the life form to adapt and survive.

69 Ex. 4-8. Charles Ives, The Unanswered Question, mm. 1 – 13, with basic tonal analysis.22

GM Gmaj7/B Em/B G7/B C

C Em7/B Am G/B

The Unanswered Question by Charles Ives Used by Permission of Peer International Corporation

Once this tonal landscape is established, the first life form - the trumpet - enters with the question, which is non-tonal (consisting of set class 5-10 [01346]):

22 Charles Ives, The Unanswered Question, Critical Edition, ed. By Paul C. Echols and Noel Zahler. New York: Peer International Corporation, 1984, pp. 11 - 12.

70 Ex. 4-9. Ives, The Unanswered Question, mm. 16 - 17. 23

The Unanswered Question by Charles Ives Used by Permission of Peer International Corporation

The other life forms - the woodwinds - listen and respond in different ways, each time in a more

agitated or irritable fashion (as shown in the increasing rhythmic complexity and more dissonant

intervallic structure, as well as the use of techniques like flutter-tongue). Finally, the trumpet

states the Question one last time, but neither it nor the woodwinds have the ability to interact

with each other. The landscape - a very tonal landscape - was not appropriate for the life forms presented; those life forms could not gain root and thrive.

A distinction must be made between “landscape” and “genre.” Though there are relationships between the two ideas, a landscape is native only to each specific piece of music.

The same genre can spawn many different pieces and landscapes, but genre should not necessarily be considered as landscape for the purpose of analysis. To demonstrate, three waltzes are presented below. Each one contains its own life forms and landscape, and each one is unique, but all fall under the general category (to use the term from chapter 2) of “waltz.” Each is in simple triple meter, each has a dance-like feel, each has a tonal melody and structure that creates a hypermeasure of four beats (though the Dvorak does deviate from that structure periodically).

23 ibid., p. 12

71 Ex. 4-10. Excerpt of Chopin, op. 64, no. 2.24

24 Frederic Chopin, Waltz, op. 64, no. 2. New York: Dover Publications, 1983, p. 45.

72 Ex. 4-11 Excerpt of Dvorak, op. 54, no. 2.25

Ex. 4-12. Excerpt of Britten, op. 3 (Juvenilia), no. 3.26

25 Antonin Dvorak, Waltz, op. 54, no. 2. Boca Raton: Masters Music Publications, Inc., 1980, p. 6. 26 Benjamin Britten, Waltz, op. 3 (Juvenilia), no. 3. London: Faber Music Ltd, 1970, p. 8.

73 A brief discussion of the metrical aspect of the landscape is in order here. Christopher

Hasty postulates that meter is the result of the interaction between the projective nature of rhythm and forces that act against projection, and that 3/4 meter in particular involves both projection (the duration of the first beat projects the duration of the second beat) and deferral, or the delay of the resolution of the projection created by the first beat.27 This interaction of forces has the further effect of generating harmonic and melodic potentiae that are especially receptive to what we would consider “waltz-like” harmonies and melodic gestures. Those gestures would seem hemiolic or too-strongly syncopated (creating what Harald Krebs has termed “metric dissonance”)28 in binary meters such as 2/4 or 4/4, but fit comfortably within 3/4. Meter thus forms a vital component of the landscape.

Each of these is clearly a waltz - the 3/4 meter, the dance-like feel, and the tonal structure are all elements of a standard waltz. Each also has its own landscape, and this leads to different life forms. One can observe these three works of the same genre as being separate and distinct.

Genre by itself is not necessarily part of the landscape. If this is the case, how will the analyst know when genre is to be considered part of the landscape and when it is not to be considered as such? One possible approach is to look at the writings of Linda Hutcheon (see Chapter 3), whose emphasis on markers and codes provides insight into genre-related interpretation. Perhaps we hear the three-quarter time and the oscillating nature of the accompaniment, and these markers allow us to decode the music as being a waltz. There is, however, more than just decoding involved; we must have a base of experience from which we can draw references and inferences.

A further solution lies in the process of determining the intention of the composer as it relates to musical memory. There has been much debate in theoretical circles about the necessity of

27 Christopher Hasty, Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997, pp. 133 - 5. 28 Harald Krebs, Fantasy Pieces. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003, pp. 14 - 17.

74 determining a composer’s original intention. Wimsatt and Beardsley have discussed the

problems of both considering and not considering intention in their seminal work on the

Intentional Fallacy,29 and this project takes as a priori Ethan Haimo’s view that knowing of at

least some of a composer’s intention will inform analysis. 30 My analytical methodology does require at least an attempt to understand the composer’s intention. In situations where the composer was explicit, such as sketches or articles by the composer, supporting materials may serve as proof. In situations where no such material exists, the analyst is instructed to look at pieces from the same period in the composer’s output as well as prevailing cultural, philosophical/religious, and historical trends from the time of composition.

Since this project will examine a work that quotes Gustav Mahler’s Second Symphony, it is appropriate to discuss that work at some length at this point, especially with regard to separating life form from landscape. The landscape of the third movement transcends the notes,

relying instead on the audience’s knowledge of Austro-German folk music. Mahler uses a

Ländler as the basis for this movement, a scherzo.31 Mahler assumes that his audience (he wrote

this symphony in 1895 while conducting throughout central Europe) would have been familiar

with the forms and styles of Austro-German folk and dance music of the day. This assumption

draws upon type II of musical memory as described by Cherlin, in which a musical idea draws

connections to the totality of the musical repertoire (intra-musical memory).32 In this case, the

landscape consists not only of the tonal scheme but also the knowledge and structure of German

Ländler by the projected audience. (See note 5 of chapter 5 of this study for a brief discussion of

29 W. K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley, “The Intentional Fallacy” in Sewanee Review, vol. 54. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1946, pp. 468 - 488 30 Ethan Haimo, “Atonality, Analysis, and the Intentional Fallacy” in Music Theory Spectrum, vol. 18, no. 2. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986, pp. 167 - 99. 31 The New Grove Dictionary defines a Ländler as a “folkdance in slow 3/4 time.” “Ländler” in New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. New York and London: Grove, 1990, vol 10, p. 435. 32 Cherlin, pp. 562 - 563

75 the song that Mahler uses for source material in this movement.) Compare Schubert’s op. 18, no.

1 (D. 145, shown in example 4-13) and the third movement of Mahler’s Second Symphony

(shown in Chapter 5). Both pieces have the overall characteristics of the Ländler (simple triple meter, moderate tempo, folk-like melodic material), but differ wildly in how those materials are manipulated. The Schubert example is harmonically simple, using only I and V in the key of E- flat, and uses balanced, four-measure phrases, whereas the Mahler example is more complex harmonically and uses thematic material of irregular lengths.

Ex. 4-13. Schubert, op. 18, no. 1.33 Melodic motion primarily arpeggiation; rhythmic motion Triple meter, moderate tempo nearly constant

33 Franz Schubert, op. 18, no. 1 (D. 145). New York: Dover Publications, 1989, p. 19.

76 The second step in the methodology is to determine the life forms (another suggested term is “voices,” if we wish to tie in to Bakhtin’s ideas more forcefully) that inhabit the piece. At this point, it is not necessary to determine what the voices are attempting to say; it is only necessary to determine what material constitutes the voices. If we revisit the Ives piece (The

Unanswered Question) referenced above, we see the following two voices: The trumpet, posing the Question, and the woodwinds, attempting to answer.

Returning to Mahler, a greater number of voices require the analyst to determine their roles. An analyst should examine the life forms that teeter on the edge of becoming landscape.

The first of these life forms is the material that creates the underlying harmonic structure. Just as trees may form part of the physical characteristics (landscape) of an ecosystem yet are still living things that interact with the landscape and with other life forms, so too does the underlying harmonic structure affect the other musical life forms that inhabit the area, while at the same time relying on the landscape to determine just how that harmonic structure will grow and interact. The harmonic structure of the opening measures (after the false starts in the timpani) looks like this:

Ex. 4-14. Reduction of Mahler, Second Symphony, mm. 5 - 31

The harmonic structure is dictated by two competing factors. The first of these is the landscape (the Ländler and all that have come before it), which requires a tonal or partially-tonal

77 harmonic structure (memory of such dances dictates at least a passing reference to tonality). The

second factor is the structure of the melody, and what chords are best derived as an

accompaniment to this theme. The metaphor of the tree here works well, as species of trees adapt

to both landscape (rocky soil, low light, etc.) and life forms (growing tall enough to prevent

species from eating its leaves, etc.). In this fashion, the harmonic structure reflects both physical

characteristics and interactions with other life forms.

Other life forms at work in this piece include the various themes. The primary theme of the movement is stated in the violins (then later by clarinets and flutes) here:

Ex. 4-15. Mahler, mm. 12 - 29, reduction.34

34 ibid.

78 and this is joined by a similar, but more broken, theme that alternates between clarinet and violin:

Ex. 4-16. Mahler, II, mm. 44 - 56.35

A third theme appears in m. 212:

Ex. 4-17. Mahler, II, mm. 212 - 219.36

35 ibid. 36 ibid.

79 There are others; time and space considerations require moving on to the next level of life forms.

The smaller life forms exist flittering about the limbs of the harmonic structure and among the larger themes. Some of these life forms include recurring background ideas (such as ostinatos) like the one shown here:

Ex. 4-18. Mahler, II, mm. 5 - 12.37

and this one:

Ex. 4-19. Mahler, II, mm. 57 - 60.38

37 ibid. 38 ibid.

80 Other examples include this lengthy pattern in the strings that runs against the third theme shown above:

Ex. 4-20. Mahler, II, mm. 212 - 222.39

Again, these are all brief examples of some characteristic life forms in a landscape that is rich with biota. A comprehensive cataloging of all the life forms in the Mahler symphony is

39 ibid.

81 beyond the scope of this project; indeed, Chapter 5 of this project contains a study of still different life forms from the movement.

Since the basis of this analysis is biological and ecosystematic, it is appropriate to bring in a parallel concept to the idea of thematic transplantation. Richard Dawkins, Daniel Dennett, and others have postulated the concept of meme, or cultural identifier.40 Dawkins describes memes as follows:

Examples of memes are tunes, ideas, catch-phrases, clothes fashions, ways of making pots or building arches. Just as genes propagate themselves in the gene pool by leaping from body to body via sperm or eggs, so memes propagate themselves in the meme pool by leaping from brain to brain via a process which, in the broad sense, can be called imitation. If a scientist hears, or reads about, a good idea, he passes it on to his colleagues and students. He mentions it in his articles and his lectures. If the idea catches on, it can be said to propagate itself, spreading from brain to brain.41

This view takes the cultural signifiers (described above as different types of musical memory, after Cherlin) as life forms engaged in Darwinian evolutionary processes, and explains why people react in the ways that they do to different pieces of music, both in and out of context.

This idea informs the next step.

The third step in the process is to determine what each voice is trying to say; the purpose of each life form. This does not mean that one must rely on personification or vague, untestable metaphors. Just as each plant or animal in an ecosystem has a role in the maintenance of that ecosystem, so too does each snippet of musical material have a part to play in the piece. As an example (indeed, a very straightforward example), let us return to Ives’s The Unanswered

Question. The trumpet (see example 4-9 above) takes on the role of “protagonist” (each piece will have terminology specific to the piece; as we have transcended ideas of “theme 1” and

40 See Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene.,Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976 and Daniel C. Dennett, Darwin’s Dangerous Idea: Evolutions and the Meanings of Life, New York: Touchstone, 1996. 41 Dawkins, p. 206, quoted in Dennett, p. 345.

82 “transition” with this type of analysis, the nomenclature must be piece-specific), posing what

Ives called “the great question.”42 The woodwinds respond to the “great question” in different fashions, moving from curiosity to scorn to ignorance – their role is to answer unsuccessfully.

Their constant failures, though, only push the protagonist to try harder; it only falls silent when no answer, mocking or otherwise, is forthcoming.

Another piece by Charles Ives (the song General William Booth Enters Into Heaven,

briefly discussed above) provides fodder for analysis under this methodology. The song features

a hymn tune - CLEANSING FOUNTAIN - prominently throughout, and Ives’s uses of this tune

vis-à-vis the tune’s original use. In its original context, the hymn tune CLEANSING

FOUNTAIN is presented without a hint of irony or self-awareness. How can the analyst know that this is Ives’s intent, especially given the issues with the Intentional Fallacy as described?

Given the nature of Ives’s spiritual understanding as described above, we can look at Ives’s understanding of both the theology and musical aspects of the hymns described above, as well as his understanding of the Transcendentalist movement, the basic elements of which included activity, self-reliance, equality of all men before God, and democracy.43 Given the construction

of the piece (as examined below), a case can be made that Ives’s theological, musical and philosophical intentions can be understood (at least on a basic level) and taken into account when examining the structure of General William Booth.

The tune itself is straightforward in its purpose; praise and nothing more. One deduces

this not only from the musical material, but through extramusical sources (the text, for example).

Audiences of the late 19th and early 20th centuries would recognize the hymn tune in its own right and respond to it as such. The analysis determines this voice to be utterly without irony and

42 Burkholder, liner notes to DG 429 220-2. 43 David C. Smith, The Transcendental Saunterer: Thoreau and the Search for Self. Savannah, GA: Frederic C. Beil Publisher, Inc., 1997, pp. 19-26.

83 completely sincere. The other material in the song serves as a musical depiction of the great

“unwashed masses” brought to Heaven by the work of General William Booth and the Salvation

Army.44

The fourth stage in the methodology requires the analyst, after determining the identity of the entities and structures populating the music, to examine how those entities are altered by the musical conditions of their new home - or as they alter their new landscape. In General William

Booth, Ives creates an ecosystem of creatures that are transformed harmonically (use of free dissonance is curtailed substantially, pitch range shrinks) and rhythmically (rhythms are normalized to the prevailing meter) by the cleansing power of a supernatural force. In this song, the hymn CLEANSING FOUNTAIN serves as that force. While the hymn tune appears at several moments in the song, the most important one in this reading appears at measure 82. The original hymn referred to the “fountain filled with blood” that cleanses the souls of sinners. At this point, the hymn tune appears virtually intact; this statement coincides with the appearance of

Jesus in the poetic text. At this point, the landscape moves from one of intense dissonance and confusion to one of pure, almost stereotypical tonality.

44 ibid.

84 Ex. 4-21. Ives, General William Booth, mm. 82 - 88.45

In this case, the presence of one life form (the hymn tune CLEANSING FOUNTAIN) does create major change in the landscape of the piece (it becomes more tonal in a traditional sense) as well as the other life forms (they too become more tonal as well as rhythmically simpler). This is the goal of stage four - identify how the various elements interact with each other.

Stage five of the methodology involves closing the circle created in stages three

(purposes of each life form) and four (interactions of life forms with landscape and life forms with each other) and comparing the voices as they appear in the piece under investigation (i.e.,

45 Ives, “General William Booth,” in 114 Songs. New York: Peer International Group, 1975, pp. 55 - 6.

85 altered by the landscape or altering the landscape) to the voices as they appear in their original

context. From this point forward, the methodology will only apply to pieces that use quotation

(though it might be modifiable to include pieces that use stylistic allusion instead of outright

quotation - that issue will be addressed in Chapter 6). In order to do this correctly, one must look

at the original material.

General William Booth Enters Into Heaven uses not only CLEANSING FOUNTAIN, but

also other quotes; both these other quotes and the landscape will have an effect on the hymn

tune. Looking at the hymn tune in its original context, we find it to be as stated above - a simple

hymn of praise and forgiveness. To properly understand this, it must be understood in the context

of its time. The words to the hymn tune were written by William Cowper, an English poet of the

18th century who worked with fellow Evangelical poet John Newton on a collection entitled

Olney Hymns.46 Among the other poems in Olney Hymns were “Amazing Grace,” “Oh For A

Closer Walk With God,” and “God Moves In A Mysterious Way.”47 Charles Ives was the son of

a New England bandmaster and had served as a church organist, so he would have been well

aware of the meaning of the hymn CLEANSING FOUNTAIN. This type of understanding is an

example of Cherlin’s “Type 3” of musical memory, wherein the music is not only remembered

for the music itself but within the context of other, extra-musical events. In General William

Booth Enters Into Heaven, however, Ives relies on his audience to understand the tune (as Frank

Zappa would put it) “in parentheses.” The first appearance of CLEANSING FOUNTAIN begins with the anacrusis to measure 5 and continues on to measure 8:

46 information on William Cowper courtesy of http://www.poets.org/. 47 ibid.

86 Ex. 4-22. Ives, General William Booth, mm. 4 - 8.48

Interestingly enough, Ives takes the first two measures of the hymn tune, stretches them out slightly, and then appends measures 11 and 12 of the original tune. Ives rarely makes a literal quotation of the tune; instead, groups of measures are pulled out and affixed to other nonsequential groups of measures, or only the opening gesture of the tune is used, as in this example:

48 Ives, 114 Songs, p. 51.

87 Ex. 4-23. Ives, General William Booth, mm. 13 - 19.49

In still later appearances, Ives adjusts the intervals of the quotation so much that it begins not to sound like the original anymore. This technique of thematic development is one reason why this methodology could be applied, with some success, to allusion as well as quotation.

These measures give an example of one such case:

49 ibid., p. 53.

88 Ex. 4-24. Ives, General William Booth, mm. 34 - 38.50

These appearances all give the impression that Ives wishes his audience to hear the hymn

tune as expressions of religious naiveté running headlong into “walking lepers,” “drug fiends,”

and “bull-necked convicts.” The cultural and religious components of CLEANSING

FOUNTAIN cannot possibly be expected to survive in the rough-and-tumble harmonic and rhythmic thicket that Ives has set up in the rest of the song. Yet Ives also does not want his audience to perceive the power of religion in a negative light; indeed, at the moment of greatest

50 ibid., p. 54.

89 transformation, the hymn tune returns in the bass with only slight alterations (primarily rhythmic

– the elision of two repeated notes into one, for example) at measure 82. Also, for the first time,

an entire phrase of the hymn tune is used – the first eight measures are stated in their entirety at

this moment. (See examples 4-1 and 4-2.)

When the analyst compares the intent of the original material with Ives’s intent in using that particular quotation, that analyst will find not irony but respect. By saturating General

William Booth Enters Into Heaven with this hymn tune, Ives demonstrates that his intent is to show that a force that is perceived as meek and mild can indeed be powerful enough to transform the lowest of the low into saints and angels; at the end of the song, the only reminder of the previous condition of Booth’s masses is the ongoing march into Heaven.

After comparing and contrasting the intents of each quotation, the next step is to re- evaluate the landscape based on the new information. This has been hinted at that in the previous paragraphs with the given impressions of Ives’s intent. Ives has inserted the hymn tune

CLEANSING FOUNTAIN into the harmonically and rhythmically complex landscape of this uproarious and ribald song - a landscape made up of tone clusters and shifting meters, hemiola and ostinati - in order to heal it and make it whole. He symbolizes this not only through the use of a more pure tonality at measure 82, but with the re-emergence of the original “marching” effect seen at the beginning. Compare the opening measures:

90 Ex. 4-25. Ives, General William Booth, mm. 1 - 4.51

to the closing section:

51 Ives, 114 Songs, p. 51.

91 Ex. 4-26. Ives, General William Booth, closing.52

While both sections feature a rhythmic offset of one sixteenth-note between the ostinato portions, the dynamic is much softer (forte at the beginning and piano and softer still at the end) and the general feel is gentler; one can indeed imagine the great unwashed throngs, marching in through the pearly gates of heaven in all their earthiness and sin (as shown at the beginning), being showered with the redeeming power of CLEANSING FOUNTAIN (omnipresent, but not taking center stage until measure 82), then marching on (now more gently) to their new homes in glory with “withered limbs uncurled and blind eyes opened on a new sweet world.” Example 4-

27 shows how the presence of CLEANSING FOUNTAIN in the song might be depicted graphically. The increased presence of the tune correlates to the development of the music and the text. (This graph does not show percentage of the tune used, or in what voice or metrical location - it merely shows the presence of the tune.)

52 ibid., p. 57.

92 Ex. 4-27. CLEANSING FOUNTAIN in General William Booth.

The final stage is to determine the overall intent of the piece, using the revised understanding of the landscape derived from the study of the quotations in both their original and their superimposed contexts. This process allows us to finish our understanding of the piece’s biosphere and the interactions contained within. A piece like General William Booth works precisely because we are able to see a transformation from naiveté to understanding, but not in the fashion which we expected; the hymn tune does not become more worldly – rather, the hymn tune makes the world a little more enlightened, albeit in a religious (not intellectual) sense. From this, we can assume that Ives’s intent was two-fold. His first goal was to pay homage to the small-town religious and philosophical thinkers of his youth (a common theme in Ives’s output is unabashed love of small-town Americana), and his second goal was to poke fun at those who would disrespect the “great unwashed masses” being hauled into Heaven through the works of

General William Booth by pointing out the masses’ basic humanity and soul. The use of

CLEANSING FOUNTAIN as the agent through which the harmonic and rhythmic style of the

93 song is changed demonstrates this, since, as shown above, the hymn tune changes very little at

the climactic moment, while the style of the rest (non-quoted material) of the piece changes drastically. Ives chose Lindsay’s poem for a reason - not only does it speak to basic humanity and transformative power, by casting Heaven as a parody of small-town America (a place with which Ives was intimately familiar), Lindsay reaffirms his belief in the wisdom of the “simple folk.” Ives agreed with that belief, and said so through his music.

4.06 Summary of methodology

This methodology allows the analyst to answer basic questions about intent in quotation- laden pieces. The next part of the process will be to test it in a situation where quotation seems to be the raison d’etre of the piece. This will be the focus of Chapter 5.

(1) Determine essential characteristics of pieces under investigation

(2) Determine “entities” - motives/ideas that interact with essential characteristics and each

other (life form, landscape, combination)

(3) Determine musical meaning of each entity in original context

(4) Show how entities are altered in new context (or how they alter the new context)

(5) Determine musical meaning of each entity in new context

(6) Compare meanings across contexts

94 CHAPTER 5

ANALYSIS

5.00 Introduction

In this chapter, analytical techniques reflecting both the methodology from Chapter 4 and

a reconstructive approach to postmodernism as defined in chapter 2 will be used to examine the

third movement of Luciano Berio’s Sinfonia for 8 Voices and Orchestra. These techniques will

be used in the first third of the analysis to examine the form of the movement, treating the form

as an ecosystem (after the ideas of Ferré discussed in chapter 2) and examining what Osmond-

Smith called the “obliteration” of the form.1 The remaining two-thirds of the analysis will detail how motivic and harmonic structures that made the transfer from Mahler to Berio are altered by the landscape created by Berio and quotations from other sources. Chapter 6 will then use this data to show that movement there are points of high, medium and low irony present in the movement, using the presence, expansion or dissolution of form, harmonic ideas and motives as markers of irony.

1 David Osmond-Smith, Playing on words: a guide to Luciano Berio’s Sinfonia. London: The Royal Musical Association, 1985, p. 43.

5.01 Analytical Techniques

An analytical notation that involves graphical representation of the completeness of the source material has been generated for this study. These graphs plot the percentage of material transferred against the location (all or part of a measure) in the piece, which shows how much the quoted material is altered by the new surroundings. The formula used, the philosophical background of which was introduced in earlier chapters, is as follows:

(1) First determining how much of the orchestra is playing at any given point in the

original Mahler symphony, and showing that information as a percentage (of

Mahler’s orchestra) in a table. For the purposes of this analysis, a marker of “0”

within a measure will indicate that the instrument is not playing at any point within

that measure, while a marker of “1” will indicate that the instrument is playing at any

point within that measure. If a string section part is divided, a decimal showing the

percentage of the section playing at any given point will be used (i.e., .50 in a first

violin measure would show that Mahler has only half the first violins playing in that

measure).

(2) Second, developing a second table showing material from Mahler’s Scherzo used in

Berio’s adaptation, and obtaining the percentage as it appears in Berio’s orchestra, as

in step 1. To take into account timbral differences as well as partial quotes, values

smaller than “1” may be used, corresponding to the amount of quoted material from

Mahler that appears in each measure. If the quotation appears in an instrument that is

in the same family as the original instrument (e.g., viola to violin), then the

corresponding value is reduced by 0.25. If the quotation appears in an instrument that

is not in the same family as the original (Mahler) instrument, then the corresponding

value is reduced by 0.5. Partial quotes and quotes with minor alterations are notated

proportionally as well.

(3) Finally, graphing the ratio between the two percentages over time (as shown via

measure numbers). The graph shows the amount of change between the original

material and its appearance in Berio’s Sinfonia. Because Mahler’s orchestra (46

players) is only 93.88% the size of Berio’s orchestra (49 players), an exact 1:1

correlation (or a graph showing 100% of Mahler transferred to Berio) does not mean

that Mahler is being played at 100% the size of the original Mahler orchestration;

rather, it means a proportional amount of Berio’s orchestra is being used. For

example, if 30 instruments are playing at a point in Mahler, approximately 32

instruments are playing at the cognate point in Berio. It is not uncommon to see well

over 100% in the graphs; this occurs when Mahler uses a small number of

instruments and Berio uses a much larger number of instruments in his adaptations of

the material. The reverse is true as well, as Berio often uses less than 40% of

Mahler’s original instrumentation in his adaptations.

Appendix A contains the tables for Mahler, and Appendix B contains the tables for

Berio.2 These appendices give a measure-by-measure breakdown of the techniques described

above. They are quite lengthy, and are best shown in their totality; hence, they are appended

following the main body of this project. Appendix C realizes (3) above and shows a graphic

2 The use of a graph is not by itself new: David Osmond-Smith uses a graph in his study of Sinfonia, Playing on Words (London: Royal Music Association, 1985) on page 45. His method of graphing, however, differs from the one used in this project in that he shows differing compositional techniques and how they impact the quotation. The graphs used here show the difference in material based on orchestral size and timbral choices.

97 realization of the ratios created in Appendix B. The graphs of Appendix C show how many of the essential characteristics of Mahler’s work survive the transition into Berio’s work, and also what happens to the Mahler material when it arrives in the new landscape. These graphs are then used to draw conclusions about the narrative structure of the piece under investigation, including certain tropes such as irony.

Several examples showing the original source material in its original context (i.e., scores showing material as it appears in Mahler) will also be created. These examples will clarify many aspects of this new analytical methodology and show in more detail how the material changes from one musical context to another. Not every example will be given this treatment, but examples with noticeable pitch and/or rhythmic changes may be treated in this fashion.

For some small excerpts of quoted material from Mahler’s Scherzo, chosen primarily for the pitch or rhythmic changes described above, parentheses will be the main method of representation. Parentheses work well for this representation because the eye is drawn to them as a physical separation of quoted material from non-quoted material; further, they work well in scores, reductions, and the graphical constructs used in this analysis. To further refine the analytic notation, parentheses will be notated with letters signifying the changes to the source material after its transfer to the new material. These letters are:

T = Transposition of original material

O = Change in orchestration/instrument choice

C = “Chromaticization” (i.e., same pitch center but with chromatic alterations to the line)

I = Inversion

D = Dissolution (i.e., line breaks up and dissolves)

R = Rhythmic changes

Other letter choices are possible; the analyst is free to adapt as necessary.

5.02 Midlevel Analysis - the source material

As a discussion of larger musical ideas (”systemic entities”) ensues, the analyst must now

determine the proper context of the musical material as it appears in its original location. This

portion of the examination of the third movement of the Sinfonia begins by first analyzing the

biggest source of quoted material in the hopes of elucidating more information about the

essential characteristics and life forms - the ecosystem - of the source material.3 Such an analysis will also help in understanding the narrative of the quoted work and how it affects the narrative - or metanarrative - of the quoting work.

The Second Symphony of Gustav Mahler (1868 - 1911) was written between 1888 and

1894 and received its premiere in Berlin on December 13, 1895, with the composer conducting.4

The third movement, a scherzo with the tempo marking In ruhig fliessender Bewegung, is drawn from Mahler’s song “Des Antonius von Padua Fischpredigt” (Anthony of Padua [St. Anthony]

3 While the text is infinitely fascinating, and I will make reference to it as necessary, it is beyond the scope of this project to determine the source of every syllable of text. 4 Jonathan Carr, Mahler: A Biography. Woodstock, NY: The Overlook Press, Peter Mayer Publishers, Ltd., 1997, p. 232.

preaching to the fish), part of the collection Das Knaben Wunderhorn (The Child’s Magic

Horn).5

One of the essential characteristics of piece of music is form; thus, a study of the form

provides context and a sense of the ecosystem created by Mahler. Form may also be a marker of

narrative. Earlier, postmodernism was defined as “incredulity toward metanarrative;” however,

this was based on deconstructive postmodernism. Reconstructive or Ferréan postmodernism,

with its emphasis on networks and connectivity over deconstruction and fragmentation, requires

no such incredulity (see chapter 2), and thus allows the analyst to examine form as an integral

part of the analytical experience.

According to David Metzer, the form of the movement is as follows:

Table 5-1. Formal sections of Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III.6

Measure numbers Section Key area(s)

1 – 103 Scherzo C minor

104 – 149 Trio I F major

149 – 189 Scherzo C minor

190 – 347 Trio II C major; D major; E major; C major 348 – 406 Scherzo C minor

407 – 544 Trio I and Trio II F major and C major

545 – 581 Scherzo C minor

5 ibid., p. 65. It is important to note that the original story is ironic, because the fish “praise the saint’s wise words but swim off again as unenlightened as before,” and that Mahler “sharpens the irony” with his orchestrational choices. 6 David Metzer, Quotation and Musical Meaning in Twentieth-Century Music. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 131.

100

The Scherzo appears four times, each time in C minor; each time, however, is of a

different length (103, 41, 59, and 37 measures, respectively). The difference in size of each

Scherzo appearance is conventional; in a traditional scherzo/trio movement, the repeat of the

scherzo is performed without repeats. Since Mahler’s Scherzo has no written repeats, the

truncation of later appearances creates the same musical effect, though it is worth noting that the

later appearances of the Scherzo are not even divisions of the original statement (as would be

expected in a traditional scherzo performed first with and then without repeats).

The “entities” - the life forms and landscape as well as their interactions - define essential

characteristics of a piece as well. An examination of the life forms present and their interaction

with the landscape, as well as an analysis of their meaning or function in this situation, is

appropriate at this point. Each entity has a certain role to play within the ecosystem of the piece.

Some are expository, some are transitional, some are developmental, and some are terminative.7

In some cases, the life form consists of material presented for the first time; this is expository. In

other cases, one life form leads into another via harmonic progression and/or modulation; this is

transitional. In other cases still, the interaction of life form with life form and with landscape

creates a situation where one life form generates itself in a different form; this is developmental.

Finally, some life forms serve to bring sections to a close; this is terminative.

The movement opens with timpani, first violins, clarinets, English horn and bassoons,

which very clearly signify C minor (the stated key of the symphony - see ex. 5-1). This entity is expository, as it presents new material for the first time.

7 These terms are from Peter Spencer and Peter Temko, APractical Approach to the Study of Form in Music. Prospect Heights, IL; Waveland Press, Inc., 1988.

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Ex. 5-1. The opening of the third movement of Mahler’s Second Symphony.8

8 Mahler, Symphony no. 1 and no. 2. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, Inc., 1987, p. 248.

102

(ex. 5-1 cont.)

The second appearance of the Scherzo, at measure 149, is marked by a return to C minor and the initial theme, but with the addition of a piccolo melody that becomes the aural focal point. This material is best categorized as developmental, because the addition of the piccolo changes the entity. In addition, the material is not new, nor does it create a modulation.

103

Ex. 5-2. Mahler, mm. 148 - 156 - string line with added piccolo melody.9

Trio I starts at measure 104 with another running sixteenth-note-based theme in the violas, accompanied by the violins (ex. 5-3). This theme is later accompanied with a countermelody that starts in the double reeds and shifts to the clarinets.

9 ibid., p. 258.

104

Ex. 5-3. Violas and first violins, mm. 104 - 111.10

The first theme of Trio II combines elements of the piccolo material and the string

material at measure 149 (the first reappearance of the Scherzo), at measure 190. This theme is in

C major and, since it contains elements of previously existing material that generate a new idea,

also developmental.

Ex. 5-4. C major theme in the low strings, mm. 190 - 202.11

Trio II continues in measure 212, with the tempo marking “Vorwärts!”(forward!). At this point, the C major theme which first appeared at measure 190 is restated (with alterations) in D major in the celli and bass, with a fanfare-like phrase in the brass and accompanying

countermelody in the upper strings (see ex. 5-5). This material is expository, as it has not yet

been heard.

10 ibid., p. 255. 11 ibid., p. 261.

105

Ex. 5-5. Mahler, mm. 157 - 165.12

12 ibid., p. 262.

106

This idea occurs once more at measure 257, except in E major. The piece stays in E

major and slows down at measure 272, and a new (and thus expository) broader theme is

presented in the trumpet, which will be later restated by the woodwinds beginning in measure

287 (ex. 5-6).

Ex. 5-6. Broader theme in trumpet, mm. 271 - 289.13

Following this section, at measure 348, the first theme of the Scherzo is brought back in the original key. However, Mahler does not wish to leave the theme in its original form, and this iteration is less than half the length of the theme in its original appearance. This entity is once

13 ibid., p. 267.

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again developmental, but now the development seems to be regression rather than expansion.

The idea of reduction in size permeates this entire section, as the piece modulates to a shortened

version of the F major section at measure 104 (see Example 5-3), and then brings back the

material from “Vorwärts!” without the series of modulations or the much broader scope of the

original. This is a standard technique in Scherzo movements; as explained earlier (pp. 101 - 2), post-Trio repeats are often shorter than the original presentation of the material.

In the return of the first section, certain themes are recomposed in a way that indicates not just adjustment for a new key, but a reduction of the nature of the thematic material. This fits with the formal plan - the return of the Scherzo theme is smaller in scale than the original presentation of the material. Example 5-7 shows this idea by contrasting the theme at measure

190 (shown also in example 5-4) with the version of the theme at measure 481.

Ex. 5-7. Comparison of mm. 190 - 202 14

and mm. 480 - 489.15

14 ibid., p. 261. 15 ibid., p. 286.

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(ex. 5-7 cont.)

From a formal standpoint, it is worth mentioning that the recurrence of the “Vorwärts!”

section appears in the key of C major, where it was in E major before. It is also worth

mentioning that, following the return/evolution of the C major theme, the broad theme originally

stated by the trumpet at measure 272 reappears, this time in C major and in the first violin. At

this point, the return of the C major theme and the post-“Vorwärts!” broad theme have melded

together. This reinforces the idea, mentioned above, that repeats, reprises or returns of sections

are often reduced in size; by combining Trios I and II, Mahler reduces the size of this contrasting

section.

There is a brief statement of the overriding theme of the entire symphony at mm. 509 - 13

(in the second violins - E-F-G-A-B-C), and then the movement ends with a final statement of the

Scherzo (which serves as a short coda) beginning at measure 545. This coda gives the impression

of F minor, but quickly settles into C minor. The final idea, in which Mahler quotes Schumann’s

Dichterliebe, op. 48, no. 916 (and also uses at the end of his setting of “Des Antonius von Padua

Fischpredigt,” thus bringing both Mahler’s self-quotation and the movement to a close), is a theme based on pedal point and uses almost the entire aggregate. In this terminative section, notice the sustained tones in the contrabassoon and low horns on the last note.

16 Henry-Louis de la Grange, “Music about music in Mahler: reminisces, allusions, or quotations?” in Mahler Studies, edited by Stephen E. Hefling. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997, p. 155.

109

Ex. 5-8. The ending of the movement (mm. 577 - 81).17

17 Mahler, p. 295.

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5.03 Musical Borrowing and Issues of Form

When researching questions of musical borrowing, one must first acknowledge the major

work done in this field by J. Peter Burkholder. His seminal article on the practice in Notes and

his article on musical borrowing for the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians form the

basis of all modern discussions on the topic. Burkholder’s study of collage process and modeling

shows that there are circumstances in which the structure of one piece is exactly or nearly exactly

duplicated in another piece.18 In no case does this mean using generic formal models such as a

rondo as a guide to composition, but rather specifically using the exact or near-exact formal

structure of another piece of music. Burkholder coins the term “modeling,”19 which he defines as

“assuming [another work’s] structure, incorporating part of its melodic material, imitating its

form or procedures, or using it as a model in some other way.”20 Burkholder points out that Ives

used modeling both with and without quotation, and that Ives used modeling often as a

compositional tool or guide. 21

Catherine Losada discusses how Berio’s modeling of Mahler’s Second Symphony goes

beyond appropriating the third movement for a new work in her discussion of Berio, Rochberg

and Zimmerman,22. According to Losada, “[b]oth pieces are in five movements and borrow from

18 J. Peter Burkholder, “Borrowing” in New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd edition, ed. Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan Publishing, 2001, pp. 6 - 7. 19 Burkholder, All Made of Tunes: Charles Ives and the Uses of Musical Borrowing. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995, p. 3. 20 ibid. 21 ibid., p. 6. 22 Catherine Losada, “A Theoretical Model for the Analysis of Collage in Music Derived from Selected Works by Berio, Zimmerman and Rochberg.” (Ph.D. Dissertation, City University of New York, 2004), pp.1 - 3.

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numerous musical sources,”23 and other aspects of Mahler’s work permeate Berio’s work.

Losada concentrates specifically on the dramatic contour (which she defines as “the arch shapes achieved by goal directed motion towards and away from climactic moments”24) and on Berio’s

use of other quotations to mimic Mahler’s goal directed motion.25 Losada refines this argument further with an article on, among other things, formal structure of Berio’s Sinfonia as it relates to the form of the third movement of Mahler’s Second Symphony26.

Modeling has serious ramifications for the study of form; when the form of a piece is

dictated by the form of another piece, an analyst must question why the composer chose a

particular piece to model, and if the composer is using the harmonic and/or melodic gestures that

constructed the original piece, or merely the framework. If the former, then the analyst could

expect to find those gestures generating form in the new piece; if the latter, those gestures would,

if present at all, be merely coincidences and not necessary for generating or analyzing the form

of the work. This approach shows some consanguinity with approaches to form based on

melodic or harmonic gesture (such as phrase-structure based analyses by William Caplin or

analyses based on harmonic structure by Charles Rosen) while dissenting from genre-based analyses (such as those by James Hepokoski and Warren Darcy) because it presupposes an imposed instead of an organic formal structure.

This process, then, is not the use of a pre-existing formal structure in and of itself, i.e, a

Sarabande from a Bach suite is not modeling the form of another Sarabande - each Sarabande is a piece unto itself that just happens to use the same structure. Further, it is not the manipulation

23 ibid., p. 55. 24 ibid,, p. 58, note. 25 ibid., pp. 60 - 1. 26 Losada, “The Process of Modulation in Musical Collage” in Music Analysis, vol. 27, issue 2 - 3, 2008, pp. 295 - 336.

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of variation - for example, the formal structure of each variation in Beethoven’s Seven Variations on “God Save the King” (WoO 78) is not a quotation of the formal structure of the original theme. Instead, each variation uses the SAME formal structure as a platform from which

Beethoven launches the variation. Finally, modeling is not a compositional trend (like

Neoclassicism or Neoromanticism, though Berio’s work qualifies as a homage to previous eras).

It is possible that the pieces written in those idioms are quoting the norms of the honored era, and as such the forms of those eras are being used. However, this is modeling of style and taste, and not of form.

A piece is said to model the form of another piece when a specific piece or movement’s form is duplicated almost precisely within the context of a different piece or movement for the express purpose of reminding the listener and/or performer of the earlier piece. The Sinfonia models the form of the Mahler movement then in two ways:

(1) The structure of the movement is virtually identical. The length, climaxes, and even

shifts in tonal center/organization of the aggregate happen at cognate points in each

piece; and

(2) The Sinfonia movement occupies the same space in the Sinfonia as the original

movement does in the Mahler symphony – the third, or “scherzo” spot. At first

glance, this may seem to contradict my earlier statement that formal structure of

similar movements is not quotation of form. However, since the minuet/scherzo has

been in differing positions throughout the history of the symphony, and since Berio

has built the entire Sinfonia on the concept of quotation, this placement within the

larger work appears to be a conscious decision on Berio’s part.

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As mentioned earlier, form can be considered an essential characteristic of a piece under investigation. The next section will examine the form as well as other essential characteristics of the quoting piece to see how much of the narrative structure of the quoted piece survives the transfer. The graphs accompanying this section are derived from the methodology described above, and are used in Appendix C as well to show changes in the narrative structure in the quoting piece. Example 5-61 on page 184 gives the graph for the entire movement.

5.04 Midlevel Analysis - Berio, Sinfonia, III

Given the terminology described in Chapter 3, it would be fair to assume that an ecological model for the third movment of Berio’s Sinfonia would treat the Mahler movement at its heart as the “landscape” and the additional quotes as “life forms.” The analysis proposed here, however, turns that approach upside down, assuming (based on the ending of the second movement of Sinfonia and the use of the aggregate at key points in the third movement, as described by Osmond-Smith) that the “landscape” in question is actually the aggregate, arranged in different combinations. The discussion of Bartók’s “Diminished Fifth” in Chapter 4 shows that an abstract musical collection such as a scale can serve as “landscape,” and this analysis uses the aggregate to take that role in Sinfonia’s third movement. This means that Mahler’s piece will be treated as a “life form” - or, more specifically, as a “systematic entity” (a self-contained unit consisting of “landscape” and “life forms”), a biosphere or ecology unto itself. This is an inversion of the normal analytical approach to Berio’s work, which treats the Mahler source material simply as a framework. As a parallel, imagine that it is possible to create a large area on

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the planet Mars that is habitable but not particularly germane to human life, and imagine further

that the continent of Australia, with all its natural landscapes and biota as well as its cities and

human inhabitants, was dropped into that Martian area. How would the landscape and life forms

of Australia adapt to Mars? What would survive, what would thrive, what would pass away?

Would the form of Australia be altered? How would these alterations affect the ecological

system of Australia? This thought experiment is the model for the following analysis, with

Mahler’s work serving as Australia and Berio’s as Mars.

The next step in the analytic procedure is to examine contexts and compare transference

in both the original piece and in the Sinfonia. A compelling argument can be made that Berio is

not just transferring life forms but also whole landscapes into his piece. The result of this is that

the form of Mahler’s work dictates the form of Berio’s work. To further examine these ideas, this

project will divide the analysis into three parts: (1) form; (2) motivic/rhythmic structures; and (3)

harmonic structures. The graphs, as described above, incorporate pitch-based, rhythm-based, formal and timbral information to show how much of Mahler’s material (or other important source material) survives in the new landscape. This will allow an analyst to determine what formal, motivic and harmonic conditions must be met for the analyst to say that a trope (in this case, irony) has occurred. It should be noted that motives and harmonic structures impact form and vice-versa; thus, examples used to highlight formal points can also be viewed through the lens of motivic study or harmonic study, as well as the reverse.

Berio’s Sinfonia utilizes the following forces:

4 flutes (1 doubling piccolo) 3 oboes (1 doubling English horn) 4 clarinets (1 doubling bass clarinet) 3 bassoons (1 doubling contrabassoon)

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alto saxophone tenor saxophone 4 horns 3 trumpets 3 trombones 1 tuba harp piano electric organ electronic keyboard timpani 2 percussion solo SSAATTBB 3 violins (A/B/C) viola violoncello contrabass

The tonal landscape of the piece begins with the aggregate in contrary motion in the trumpets and trombones, then sounding simultaneously (mm. 1 - 2) in the voices and strings.

This particular figuration is quoted from the second measure of the fourth movement of

Schoenberg’s Fünf Orchesterstücke, op. 16, no. 4;27 while most of the background material of the movement is derived from other sources, a full inventory of all background material origins is beyond the scope of this project. Such an inventory can be found in David Osmond-Smith’s analysis, as well as in other places. This project will address non-Mahler material as necessary

(for example, if a Mahler quote is substantially altered by the interference of non-Mahler material).

Numerous times in the Sinfonia Berio uses the aggregate in order to signal a new section to the listener. (A point in terminology is appropriate here: Even though the aggregate serves as a

27 Osmond-Smith 1985, p. 57. All future references to other (non-Mahler) quotes will be drawn from this text as well.

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landscape idea, this particular expression of it, derived as it is from another source, is best

considered “life form.” In this case, it is a life form that fits well into its landscape.)

Ex. 5-9. The aggregate at the opening of Berio, Sinfonia, III (mm. 1 - 2).28

Berio SINFONIA © 1972 Universal Edition (London) Ltd. Renewed All Rights Reserved Used by permission of European American Music Distributors, LLC, U.S. and Canadian Agent for Universal Edition Other appearances of the aggregate are at rehearsal C, 16 measures after C, K, 19

measures after rehearsal K, L, M, the fourth through tenth measures after M, T, four measures

after Y, and in the 13th measure of AA. This final aggregate appearance uses the opening

measure of the Schoenberg quotation above, which has implications for the form of the work;

this return happens at a different point than the return in the original Mahler score.

One appearance of the aggregate as a simultaneity is at measure 210 (example 5-10 gives the cluster as it appears in the strings) marked “Vorwärts!” in the score (with the quotation marks)29. This leads us into our first question of intent30 - is Berio creating a landscape designed

28 Luciano Berio, Sinfonia for 8 Voices and Orchestra. London: Universal Edition, 1972, III, mm. 1 - 2. The use of electronic instruments as well as the use of microphones for the singers requires another performer - a sound engineer at a mixing console. 29 ibid., p. 58. 30 Any discussion of intent in music requires an understanding of the Intentional Fallacy. See chapter 4 of this project for a discussion of the Intentional Fallacy and how it informs this analytical technique.

117 for Mahlerian ideas? At this point in the music, it looks like a hospitable ecosystem from a formal standpoint but not from a pitch standpoint. This will be discussed in depth later in this chapter.

Ex. 5-10. String cluster at m. 210.31

A later appearance of the aggregate is at measure 429; in a metaphor for what happens to

Mahler, this aggregate disintegrates over time (example 5-11).

31 Berio, p. 58.

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Ex. 5-11. The disintegration of the aggregate at measure 429.32

As the movement draws to a close, the harmonic texture dissipates further and further,

leaving only the pitch C sounding at the end. This dissolution has happened several times before

(most notably, when “the name of Majakowski hangs in the clean air” at measure 456), and in this case it quotes Mahler almost exactly (with the addition of piano, a second gong, and the second tenor thanking the conductor).

32 ibid., pp. 80 - 83.

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Ex. 5-12. The end of the movement (mm. 591 - 4).33

There are two other aspects of the landscape that require attention, as they impact how a listener would comprehend the piece. The dynamic structure is highly volatile, with sudden shifts and rapid crescendi/decrescendi. Even in highly-tonal moments, this creates the effect of instability and unsteadiness. One such characteristic passage, in which the dynamic shifts happen across the ensemble, is at measure 210 (the aforementioned “Vorwärts!” section). This is effective here because it is also the first time since the opening gesture that the full ensemble is playing for any discernible length of time - 23 measures, or until measure 232. Similar but much

33 ibid., p. 96.

120 quicker dynamic contrasts occur at measure 255 (where a false start of “Vorwärts!” occurs), when the players must drop from fortissimo to pianissimo and grow back to fortissimo in the space of one measure (see ex. 5-13). This area is already tonally unstable because of the collections used (see ex. 5-10), and the wild fluctuations in volume, coupled with the incessant pounding of the percussion (timpani, snare drum, and tam-tam), undercuts the stability of anything that might hope to alight on or near it.

Ex. 5-13. Dynamic extremes at measure 255 (winds, brass).34

34 ibid., p. 62.

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The other fascinating characteristic, while seemingly unimportant because of the

essentially atonal nature of this piece, is large scale tonal (or at least pitch-centric) movement.

Only a few sections exhibit this motion, but it is worth pursuing because of its contextual importance. At measure 210 (“Vorwärts!”), the bottom of this mass is the pitch C. Measure 255 gives us a strong pitch B, which shortly thereafter returns to C. This same motion is mimicked in other places throughout the movement, most notably between measure 272 and measure 502.

The contextual importance is due to the material quoted. Mahler’s symphony is in C minor. Even in a morass of the aggregate, having C occupy a place of importance will color how the piece is heard. Change that fundamental to B, and what is heard changes substantially.

This has repercussions for the method of analysis. One purpose of analysis of this nature is to determine if the ultimate intent of Berio is to recast Mahler ironically. To use the language of reconstructive postmodernism (as delineated in the previous chapters), the landscape may have given rise to ironic structures on which unironic life forms dwell, the landscape may remain unironic while ironic creatures cross it, and both life forms and structures may simultaneously be ironic or unironic. How would one recognize an ironic landscape?35 The discussion of irony will

be developed further in Chapter 6.

5.05 Further analysis of borrowed material - form and higher levels of irony

This section will examine what happens when the form is completely subsumed and

35 Though it is one of his rare pieces that does not use direct quotation, Charles Ives’s The Unanswered Question may be considered to have an ironic landscape. (See Chapter 4 for further discussion of this piece.)

122 thus major alterations are made to the motivic and harmonic structure of the piece - in other words, what happens when every aspect of Mahler is wiped from Berio’s landscape.

While there have been small quotations from material other than Mahler’s Second

Symphony, these were always inner lines or small fragments, not usually enough to seriously impact the form. At measure 169, Berio changes the texture and meaning of his piece completely by dropping another continent onto this new world and bringing in most of an entire section of

Igor Stravinsky’s Le Sacre du Printemps. Specifically, Berio uses a large excerpt from the final section in Part I, “The Dancing Out of the Earth.”

Ex. 5-14. Berio quoting Stravinsky, shown graphically. Note the subsuming of Mahler material by Stravinsky material.

Berio, mm. 168 - 183 140

120

100

80 Mah ler 60

Stra 40 vinsk y 20

0 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 % change from Mahler's instrumentation from Mahler's % change Measure

The source material comes from around rehearsal 76 in Le Sacre:

123

Ex. 5-15. Le Sacre du Printemps, rehearsal 76 (mm. 511 - 519).36

36 Igor Stravinsky, Le Sacre du Printemps (The Rite of Spring). Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, Inc., 2000, pp. 80 - 4.

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(ex. 5-15 cont.)

There can be no question of Berio’s process here - by bringing in a completely unrelated piece that seems upon first hearing to be a natural outgrowth of the rhythmic motive that grew from the acceleration of the Mahlerian source material (see ex. 5-29) but soon manifests itself as something different than expected, the composer is subverting our expectations. It has been established that a serviceable definition of irony is the subversion of expectation for the negation of intent. This subversion of expectations, coupled with the near total disappearance of Mahler source material, creates an overt irony; the piece which defined the third movement of Sinfonia is completely irrelevant at this juncture, and the expository, transitional and developmental entities

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which populated the Sinfonia movement at that point are no longer part of the ecosystem. (This

discussion will be expanded upon in the following chapter.

This supplanting of Mahler’s structure with other works happens at one other place in the

piece. At letter O, two more continents/landscapes appear: Maurice Ravel’s La Valse, alternating

with Richard Strauss’ Der Rosenkavalier.

Ex. 5-16. Graphical representation of appearances of themes from Ravel and Strauss.

Berio, mm. 292 - 305

Mahler fades to nothing in mm. 292 - 3

Strauss Ravel 20 40 60 40 20 % change from source instrumentation from source % change

292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305

126

Ex. 5-16a. Excerpt from La Valse, rehearsal 44 - 45.37

37 Maurice Ravel, La Valse. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications Inc., 1997, pp. 60 - 61.

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Ex. 5-16b. Excerpt from Der Rosenkavalier, rehearsal 104 - 105.38

The presence of La Valse, which arises out of thematic material presented in the saxophones at measure 289, allows the analyst more insight into Berio’s reasons for composing the third movement. It is possible that Ravel composed La Valse as an answer to the previously unimaginable horror of World War I. However, many view the piece as commentary on the

38 Richard Strauss, Der Rosenkavalier. London: Boosey and Hawkes, 1943, pp. 382 - 383.

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decadence of the old regimes.39 Whatever the circumstances, La Valse is indeed a “sort of

apotheosis of the Viennese waltz…the mad whirl of some fantastic and fateful carousel.”40 Much the same could be said about the Strauss waltz. Thus the two waltzes enter the landscape with an ironic and fatalistic intent already in place. The placement of the excerpts (at a point where intent can be well determined from previous music) and the almost ultra-tonal approach to the appearance of the excerpt (see example 5-16 - La Valse appears in full at the point where A major is fully established) show clearly that Berio is making sure we know to approach this section of the piece with a healthy sense of skepticism. The further of mixing of forms (waltz vs. ländler) further confirms this subterfuge. The two waltzes hang on until measure 308, disappearing as quickly as they appeared.

The overall formal structure of the movement is similar, but not identical, to the formal

structure of the source material. Table 5-2 shows a comparison of formal markers, structure and other similarities.

39 Lincoln Kirstein, who wrote about the piece in its choreographed form, espoused this view (see http://www.nycballet.com/company/rep.html?rep=110 for more information). 40 Ravel, quoted by Bruce Brown, program notes for Jackson Symphony Orchestra, October 6, 2000.

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Table 5-2. Comparison of formal structure of the two movements.

Quality Mahler Berio

Length in measures 581 594

Duration41 c. 11:29 12:27

Orchestration 4/4/5/4, 10/8-10/4/1, 7 timp, 4/3/4/3. AS, TS, 4/4/5/1, cym, trgl, SD, glock, bells, timp, glock, tam-tams, BD, tam-tams, 2 hp, organ, bongos, SD, BD, bells, stgs tamb, wood blocks, guiro, marimba, hp, pno, elec organ, elec kybd, SSAATTBB solo, stgs

Form Rounded binary Rounded binary

Location in larger work 3rd movement 3rd movement

Origin Pre-existing material: “Des Mahler, Second Symphony, Antonius von Padua 3rd movement Fischpredigt” from Das Knaben Wunderhorn

First appearance of m. 212 m. 210 “Vorwärts!” material

Second appearance of m. 257 m. 255 “Vorwärts!” material (false start)

Final appearance of m. 441 m. 457 “Vorwärts!” material

One further point: The effect created by the false start on the second statement of the

“Vorwärts!” theme is one of denial of expectation - this will be discussed in the next chapter.

When the third statement appears, this time giving the altered version of the “Vorwärts!” theme in a reasonable approximation of its entirety, it finally reaches the same tonal goal as the original

41 Performances of Mahler range from 11:00 to 12:35.

130

source material, albeit with the dominant as the lowest sounding pitch, which minimizes the

overall impact. Further, this arrival is delayed by twelve measures (see page 152 for further

discussion). Our memory of “Vorwärts!” is clouded by the chromaticism but reinforced by the

formal structure. The methodology shows the interaction of form with harmonic structure. As

will be shown in Chapter 6, the moments where form, harmony and motive are all completely

subsumed show the strongest irony.

5.06 Further analysis of borrowed material - possible medium levels of irony

At this point, there is now a sense of how Berio has organized his landscape. The next step is to populate this complex field with life forms. Other authors have examined the origin of the quoted material (most notably David Osmond-Smith), and it is not the purpose of this analysis to find every single quoted item. Rather, this project will focus on only that material which is culled from Mahler’s Second Symphony, third movement. Since the purpose of this analysis is to determine the life forms, this section will be based primarily on thematic construction. Other quotations will be referenced as necessary. Having analyzed the formal structure of Mahler and Berio’s movements, the analysis of the Mahler material in the new context comes next. The following conditions will be assumed:

(1) The quoted material has an original context and a quoted context;

(2) There may or may not be a difference between the two contexts; and

131

(3) The interaction of the elements (life form with landscape, life form with life form,

landscape with landscape, combinations) will determine the context in the quoted

situation.

One area of interest, because of the motivic/rhythmic interactions present, begins around

measure 96 in Berio. This area in its original form (in Mahler, Trio I) is in F major and uses a

running sixteenth note theme. When this is transferred to the Berio, another challenge presents

itself. The material SHOULD be quoted at measure 101, but only the idea of F major is

transferred at this point (compare examples 5-17 and 5-18):

Ex. 5-17. Berio, mm. 96 - 101.42

Debussy, La mer, II

Mahler

( )

42 Berio, pp. 44 - 5.

132

Ex. 5-18. Mahler, starting five measures before rehearsal 32.43

The only idea to be transferred from the original theme in Mahler is the key area. Berio has stripped away most of the identifying markers, leaving only a downbeat F in the bassoons,

43 Mahler, pp. 254 - 5.

133 harp, and low strings. Example 5-19 shows Mahler’s score, with markings showing that material which did not successfully make the transition to Berio.

Ex. 5-19. Reduction showing transference from Mahler to Berio, mm. 99 - 101.

134

Ex. 5-19a. Graph showing change in original material.

Berio, mm. 95 - 101 120

100

80 Debussy La mer, II

60 Mahler goes "underground" 40 (Osmond-Smith's phrase) 20

0 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 % change from Mahler's instrumentation from Mahler's % change Measure

The sudden spike which occurs toward the end of the passage is due to the presence of non-Mahler instruments playing Mahler material at that particular point (including the tenor saxophone and horns, which originally played only G-flat and not B natural). Apart from that spike, the trend is toward dissolution of the source material. In addition, and though it seems counterintuitive at first glance, the spike is also an indication of instability, since in a very short time the percentage of Mahler changes a substantial amount (rising and falling over 40% in the space of one measure).

135

Adding to this is the presence of string lines that create rhythmic opposition to the main

3/8 feel; these lines, like so much from this section, are from the second movement of Debussy’s

La mer44 and operate in their own, duple rhythm:

Ex. 5-20. String rhythmic differences, mm. 97 - 103.45

44 Osmond-Smith 1985, p. 60. 45 Berio 1968, p. 45.

136

Another force that contributes to possible obliteration of structure (and possibly intent as

well) is the pitch material used in the duple meter sections. As mentioned above, the pitches

(from Debussy) bear a strong resemblance to the pitches used by Mahler in his Scherzo (see

chapter 4 for a discussion of what Catherine Losada terms “modulation” for more information on

this kind of resemblance), but here the interaction between the Mahler and Debussy life forms

causes the movement to seem to break down - the metrical structure changes from triple to duple, and the pitches are not distributed equally rhythmically. The effect then is that of a machine which is forced to grind to a halt.46 This may be a sign of a different and more common approach to postmodernism, that of deconstruction (see discussion in chapter 2), in which source material is broken down and reassembled in a different fashion (or barely put back together at all, which seems to be the case here). It is not at all odd to show a deconstruction in a reconstructive, ecosystem-based context; indeed, in nature deconstruction and decomposition is part of the reconstruction and evolution of life. Comparing the two occurrences, we find the Berio slows the line down (by using duple meter feel) and by changing direction multiple times:

Ex. 5-21. Comparison of Mahler line before 32 and Berio, mm. 98 - 101.

46 Mahler himself uses a similar device at rehearsal 41 (m. 288), though in different circumstances; my thanks to Dr. Joel Plaag of Lyon College for bringing this to my attention.

137

(ex. 5-21 cont.)

Two other elements are present. The oboe line, also from La mer and shown in example

5-22, takes the opposite approach of the strings, speeding up the process of the descending line:

Ex. 5-22. Oboe line, mm. 96 - 101.47

The second is the violin line shown at the top of ex. 5-20, which creates not just a duple meter structure against the prevailing triple meter but also renders the Mahler excerpt unrecognizable. Recall the theme:

47 Berio, p. 45.

138

Ex. 5-23. Mahler, mm. 101-107.48

Now observe the voice parts seven measures after E in Berio.

Ex. 5-23a. Voices, mm. 101 – 105, Berio.49

These voices are the last surviving vestiges of Mahler at this point; Mahler has been

(temporarily) subsumed by Debussy on the surface, though the underlying form is still based on

Mahler (see ex. 5-23b). Osmond-Smith says that La mer forces Mahler “underground,”50 though given the choice of La mer as the obscuring agent, perhaps “underwater” is the better terminology. Further, the subsuming of Mahler by Debussy means that material which was

48 Mahler, p. 255. 49 ibid., pp. 45 - 6. 50 Osmond-Smith 1985, p. 60.

139 expository in the original context is no longer expository, as it is no longer present. Here both formal function and motivic transference are thwarted, though the overall form remains.

Ex. 5-23b. Change from original.

Berio, mm. 102 - 105 70

Debussy 50 La mer, II continues forcing Mahler "underground" 30

102 103 104 105 % change from Mahler's instrumentation from Mahler's % change Measure

As the graph above shows, at this point Mahler’s original material all but disappears as it is subsumed by the other events in the Berio landscape.

The process of deconstruction is at work here as well. The first four notes of the theme are present in the first soprano, with one major change - the F has become an F-sharp, further removing the emphasis from F (the original pitch center of the excerpt). This also creates an all-

140

whole-tone pitch collection, mimicked in the first bass (continuing from the F# and finishing the

whole-tone scale).

The idea of adjusting a motive by one half-step is present a few measures later as well, as shown in example 5-24:

Ex. 5-24. Cello line in Berio, mm. 106 - 113.51

Ex. 5-25. Cello line in Mahler, mm. 103 - 112.52

Not only does the reconstructed cello life form appear later in the texture than originally,

it is also altered in some significant chromatic ways. In the first measure, it is transposed down a

51 Berio, pp. 46 - 7. 52 Mahler, pp. 254 - 5.

141

half step to E major (an act which is mirrored in the lower clarinets and bassoons), thus creating

a major clash with the original key of F major.

Berio also uses a rhythmic manipulation when the return of Mahler’s first theme is

transplanted, creating an effect of disambiguation from the original material and destruction of

context. In addition, the presence of additional instruments expands the material to a super-large structure:

Ex. 5-26. The first theme return as shown in Berio, depicted graphically.

Berio, mm. 141 - 153 300

250

200

150

100

50 Percent change change from Mahler Percent

0 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153

At this point, several players not in the original take up the Mahler entity. Chief among

these are the voices (all eight are involved), the alto saxophone and the piano. Though not

specifically a negating force, the orchestration of the line is made more colorful with the use of

piano and saxophone doubling selected pitches and patterns. (This is the rhythmic manipulation

described above.)

142

Example 5-27 gives the return as it originally happened in Mahler, and example 5-28 shows how the voices adapt this material.

Ex. 5-27. Mahler’s first return, mm. 148 - 156.53

53 Mahler, pp. 257 – 8.

143

Ex. 5-28. Voice lines, mm. 146 - 150.54

Berio uses a rhythmic mutation (described on page 126) to obliterate the form of Mahler

and create an ironic moment by interposing an excerpt from Le sacre du printemps. This

rhythmic mutation is shown in example 5-29, and doubles the speed of the rhythmic figure.

Ex. 5-29. The mutation of the rhythm from Mahler to Stravinsky.55

54 Ibid., p. 50. 55 Berio, pp. 52 - 3. Catherine Losada describes this as “rhythmic plasticity,” (Losada, pp. 116), a term similar to one used by Frank Samarotto (“temporal plasticity”) in his dissertation “A Theory of Temporal Plasticity in Tonal Music: An Extension of the Schenkerian Approach to Rhythm with Special Reference to Beethoven’s Late Music” (Ph.D. dissertation, City University of New York, 1999).

144

After the excerpt from Le Sacre, Berio returns to Mahler, adapting the opening C major

low strings theme (see ex. 5-4) to the new landscape in measure 187. This theme is forced to

adapt to hostile terrain by first being broken up into fragments and then by being subjected to

chromatic alterations and alternation of displacement and reinstatement of C as the pitch center:

Ex. 5-30. Low strings at measure 187.56

The destabilization of key center is completed here by removal of pitch centricity and by

alteration of orchestration. The upper strings and woodwinds contribute to the de-evolution of C major with highly chromatic motifs drawn from Stravinsky’s Agon:

56 ibid., pp. 55 - 6.

145

Ex. 5-31. Berio, Woodwinds, mm. 193 - 195.57 ( )

Stravinsky, Agon

Example 5-32 shows the chromatic bunching that occurs between C major and C minor

in this section, weakening C major as an area of pitch centricity.

Ex. 5-32. Berio. The chromatic collection from Agon.

C C

57 ibid., pp. 56 - 7.

146

There is a further breakdown in thematic material later on in the movement, as a diatonic line becomes much more chromatic. This breakdown, shown in example 5-33, is reinforced by an abrupt shift in dynamics (either a quick decrescendo or an immediate drop to pp).

Ex. 5-33. Fragments, mm. 230 - 232.58

The first tenor becomes increasingly agitated as well, with sforzando accents on certain words, and the other voices contribute to the mélange of sound with solfége and minor chromaticism.

58 ibid., p. 60.

147

Ex. 5-34. Voice parts at measure 271.59

Eventually, however, Mahler’s theme dissolves, both through the techniques shown in example 5-32 and also through the chromaticism shown in example 5-34; though that chromaticism leads to another tonal region, the region is not present at the cognate point in

Mahler.

59 ibid.

148

Ex. 5-34a. Graphical representation of ex. 5-34.

Berio, mm. 285 - 294 100

80 Elements of 70 Ravel, La valse and 60 Strauss, Rosenkavalier begin to appear 50

0 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 % change from Mahler's instrumentation from Mahler's % change Measure

At measure 308, after leaving the interlude, Berio continues with the broad trumpet theme of Mahler (“Sehr getragen und gesangvoll” – also slowing the music down as in Mahler) though he starts in the second measure of said theme. The key area has returned to E major, but after measure 327 another dissolution takes place with another line, this one a stray life form from La Valse trying to survive after its landscape has been re-overtaken by Mahler:

149

Ex. 5-35. Broad theme from Mahler, interrupted and dissolved (refer to example 5-6).60

At measure 334, Berio brings material from Mahler, measure 328. For the first time in the

Sinfonia, the material is presented in a different key area when quoted.

60 Berio, pp. 68 - 70.

150

Ex. 5-36. Berio, measure 334. Note instability in key area, beginning with G.61

Ex. 5-37. Mahler, rehearsal 43 (measure 328). Note key of C major at opening.62

61 Berio, pp. 71 - 2. 62 Mahler, p. 273.

151

At this point, Berio stretches the form with the insertion of approximately 12 measures,

interrupting the Mahler systematic entity and delaying the next major section. This may in part

explain the tonal instability of the previous section. This is accomplished both in terms of

material used (a chromaticized theme in the harp and keyboard instruments that seems connected

to the background in Mahler) and through a small but necessary increase in tempo three

measures before letter S. The original material reappears at measure 356, with some chromatic

alterations to undercut the prevailing tonality. Example 5-38 shows the themes from each, with the alterations.

152

Ex. 5-38. Mahler overlaid with Berio, mm. 357 - 367. Notes in brackets are altered.

At measure 472, Berio creates the illusion of stopped time by slowing down the rate of note change dramatically, with the only rhythmic motion coming from the three keyboard instruments and the voices, then adding severe crescendos and decrescendos. This section is also notable in that it is not related to Mahler formally or tonally in any way, though it most likely references measure 271 of Mahler (when the hemiolas “stop time” in the section - see example 5-

6). At measure 488, Berio, who explicitly modeled this work on the movement from Mahler, has given us an unexpected recapitulation, further undercutting the Mahler material present (or, at this point, not present - nothing from the original source has resurfaced since the subsumation). It is not until measure 502 that Mahler material resurfaces, resuming at the point where time

153 stopped in Berio. This material is quoted exactly, with the only non-Mahler motifs the occasional keyboard clusters. Beginning at measure 510, even the organ abandons the cluster to mimic the original tonal structure (ex. 5-39). This is an instance of a life form shaping the landscape instead of the other way around.

Ex. 5-39. The evolution of the organ part, mm. 510 - 518.63

The section from measure 518 to measure 550 shows the ultimate in dissolution, as the C major string lines are replaced with unpitched sounds.

63 ibid., pp. 89 - 90.

154

Ex. 5-40. Mahler line64 as transplanted to and destabilized by Berio.65

Mahler:

Ex. 5-40a. Graphic presentation of Berio’s version of this line:

Berio, mm. 517 - 544 120

100

80 Sustained wind chords

0 517518519520521522523524525526527528529530531532533534535536537538539540541542543544 % change from Mahler's instrumentation from Mahler's % change Measure

Berio then removes any trace of Mahler at measure 550, creating a landscape with no quotes. It is not until measure 568 that material from Mahler reappears, and only then in a

64 Mahler, pp. 286 - 7. 65 Berio, pp. 90 - 1.

155

highly fragmented form. From measure 568 to the end, more and more of Mahler rises to the

surface, with the only other forces being fragmentation and the use of text.

The C minor first theme fights for expression through the next section, appearing again

only in recognizable form just before letter V. Here, Berio presents the original with only a few

minor orchestration changes. Mahler presented this section (measures 400 - 407) as the transition

to the key of F major; for Berio, F major is present, but surrounded with augmented chords in the

organ and continuing chromatic lines in the bassoons. The upper woodwinds add to the

confusion with alternations between E and F. Once again, chromaticism has ironized a key area.

The running sixteenth note theme itself has been transformed, as before (see ex. 5-34), with the addition of rhythmic complexity and chromaticism.

In the cases shown above, ironic moments are created by the alteration of two essential characteristics. Usually form is not completely obliterated in these sections; rather, the formal functions and the structure of the motives have been altered.

5.07 Further analysis of borrowed material - harmony and lower levels of irony

When the levels of adaptation are smaller but based mostly around harmonic considerations, lower levels of irony may be present. This section examines the harmonic aspects.

As the motivic elements have changed (see previous section), the harmonic structure has been affected in various ways as well. The first major Mahler quote (shown in ex. 5-41), as it

156 appears in Berio, shows some major changes in its harmonic structure. In Mahler, the material reinforced C minor both melodically and harmonically (see examples 4-14, 5-1 and 5-2).

However, as the material appears in Berio, the C minor is obscured by the sonority in the middle line.

Ex. 5-41. Mahler’s first theme as superimposed in Berio, mm. 10 - 18.66

66 Berio, pp. 34 - 35.

157

In Example 5-41a, we see via the graph how much this section has adapted itself to its new surroundings:

Ex. 5-41a. Graphical realization of Ex. 5-41.

Berio, mm. 10 - 18 300

250

Schoenberg 200 Mahler op. 16, no. 3 m. 19 (fore- & shadow in Hindemith Debussy 150 saxophone) op. 36, no. 3, V La mer

100

0 % change from Mahler's instrumentation from Mahler's % change 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

The section starts with approximately 75% of Mahler’s original material intact, then drops to 25% before skyrocketing to nearly 200%. 200% means that the musical material is involved in more instruments not used by Mahler in his original - in this case, the voice parts.

After stabilizing at or near 100% for two measures, in measure 16 the material again expands beyond its original proportions and instrumentation, before trailing off to approximately 60% of its original size.

The observer will also notice the presence of a B-F# cluster in the organ and the pitch collection encompassing B to F# in the strings appearing in measure 7. In and of themselves,

158

those items are enough to pull pitch centricity away from C minor and negate the C minor

tonality of the violin line. The material is still expository in meaning, but the negation of C minor

has reduced the strength of the introduction from a harmonic standpoint.

Adding to the destabilized tonality are the tuba, piano, and harp; the piano and harp are

playing material from Debussy’s La Mer, which first appeared in measure 4; as a competing life

form, it contributes to the lessening of the ratio between the two pieces (see Appendix C).

Ex. 5-42. Harp, piano and tuba line at measure 8.67

Later on (at measure 106 - see example 5-24 and 5-43), the chromatic pitches E#, F#, and

G# are added to the line, further negating F major. By surrounding F major with pitches a half- step and whole-step away chromatically, Berio has seriously undercut the authority and meaning of F major.

67 Berio, p. 34.

159

Ex. 5-43. The surrounding of F major.

This disarming of F major continues with highly chromatic moving lines in the keyboard instruments; added to the above techniques, F major becomes a shadow of its former self. This section also ends with the declamation heard before “But now I shall say my old lesson, if I can remember it. But I must have said this before, since I say it now.” This time these lines are in the first tenor,68 tying this section with the memory of the tonality chromatically altered in example

5-43, as well as the surrounding/dissolution of the F major theme described in example 5-24.

68 ibid., p. 57.

160

As in Mahler, a fortissimo pickup prepares the listener for “Vorwärts!” at measure 210.

This section consists of the aggregate as filtered through dynamic waves (from ff to pp and

back). On the surface, this section appears unrecognizable when compared to Mahler’s source

material. The lowest sounding pitch is C, and the aggregate destroys any sense of pitch centricity

(the original has modulated to D at the cognate point). The thematic material, presented strongly

in the original, appears to have disappeared altogether in Berio’s reconstruction. The aggregate

landscape has overwhelmed the Mahler life forms at this point. Close observation, though, shows

the presence of much of Mahler’s landscape on top of the aggregate. While it is true that much of

the theme is missing, some key ideas are clearly present. Among them is one measure of a tutti

string line, pulled up and promoted (in the breach, perhaps, since the measure does decrescendo)

as being the first recognizable section of the original (see ex. 5-44 for a comparison). The other is a fragment, originally in the woodwinds and horns, presented this time in the horns alone. This is the only moving line (other than percussion rhythms) present when it sounds, as the rest of the orchestra sustains an aggregate cluster (see ex. 5-45 for a comparison).

161

Ex. 5-44. Comparison of string lines in Berio (measure 210)69 and Mahler (reh. 37, mm. 212 - 220)70

Berio:

69 Berio, p. 58. 70 Mahler, p. 262.

162

(ex. 5-44 cont.)

Mahler:

163

Ex. 5-45. Comparison of horn lines at the same points.

Berio:

Mahler:

164

Ex. 5-45a. Graphic representation of Berio, mm. 210 - 219.

Berio, mm. 210 - 219 18

14 Aggregate 12

0 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 % change from Mahler's instrumentation from Mahler's % change Measure

Almost immediately, the aggregate is itself surrounded by its own chromatic pitches, as individual instruments move up and down by half steps from the pitches established at the opening of this section. Ultimately, this leads to a restatement, in altered form, of the aggregate

(ex. 5-46 shows this motion in the strings – the other instruments share similar motion):

165

Ex. 5-46. Chromatic movement, mm. 224 - 229 (rhythm normalized).71

Mahler’s original work gave the “Vorwärts!” theme three times - once in D major, once

with a false start in E major and once in C major (see table 5-2). Berio presents the gesture that opens the theme - an eighth note pick up on the dominant - three times, though the material itself

(in the highly altered form described above) only occurs twice. Rehearsal L is the second attempt to present the “Vorwärts!” theme, though in this case it breaks down almost immediately when the voices reenter. All that is left of the prevailing idea from the original are little fragments of D major, and even those are counteracted by the presence of D-flat scales in localized areas.

Example 5-47 traces the progress of the tonal center in the original as compared to the lowest-sounding pitch in the Sinfonia:

71 ibid., p. 59.

166

Ex. 5-47. Tonal progress.

m. 210 m. 230 m. 255

Berio requires a false start and more time to reach the same tonal goal, though ultimately the C-D-E movement of the source material is accomplished. This requires the life form to evolve a longer lifespan, as it were, and alters its fundamental structure. The fundamental structure has been altered before - see example 5-14a in which the material quickly expands to over 200% of its normal size. With the adjustments, the theme takes on aspects of the grotesque, and even through the fleeting moments of sincerity irony is omnipresent. The entity evolves from simply expository to a combination of expository and developmental.

Given the tonal complexities and dynamic waves of Berio’s “Vorwärts!,” the music at letter N is surprising in its sheer naiveté. Here Berio quotes Mahler with almost 100% precision, using the broad trumpet theme of measure 271 with no alterations to the orchestration. The initial two measures of letter N in the strings still show residual dissonance, but that is soon removed and the Mahler E major section is placed upon a landscape of simple, open, expansive strings.

Berio even uses the same tempo marking as Mahler (“Sehr getragen und gesangvoll”). The only idea undercutting the simplicity is the first tenor, speaking of “selected passages, old favourites, or someone improvising.”72 It is not until the seventeenth bar of letter N that forces of chromaticism and rhythmic agitation enter the picture, hinting that a transformation is about to

72 ibid., pp. 64 - 5.

167 take place. Even in the midst of the chromaticism, a clear tonal structure is still in place, as E major is gradually transformed into A major.

Ex. 5-48. Tonal motion before letter O.73

m. 270 m. 288 m. 293 m. 295

At this point in Mahler, the opening material recurs (measure 348, ex. 5-49). The approach to this return is imitated by Berio in its entirety, but the theme itself is once again almost completely subsumed by the aggregate. This serves two purposes: (1) it removes the tonal context of the theme; and (2) it pulls the tonal structure from the formal structure. In Mahler, the recapitulation is strengthened by the use of C minor scales in the cello.

73 ibid.., pp. 65 - 6.

168

Ex. 5-48. Mahler, Strings at rehearsal 44 (measure 348).74

Berio does not just avoid C minor in the foundation of this section – he obliterates it with a combination of chromatic runs and diminished chords coupled with major seconds in the low strings (see example 5-49). These are life forms from Alban Berg’s Wozzeck, and appear in that work at Act III, measure 284, in which Wozzeck drowns.75 The theme surfaces in fragments here and there, but all tonal context has been subsumed; the “drowning,” signified by the material from Wozzeck, negates any original meaning with which Mahler may have imbued it.

74 Mahler, p. 275. 75 Osmond-Smith, Playing on Words, p. 67.

169

Ex. 5-49. Berio, Strings, mm. 375 - 377.76

Between Mahler’s source material (about Saint Anthony preaching to the fishes), La mer and the scene from Wozzeck, one must conclude that this ecosystem includes not only land (since

Osmond-Smith describes the action as Mahler going “underground”77) but also water.

The above examples show that when only one aspect of the material is substantially altered (i.e., form is unaffected but a major harmonic change), it is possible to find a low level of irony present. Chapter 6 will examine where the ironic moments are, and why.

76 Berio, pp. 74 - 5. 77 Osmond-Smith 1985, p. 60.

170

5.08 Small Life Forms

To further explore issues of quotation, this analyst has identified three small “life forms,”

which are musical ideas of five to eight measures. Though Berio has taken entire sections of

Mahler as source material, these small life forms are excerpted from those larger sections for the

purpose of showing the abovementioned parenthetical analysis. To assist in visualization of this

idea, imagine the large sections brought over from Mahler as continents. The three smaller

themes chosen may be considered as life forms present on those continents. These quotations

each have easily identifiable traits, facilitating the proposed analysis.

The first of these “small life forms” is a sequential line passing through the clarinets and

flutes starting at measure 57. This line will germinate into an important motive for both the

Mahler work and its corresponding quotation in the Berio work.

Ex. 5-50. Reduction of the chromatic clarinet and flute line in Mahler Symphony No. 2, III, mm. 57 - 63.78

78 Mahler, p. 251.

171

This line appears again at measure 96 of Mahler’s Second Symphony, movement III, and is then expanded to include oboes, bassoons, and strings. It is altered to reach a tonal goal of F major instead of C minor, and thus in this iteration is developmental and transitional.79 The final statement (since the first appearance of the line is left out of the brief recapitulation) occurs in measure 400.80

The second theme of interest from the opening pages of the third movement of Mahler’s

Second Symphony is originally stated in the oboes, clarinets, bassoons, and horns at measure 75:

Ex. 5-51. Woodwind and horn material, “Nicht eilen,” Mahler, mm. 75 - 79.81

79 ibid., pp. 253 - 4. 80 ibid., pp. 278 - 9. 81 ibid., p. 252.

172

This reappears in an evolved form in the first flute and first oboe at measure 136 (as shown below, in example 5-60),82 and once more at measure 379, this time with all woodwinds, trumpets, and violas present .83

The final theme of interest, shown in example 5-52, appears at measure 176.

Ex. 5-52. Clarinet/bassoon/horn melody, mm. 176 – 180.84

This same melody will return at measure 560, with assistance from the bassoons and cellos, in C minor.85

82 ibid., p. 256. 83 ibid., p. 277. 84 ibid., pp. 259 - 60. 85 ibid., p. 293.

173

How do these smaller life forms fare in the transition and transformation? The later into the movement a small life form appears, the less likely it is to take root and survive more or less intact in the new landscape created by Berio. Put another way, expository entities do better than transitional or developmental entities.

Examining each life form after its transition to Berio reveals interesting results. The first life form survives fairly well. Though chaos is breaking around it, it keeps its form and melodic structure intact (see example 5-53).

Ex. 5-53. Mahler line transferred intact to Berio in its first appearance, mm. 50 - 61.86

However, its second appearance requires it to make changes (above and beyond those necessary to move to F major), including a major change in orchestration (loss of the flutes), and the appearance of material from La mer (see examples 5-17 and 5-54).

86 Berio, pp. 40 - 1.

174

Ex. 5-54. Second appearance of same line, mm. 89 - 100.87

In Mahler, this line appeared three times; when transferred to Berio, the line is almost completely obliterated in its third appearance. All that is left are two fragments at the beginning and in the middle; following that, the descending major thirds are extended well beyond their original goal:

87 ibid., pp. 44 - 5.

175

Ex. 5-55. Last appearance of same line in Berio, mm. 408 - 427.88

With each appearance, as table 5-3 and examples 5-56 through 5-58 show, less and less is left of the original idea, a sign that the new landscape is increasingly inhospitable to an exact replication of this idea.

88 ibid., pp. 78 - 9.

176

Table 5-3. Comparison of the original small life form with its evolutions.

Mahler Berio

Iteration 1 C major Mostly Intact

Iteration 2 F major Fragmentary

Iteration 3 C major, minor changes Non-existent

Ex. 5-56. Graphic representation of Berio, mm. 50 - 61.

Berio, mm. 50 - 61 160

140

120

100

% Change from Mahler's Instrumentation Mahler's from % Change 20

0 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61

177

Ex. 5-57. Graphic representation of Berio, mm. 89 - 100.

Berio, mm. 89 - 100 180

160

140

120

100

20 % Change from Mahler's Instrumentation Mahler's from % Change 0 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

Ex. 5-58. Graphic representation of Berio, mm. 408 - 427.

Berio, mm. 408 - 427 120

100

% Change from Mahler's Instrumentation Mahler's from % Change 0 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427

178

The second small life form makes an almost-equally identical transfer to Berio’s ecosystem, but not without an interruption in the clarinets and bassoons:

Ex. 5-59. Second small line as it appears for the first time in Berio, mm. 73 - 77.89

Also note the appearance of a dotted-eighth - sixteenth - eighth rhythm in the second full measure of the line (in the brass). This adaptation allows the line to survive in the new

89 ibid., p. 42.

179 environment, but it also weakens its original contour and intent; instead of fulfilling a larger, more important thematic role, the line is interrupted and must alter its basic shape to survive. In a way, though, the interpolation of the rhythm creates a mechanism for a type of line propagation – the rhythm forms the basis for the rhythm at one measure before F, which then launches a new thematic idea.90

The next appearance of this line features the destruction of the original orchestration

(flute and oboe disappear after one measure and are replaced by harp) and by the collapse of the rhythm.

Ex. 5-60. Second appearance of same line, mm. 134 - 137.91

90 Though it is not an exact cognate, this is similar to Catherine Losada’s use of the term “pitch convergence” to describe when two separate quotations are linked by a single pitch (Losada, pp. 102 - 7); while this is not a convergence, it is a foreshadowing. 91 Berio, p. 49.

180

The third appearance does not survive in the new environment. If Berio is still using

Mahler’s framework (with the adaptations described by Osmond-Smith and cited above), it should occur approximately somewhere between rehearsal T and rehearsal U, and there is nothing within those measures that even suggests the presence of the second line. The second life form appears further into the movement than the first life form; we expect it to have a harder time staying intact, as per the general trend toward increased adaptation/change further into the movement. Catherine Losada has postulated that “thematic connections are maintained through clear references at the opening of the section and increasing deviation that retains features of the original in a comparable way”92 In short, this analysis agrees with that postulation - increasing commentary may obliterate thematic material while still keeping thematic and formal connections.

The third idea (example 5-52) never even gets a chance, as the ground where it would walk has been subsumed by the systematic entity from Stravinsky’s Le Sacre du Printemps. As such, there is no second appearance. Because of the massive shift in landscape with the appearance of a section of Sacre, there was no possibility of the third small idea surviving.

5.09 Final thought

Example 5-61, given on the next page, is the summary graph of how Mahler’s material is transformed throughout the entire movement. (Appendix C gives the same information, as well as the appearances of material from Stravinsky, Ravel and Strauss, in fifty-measure increments.)

Notice that, while Mahler’s material expands and contracts wildly in the first 158 measures, it

92 Losada 2004, p. 63.

181 remains present. After the appearance of Stravinsky, gaps begin to appear. After the first significant gap, the fluctuations are much more tame.

Ex. 5-61. How Mahler adapts in Berio’s landscape.

Mahler to Berio Transference 350

300

250

200

150

100

% Change from Mahler's Intrumentation Mahler's from % Change 50

0 1 39 58 77 96 20 115 134 153 172 191 210 229 248 267 286 305 324 343 362 381 400 419 438 457 476 495 514 533 552 571

The final chapter will draw some conclusions from this with regard to irony.

182

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSIONS AND DERIVATIONS

6.01 Irony and Berio

Ultimately, just how ironic is the Sinfonia? At the beginning of this project, this analyst was convinced that irony held a central role in the meaning of the work. As the analysis developed, however, it became evident that, while there are many ironic moments (usually involving the aggregate and localized ironies that do not really pull away from the larger meaning of the use of Mahler), there are two points that generate a near-total ironic situation and two points of medium irony, as well as five points of smaller irony.

Table 6.1. Ironic moments in Berio, Sinfonia, III.

Location (measure) Event Level of irony 95 Subsuming of texture by La mer Medium 143 Massive growth of material (ex. 5-26) Low 178 Le sacre du printemps High 210 1st statement of “Vorwärts!” Low 295 La valse and Rosenkavalier High 325 Subsuming of texture by Wozzeck Medium 457 “Vorwärts” overtaken by aggregate Low 488 Formal confusion Low 550 Form remains while material slowly returns Low

The first of these two major points is the appearance of the Stravinsky material at measure 178 (as shown in chapter 5, example 5-29). Not only does the material from Mahler’s

Second Symphony completely disappear at this point, the agent of disappearance is not, as it has

183

been in so many other examples, the aggregate. Instead, the agent is material from a work which

has had no relevance to the Sinfonia up to this point. To draw upon the ecological model

mentioned in previous chapters, it is as if one systematic entity (Mahler) has been dropped into a

new landscape (Berio), and then a further entity (Stravinsky) - one much larger and more

powerful - was dropped on top of the first one. One would not expect the portion of the original

entity covered by the more powerful one to remain intact; of course, one would not expect

another major entity to appear out of nowhere. It is the surprise of the appearance of Le sacre du

Printemps that creates cognitive dissonance. At the very least, the appearance of Stravinsky

subverts every expectation. Even though there have been quotes of other pieces, the material

from Mahler has been predominant throughout; now its primacy has been rejected, and the

underlying intent has been altered to the point of negation. Soon enough, the Stravinsky material

disappears and is replaced by more from Mahler, satisfying expectations.

The second such point is at measure 295 (see chapter 5, example 5-42), with the

appearance of the quotes from Strauss and Ravel. Not only does the appearance of a new entity

affect the piece in the way that the Le Sacre quote did, but now Berio seems to be ironizing the

idea of a Scherzo movement by replacing the underlying Ländler with a different folk idiom - a

waltz. While both are in triple meter, each has its own genealogy and history, and Berio is most

likely playing on the subtle differences between the two to subvert our expectations further.

These two moments are the moments of greatest irony in the movement; the intent (a

history of the symphony) is negated by the appearance of three major non-symphony entities (Le

Sacre, La Valse, and Der Rosenkavalier), which obliterate the form entirely and destroy any motivic and harmonic connections with MahlerWhile all other ironies have been localized and

184 applied only to the life forms from Mahler’s Second Symphony, these moments apply to the entire movement.

The two medium ironic points are the points where water overtakes the ecosystem - the subsuming by La mer (m. 95) and by the drowning music from Wozzeck (m. 375). The form of

Mahler’s material remains intact, but the harmonic and motivic material disappears from the scene.

The five points of smaller irony are: Measure 143 (in which the material grew to 250% of its original size; see example 5-26), measure 210 (first statement of “Vorwärts!”), measure

457/rehearsal Y (in which the second statement of “Vorwärts!” was obliterated by the aggregate), measure 488/rehearsal AA (in which Berio’s first gesture, from Schoenberg, returns; this is nowhere near the comparable return point in Mahler), and measure 550/rehearsal EE (as at measure 143, the form remains while the material disappears and slowly returns).

Regarding the events at measure 143: Though at first glance this section is perhaps the least ironic, since only one technique of alteration - addition of other instruments/voices - is used while the original material is transplanted almost completely intact, it is possible that the theatrical device of deconstructing the piece via the voices singing the solfége syllables of the violin line with no alterations at all (see ex. 5-28) leads to greater ironization than first appearances suggest1. As a countermeasure to the irony, the text of the first bass reads “I shall say my old lesson now, if I can remember it,”2 which when coupled with the minor rhythmic deviations in the line and no other drastic changes creates an effect of sincerity and a desire to recreate the original source material as exactly as possible.

1 I am grateful to Catherine Losada for this suggestion. 2 ibid., p. 51. The text is from Samuel Beckett’s The Unnameable. 185

For measure 210, the two competing ideas (“Vorwärts!” in the text and the pickup but the

aggregate following and two small extracts from Mahler in the strings and horns), while

sounding almost inconsequential in their new context, actually perform an act of sincerity (one of the few in the piece). By presenting only a small section of a tuneful melody devoid of tonal context, Berio seems to imply the “Vorwärts!” theme is not an idea to be mocked on a grand scale. Rather, he seems to take as little of it as he can into his texture so as to preserve the intent of the original while still giving the listener enough to understand the context. As stated earlier, the effect created by the false start on the second statement of the “Vorwärts!” theme is one of denial of expectation - this is one of the many possible definitions of irony.

Is it possible Berio is ironizing not just Mahler but also himself here? As was shown in examples 5-34, 5-35 and 5-37, the technique of surrounding a pitch with its nearest chromatic neighbors has been used before by Berio as an ironizing force - and, as was implied in footnote

60, it is possible to see self-irony in other sections of the work as well. Berio may have managed to create a second layer of irony by destabilizing the aggregate - a context that has already been used to destabilize tonality. The aggregate ironizes the tonal nature of the quoted material; the surrounding of the aggregate with half-step motion (giving the aggregate structures a sense of voice leading) ironizes the aggregate. By ironizing the irony, Berio casts the sincerity of his irony into doubt.3 As to the question of intent with regard to the destabilized aggregate, it may

simply be that Berio wished to create a tonal wash before going into the next section.

Later in the movement, as “the name of Majakowsky hangs in the clean air”4 after the

disintegration of the “F major” section, Berio takes Mahler’s pseudo-reprise of the “Vorwärts!”

3 The author is well aware of the contradiction inherent in the term “sincerity of irony.” See D. C. Muecke’s definition of “ingénu irony,” described earlier in this work, for a possible explanation of what can be meant by the term “sincerity of irony.” 4 Berio, p. 83. 186

section and lays it on top of what at first is an hospitable landscape, with no ironizing forces at

the start. This section is soon quite literally obliterated with irony, however, through several

mechanisms. First, the tonal space is subsumed by the aggregate within five measures. Second,

after the original gesture, the rhythm is distorted. Third, only fragments of the theme appear after

the first statement, giving the effect of the theme flailing about while drowning in a sea of

chromaticism and rhythmic alteration.

At measure 472, Berio creates the illusion of stopped time by slowing down the rate of

note change dramatically, with the only rhythmic motion coming from the three keyboard

instruments and the voices, then adding severe crescendos and decrescendos. This section is also

notable in that it is not related to Mahler formally or tonally in any way, though it most likely

references measure 271 of Mahler (when the hemiolas “stop time” in the section - see example 5-

6).

At measure 488, as mentioned above, we find as close to a recapitulation as can be found

in the movement. There is irony at work here as well, since the return of the opening idea of

Mahler’s movement happened at rehearsal S in Berio, but was weakened both tonally and

formally (as described in example 5-47).

In this case, Berio, who explicitly modeled this work on the movement from Mahler, has

given us an unexpected recapitulation, further negating the intent of the Mahler material present

(or, at this point, not present – nothing from the original source has resurfaced since the

subsuming by Wozzeck). It is not until measure 502 that Mahler material resurfaces, resuming at the point where time stopped in Berio. This material is quoted exactly, with the only non-Mahler

motifs the occasional keyboard clusters. Beginning at measure 510, even the organ abandons the

cluster to mimic the original tonal structure (ex. 5-49). This is an instance of a life form shaping

187 the landscape instead of the other way around, and provides an ironic counterpoint to the process thus far. This represents the ultimate triumph of irony, and the aggregate, (the keyboard clusters) while still present begins to broaden out to woodwind lines, since it has achieved its goal of ironizing a line beyond any original meaning.

From measure 568 to the end, more and more of Mahler rises to the surface, with the only ironizing forces being fragmentation and the use of text. Text is, to be sure, a strong force for irony in this section, as the first tenor transcends both the landscape and the lifeforms by speaking directly to the audience by first introducing the singers (“Shall I make my introductions?”)5 and then thanking the conductor at the end of the movement (“Thank you Mr.

*,” where * is signified in a note as being the “[f]ull name of the conductor”).6

Even though the end is ironized by the breaking of the fourth wall (described above), this is a gentle irony - one that lets the listener know that Berio indeed does enjoy Mahler (the last statement is thanking the conductor, presumably for the opportunity to take part in this process of commentary on a beloved piece of music) and has put the movement through these transformations to show that, even by negating intent, one cannot destroy the strength of character and of sound that constitutes Mahler’s œuvre. The graphs in Appendix C confirm this, and show another irony - this last irony being possibly the strongest of all. The irony shown by the chart is that, while Mahler is the heart of and basis for this movement, the landscape prepared by Berio forces Mahler’s material first to adapt into structures of extreme size (becoming as large as 340% of original size and as small as <1% of original size), then to disappear for large stretches (the Stravinsky and Waltz sections), then finally to become highly fragmented before finishing in more or less its original form. To restate an idea from chapter 5 of this study, the

5 ibid., p. 94. 6 ibid., p. 96. 188 further into Mahler an entity appears, the less likely it is to survive when transferred to Berio.

Thematic non-survival and form dissolution lead to the following conclusion: For a movement which purports to hold up Mahler as the model, the third movement of Sinfonia pushes that model to the breaking point.

The original goal of this project was to see if ironic meaning could be shown musically, and in the process a methodology was created that is adaptable for not just ironic meaning but multiple types of musical meaning. Since an ecological approach affords flexibility, others may utilize it in many different ways.

189

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195 APPENDIX A

Appendix A is a measure-by-measure breakdown of the third movement of Gustav

Mahler’s Symphony no. 2. If an instrument is playing in a given measure, a 1 is placed at the corresponding point. In the case of divided string parts, a decimal equivalent is used (i.e., half of the first violins playing would generate an entry of .50). The second-to-last row is the number of instruments playing in each measure, and the last row is the percentage of the orchestra playing in each measure (out of 47 possible instruments).

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Mahler, Symphony no. 2, III

Measure #1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Fl 1 Fl 2 Fl 3 (Picc) Fl 4 (Picc) Ob 1 Ob 2 Ob 3 (EH) 1 1 1 1 Ob 4 (EH) Cl 1 1 1 1 1 Cl 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 Cl 3 (Bs Cl) Cl 4 1 1 1 Cl 5 Bsn 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Bsn 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 Bsn 3 (Cbsn) 1 1 1 1 Bsn 4 (Cbsn) Hn 1 Hn 2 Hn 3 Hn 4 Hn 5 Hn 6 Tpt 1 Tpt 2 Tpt 3 Tpt 4 Tbn 1 Tbn 2 Tbn 3 Tuba Timp 1 1 1 1 Timp 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Perc 1 1 1 1 Perc 2 1 1 1 1 1 Perc 3 1 Perc 4 Perc 5 Hp 1 Hp 2 Org Vln 1 1 1 1 1 Vln 2 1 1 Vla 1 1 Vc 1 1 1 1 Cb 1 1 Measure #1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Total Inst 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 2 4 5 8 10 13 14 4 4 % 2.13 2.13 0 2.13 0 2.13 2.13 4.26 8.51 10.6 17 21.3 27.7 29.8 8.51 8.51

197

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 4 4 4 5 7 5 6 5 6 7 7 9 7 7 6 7 9 8.51 8.51 8.51 10.6 14.9 10.6 12.8 10.6 12.8 14.9 14.9 19.1 14.9 14.9 12.8 14.9 19.1

198

33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 5 5 5 7 6 7 5 7 17 17 17 14.9 14.9 14.9 14.9 14.9 10.6 10.6 10.6 14.9 12.8 14.9 10.6 14.9

199

49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 6 7 5 6 2 5 6 6 11 10 10 10 9 7 7 6 12.8 14.9 10.6 12.8 4.26 10.6 12.8 12.8 23.4 21.3 21.3 21.3 19.1 14.9 14.9 12.8

200

65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 6 7 11 9 9 9 9 7 7 7 17 16 17 17 17 5 12.8 14.9 23.4 19.1 19.1 19.1 19.1 14.9 14.9 14.9 36.2 34 36.2 36.2 36.2 10.6

201

202

81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96

1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 5 3 8 8 10 6 9 5 9 6 7 2 10 10 10 16 10.6 6.38 17 17 21.3 12.8 19.1 10.6 19.1 12.8 14.9 4.26 21.3 21.3 21.3 34

203

97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 18 18 18 15 16 9 6 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 38.3 38.3 38.3 31.9 34 19.1 12.8 6.38 6.38 8.51 8.51 8.51 8.51 8.51 8.51 12.8

204

113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 9 9 10 12 10 9 6 7 2 3 3 6 10 9 10 10 19.1 19.1 21.3 25.5 21.3 19.1 12.8 14.9 4.26 6.38 6.38 12.8 21.3 19.1 21.3 21.3

205

129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 8 7 8 8 8 7 7 10 9 8 8 11 11 11 10 13 17 14.9 17 17 17 14.9 14.9 21.3 19.1 17 17 23.4 23.4 23.4 21.3 27.7

206

145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 16 14 20 21 7 7 7 7 6 7 9 11 11 7 7 8 34 29.8 42.6 44.7 14.9 14.9 14.9 14.9 12.8 14.9 19.1 23.4 23.4 14.9 14.9 17

207

161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 6 6 9 9 9 9 12 13 9 9 6 7 8 8 7 16 12.8 12.8 19.1 19.1 19.1 19.1 25.5 27.7 19.1 19.1 12.8 14.9 17 17 14.9 34

208

177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 0.67 0.33 0.33 0.33 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 9 14 11 13.7 7.33 7.33 7.33 4 5 10 6 8 14 4 4 4 19.1 29.8 23.4 29.1 15.6 15.6 15.6 8.51 10.6 21.3 12.8 17 29.8 8.51 8.51 8.51

209

193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 0.83 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 0.5 0.83 0.5 0.83 1 1 1 1 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 0.5 0.83 0.5 0.83 1 1 1 1 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 3.33 3 3 3 3 4 4 7 6 7.67 6 7 3 3 3 3 7.09 6.38 6.38 6.38 6.38 8.51 8.51 14.9 12.8 16.3 12.8 14.9 6.38 6.38 6.38 6.38

210

209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.67 0.67 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.67 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 6.17 6.34 16.5 18 18 18 30 30 31 31 27 20 14 14 33 27 13.1 13.5 35.1 38.3 38.3 38.3 63.8 63.8 66 66 57.4 42.6 29.8 29.8 70.2 57.4

211

225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1

0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.83 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 23 23 23 21 21 21 22 23 23 18 3 3 3 4.33 2.5 2.5 48.9 48.9 48.9 44.7 44.7 44.7 46.8 48.9 48.9 38.3 6.38 6.38 6.38 9.22 5.32 5.32

212

241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 1.83 2.83 2 19.5 5.32 5.32 5.32 5.32 7.45 3.89 3.89 3.89 3.89 3.89 3.89 3.89 3.89 6.02 4.26 41.5

213

257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 18 18 18 31 29 29 18 26 21 18 13 27 23 23 24 8 38.3 38.3 38.3 66 61.7 61.7 38.3 55.3 44.7 38.3 27.7 57.4 48.9 48.9 51.1 17

214

273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 1 1

1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 6 8 8 10 8 9 8 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 10.5 11.5 13.5 14.5 17 12.8 17 17 21.3 17 19.1 17 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 22.3 24.5 28.7 30.9 36.2

215

289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 13 13 14 13.7 12.5 12.5 13.5 13.2 5 5 5 5 5 5.5 5.5 23 27.7 27.7 29.8 29.1 26.6 26.6 28.7 28 10.6 10.6 10.6 10.6 10.6 11.7 11.7 48.9

216

305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 21 21 22 13 12 11 11 12 10 12 11 13 12 13 12 14 44.7 44.7 46.8 27.7 25.5 23.4 23.4 25.5 21.3 25.5 23.4 27.7 25.5 27.7 25.5 29.8

217

321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 10 11 9 13 11 10 10 5 4 4 5.5 7.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 9.5 21.3 23.4 19.1 27.7 23.4 21.3 21.3 10.6 8.51 8.51 11.7 16 18.1 18.1 18.1 20.2

218

337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 7.5 8.5 7.5 13.5 13 15 13 18 16 16 34 3 8 6.5 9.5 4.5 16 18.1 16 28.7 27.7 31.9 27.7 38.3 34 34 72.3 6.38 17 13.8 20.2 9.57

219

353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 6.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 4.5 8 8 8 8 8 8 11 11 10 10 4 13.8 5.32 5.32 5.32 9.57 17 17 17 17 17 17 23.4 23.4 21.3 21.3 8.51

220

369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 4 7 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 15 10 20 18 20 4.5 8.51 14.9 21.3 21.3 21.3 21.3 21.3 19.1 19.1 19.1 31.9 21.3 42.6 38.3 42.6 9.57

221

385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 4.5 4 6 6.5 8.5 5.5 8 5.5 8.5 6 8 3 11 11 11 19 9.57 8.51 12.8 13.8 18.1 11.7 17 11.7 18.1 12.8 17 6.38 23.4 23.4 23.4 40.4

222

401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 20 21 21 21 15 9 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 8 42.6 44.7 44.7 44.7 31.9 19.1 10.6 10.6 10.6 12.8 12.8 12.8 12.8 12.8 12.8 17

223

417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 9 10 10 9 7 7 4 6 5 7 5 8 12 12 12 12 19.1 21.3 21.3 19.1 14.9 14.9 8.51 12.8 10.6 14.9 10.6 17 25.5 25.5 25.5 25.5

224

433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 12 9 10 10 10 9 10 17 27 27 27 39 37 37 39 39 25.5 19.1 21.3 21.3 21.3 19.1 21.3 36.2 57.4 57.4 57.4 83 78.7 78.7 83 83

225

449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 38 32 33 33 35 35 33 33 33 34 35 35 25 25 25 37 80.9 68.1 70.2 70.2 74.5 74.5 70.2 70.2 70.2 72.3 74.5 74.5 53.2 53.2 53.2 78.7

226

465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 42 40 40 40 36 30 30 30 31 20 20 20 20 20 20 22 89.4 85.1 85.1 85.1 76.6 63.8 63.8 63.8 66 42.6 42.6 42.6 42.6 42.6 42.6 46.8

227

481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 26 18 17 17 15 11 12 11 14 14 14 14.5 14.5 13.5 13.5 17.5 55.3 38.3 36.2 36.2 31.9 23.4 25.5 23.4 29.8 29.8 29.8 30.9 30.9 28.7 28.7 37.2

228

497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 510 511 512 16.5 16.5 9.5 10 18 13 14 14 12.5 12.5 13.5 17.5 13.5 12.5 9.5 8.5 35.1 35.1 20.2 21.3 38.3 27.7 29.8 29.8 26.6 26.6 28.7 37.2 28.7 26.6 20.2 18.1

229

513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 0.67 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 17.7 15.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 12.5 15.5 18 17 8 8 10 10 5 7 4 37.6 33 30.9 30.9 30.9 26.6 33 38.3 36.2 17 17 21.3 21.3 10.6 14.9 8.51

230

529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 7 11 9 11 8 9 8 9 12 13 13 13 14 13 15 36 14.9 23.4 19.1 23.4 17 19.1 17 19.1 25.5 27.7 27.7 27.7 29.8 27.7 31.9 76.6

231

545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 4 5 4 5 3 3 5 5 7 8 7 9 5 5 4 12 8.51 10.6 8.51 10.6 6.38 6.38 10.6 10.6 14.9 17 14.9 19.1 10.6 10.6 8.51 25.5

232

561 562 563 564 565 566 567 568 569 570 571 572 573 574 575 576 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 568 569 570 571 572 573 574 575 576 11 17 15 16.5 13.5 13.5 12.5 13.5 18.5 19 17 17 19 17 15 14 23.4 36.2 31.9 35.1 28.7 28.7 26.6 28.7 39.4 40.4 36.2 36.2 40.4 36.2 31.9 29.8

233

577 578 579 580 581 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 577 578 579 580 581 12 5 6 6 8 25.5 10.6 12.8 12.8 17

234

APPENDIX B

Appendix B is a measure-by-measure breakdown of the third movement of Luciano

Berio’s Sinfonia. If an instrument is playing in a given measure, a 1 is placed at the

corresponding point. If the instrument is playing for a fraction of the full measure, a decimal

equivalent is placed at the corresponding point. The fourth-to-last row is the number of instruments playing in each measure. The third-to-last row is the percentage of the orchestra playing in each measure (out of 49 possible instruments). The second-to-last row is the corresponding measure in the third movement of Mahler’s Symphony no. 2 (CMM), and the last row is the percentage of Mahler’s material that remains in Berio’s work.

235

(m #) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Fl 1 Fl 2 Fl 3 Picc Cl 1 1 1 1 1 Cl 2 1 1 1 Cl 3 1 1 1 Eb Cl Ob 1 Ob 2 EH 0.33 1 AS TS Bsn 1 0.5 1 1 1 1 Bsn 2 1 1 1 1 Cbsn 1 1 1 Hn 1 Hn 2 Hn 3 Hn 4 Tpt 1 Tpt 2 Tpt 3 Tpt 4 Tbn 1 Tbn 2 Tbn 3 Tuba Harp 1 1 1 1 1 Pno Org Hpschd Perc 1 1 1 1 Perc 2 Perc 3 S 1 1 1 1 S 2 1 1 1 A 1 1 1 1 A 2 1 1 1 T 1 1 T 2 1 B 1 B 2 Vln A 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Vln B 1 1 Vln C Vla Vc 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Cb 1 1 1 1 1 (m #) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 # insts 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 4 7 7.33 10 3 8 8 4 4 10 % 0 0 0 0 0 1.02 8.16 14.3 15 20.4 6.12 16.3 16.3 8.16 8.16 20.4 CMM 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 % to orig 8.51 10.6 17 21.3 27.7 29.8 8.51 8.51 8.51 8.51 8.51 0 0 0 0 0 12 76.7 83.9 70.3 73.8 20.6 192 192 95.9 95.9 240

236 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 1 1 1 0.83 1 1 0.17 1 1 0.17

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0.67 0.67 0.17 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.67 0.33

0.5 0.33 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.67

0.33 1 1 1

0.83 0.17 0.83

1 0.5

1 1 0.5 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 0.67 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.67 0.33 0.33 0.67 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 3.5 4.5 3.33 4.67 5 5 5 5 6 6 4.33 3.83 3.83 5.67 5.33 5.5 7.14 9.18 6.8 9.53 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2 12.2 12.2 8.84 7.82 7.82 11.6 10.9 11.2 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 10.6 14.9 10.6 12.8 10.6 12.8 14.9 14.9 19.1 14.9 14.9 12.8 14.9 19.1 17 17 67.1 61.7 63.9 74.7 95.9 79.9 68.5 68.5 63.9 82.2 59.4 61.3 52.5 60.4 64 65.9

237 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

0.5 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 0.5

1 1 0.67 0.5 1 1

0.5 1 0.33 0.17 0.67 0.83 0.17 0.33 0.83

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0.5 0.83 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 0.17 0.17 0.17 1 0.33 1 1 1 1 0.33 1 1 1 0.42 0.08 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.33 1 1 1 1 1 0.67 1 1 1 0.08 0.08 0.5 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 0.17 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 0.67 0.33 1 1 0.33 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 5 5.5 4 3.17 7.17 7.17 8.17 9.67 9.5 8.5 4.33 5.67 6 6 4 6.33 10.2 11.2 8.16 6.46 14.6 14.6 16.7 19.7 19.4 17.3 8.84 11.6 12.2 12.2 8.16 12.9 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 17 14.9 14.9 14.9 14.9 14.9 10.6 10.6 10.6 14.9 12.8 14.9 10.6 14.9 12.8 14.9 59.9 75.4 54.8 43.4 98.2 98.2 157 185 182 116 69.3 77.7 115 82.2 63.9 86.8

238 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 0.83 1 1 0.33 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.67 0.17 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.67 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.33 1 0.67 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 6 7 1 5 5 9 7 6 6 6 7 5 6 9.49 6.17 5.51 12.2 14.3 2.04 10.2 10.2 18.4 14.3 12.2 12.2 12.2 14.3 10.2 12.2 19.4 12.6 11.2 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 10.6 12.8 4.26 10.6 12.8 12.8 23.4 21.3 21.3 21.3 19.1 14.9 14.9 12.8 12.8 14.9 115 112 48 95.9 79.9 144 61 57.6 57.6 57.6 74.6 68.5 82.2 152 98.6 75.5

239 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 0.25 0.45

1 1 1 1 0.33 0.25 0.4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.33 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 0.33 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0.33 0.33 1 0.33 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.33 1 0.33 0.83 1 1 1 1

1 0.17 1 1 0.67 1 1 0.17 1 0.17 1 1 0.67 1 1 0.17 1 0.75 0.33 1 0.67 1 0.17 1 0.75 0.33 1 0.67 1 0.17 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.33 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.33 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.67 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 0.08 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.5 0.9 0.9 0.5 1 1 1 1 0.17 0.35 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.5 0.45 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.67 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.33 1 1 1 1 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 10 8.83 9 14 10.1 13 11.7 12.7 10.1 19.8 15.2 4.5 17.9 17 5 3 20.4 18 18.4 28.6 20.6 26.6 23.8 25.9 20.6 40.3 31 9.18 36.5 34.7 10.2 6.12 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 23.4 19.1 19.1 19.1 19.1 14.9 14.9 14.9 36.2 34 36.2 36.2 36.2 10.6 10.6 6.38 87.2 94.1 95.9 149 108 178 160 174 56.9 118 85.6 25.4 101 326 95.9 95.9

240 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96

1 0.17 1 0.17

1 1 1 1 1 1 0.33 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.17 1 1 1 0.5 0.83 0.5 0.83

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.83 0.17 0.83 0.17 0.17

1 1 1 1 1 1 0.65 0.65 0.55 1 1 0.85 0.85 0.85 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 0.65 0.65 0.55 1 1 1 1 1 0.85 0.85 0.85 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.85 0.65 0.55 1 1 1 1 0.33 1 1 0.65 0.65 0.55 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.33 1 1 0.85 0.85 0.75 1 1 1 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 7 8 10 4 4.66 4 6 5 12 2 9.35 9.15 8.65 12 16.3 10.3 14.3 16.3 20.4 8.16 9.51 8.16 12.2 10.2 24.5 4.08 19.1 18.7 17.7 24.5 33.3 21.1 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 17 17 21.3 12.8 19.1 10.6 19.1 12.8 14.9 4.26 21.3 21.3 21.3 34 38.3 38.3 83.9 95.9 95.9 63.9 49.7 76.7 63.9 79.9 164 95.9 89.7 87.8 83 71.9 87 55.1

241 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 0.67

1 1 1 1 1 1 0.67 1 1 1 1 0.75 0.75 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.33 1 0.33 1 0.33

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0.25 0.25 0.25 0.13

1 1

1 1 0.08

0.33 1 0.17

1 0.17 0.45 0.08

1 0.17 1

1 1 1 0.33 1 1 1 0.75 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 10 8.17 11 10 3.75 1 0.08 0.45 0.08 1.83 3.25 3.42 3.42 6.13 7.33 2.33 20.4 16.7 22.4 20.4 7.65 2.04 0.17 0.92 0.17 3.74 6.63 6.97 6.97 12.5 15 4.76 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 38.3 31.9 34 19.1 12.8 6.38 6.38 8.51 8.51 8.51 8.51 8.51 8.51 12.8 19.1 19.1 53.3 52.2 65.9 107 59.9 32 2.67 10.8 2 44 77.9 81.9 81.9 97.9 78.2 24.9

242 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128

1 1 1 0.67 1 1 1 0.67

0.5 0.83 1 1 1 0.5 0.83 0.5 0.83 1 1 1 0.67 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.67

1 1 0.5 1 0.5 1 1

0.25 0.25 0.25

1 1 0.5 0.5

0.33 0.17 0.5 1 0.65 0.08 0.55 0.33 1 1 1 0.5 0.83 0.67 1 1 0.5 1 1 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 0 6.33 8.92 7.25 4.92 2.5 0 2 3.33 2 2 2.5 1 1.53 1.75 1.5 0 12.9 18.2 14.8 10 5.1 0 4.08 6.8 4.08 4.08 5.1 2.04 3.13 3.57 3.06 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 21.3 25.5 21.3 19.1 12.8 14.9 4.26 6.38 6.38 12.8 21.3 19.1 21.3 21.3 17 14.9 0 50.6 85.5 77.3 78.6 34.3 0 63.9 107 32 19.2 26.6 9.59 14.7 21 20.6

243 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 0.33 1 1 1 1 1 1

0.67 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1

0.33 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.33 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 0.17 1 0.17 1 0.17 1 0.17

0.33 1 1 1 1 0.33 1 1 1 1 0.33 1 1 0.33 1 1 1 1 1 0.17 0.33 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.17 0.33 1 1 1 1 1 0.33 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 4.33 2.33 9 8 8 10.3 4 1.33 1 0 1.67 3.67 3 7.33 12 14 8.84 4.76 18.4 16.3 16.3 21.1 8.16 2.72 2.04 0 3.4 7.48 6.12 15 24.5 28.6 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 17 17 17 14.9 14.9 21.3 19.1 17 17 23.4 23.4 23.4 21.3 27.7 34 29.8 52 28 108 110 110 99.1 42.6 16 12 0 14.5 32 28.8 54.1 71.9 95.9

244 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.65 0.95 0.65 0.95 0.65 0.95

0.65 0.95 0.65 0.95 0.65 0.95 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.65 1 0.65 1 0.65 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 0.65 1 0.65 1 0.65 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.33 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.17 0.17 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 23 34 18 18 18 18 7 8 9.5 11 10.3 7.2 7.3 8.2 4.8 4.37 46.9 69.4 36.7 36.7 36.7 36.7 14.3 16.3 19.4 22.4 21 14.7 14.9 16.7 9.8 8.91 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 42.6 44.7 14.9 14.9 14.9 14.9 12.8 14.9 19.1 23.4 23.4 14.9 14.9 17 12.8 12.8 110 155 247 247 247 247 112 110 101 95.9 89.8 98.7 100 98.3 76.7 69.8

245 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5

1 1 1 1

0.6 0.95 0.6 0.95 0.6 0.95 0.6 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.5

0.6 0.95 0.6 0.95 0.6 0.95 0.6 0.95 1 1 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95

1 0.65 1 0.65 1 0.65 1 0.65 1 0.65 1 0.65 1 0.65 1 0.65

161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 8.2 2.95 2.95 2.9 2.4 1.9 1.45 0 0 14.7 14.7 14.7 14.7 12.7 12.7 12.7 16.7 6.02 6.02 5.92 4.9 3.88 2.96 0 0 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 19.1 19.1 19.1 19.1 25.5 27.7 19.1 19.1 12.8 14.9 17 17 14.9 34 76.7 76.7 76.7 76.7 49.6 45.7 66.1 87.4 47.2 40.4 34.8 28.8 26 8.69 0 0 246 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 0.33 0.5

0.5 0.5

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1

0.33 0.5 0.88 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 0.67 1 0.5 0.67 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 0 3.54 0 3.5 0 0 0 0 0 9 14 2 3 2 3.33 2 0 7.23 0 7.14 0 0 0 0 0 18.4 28.6 4.08 6.12 4.08 6.8 4.08 180 182 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 29.1 0 15.6 17 29.8 8.51 8.51 8.51 7.09 6.38 0 24.9 0 45.8 0 0 0 0 0 108 95.9 48 71.9 48 95.9 63.9

247 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 1 1 1 0.33

1 1 1 0.33

0.5

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 0.33 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 2 2 2 0.67 1 0.67 0 2 0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 4 0.33 0 4.08 4.08 4.08 1.36 2.04 1.36 0 4.08 0 5.1 5.1 5.1 5.1 8.16 0.68 0 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 6.38 6.38 6.38 8.51 8.51 14.9 12.8 16.3 12.8 14.9 6.38 6.38 6.38 6.38 13.1 13.5 63.9 63.9 63.9 16 24 9.13 0 25 0 34.3 79.9 79.9 79.9 128 5.18 0

248 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224

1 0.25 1 1 0.25 1 1 0.25 1 1 0.25 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 12 0 0 0 0 5 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 24.49 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 10.20 2.04 8.16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 35.1 38.3 38.3 38.3 63.8 63.8 66 66 57.4 42.6 29.8 29.8 70.2 57.4 48.9 48.9

249 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 1 0.17 1 0.17 1 0.17

0.83 0.67 0.83

1 1 1 1 0.67 1 1 1 1 1 0.67

1 0.83 0.5 0.63 0.25 1 1 1 0.83 0.5 0.63 0.25 1 1 0.67 0.33 1 1 0.67 1 0.5 0.5 1

1 1 0.33 1 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.33 7 3 4.67 4.67 3.67 3.58 1.67 2 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.76 14.3 6.12 9.52 9.52 7.48 7.31 3.4 4.08 8.16 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 48.9 44.7 44.7 44.7 46.8 48.9 48.9 38.3 6.38 6.38 6.38 9.22 5.32 5.32 5.32 5.32

250 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 0.67

1 1 1

1 0.5 1 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.67 1 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0.5 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95

0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95

0.5

1 0.33 1 0.33 0.5 0.17 0.5 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 2.5 1.17 1.5 2.57 2.57 3.23 3.23 2.57 2.57 2.57 2.57 3.57 3.57 20.1 3.5 0.97 5.1 2.38 3.06 5.24 5.24 6.6 6.6 5.24 5.24 5.24 5.24 7.28 7.28 41 7.14 1.98 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 5.32 5.32 7.45 3.89 3.89 3.89 3.89 3.89 3.89 3.89 3.89 6.02 4.26 41.5 38.3 38.3 95.9 44.7 41.1 135 135 170 170 135 135 135 135 121 171 98.7 18.7 5.17

251 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272

1 1 1 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83

0.33 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.33 0.33 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 5 0 0 0 0 0 5.17 0 0 0 0 0 0.33 8.33 7 8.33 10.2 0 0 0 0 0 10.5 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.68 17.0 14.3 17.0 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 38.3 66 61.7 61.7 38.3 55.3 44.7 38.3 27.7 57.4 48.9 48.9 51.1 17 12.8 17 26.6 0 0 0 0 0 23.6 0 0 0 0 0 1.33 99.9 112 99.9

252 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288

1 1 0.33 1 1 0.33

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.33

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.33 1 1 1

1 0.33 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 0.17 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.17 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.17

1 0.33 1 0.33 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 0.5 1 1 1 0.5 0.83

273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 8 8 8 9.33 8 9 9.33 9.5 10 9.5 10 8.5 13.5 12 7.17 3.67 16.3 16.3 16.3 19 16.3 18.4 19 19.4 20.4 19.4 20.4 17.3 27.6 24.5 14.6 7.48 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 17 21.3 17 19.1 17 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 22.3 24.5 28.7 30.9 36.2 27.7 27.7 95.9 76.7 95.9 99.5 95.9 90.9 94.2 95.9 101 86.8 83.4 60.4 89.3 67.7 52.9 27

253 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304

1 1 1 1 1

1 0.67

0.5 0.17 0.5 0.17

0.33 0.67 0.5

289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 2 1.33 2.17 2.33 1.5 0.17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.08 2.72 4.42 4.76 3.06 0.34 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 291 292 293 294 295 296 29.8 29.1 26.6 26.6 28.7 28 13.7 9.36 16.6 17.9 10.7 1.22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

254 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 0.5 0.08 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25

(Echoes) 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.5 0.08 0.25 0.25

0.25 0.25

0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13

1 1 1 1 1 1 0.67

1 0.25 0.25 0.25

0.25 0.25 0.25

1 1 1 0.5 1 0.5 1 0.5 (Echoes - no clear q previously stated m 1 1 0.17

0.83 0.17 0.83 0.17 0.67 0.67 0.33 1 0.17 0.5 0.33

1 1 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 0 0 2 3 3 2.67 3.5 4.5 3.25 1.25 0.25 0.71 0.96 0.96 1.96 1.88 0 0 4.08 6.12 6.12 5.44 7.14 9.18 6.63 2.55 0.51 1.45 1.96 1.96 4.00 3.83 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 27.7 25.5 23.4 23.4 25.5 21.3 25.5 23.4 27.7 25.5 27.7 25.5 29.8 0 0 14.8 24 26.2 23.3 28 43.2 26 10.9 1.84 5.66 7.07 7.66 13.4 0

255 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 0.08

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.25 (lines tran

0.5 0.5

0.25

0.08

quotes, but phantoms of material)

0.75 0.33 0.5 1 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1.75 2.04 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.04 4.08 3.57 328 329 330 10.6 8.51 8.51 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 19.2 48 42

256 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352

0.5 0.5 nsposed and inverted)

0.5 0.33

1 0.17

337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.08 2.04 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 331 332 11.7 16 34.9 12.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

257 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368

1 1

0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33

1 0.5 1 0.5 1 0.5 1 0.5

1 0.5 1 0.5 1 0.5 1 0.5 1 1 0.83 0.25

0.63 1 1 0.5 1

353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 0 0 0 0 0.63 1.5 2 0 0 1.5 0 1.83 0.5 9.67 4.67 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.28 3.06 4.08 0.00 0 3.06 0 3.74 1.02 19.7 9.52 0.51 330 329 330 334 335 342 343 338 8.51 8.51 8.51 18.1 18.1 31.9 27.7 18.1 0 0 0 0 15 36 48 0 0 16.9 0 20.7 0 61.8 34.4 2.82

258 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 (Near quotati 1 1 1 0.75 0.5 0.08 1 1 0.5 0.33 1 1 11 0.5 0.33 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.75 1 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1

0.75 0.75 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

(Repetition of previous quoted m 1 0.5 0.08 0.5 0.5 0.17 1 1 1 1

0.75 0.75 0.38 0.38 0.75 0.75 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38

1 1 1 1 1 0.75 1 1 1 1 1 0.75 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 5 7 15 15 14 38 2 11 1.5 5 2 1.58 0 1 1.58 0.83 10.2 14.3 30.6 30.6 28.6 77.6 4.08 22.4 3.06 10.2 4.08 3.23 0 2.04 3.23 1.7 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 31.9 27.7 38.3 34 34 72.3 6.38 17 13.8 20.2 9.57 13.8 5.32 5.32 5.32 9.57 32 51.6 79.9 89.9 83.9 107 63.9 132 22.1 50.5 42.6 23.4 0 38.4 60.7 17.8

259 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400

ion - evocation?)

aterial)

1 1 0.75 1

0.83 1 0.75 0.83 0.83 1 1

0.83 0.83 0.83 0.17

0.75 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 0 0 0.83 1.67 2.5 2.92 3.5 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.7 3.4 5.1 5.95 7.14 4.08 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 369 370 371 372 373 374 8.51 14.9 21.3 21.3 21.3 21.3 0 0 20 22.8 24 28 33.6 19.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

260 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 0.33 1 1 1

1 1 1

(anticipation of horn 0.75 0.75 0.75

1 1 1 1

401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.33 2 1 3.25 0 5 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 2.72 4.08 2.04 6.63 0 10.2 398 399 400 401 400 23.4 23.4 40.4 42.6 40.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11.6 17.4 5.05 15.6 0 25.2

261 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 n chord) 1 0.5 1 0.5 1 0.67 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.08 1 0.67 0.75 0.75 0.38 1 1 1 1 0.33 0.75 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0.45 0.9 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 1 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.83

1 1 1 1 1 1 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 11 17 21 19 13.8 8.33 4.29 2.63 4 1.96 3.54 2.58 4.44 2.13 3.54 2.13 22.4 34.7 42.9 38.8 28.2 17 8.76 5.36 8.16 4 7.23 5.26 9.07 4.34 7.23 4.34 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 42.6 44.7 44.7 44.7 31.9 19.1 10.6 10.6 10.6 12.8 12.8 12.8 12.8 12.8 12.8 17 52.8 77.6 95.9 86.8 88.5 88.8 82.3 50.4 76.7 31.3 56.6 41.2 71 34 56.6 25.5

262 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448

0.88 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.38 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.88 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.38 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.88 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.38 0.75 0.75 0.88 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.38

0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75

0.33 0.17 0.5 0.67 1 0.17

0.5 0.02 0.33 1 0.5 0.5 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.33 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 3.54 2.13 3.54 1.13 3.29 1.88 4.04 2.63 4.79 4.04 6.96 5.79 4.52 3.67 2.5 0.17 7.23 4.34 7.23 2.3 6.72 3.83 8.25 5.36 9.78 8.25 14.2 11.8 9.22 7.48 5.1 0.34 417 418 433 434 433 434 433 434 433 434 432 433 434 435 436 437 19.1 21.3 25.5 19.1 25.5 19.1 25.5 19.1 25.5 19.1 25.5 25.5 19.1 21.3 21.3 21.3 37.7 20.4 28.3 12 26.3 20 32.3 28 38.3 43.1 55.6 46.3 48.1 35.2 24 1.6

263 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.67 1 0.67 1 0.67 1 0.67 1 1 0.33 1 1 0.33 1 1 0.33 1 1 0.33 1 1 0.33 1 1 0.45 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 0.67 1 0.5 0.67 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 0.67 0.5 0.17 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.17 1 1 0.33 0.5 0.17 1 1 0.33 0.83 1 1 1 0.17 0.67 1 1 1 0.67 0.67 1 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 24 18.8 5.67 3 2.67 1 4.17 4.17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12.2 49 38.3 11.6 6.12 5.44 2.04 8.5 8.51 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 450 451 36.2 57.4 57.4 57.4 83 78.7 78.7 68.1 70.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 33.9 85.3 66.7 20.1 7.38 6.91 2.59 12.5 12.1

264 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480

0.67 0.67

0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 1 1 1 1 1 1 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 4.17 4.17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8.51 8.51 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 452 453 454 455 456 457 70.2 74.5 74.5 70.2 70.2 70.2 12.1 11.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

265 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496

481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

266 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.67 0.67 0.45 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.2 0.2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 511 512 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 3 3 34.1 30.8 30.8 30.8 30.7 18.9 18.9 0 0 0 0 0 6.12 6.12 6.12 6.12 69.5 62.8 62.8 62.8 62.7 38.5 38.5 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 89.4 85.1 85.1 85.1 76.6 63.8 63.8 63.8 66 42.6 42.6 0 0 0 0 0 6.85 7.19 7.19 7.19 90.8 98.3 98.3 98.3 95.1 90.5 90.5

267 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.33 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.33 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.88 1 0.67 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88 0.2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 1 0.5 1 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 18.9 18.9 20.9 20.9 21.9 25.6 16 16 16 15.7 9 10 9 16 13 13 38.5 38.5 42.6 42.6 44.6 52.3 32.7 32.7 32.7 32.0 18.4 20.4 18.4 32.7 26.5 26.5 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 42.6 42.6 42.6 42.6 46.8 55.3 38.3 36.2 36.2 31.9 23.4 25.5 23.4 29.8 29.8 29.8 90.5 90.5 100 100 95.4 94.5 85.3 90.3 90.3 100 78.5 79.9 78.5 110 89.1 89.1

268 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

1 1

1 1 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 1 1 1 0.67 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.67 0.5 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.5 0.13 0.5 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.5 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 14 0 0.25 0 1 0 0.25 0.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.38 2.38 2.38 1.71 28.6 0 0.51 0 2.04 0 0.51 1.02 3.06 3.06 3.06 3.06 4.85 4.85 4.85 3.49 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 30.9 30.9 28.7 28.7 37.2 35.1 35.1 20.2 21.3 38.3 27.7 29.8 29.8 26.6 26.6 28.7 92.6 0 1.78 0 5.48 0 1.45 5.05 14.4 7.99 11.1 10.3 16.3 18.2 18.2 12.1

269 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560

0.13 0.13

545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 0.13 0.13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.26 0.26 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 508 509 37.2 28.7 0.69 0.89 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

270 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 568 569 570 571 572 573 574 575 576 577

0.33 0.5 1 1 1 0.5 1 1

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.5 0.33 0.33

0.5 1 0.17 1 0.17 1 0.17 0.5 0.25 0.25 0.42

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.33 1 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 568 569 570 571 572 573 574 575 576 577 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.67 2.83 3 0.75 0.25 0 0 0.33 5 3.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7.48 5.78 6.12 1.53 0.51 0 0 0.68 10.2 7.65 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 8.51 10.6 8.51 10.6 6.38 6.38 10.6 10.6 14.9 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 87.9 54.4 71.9 14.4 7.99 0 0 6.39 68.5 45

271 578 579 580 581 582 583 584 585 586 587 588 589 590 591 592 593 594

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.17 1 0.17 1 1

1 1

1 1 0.17 0.17 1 1 1 1 1 0.67 0.67

0.25 0.5 0.17 0.83 0.17 0.17 0.75 1 1 1 0.5 0.17 0.5 0.83 0.17 0.67 0.5 0.17 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.38 1 1 1 1 0.33 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1 0.33 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.83 1 1 0.33 0.67 1 578 579 580 581 582 583 584 585 586 587 588 589 590 591 592 593 594 4.75 3.83 3.5 0.67 1.83 2.17 1.67 0.83 1.67 0 0.54 1.5 6.08 6.83 5.5 5 8 9.69 7.82 7.14 1.36 3.74 4.42 3.4 1.7 3.4 0 1.11 3.06 12.4 13.9 11.2 10.2 16.3 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 564 575 576 577 578 579 580 581 14.9 19.1 10.6 10.6 8.51 25.5 23.4 36.2 31.9 35.1 31.9 29.8 25.5 10.6 12.8 12.8 17 65.1 40.9 67.2 12.8 44 17.3 14.5 4.71 10.7 0 3.47 10.3 48.6 131 87.9 79.9 95.9

272

APPENDIX C: Graphic realization of Appendix B.

Berio mm. 1 - 50

300

250

200

150 Series1

% change % from Mahler 100

0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 Measure number

273

Berio, Measures 51 - 100

350

300

250 r le h a M m200 ro f ge Mahler an h c 150 %

100

Measure number

Berio, Measures 101 - 150 300

250

200 r le ah M m ro f 150 ge Mahler n a h c % 100

Measure number

274

Berio, mm. 151 - 200

140

120

100 al n gi ri o 80 m ro Mahler f ge Stravinsky an h 60 c %

Measure number

Berio, mm. 201 - 250

180

160

140

120 r le ah M m100 o fr e Mahler ng a 80 h c % 60

Measure number

275

Berio, mm. 251 - 300

180

160

140

120 al n gi ri o m100 Mahler ro f Strauss ge an 80 Ravel h c % 60

Measure number

Berio, mm. 301 - 350

60 al n gi ri o m50 Mahler ro f Strauss ge an40 Ravel h c % 30

Measure number

276

Berio, mm. 351 - 400

140

120

100 r le ah M 80 m o fr e Mahler ng a h 60 c %

Measure number

Berio, mm. 401 - 450

120

100

80 r le ah M m o fr e 60 Mahler ng a h c % 40

Measure number

277

Berio, mm. 451 - 500

60 r le ah M m50 o fr e Mahler ng a40 h c % 30

Measure number

Berio, mm. 501 - 550

120

100

80 r le ah M m o fr e 60 Mahler ng a h c % 40

Measure number

278

Berio, mm. 551 - 594

140

120

100 r le ah M 80 m o fr e Mahler ng a h 60 c %

Measure number

279