International Journal on Volumeinternational 6 · ISSUE 1 · APRIL Journal 2019 on · Advancesadvances Inin Educationeducation Researchresearch
International Journal on VOLUMEInternational 6 · ISSUE 1 · APRIL Journal 2019 on · AdvancesAdvances inin EducationEducation ResearchResearch
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, Social and Technological Sciences
MUSE
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, Social and Technological Sciences EISSN: 2341-2593
Table of contents
Data mining techniques for the study of online learning from an extended approach 1-24 José Manuel Sánchez-Sordo
Encouraging engineering undergraduates to voice their ideas worth sharing 25-45 Arancha García-Pinar
46-70 Application of innovative teaching-learning methodologies in the classroom. Coaching, flipped-classroom and gamification. A case study of success C. Gómez-Ejerique, F. López-Cantos
71-88 Replicating a study about children’s drawings concerning radiation T. Plotz, F. Hollenthoner
89-114 Neurocommunicative methodologies: attention and emotion of the audiovisual story in the classroom Vanessa Izquierdo, María Luisa Garrigues
Viability of using wind turbines for electricity generation in electric vehicles 115-126 Francisco Rubio, Carlos Llopis-Albert
http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019) | i
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Data mining techniques for the study of online learning from an extended approach
Sánchez-Sordo José Manuel*
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, FES Iztacala, Departamento de Psicología, Área de procesos estadísticos.
* Corresponding author: Email: [email protected]
Received: 2019-07-01; Accepted: 2019-04-23
Abstract In the latest years information technologies have impacted society changing the way human beings learn, and because of that it is necessary to study the intimate relationship between humans and their technological tools. On this path the extended mind thesis posits human cognition as a process that occurs in conjunction between biological and non-biological components, furthermore Connectivism is stated as a learning theory for the digital age. Based on such approaches this work presents a summary of a research whose objective was to know how people extend their cognitive processes with the aim of learning through the internet. Methodologically, an artificial intelligence algorithm for supervised learning (J48) was used to analyze the data of 336 participants with the aim of obtaining classification rules (patterns) of internet use. Finally, the results show that people who report visiting specialized websites, read electronic books and take into account the spelling of the resources they are looking at on the internet are the ones with optimal strategies for learning online.
Keywords Cognition, connectivism, data mining, e-learning, extended mind, machine learning.
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 1
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
1. Introduction
In recent years, information technologies have massively impacted society, and the new generations for Marqués (2012), have been naturally assimilating this new culture attached to the digital. Derived from this, international organizations such as UNESCO (2006), have suggested development plans based on informatics focused on the educational, which according to the “knowledge society” aim for a sustainable development (UNESCO 2013). However, current technologies have not only transformed the education system or the economic model, since the use of technological tools or instruments far from being just a matter of the “digital age” or of the current times, is contemplated as foundational of the human genre, because the use and generation of technology allows the modification of nature by human beings, situation that brings with it profound implications on the plane of the evolutionary and particularly of the cognitive, insofar as human activity beyond the biological combines in its core the integration of external tools that allow it to continue transforming the world and transforming itself, since these, tools as Vygotski (1995) stated, are artificial organs and it is because of this that it is proposed that the intimate relationship between human beings and their technologies for learning purposes should be addressed nowadays from novel theoretical and methodological approaches from various disciplines such as psychology, philosophy and computer sciences.
In the same way, one of the main approaches or models that currently addresses the interaction of tools in a deeper sense is the extended mind thesis, which posits human cognition as a process that occurs in conjunction between biological and non-biological components as proposed by Clark and Chalmers (2011). This supposes the integration of tools as a part of the cognitive process, thus giving origin to the notion of extension of the mind —mind as understood from the behaviorist approach of Ryle (2009), that beyond how criticizable it is, his vision of the mind as something that connects with other notions prevents the quick assimilation of itself as an organ, either material or immaterial, as mentioned by Calvo in Clark et al. (2011)— so their thesis (Clark 2008; Clark et al. 2011),
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 2
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
states broadly that the brain, the objects and the world coordinate and extend as one thanks to cognitive action. In respect to this, the authors emphasize that said integration of the world’s objects as a fundamental part of the cognitive process is achieved thanks to the functional parity that exists between the functions of both the organism and the object (Clark 2001), that is to say that the tools (whether digital devices or a pencil) are assimilated as part of cognition not because of their physical or material constitution but by the functions they perform.
Likewise, there are proposals similar to the Extended Mind, such as Hutchins’s (1995), Distributed Cognition, which postulates that the mind is in the world, in contrast with the notion that the world is in the mind. Because for this approach cognition, as also proposed by Clark (2011), is distributed amongst the people, objects and tools that belong to certain contexts. By way of example, Hutchins (1995) mentions that the knowledge needed to operate a naval ship does not exist only inside a person's head, but that the process is distributed through objects, people and tools in the environment itself. Being then the objective of distributed cognition (2000), to know and describe the distributed units that coordinate to perform cognitive action, as well as the contextual framework in which the activity is performed.
Based on such postulates, this work presents a research whose goal was to know, with the aid of artificial intelligence algorithms, how people, from the perspective of Clark (2008) interact with information networks and the internet to extend their cognitive processes to generate learning in conjunction with software and electronic devices such as web browsers, search engines, computers and smartphones, which within this work’s theoretical framework should be understood as cognitive extensions, because by using them we can overcome our natural limitations, thus harboring the cognitive process in a complex composed of biology and technology. For which the study of learning from an extended approach becomes important nowadays since it is necessary to know how learning occurs
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 3
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
in the digital age in conjunction with the tools, and not addressing it more only under the popular but somewhat obsolete concept of ICT for education, that far from reflecting about the psychological processes that are implied and modified with the use of technologies for learning, it seems in part to only open the market for a few applications and artifacts that are believed to place the classrooms and educational institutions at the “vanguard” as suggested by Marqués (2012).
1.2. Extensions and learning in the digital age:
As stated, in this approach human cognition is conceived as an extended process that does not occur entirely inside the skull (Clark et al. 2011), which implies the “fusion” of man with his tools in a psychological sense. The acceptance of such philosophical proposal suggests then a different way of approaching the study of learning and education, being in the sphere of the educational Connectivism (Siemenes 2006), a proposal that is stated as a learning theory for the digital age, that is, a referential and explanatory framework of the learning process that occurs in formal or informal digital educational environments (Sánchez 2014), and not a psychological theory that attempts to explain human development or behavior in its entirety, but a theory that provides or tries to provide an answer as to how people learn and increase their current state of knowledge in a specific context: computer networks. This clarification is pertinent given the criticisms that Connectivism has received as a learning theory, such as Zapata-Ros’s (2015), which adhering to old theoretical conceptions refuses to accept Siemens’s (2004), proposal that “knowledge can reside in non human appliances”, approach that is in accord with what Clark (2011) proposes, and that reflects the underlying social context that gives life to these new theories: technology as an active agent in the learning process.
At a conceptual level Connectivism integrates principles of networks, complexity, self- organization and aspects related to the extended mind, since it emphasizes that a large part of the knowledge and learning that is generated occurs outside of people’s heads. For
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 4
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Downes (2011), Connectivism is the thesis in which learning is distributed throughout a network of connections, and therefore learning consists of the skill to build and navigate those networks. Regarding this, Redecker (2009), states that such networks exist both externally and internally, in the external they are the structures that we create in order to be up to date and to continuously create and connect with new knowledge; and their nodes are the entities (people, online encyclopedias, websites, wikis, forums, applications, etc.) with which individuals connect to form a network. Internally, learning networks can be perceived as structures that exist in our minds in the connection and creation of comprehension patterns, given that as Siemens (2006) affirms we psychologically adapt our brain’s connections to process the environment in which we move, given that the brain restructures its neural connections with the use of technology, which clearly implies a direct relation between the organization and functioning of our brain and what we can learn about the world.
For this approach then the value of the study of learning is to comprehend the capacity of individuals to generate connections and networks in informal educational environments on the internet that promote the specialized connection between sets of information that allow individuals to increase their knowledge, thus emphasizing the skill and autonomy of the individual to obtain and store information in structures external to him (mostly computer networks or digital devices), that from the approach proposed here perform as cognitive extensions.
Concerning the above, the study of strategies or ways in which people interact with technology to generate connections and networks for learning becomes necessary since it indicates the use and perception that people have of the learning that is generated in a distributed way on the web. On this path Garay et al. (2013), state as cognitive strategies related to learning on the web 2.0 the following: Search (of information), Compilation, Management, Reflection and Practices, which at the same time are associated with particular online tools like forums, blogs, wikis and social networks.
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 5
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Although from Connectivism the term cognitive strategies is not used, Downes (2009) mentions that knowledge is no longer monopolized by official instances, but that it is diversified in positions, facts and opinions, being then the skill or strategy to differentiate between reliable and unreliable sources of knowledge something of great importance within connective learning.
2. Methodological perspective
Objective:
To know and describe with artificial intelligence algorithms, how people extend their cognitive processes when interacting with computer networks with the goal of generating knowledge from a connectivist logic.
Type of Study:
A non-experimental study with a quantitative approach using artificial intelligence techniques for data mining was carried out.
Sample:
For this work a non-probability sample of 336 volunteers was required. The majority (71%) were women from Mexico City belonging to the professional areas of Biological Sciences (50%) and Humanities (21%).
2.1. Procedure
Participants were asked to fill the online questionnaire titled “Strategies for the selection and use of information for online learning” developed for this study (content validity index of .95), and which is composed of 60 items (attributes) that address the possible strategies involved in the online learning process. Based on the bibliography (Garay, Lujan, and
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 6
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Etxebarria 2013; Head and Eisenberg 2010; Hernández 2010) it was decided that the dimensions addressed by the questionnaire were the following:
1. Sociodemographic data: Gathers information about the participant, like age and place of residence. 2. Connectivity: Aims to know aspects related to the users’ internet access. 3. Type of sources consulted: Evaluates the number and format of the online resources that the participant consults (what do participants consult on the web?). 4. Search and access to information: Provides a list of options to know how the participants search for and access information on the internet (How do they find the information?). 5. Validation of the information: Gathers information about what criteria are used by the participants to determine the consulted information as true or reliable. 6. Storage and recovery: Inquires about what the participants do to store the resources they consult on the web in order to be able to access them in the future. 7. Self-evaluation: Allows the participant to rate their strategies of internet use in relation to the generation of knowledge.
2.2. Data Analysis
For the data analysis, the KDD (Knowledge Discovery in Databases) model was used, it is a multistep process for the discovery of knowledge in large data collections. Nigro, Xodo, Corti and Terren (2004), mentioned that the KDD process is iterative by nature, and depends on interaction for a dynamic decision making. One of the more complete definitions of KDD is proposed by Fayyad (1997), who assured:
Knowledge Discovery in Databases are rapidly evolving areas of research that are at the intersection of several disciplines, including artificial intelligence, statistics, machine learning, pattern recognition and visualization for extracting knowledge automatically from databases. (p.2)
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 7
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
To perform the KDD the following steps are required:
1. Data selection. In this stage data sources and the type of information to be used are determined.
2. Pre-processing. This stage consists of the preparation and cleaning of data extracted from the various data sources in a manageable form, necessary for the following phases.
3. Transformation. Consists of the preliminary treatment of data, transformation and generation of new variables from already existing ones with an appropriate data structure.
4. Data Mining. It is properly the modeling phase, in which intelligent methods are applied with the objective of extracting patterns previously unknown, valid, new, potentially useful and comprehensible that were contained or “hidden” within the data.
5. Interpretation and Evaluation. The truly interesting patterns obtained are identified based on certain measures and the obtained results are evaluated and interpreted.
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 8
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Figure 1. KDD steps outline.
2.2.1 Description of the performed analysis and processes:
Regarding the objective set for this research, and using the previously described KDD model, quantitative analyses were carried out through data mining with the J48 supervised learning algorithm and descriptive statistics in order to be able to interpret the gathered information as it is explained:
The data derived from the application of the online questionnaire “Strategies for the selection and use of information for online learning” to the 336 participants was analyzed with the goal of finding classification rules (patterns) in the data for the subsequent classification of the subjects according to their internet use strategies (good, regular and poor) using the J48 algorithm. Subsequently descriptive data were obtained according to the participants’ perception of their internet use.
The algorithm used to perform the data analysis is described below:
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 9
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Decision trees (J48): it is a free version of the commercial C4.5 algorithm developed by Quinlan (Sancho 2018) and has the objective of decreasing the entropy of the data by using information gain. This is to find the attribute that better divides or “arranges” the data according to the categories in which they are to be classified using the function:
E(S)=∑Ci=1−pilog2(pi)7
Therefore, in order to obtain the attribute that generates more homogeneous branches within the decision tree Sancho (2018), indicates the following:
1. Total entropy is calculated. 2. The data set is divided according to the different attributes. 3. The entropy of each branch is calculated and then they are added proportionally to calculate total entropy:
E(T,X)=∑c∈Xp(c)E(Sc)E(T,X)=∑c∈Xp(c)E(Sc)
4. This result is subtracted from the original entropy, obtaining as a result the information gain (entropy decrease) using this attribute.
Gain(T,X)=E(T)−E(T,X)Gain(T,X)=E(T)−E(T,X)
5. The attribute with the highest gain (of information) is selected as a decision node, it is to say, the attribute through which the data classification will begin. Finally, this process is repeated with all the nodes that do not perform as outputs until null entropy levels are obtained (leaves).
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 10
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
3. Results and findings
A. Classification rules (patterns) of internet use for online learning:
Next, the results obtained from the application of the J48 algorithm for the discovery of internet use classification rules (patterns) are shown according to what was reported by the 336 participants in the “Strategies for the selection and use of information for online learning” questionnaire, it should be mentioned that the Correlation Attribute Eval (Weka 3.8.3) filter was applied in order to estimate correlations between questionnaire attributes and in this way select the most pertinent to analyze with the algorithm.
The model generated by the algorithm to classify the data according to the participants’ internet use strategies showed very high levels of area under the ROC curve (ROC), which means that the patterns shown below are accurate indicators to know and predict the participants’ behavior on the internet for education or learning purposes.
Table 1. Statistical details of the J48 classifier tree “Internet use strategies for learning”
Kappa: 0.842
Correctly classified instances 91.6667%
ROC area: .966
Number of leaves 35
Shown on the following image is the decision tree (pruned) product of the model generated with the J48 algorithm, shown in said tree are the nodes (attributes) that better arranged the distribution of all the data for their classification:
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 11
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Diagram 1. Decision tree model obtained for the “Strategies for the selection and use of information for online learning” questionnaire data (n=336). Objective: to find patterns of internet use for learning and with it classify the participants according to their strategies in “Poor, Regular, and Good”, and infer possible patterns of cognitive extensions (see appendix for better image quality).
As it can be observed in the diagram above, 35 patterns to classify the subjects (n=336) were found according to the internet use they reported and the resources they access, store and recover to generate learning. As it can be observed, the tree includes rectangles (leaves) colored green, yellow and red, each corresponding to a classification respectively; green for Good (strategies), yellow for Regular (strategies) and red for Poor (strategies).
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 12
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Table 2. Patterns and classifications of the use of internet for learning
Classification: Poor Regular Good
Number of 4 patterns 22 patterns 9 patterns Patterns: (classification rules) classification rules) classification rules)
Number of 21 205 110 instances (19 correct, (187 correct, (102 correct, (persons): two wrong) 18 wrong) eight wrong)
As it can be observed on table 2, the largest number of patterns obtained was for the regular strategies category (22), which means that the majority of the participants have regular strategies of internet use for academic purposes.
A. Patterns with more classified instances:
Poor: 1 (13 persons), 2 (5 persons). Regular: 1 (62 persons), 2 (37 persons). Good: 1 (65 persons), 2 (13 persons).
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 13
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Figure 1. Shown by the graph are the two most representative patterns of each category according to the number of classified instances in their interior.
Then, of the 35 patterns obtained with the algorithm (diagram 1) individual patterns are shown and interpreted for each category that contains the most instances and that better classifies and predicts the participants’ actions. With them we can infer how people extend their cognitive processes on the internet, since these individual patterns show the combinations of attributes that the majority of the participants perform in relation to what tools they use and how they do it to connect (Sánchez 2019), and in this way generate knowledge and online learning.
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 14
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Pattern no.1 of classification rules for good use of the internet)
Diagram 2. Main pattern of good strategies for the use of internet for learning.
Interpretation: Based on this pattern (no.1) we can induce that most of the participants (65/110) with good strategies of internet use for learning employ digital tools in the following manner:
They are people who almost always take into account the quality of the spelling and writing of the resources they consult online to consider them valid; on occasion they make summaries or take notes of the information they consider relevant, they consult plenty of specialized websites and almost always look up the bibliographical references that are cited within the sources they consult. They also use Wikipedia and check many (4-5) books or book chapters in electronic formats and use many of Google’s specialized search options and almost always take into account the quality of the images and graphics that are included on the online documents they go over.
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 15
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
With this information it can be said that this particular combination of tools and activities is how the participants extend their cognitive processes in conjunction with tools to generate connections on the internet in an optimal way with the purpose of learning.
Pattern no.2 of classification rules for regular use of the internet)
Diagram 3. Main pattern of regular strategies for the use of internet for learning.
Pattern (no.2). In this pattern the participants (62/187) with regular strategies of internet use for learning employ digital tools in the following way:
Sometimes they consider writing and grammar as something important to select internet resources, also on occasion they make summaries of the relevant information, but they never or almost never visit specialized websites.
Based on this interpretation it can be said that the pattern predicts that this combination of tools and activities is how most of the participants extend their cognitive processes in conjunction with online learning tools in a way that can be considered as regular, because they take into account spelling and make summaries or notes, but they do not consult specialized websites.
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 16
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Pattern no.3 of classification rules for poor use of the internet)
Diagram 4. Main pattern of poor strategies for the use of internet for learning.
Pattern (no.3). In this pattern the participants (11/19) with poor strategies of internet use for learning employ digital tools on the following way:
They never or almost never take into account the quality of the writing or spelling of the online resources they consult, as well as they never or almost never look up the bibliographical references that are cited and also visit none or very few specialized websites.
This way we can predict that people that do not take into account grammar nor cited references in online sources are the ones that make a deficient use of online tools (extensions) to connect with new learning.
B. Descriptive analysis:
Shown in this section are a couple of graphics with results obtained from the analysis of the frequencies of the participants’ opinions in relation to how technology influences some of their cognitive processes.
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 17
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
The first aspect addressed was: “By being able to store the information you consult online with academic or learning purposes inside virtual folders, your ‘internal’ memory processes were amplified and/or modified.”
Figure 2. Memory amplified or modified by technology.
Overall, 84% of the participants agree or totally agree that their “internal” memory processes have been modified by the use of current information technologies. Situation accordant with the ideas proposed by Sánchez et al (2019), about the extension of the mind, that state that cognitive processes, in this case memory, are shared or distributed between neural/biological processes and electronic devices.
Likewise, the participants were asked if: “When using computer networks or digital devices to learn or generate knowledge, they consider that their learning is occurring not only ‘inside’ their heads but occurring in conjunction with the devices or networks”.
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 18
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Figure 3. Learning distributed between “inside the head” and technological devices.
We can observe that most of the participants consider that their learning processes occur not only inside their heads, but that they are distributed with devices and computer networks, situation that in some way reflects what is mentioned by Siemens (2004) and Clark (2008), about learning and cognition that occurs “outside” the heads of individuals.
4. Conclusions
The findings of this research show in some way how cognition is shared or extended when we use digital tools, based on the fact that we psychologically adapt our neural connections with the use of technology (Siemenes 2006), which clearly implies a direct relationship between the organization and functioning of our brain and the tools we use (Maravita and Iriki 2004). With this we show that Connectivism is a theoretical framework that shares postulates with the philosophical thesis of the extended mind proposed by Clark & Chalmers (2011), so addressing cognition from these approaches together gives a current and complex view of the phenomenon of learning in digital educational environments.
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 19
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
In relation to this, it is considered that the results of this research provide data of interest to people involved in non-formal and online education, because interesting facts were found about which tools favor online learning, being some of the most favorable abilities or strategies: to check the spelling of online resources, to make summaries of reliable information, as well as the use of some specialized search engines. Also, other relevant result is that most of the participants agree that ICT have modified their “internal” cognitive processes such as memory.
Also, the KDD model allowed us to discover from the data relevant information about how the participants of this study use certain technological tools on the Internet, allowing us to then generate usability profiles that allowed to classify the subjects as having optimal, regular and poor use of the internet with learning purposes, contributing thus with relevant data for learning and educational psychology in the digital age.
In addition, the KDD model and the use of artificial intelligence algorithms such as the ones used in this research proved to be effective tools for the discovery of new knowledge within psychological research, because its use approaches psychology to different methodological paradigms that allow the analysis of human behavior in an innovative way (Fayyad 1997), allowing also the analysis of large amounts of data.
Finally, we can mention that this work’s contribution is to address education from psychology and philosophy with artificial intelligence in a digital environment, areas of knowledge that are giving a fundamental shift to education nowadays. Basically, the proposal of this work is based on an evaluation of the learning process using artificial intelligence techniques for the classification of patterns in the use of information and tools on the internet, thus giving basic clues to support the concept of extended mind, which should be addressed in future educational research starting from these bases and having other considerations as there are other types of learning and ways in which people interact with tools (Apud 2014).
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 20
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
5. References
Apud, I. (2014). ¿La mente se extiende a través de los artefactos? Algunas cuestiones sobre el concepto de cognición distribuida aplicado a la interacción mente-tecnología. Revista de Filosofí. 39 (1), 137-161.
Castañeda, L., & Adell, J. (2013). Entornos personales de aprendizaje: claves para el ecosistema educativo en red. Alcoy: Marfil.
Clark A. (2001) Mindware: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Cognitive Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press Clark, A. (2008). Supersizing the mind: Embodiment, action and cognition extension. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Clark, A., & Chalmers, D. (2011). La mente extendida. Oviedo: KRK Ediciones.
Downes, S. (2009). The New Nature of Knowledge. Online [Available] https://www.downes.ca/cgi-bin/page.cgi?post=53404 Downes, S. (2011). Connectivism and Connective Knowledge [Online] Available: https://www.huffingtonpost.com/stephen-downes/connectivism-and- connecti_b_804653.htm
Fayyad, U. (1997). Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery in Databases: Implications for Scientific Databases. SSDBM '97 Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Scientific and Statistical Database Management , 2- 11.
Garay, U., Lujan, C., & Etxebarria, A. (2013). El empleo de herramientas de la Web 2.0 para el desarrollo de estrategias cognitivas: un estudio comparativo. Porta Linguarum. 20, 169-186.
Head, A., & Eisenberg, M. (2010). How College Students Evaluate and Use Information in the Digital Age [Project information literacy progress report]. Washington, D.C.: University of Washington.
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 21
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Hernández, S. (2010). Uso de estrategias de aprendizaje con apoyo en Internet considerando el género y el nivel educativo. VIII Congreso Iberoamericano de Ciencia Tecnología y Género. Curitiba.
Hutchins E. (1995), Cognition in the wild, Bradford Book.
Hutchins, E. (2000) Distributed cognition, Online [Available]: http://comphacker.org/pdfs/631/DistributedCognition.pdf
Maravita, A., & Iriki, A. (2004). Tools for the body (schema). TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences. 8 (2), 79-86.
Márqués P., (2012). Impacto de las TIC En La Educación: Funciones Y Limitaciones, Revista 3CTIC, 1, (3). Nigro, Xodo, Corti and Terren, (2004), Online [Available]: http://sedici.unlp.edu.ar/handle/10915/21220 Redecker, C. (2009). Review of Learning 2.0 Practices: Study on the Impact of Web 2.0 Innovations on Education and Training in Europe. Bruselas: Joint Research Centre. Ryle G., (2009). The concept of mind, Rouledge
Sánchez-Sordo, J (2019). Redes y cognición; abordando la mente extendida en ambientes conectivistas de aprendizaje, Revista Digital Internacional de Psicología y Ciencia Social, to be published.
Sánchez-Sordo, J. (2014). Conectivismo y ecologías para la educación a distancia en la web 2.0. Revista Mexicana de Bachillerato a Distancia, 6(12), 11.
Sancho, F. (2018). Aprendizaje Inductivo: Árboles de Decisión. Obtenido de Universidad de Sevilla: http://www.cs.us.es/~fsancho/?e=104
Siemens, G. (2004). Conectivismo: Una teoría de aprendizaje para la era digital. Madrid: Ediciones Nodos Ele.
Siemens, G. (2006a). Conociendo el conocimiento. Madrid: Ediciones Nodos Ele.
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 22
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
UNESCO, (2006). Hacia las sociedades del conocimiento: informe mundial de la UNESCO. [Available]: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000141908 .
UNESCO, (2013). Education for Sustainable Development Goals: learning objectives. [Available] https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000247444
Vygotsky, L. (1995). Historia del desarrollo de las funciones psíquicas superiores. Madrid: Editorial Visor.
Zapata-Ros, M. (2015). Teorías y modelos sobre el aprendizaje en entornos conectados y ubicuos. Bases para un nuevo modelo teórico a partir de una visión critica del “conectivismo”. Revistas VSAL. 16 (1), 1-49.
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 23
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11482 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Appendix:
Sánchez (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 1-24 | 24
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Encouraging engineering undergraduates to voice their ideas worth sharing
Arazazu García-Pinar Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena Email: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0003-4287-6521
Received: 2019-12-01; Accepted: 2019-04-18
Abstract TED Talks have these days become a valuable tool for online information dissemination in a wide range of areas of expertise. The use of TED Talks in a course of Technical English offers numerous advantages. TED teaches how to communicate by linking different modes (i.e. the visual, gestural, verbal, written and spatial) to technological production. Students can construct communication when they attentively observe and make meaning from this ensemble of modes which go beyond the verbal. TED Talks might also give rise to different tasks that entail some type of critical multimodal analysis, by which students can study the aptness of modes. They can explore why the speaker says something visually and not verbally, or which mode is best for which purpose. Yet, TED and its zeal for sharing and transmitting ideas to a wide audience should not be regarded as a means incompatible with more traditional models of information. As Jewitt highlights (2005), rather than asking what is best, the book or the screen”, it seems more reasonable to ask “what is best for what purpose”.
Keywords TED Talks, mode, engineering, communication, multimodal analysis.
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 25
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
1. Introduction
This article outlines an overview of inspirational and influential online TED Talk videos, and how these can be considered by lecturers as challenging and valuable tools not only to be viewed and listened to, but also to be analysed in terms of multimodality. TED Talks might be regarded as optimal artefacts of visual media, and as new forms of speech delivery to be emulated. Additionally, these talks might find their way into the course of Technical English as a source of ideas and information that engineering undergraduates can use to delve into a wide range of topics of their interest, and to propel and inspire their course essays. This article mainly aims to draw attention to the multimodal nature of TED talks. TED talks are multimodal to the extent that the speakers on stage need fluency in different verbal and nonverbal modes (i.e. the power of speech, visual design, gesture, facial expressions and proxemics). Verbal and non-verbal communication co-occur in these talks, and students construct meaning by tracking speakers’ gestures, posture and real and natural language. L2 lecturers have the challenging role of showing students the ways these talks can be deconstructed, so as to introduce them to the ways semiotic resources interact and function in digital multimodal texts. In this way, they can learn how speakers use linguistic, visual and audio resources to involve and captivate their audiences. This article will detail the multimodal character of TED Talks. It will also offer an overview of some empirical studies that have researched the effect of TED Talks on student motivation. The last part of the article will explain how a TED Talk can be analysed in the course of Technical English so that students realise the salience and aptness of both verbal and nonverbal modes.
The common pattern shared by different TED events is that all of them must spread thought-provoking ideas. The mission of TED is, as Surgimoto and Thelwall point out (2013: 664), “one of change and engagement”. Ideas are understood as influential patterns of information that can shape human culture. TED curator Chris Anderson (2017: 12-13) gives ideas a relevant role in the following terms:
The only thing that truly matters in public speaking […] is having something worth saying. […] An idea is anything that can change how people see the world. If you can
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 26
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
conjure up a compelling idea in people’s minds, you have done something wondrous. You have given them a gift of incalculable value.
Anderson’s words, therefore, might be encouraging for anyone aspiring to speak in public, as the key prerequisite seems to be having an idea worth sharing. Lecturers’ experience may lead them to think that other elements beyond the possession of a compelling idea are necessary. The next section is concerned with non-verbal modes onstage. If aptly combined with verbal modes, non-verbal modes can give compelling and original ideas greater emphasis, while at the same time capturing the attention of the audience. This modal interweaving is precisely what one finds in many TED Talks.
2. Multimodal TED Talks
TED Talks are multimodal insomuch as these confer a prominent role to not only the verbal mode. TED speakers have been coached to be fluent in different modes beyond the verbal. In many talks, the emotional load is communicated with a specific tone of voice, a hand gesture, or an impacting visual. While words build and develop ideas, explain complex concepts or simply narrate, visuals, gestures and voice qualities transmit emotion and can arouse the audience’s curiosity and infuse a speech with variety.
2.1 Verbal model
The verbal mode is certainly the most important mode in TED Talks. As Anderson highlights, “language works its magic only to the extent that it is shared by speaker and listener”. Words are basically the tool that TED speakers use to recreate their ideas in the minds of their audiences. It is a tool that, if cautiously used, can ensure the talk’s success. Speakers have the difficult task of turning their sets of ideas into words, and in this process, they must ensure that their audiences understand the logical relationships among their sentences. Upgrading the audience’s mental model of the world through the masterful use of explanation in any kind of talk is relevant. Yet, many undergraduates find it difficult to establish effective connections between sentences in order to express similarity, contrast,
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 27
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
cause and effect or exemplification. Cognitive psychologist and Harvard professor Steven Pinker, also a TED speaker on several occasions, highlights that to achieve full understanding, the whole hierarchical structure of an idea must be clearly communicated. In his work ‘The Sense of Style: The Thinking Person’s Guide to Writing in the 21st Century’ (2014: 39), he offers some guidance on how to use language more efficiently, and to communicate ideas hierarchically:
No writer can leave the macroscopic organization of a text to chance (…) No sentence is an island; nor is a section or a chapter. All of them contain links to other chunks of a text. A sentence may elaborate, qualify, or generalize the one that came before (…) People, places and ideas may make repeat appearances, and the reader must keep track of them as they come and go.
Though clearly focusing on writing, Pinker’s guidance might well apply to oral communication with writer being replaced by speaker and reader by listener. Speakers need to join their ideas and make sure that these are linked in a logical manner.
Another relevant aspect with regard to the verbal mode in TED Talks has to do with the simplicity and explicitness of the language used. Most TED speakers deliver their talks in simple language, totally devoid of technical terms or acronyms that might cause the audience to be confused, and in consequence, to switch off. For this reason, TED speakers often start their talks using their audiences’ language, and mentioning their assumptions and concepts, and from there they start building new ideas inside their audiences’ minds. Speakers, as Anderson notes (2017: 85), must be able to explain:
You can’t give a powerful new idea to an audience unless you can learn how to explain […]. Each step builds on what the listener already knows. Metaphors and examples are essential to revealing how an idea is pieced together.
Metaphors and examples, as evidenced by Anderson’s quote, play a relevant role in illuminating and simplifying more sophisticated and complex technical talks. Although student oral presentations might be addressed to a specific audience (i.e. their peers), it might be appropriate to encourage them to resort to examples whenever these can enhance
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 28
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
understanding. Likewise, students must be cautious with acronyms and make sure these are explained. The manner in which specialised talks are communicated is of great relevance, and students should be aware of the fact that they might be required to disseminate knowledge not just to a specialised public in their future careers, but also to a lay public.
2.2 Non-verbal modes
While one cannot underestimate the efficacy of language, nor can its supreme status be denied in any oral interaction, it seems quite legitimate to state that on some occasions, different modes beyond the verbal can fulfil different purposes. Language, therefore, in some instances might be less resourceful and have less potential for making meaning than, for instance, the use of a beat gesture, a specific posture, different voice qualities or a carefully considered image.
Paralinguistics includes the features of spoken communication that do not involve words. The Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) (2001: 89-90) makes a distinction between paralinguistic body language (i.e. gesture, posture, facial expression, proxemics and eye contact) and prosodic qualities (i.e. voice quality, pitch, loudness and length).
All these paralinguistic features form what is known as non-verbal communication, and often play a key role in speaking, as they can add layers of significance to spoken words. Young and Travis (2012: 58) identify four different functions of non-verbal communication:
It can replace a verbal message: Pointing to something instead of explaining where it is using words.
It can highlight a verbal message: The use of hand gestures is a clear example of a way to enhance a verbal message.
It can express the opposite of a verbal message: Particular care should be taken to not contradict verbal with nonverbal communication.
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 29
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
It can direct people’s conversations: Noticing speakers’ intentions to make some kind of eye contact, for example, can guide people in recognising their turns to speak.
It seems appropriate and necessary to make students aware of the fact that different non- verbal modes (i.e. gestures, facial expressions and prosodic features) may contribute to the whole communication process (Campoy-Cubillo, 2016) and to listening comprehension (Sueyoshi and Hardison, 2005).
2.2.1 Gestures
Gestures play a pivotal role in communication, as these can enhance listening comprehension, clarify verbal meanings and convey additional information. Gestures can contribute to listeners’ comprehension by building an internal cognitive simulation or mental representation of the message (Hostetter and Alibali, 2010).
McNeill’s (1992) classification of hand gesture has been frequently used to study gestures in communication. Iconic, metaphorical, deictic and beats are used by speakers to facilitate communication so that listeners can focus their attention on the relevant information in the message, and in consequence, derive meaning.
A quick look at a representative sample of TED Talks shows that speakers recurrently resort to the use of hand gesture throughout their talks. The most viral talks have been found to have been given by speakers who extensively use gestures (van Edwards, 2015). TED speakers often resort to beat gestures (i.e. a rapid movement of the hand or the finger, produced to the rhythm of the accompanying speech which does not communicate semantic content) and to deictic gestures (i.e. pointing gestures commonly used to refer to specific objects, events, notions and ideas). These types of gestures help speakers punctuate important stretches of their discourses, regulating the flow of speech and coherently integrating the overall discourse. Beat gestures also perform a social pragmatic function (Weinberg, Fukawa-Connelly & Wiesner, 2013) that contributes to enhancing audience awareness of the key ideas in speakers’ talks. Speakers address their audiences with a beat to get them involved with an issue that concerns all of them (i.e. environment, technology,
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 30
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
politics, poverty). TED speakers also use deictic gestures extensively to call attention to some specific points in any visual that accompanies their talks. These gestures perform a referential and indexical function (i.e. indicate a position), as they refer to the image, concept, figure which is being described.
Head movements (i.e. nods, lateral head sweeps and head shake) is another type of gesture closely connected to speech in the process of communication (Briñol & Petty, 2003; Kendon, 1980; 2002). Research on head nods and shakes (Briñol & Petty, 2003), for instance, has focused on the influence these can have on people’s confidence in their thoughts when having to give response to a message. The authors contend (p.1135) that “manipulation of head movements affects confidence in the validity of one’s thoughts, not confidence in the validity of the persuasive message per se”.
Lateral sweeps can ‘co-occur with concepts of inclusivity such as the words ‘everyone’ and ‘everything’ (McClave, 2000: 860). The narrative functions include marking direct quotes, portraying mental images of characters, performing deixis, and indexing items on lists. According to the cognitive function, head movements might be involved in cognitive processing. Head movements, in relation to the interactive function, can be used for backchannelling purposes (i.e. reaction to your interlocutor, showing interest). Head movements, though often culturally specific, are, as McClave notes (2000), quite valuable, since listeners are greatly sensitive to them.
TED speakers’ habitual use of lateral sweeps is worth highlighting, particularly in talks that delve into topics of major global concern (i.e. activism, social change, the environment, education, recycling, technological advance). The lateral sweep concurs with concepts of inclusivity (i.e. everyone, everything) and express intensification when they co-occur with words such as “very”, “great”, “a lot”, among others.
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 31
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
2.2.2 Facial expressions
Regular eye contact with members of the audience can also enhance positive connections while reflecting interest, and transmitting caring and courtesy (Young and Travis 2012: 60). The audience, in turn, by tracking the speaker’s gaze, might predict what the speaker’s intentions are, and what he or she is planning to convey next. Additionally, eye contact accompanied with specific facial expressions (e.g. a smile, nod, or frown) can even have a captivating effect. Speakers’ facial expressions are another channel for successful communication. These expressions allow the audience to sense speakers’ feelings and moods. Changes in facial expression can anticipate changes in tone and mood. Examples of TED Talks that combine eye contact and facial expressions are countless.
2.2.3 Proxemics
Proxemics is the study of the ways in which people organise and use their space (Norris, 2004: 19). People might adopt different distances both in relation to others and to concrete objects. It is the specific distance of a person from others in different interactions that may allow one to deduce the person’s understanding of the formality or informality of the situation. Hall (1966) established four distinct distances: (1) intimate distance (15-45 cm) denotes a close relationship; (2) personal distance (45-120 cm) takes place among friends and family members; (3) social distance (1.20m-3.50 m) occurs among acquaintances, and (4) public distance, which is the distance frequently used in public speaking (i.e. classroom lectures, TED Talks).
It is relevant to note how proxemic behaviour can contribute to understanding the type of social interaction that is taking place. Regarding this, speakers at TED know how to arrange and use their space to enhance meaning-making. Even though they keep their distance from the public (i.e. public distance), and the size of the stage indicates their high status, they know how to get closer to their audience while maximising their stage presence. They rarely stay put on stage. TED speakers have carefully studied how to move around a stage
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 32
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
with the flow of their speeches, and when they should stop to emphasise meaningful parts in their talks.
2.2.4 Prosodic qualities
“conventionalised meanings that are related to attitudes and states of mind” (CEFR, 2001: 89). Prosodic qualities, also referred to as nonverbal voice qualities (Poyatos, 1983) include: pitch range, loudness and prosody.
In the 1960s and 1970s, voice quality was conceived as an arbitrary mark of individual or social identity, and was merely depicted in articulatory and acoustic terms. Van Leeuwen (1999), still drawing on phonetics and linguistic work, semioticised and theorised that voice quality might be used to convey meaning. He built on Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) metaphor theory, according to which metaphors can be understood on the basis of concrete experiences. The authors postulated (p.19) that “no metaphor can ever be comprehended or even adequately represented independently of its experiential basis”. This assertion refers to physical, bodily experience, such as tensing the voice. Voice tension is commonly associated with situations of nervousness, anxiety or threat, and is therefore a voice quality with meaning and metaphor potential that can signal certain states of mind.
Other resources for vocal meaning are different components and features that shape the quality of voice, lead to the construction of meaning, and effect how people might perceive the speaker’s message: pitch range and degrees of loudness. Leeuwen notes (2011: 71) that pitch range, for instance, with men using higher regions of their pitch range to convey dominance or assertion and women using the lower end of their pitch range to be assertive, can be deliberately modified to convey other types of intentions. Some men who tend to speak with a low pitch might not aim to dominate but to make themselves small. Some women might opt to speak softly, using a low pitch to evoke the ‘dangerous woman’ stereotype or loudly and in a high pitch, which might invoke the stereotype “of the shrill and strident fishwife” (Kress and van Leeuwen, 2001: 84).
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 33
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
The loudness range of the voice is significant to conveying distance. At close range, people’s voices are associated with intimacy and confidentiality. Vocal loudness might relate to power and dominance, and it is this quality of voice that is pervasive in TED Talks. Speakers are centre stage and generally give talks to a considerable number of people whose attention they try to capture.
Prosody encompasses the group of speech properties that influence more than one sound segment (i.e. stress, intonation, rhythm) (Valeiras-Jurado, 2017). The fact that prosody can help listeners process and understand a message has made research on this topic particularly fruitful. It has been widely acknowledged that many of the difficulties L2 students face have to do with these non-verbal characteristics of communication (Chun, 2002). Prosody has also been researched in connection with public presentations and how this might affect the audience’s perception of vivacity (Hincks, 2009: 46):
It is vital to use one’s voice well when speaking in public. It is the channel of communication, and when used poorly, communication can be less than successful. If listeners either stop listening, or fail to perceive what is most important in a speaker’s message, then all actors in the situation are in effect wasting time.
Rhythm can play a significant role in spoken interactions, creating structure in communicative situations. Rhythm and the alternation of accented and unaccented moments articulate meaning. Rhythm, according to van Leeuwen (2005), is along with layout in composition in space, a major resource to create cohesion in any communicative event. Rhythm and layout, the author also highlights (p.181), create the link between semiotic articulation and the body:
Human action is by nature rhythmically coordinated, and, as micro-analytical studies have shown, so are human interactions (…). Rhythm does not just provide some kind of formal structure, some kind of scaffolding to keep the text from collapsing, or some kind of cement to hold it together. It also plays an indispensable part in getting the message across.
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 34
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Rhythm, therefore, comes to join and integrate all the different modes (e.g. body movement, language, gesture) involved in the communicative event as these unfold in time. Rhythm can also be achieved with stylistic devices such as parallel structures (i.e. the repetition of a series of words and phrases which share a grammatical form and length). It is quite relevant to observe how some TED Talk speakers resort to parallel structures to achieve a specific cadence. TED speaker Simon Sinek resorted to parallel structure repeatedly in his talk (How great leaders inspire action). He used this device accompanied with stress on specific words and with gestures to finish his talk:
We follow those who lead, not because we have to, but because we want to. We follow those who lead, not for them, but for ourselves.
Paralinguistic features may enhance the passionate and enthusiastic style of delivery many speakers at TED have. Lecturers cannot underestimate the relevance of all these features, and must call attention to the fact that it is not so much the ‘what’ of the idea they want to transmit but the ‘how’. The next section focuses on the role of visuals in oral presentations and on how these can often make the difference between success and failure. Different types of visual support are frequently found in many TED Talks.
2.2.5 Visuals
An extensive number of TED Talks use photographs, graphs, tables, and illustrations to upgrade the verbal message and to strengthen the aesthetic appeal of the speaker’s oral performance. It might then be useful to direct engineering undergraduates to the opportunities offered by these visuals and to raise their curiosity regarding the specific reasons that might have led a speaker to choose a specific type of visual over another. This might, in turn, lead students to consider some important issues when they design the power points for their oral presentations. Issues such as the salience of some resources and the aptness (Kress 2005: 19) of representing different types of content, the type of roles different illustrations might play, the kind of content that might be expected from headings
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 35
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
and illustrations, the type of information images facilitate, and where the visuals they use make a complex phenomenon easier are all relevant issues and must be carefully attended.
A common practice among students is to load their slides with more than one idea. Regarding this, Tom Rielly, one of the members of the coaching group in TED, warns (Anderson, 2017: 116) about the dangers of cognitive load in presentation slides:
With a talk and slides you have two streams of cognitive output running in parallel. (…). Talking about theoretical physics has a high cognitive load (…). In these circumstances, the audience member’s brain has to decide whether to focus on your words, your slides, or both, and it’s mostly involuntary. So you must design where attention is going and make sure a high cognitive load on a slide doesn’t fight with what you’re saying.
The choice of a particular visual in student oral presentations can be, as stated above, an issue that should be carefully considered. Multimodal concepts such as modal affordance (i.e. different modes can present different potentials for making meaning), aptness (i.e. some modes may be more suitable for a specific purpose than others) and visual salience (i.e. the specific ways different elements in a visual layout such as colour, size and contrast appear in order to capture the viewer’s attention) are key concepts students should be aware of when designing their power points, as these will have a determining role in the overall performance (van Leeuwen & Kress, 1996: 183).
3. The influence of TED Talks on student motivation
Relevant studies have also incorporated these online talks in different educational contexts to motivate students. Rubenstein (2012) focused on the study of TED Talks that can upgrade teachers’ understanding of student motivation and teaching procedures. Throughout her article she proposes different TED Talks that can be used in the classroom for different purposes; to promote student motivation and to initiate teachers into novel instructional practices. Her selection of talks about motivation, as she suggests, can lead educators to raise important questions. The first TED Talk she discusses is Dan Pink’s
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 36
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
(2009). This talk, which revolves around workplace motivation, can promote meaningful debate and reflection among teachers (p.263): How can teachers encourage autonomous learning? How can teachers ask questions in class so that students are freer to research content? How can teachers guide students to recognise problems and work to find their solutions? Another TED Talk she analyses is psychologist Csikszentmihalyi’s. This talk focuses on the psychological movement of flow, and explains the contributing role that performing a challenging task may have on facilitating one’s happiness. Drawing on this talk, Rubenstein urges teachers to promote flow in the classroom in order to both provide motivation and transform the classroom into an enjoyable context.
Takaesu’s (2013) study explored how the extensive use of TED Talks as listening resources affected the listening skills of 468 tertiary Japanese students in a course of English for Academic Purposes (EAP). Qualitative data obtained through surveys and journal entries showed that students positively assessed the effectiveness of the listening activities designed from TED Talks. This fact contributed to raising their feelings of self-efficacy and encouraged them to research the topics included in the talks.
Elk’s article (2014) describes the way she designed different listening tasks from TED Talks, with the aim of focusing attention on the shortcomings she and her students had found in an EAP course book. One of these deficiencies had to do with the lack of authentic materials in EAP textbooks. The regular use of TED Talks in the classroom provided authentic listening tasks, and allowed the researcher to improve strategies for “processing visual input that is synchronous, but not identical to aural input” (p.219). Students listened to these talks, wrote about they had heard, verified comprehension with the help of the talk transcription, and finally wrote about the listening difficulties they had encountered. These tasks were mainly intended to promote students’ autonomy and to draw their attention to the errors they made in bottom-up and top-down processing.
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 37
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
4. TED Talks multimodal analysis
The website www.ted.com has launched 3,000 online talks to date. The process of analysing all the modes at play in these talks is unattainable. This section focuses on one of the most viewed TED Talks to date (Do schools kill creativity? by Sir Ken Robinson), and intends to offer a closer look at how speakers achieve impact through efficient handling of the modes detailed above. Different gestures, facial expressions and appealing slides when working in synergy with words might enhance comprehension and achieve emphasis.
The speaker transmits passionately, persuasively and emphatically, key educational notions and concepts with the help of features such as rhetorical questions, repetition, parallelisms, intensifying adverbs and punctual hand gestures, different types of facial expression and a particular rhythm.
Do schools kill creativity? (19’22’’). Sir Ken Robinson
Link: https://www.ted.com/talks/ken_robinson_says_schools_kill_creativity
About the speaker: Sir Ken Robison is a British author, speaker and international advisor on education, non-profit organisations, and art institutions. He was Director of the Arts in Schools Project (1985–89) and Professor of Arts Education at the University of Warwick (1989–2001). He is currently Professor Emeritus at the same institution. In 2003, he was appointed Knight Bachelor by Queen Elizabeth II for Services to the Arts.
Year of the talk: 2006
About the talk: In this talk, Sir Ken Robinson challenged the way current educational institutions are educating children, and urges a radical transformation of school systems into those where creativity is cultivated and multiple types of intelligence are acknowledged. This educational reform discourse is sprinkled with anecdotes and humour, which conveys informality to Robinson’s presentation. His talk is full of poignant points,
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 38
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
and he achieves his intended emphatic tone through various modes: verbally, through hand gestures, and with facial expressions.
Modal interplay: Students’ attention can be particularly directed to the way Sir Ken Robinson repeatedly resorts to the use of hand gestures when he wants to highlight important parts of his discourse. On several occasions, he also tilts his head to raise his audience’s awareness of important educational issues.
Table 1. Modal interplay in the TED Talk ‘Do schools kill creativity?’
Minute Transcript of Talk Non-verbal mode Rhetorical strategy
I don't mean to say that being Beat gesture: The speaker uses a The speaker uses the wrong is the same thing as beat gesture with an extended rhetorical strategy of being creative. What we do finger that entails two phases of repetition of the phrase “If know is, if you're not prepared movement. When the finger goes you are not prepared to be 5:22 to be wrong, you'll never come downwards, it points to the wrong”. This repetition helps up with anything original -- if discourse flow, emphasising Sir Robinson to reinforce his you're not prepared to be keywords that receive prosody key idea. He also uses wrong stress as well. paralinguistic stress on the word “wrong”, repeated three times. Gesture function: Social to attract the audience’s attention and to give emphasis to keywords
Every education system on Beat gesture: The speaker uses a Rhetorical strategy Earth has the same hierarchy finger beat with fast flicks whose 8:16 of subjects. Every one. Doesn't downward movements fall on the matter where you go. You'd words ‘same’, ‘hierarchy’, The speaker resorts, in this think it would be otherwise, but ‘subjects’ statement, to the use of it isn't. At the top are repetition. This rhetorical mathematics and languages, device helps him to hold his then the humanities, and at the ideas cohesively and make the bottom are the arts. message clearer. He repeats Everywhere on Earth. the adjective ‘every’ twice.
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 39
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
The use of adverbs ‘everywhere’ and ‘on Earth’ Gesture function: Social. The contributes to emphasising speaker intends to highlight the the part he wants to focus on. importance of his idea ‘Every’ and ‘everywhere’ are also given prominence.
Our education system has Beat gesture / Lateral head Rhetorical Strategy mined our minds in the way sweep that we strip-mine the earth: He uses the inclusive for a particular commodity. The speaker resorts to the finger pronouns ‘we’ and ‘us’ to 17:28 beat gesture with a repetitive make his talk more intimate And for the future, it won't downward movement that falls on and inclusive. This strategy serve us. We have to rethink we, have, rethink, punctuating helps him to raise his the fundamental principles on important stretches in his audience’s awareness about which we're educating our discourse. Finger beat gesture is the current educational children. also accompanied by a lateral head system. sweep which might convey inclusivity: education concerns all of us.
5. Conclusion
This article has focused on the multimodal character of TED Talks and on how the accurate construction of communication from the interweaving of modes might have a strong influence on how students receive, interpret, and ultimately, prepare and deliver their classroom technological oral presentations. Speakers at TED stand out because they transmit creativity and brilliant ideas. The way they disseminate knowledge has no equal. TED Talks, therefore, can provide suitable communication guidelines for undergraduates of engineering, and can help them to transmit their complex innovations and ideas. To this end, the last section of this article focused on one of the most viewed TED Talks to date, in order to offer a closer look at how the speaker achieves impact through efficient handling of the modes detailed above. Different gestures, facial expressions and appealing slides, when working in synergy with words, might enhance comprehension and achieve emphasis. If students’ attention is directed towards the modal salience and aptness in these talks, they might be encouraged to incorporate a set of modes in their classroom oral presentations and to voice their ideas worth sharing. This, in turn, can make this speaking activity less daunting, and might encourage students to visualise their L2 speaking selves.
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 40
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
5. References
Anderson, C. (2017). TED: The Official TED Guide to Public Speaking. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Brazil, D. (1985). The Communicative Value of Intonation in English. Birmingham: The University Printers, University of Birmingham.
Briñol, P. & Petty, R. E. (2003). Overt head movements and persuasion: A self-validation analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1123-1139.
Campoy-Cubillo, M.C. (2016). Multimodal Listening Skills: Issues in Assessment and Implementation. In V. Bonsignori & B. Crawford Camiciottoli (Eds.), Multimodality across Communicative Settings, Discourse Domains and Genres (pp. 14-36). Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Chun, D. M. 2002. Discourse Intonation in L2: From Theory and Research to Practice. J. Benjamins.
Council of Europe. (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge, U.K: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.
Elk, C. K. (2014). Beyond mere listening comprehension: Using TED Talks and metacognitive activities to encourage awareness of error. International Journal of Innovation in English Language Teaching and Research, 3(2), 215.
Hadar, U., Steiner T.J., Grant E.C. & Rose, F.C. (1984). The timing of shifts of head postures during conservation. Human Movement Science, 3(3), 237-245. doi:10.1016/0167-9457(84)90018-6
Hall, E.T. (1966). The Hidden Dimension. New York: Doubleday.
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 41
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Halliday, M.A.K. & Greaves, S. (2008). Intonation in the Grammar of English. London: Equinox.
Hostetter, A. B., & Alibali, M. W. (2010). Language, gesture, action! A test of the Gesture as Simulated Action framework. Journal of Memory and Language, 63, 245-257, doi:10.1016/j.jml.2010.04.003
Hincks, R., & Edlund, J. (2009). Promoting Increased Pitch Variation in Oral Presentations with Transient Visual Feedback. Language Learning & Technology, 13(3), 32–50.
Kress, G., & van Leeuwen, T. (1996). Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design. London: Routledge.
Kress, G., & van Leeuwen, T. (2001). Multimodal Discourse: The Modes and Media of Contemporary Communication Discourse. London: Arnold.
Kress, G. (2005). Gains and Losses: New Forms of Texts, Knowledge, and Learning. Computers and Composition, 22(1), 5-22, doi:10.1016/j.compcom.2004.12.004
Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live By. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
Lee, A. (2013, April). Angela Lee: Grit: The power of passion and perseverance [Video file].www.ted.com/talks/angela_lee_duckworth_grit_the_power_or_passion_and_perseverance.
Loya, M. & Klemm, T. (2016). Teaching Note-Using TED Talks in the Social Work Classroom: Encouraging Student Engagement and Discourse. Journal of Social Work Education, 52, 4, 518-523, doi: 10.1080/10437797.2016.1198291
McClave, E. (2000). Linguistic Functions of Head Movements in the Context of Speech. Journal of Pragmatics, 32, 855-78.
McGregor, A., Zielinski, B., Meyers, C., & Reed, M. (2016). An Exploration of Teaching Intonation Using a TED Talk. In J. Levis, H. Le., I. Lucic, E. Simpson, & S. Vo (Eds.),
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 42
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Proceedings of the 7th Annual Conference of Pronunciation in Second Language Leaning and Teaching (PSLLT) (pp.143-159). Ames IA: Iowa State University.
McNeill, D. (1992). Hand and mind: What gestures reveal about thought. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
McNeill, D. (2005). Gesture and Thought. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Norris, S. (2004). Analysing Multimodal Interaction: A methodological framework. New York: Routledge.
Kendon, A. (1980). Gesticulation and Speech: Two Aspects of the Process of Utterance. In Mary. R. Key (Ed). The relationship of verbal and non-verbal communication (pp 207- 27).The Hague: Mouton.
Kendon, A. (2002). Some Uses of the Head Shake. Gesture, 2(2), 147-82.
Pink, D. (2019, July). Dan Pink: The puzzle of motivation are [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/dan_pink_on_motivation.
Pinker, S. (2014). The Sense of Style: The thinking Person’s Guide to Writing in the 21st Century. New York: Penguin Books.
Poyatos, F. (1983). Language and Nonverbal Sign Systems in the Structure of Face to Face Interaction. Language and Communication, 3(2), 129-40.
Robinson, K. (2006, February). Ken Robinson: Do schools kill creativity? [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/ken_robinson_says_schools_kill_creativity.
Rubenstein,L. (2012) Using TED Talks to Inspire Thoughtful Practice. The Teacher Educator, 47(4), 261-267, doi: 10.1080/08878730.2012.713303.
Sinek, S. (2009, September). Simon Sinek: How great leaders inspire action [Video file]. Retrieved from www.ted.com/talks/simon_sinek_how_great_leaders_inspire_action.
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 43
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Sueyoshi, A., & Hardison, D. (2005). The role of gestures and facial cues in second language listening comprehension. Language Learning, 55(4), 661-699, doi: 10.1111/j.0023-8333.2005.00320.x
Sugimoto, C., & Mike T. (2013). Scholars on Soap Boxes: Science Communication and Dissemination via TED Videos. The Journal of the American Society for Information Science & Technology, 64(4), 663-74.
Takaesu, A. (2013). TED Talks as an Extensive Listening Resource for EAP Students. Language Education in Asia, 4(2), 150-162, doi:10.5746/LEiA/13/V4/I2/A05/Takaesu
Valeiras-Jurado, J. (2017). A multimodal approach to persuasion in oral presentations : the case of conference presentations, research dissemination talks and product pitches. Universitat Jaume I ; Ghent University. Faculty of Arts and Philosophy, Castellón de la Plana, Spain ; Ghent, Belgium van Edwards V. (2015). 5 Secrets of a successful TED talk. Retrieved from: http://www.scienceofpeople.com/2015/03/secrets‐of‐a‐successful‐ted‐talk/. van Leeuwen, T. (1999). Speech, Music, Sound. London: Macmillan. van Leeuwen, T. (2005). Introducing Social Semiotics. London/New York: Routledge. van Leeuwen, T. (2011). The Language of Colour. Oxon/ New York: Routledge. van Lier, L. (2007). Action-based teaching, autonomy and identity. International Journal of Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 1(1), 46-65, doi: 10.2167/illt42.0
Weinberg, A., Fukawa-Connelly, T., & Wiesner, E. (2013). Instructor gestures in proofbased mathematics lectures. In M. Martinez, & A. Castro Superfine (Eds.), Proceedings of the 35th annual meeting of the North American Chapter of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education (p. 1119). Chicago: University of Illinois at Chicago.
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 44
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Young, K. & Travis, H. (2012). Oral Communication: Skills, Choices and Consequences. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, Inc.
García-Pinar (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 25-45 | 45
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Application of innovative teaching-learning methodologies in the classroom. Coaching, flipped- classroom and gamification. A case study of success
C. Gómez-Ejerique, F. López-Cantos* Dpto. de Ciencias de la Comunicación. Universitat Jaume I, Avda. Vicente Sos Baynat, s/n, 12071 Castellón de la Plan, Spain.
* Corresponding author: Email: [email protected]; Phone: + 34 964729906 Received: 2019-09-01; Accepted: 2019-04-19
Abstract The new teaching techniques based on avant-garde methodologies aimed at enhancing student learning are being promoted at all levels of education for a few decades, integrating the significant advances that are taking place in different scientific disciplines, including from the areas of psychology basic and group up to the most effective techniques of talent management and organizations. In the present work, we review the teaching-learning techniques and methodologies that we consider most efficient at present, with examples that show their suitability for current teaching. The application and effectiveness of coaching and gamification techniques and the innovative pedagogical strategies integrated in the so-called flipped classroom are analyzed. The results obtained with the application of these methodologies allow us to conclude that the analyzed pedagogical tools are ideal to increase the learning capacities and personal development of the students.
Keywords
Education theory, teaching methodologies, coaching, gamification, flipped- classroom.
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 46
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
1. Introduction
The notable increase in the use of the terms gamification, flipped classroom, and coaching in the educational discourse of a few years to this part is a good example of the significant changes that are taking place within the institutions and among the different groups that They make up the educational system (Hargreaves, 2004-2006, Claxton, 2008). And this growing tendency indicates, even with the own chiaroscuros that accompany the application of these new educational methodologies as a result of their novelty and lack of institutional consolidation, that the new teaching-learning techniques are not a passing fad anymore. And, just as it is happening in other areas, such as in the business in which there is already talk of "executive coaching" normally, these new cutting-edge teaching tools are demonstrating their effectiveness in the learning processes and knowledge construction.
The application of these new methodologies and techniques are intended, first and in general, to facilitate significant improvements in the students' cognitive and relational- communicative abilities and, therefore, to facilitate learning and growth processes. And the new teaching-learning techniques based on gamification strategies, in the so-called flipped classroom, as well as the talent and creativity management tools for the development of people and organizations based on educational coaching are here to stay.
The new educational methodologies that are analyzed in this paper apply collective and down-up learning models and grow-up techniques from the implementation of enquiry- based pedagogical strategies and tools (Wang, 2012) and gaming-based learning (Gros, 2007; Chorney, 2012; Albretch, 2012), as well as innovative methodological proposals such as those integrated in the flipped classroom (Baker, 2000, Sam and Bergman, 2014, Strayer, 2014) and coaching techniques (Wolk, 2007, Harvard Business Esentials, 2005; Bandura, 1997) that are oriented, unlike classical methodologies, to promote the development and autonomous learning capacity of students.
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 47
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
1.1. How do we learn?
This question is the first question that all teachers should know how to answer when they enter a classroom. Knowing first of all how we learn is essential to concentrate all efforts on achieving a meaningful and lasting learning over time, that creates solid foundations on which to move forward and that is able to keep the student motivated, responsible and able to learn significantly. The objective of education should not be other than to teach students to learn to learn, nothing to do with the commitment of the educational system to prepare them to pass exams and pass one test after another. Learning should allow to acquire new knowledge and also new skills that serve the student to face the events of life in a successful way, in a broad sense, so that they can handle the new situations that are presented to them and develop their maximum potential as people.
According to Pérez (2004), educational theories that are more efficient today have tried to explain how we learn by overcoming traditional pedagogical models and approaching the educational process from new perspectives.
The traditional teaching models focused all the responsibility of the educational process on the teacher considering the student a passive subject receiving knowledge. In this teaching-learning model, which, although obsolete is still common to find in our classrooms, it is only intended to transmit concepts that have to be memorized and without addressing the learning process as a whole.
The reaction to these archaic forms of teaching began to take place a few decades ago from different perspectives. In Latin America, for example, what was known as the pedagogical theory of liberation, promoted by Freire, developed in the 60s of the 20th century in a very particular political context in which models of change and change are promoted. transformation and knowledge is considered a continuous process where the use of dialogue and peer interaction between teacher and student becomes important. No doubt an interesting and applicable proposal in our environment, beyond that in its origins was developed more as a political action than as a pedagogical theory, and
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 48
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
therefore it is known as the "pedagogy of the oppressed". What interests us about this theory is that it defends that education should not interfere with creativity, curiosity and, much less, the development of students' potential.
In a similar sense, other pedagogical models have responded to classical teaching methods, such as the one known as non-directive pedagogy model, which deals with human development from the perspective of the theories of evolution and the constant biological tendency towards personal fulfillment. inherent to each individual, giving special emphasis to the process of valuing life experience as satisfactory or not depending on its adaptation to the innate improvement objectives of each person. Therefore, any experience that is perceived as contrary to this assessment, to improvement and constant updating, is considered negative by the individual and, therefore, the little flexibility of traditional pedagogies does not contribute to facilitate a good experience of the students . In what we are interested in this pedagogical current driven by Rogers (1992), the role of the teacher must not constrain the development potential of students, on the contrary has to create the right conditions for these to unfold in all its breadth and, therefore, that a climate of understanding, acceptance and respect is favored in the classroom.
Classical methods of teaching are far removed from ontogenetic mechanisms and the processes of development and learning in the terms in which Piaget expressed himself, as biologically conditioned and destined to an ever better understanding of reality and the environment in which develops each individual in a process of perpetual, dynamic and flexible adaptation (Piaget, 1968). And, in this line, other forms of approaching the teaching-learning process that start from psychology, such as the so-called cognitive model (Neisser, 1976; Chi, Glasser and Farr, 1988), are also inscribed, in which it becomes special emphasis on the specificity of each individual and the necessary adaptation of pedagogical methodologies to the characteristics of cognitive processes in general, which are hardly tolerated by direct and exclusively rote-based teaching methods.
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 49
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Nowadays, the theories with which we approach teaching-learning processes are based on structuralist models that, with different perspectives, understand that the systems of symbols and discourses that sustain the belief systems, attitudes and expectations that determine the way of acting of each person have both an individual and collective character and mould the culture itself as well as the development of each individual. The knowledge, therefore, as far as we are concerned, can be understood as an individual and cultural construction in which the educational process has a major role.
In that sense, in education, the most essential is the way in which each student builds that knowledge but, over all, how the student uses it and the validity and effectiveness of the learned experiences in front of the vital situations he or she faces every day. Therefore, the role of the teacher comes first to know how his or her students build knowledge and from there to design the strategies that can be implemented to collaborate with the student to develop his or her learning, always with flexibility and adaptability and taking into account the context in which each student builds his or her values and integrates his or her experiences.
In sum, and without extending much more, the way in which we learn has nothing to do with directing and conditioning methodologies and, quite the contrary, these are totally counterproductive and harmful for the proper development of the teaching-learning process and, in consequence, to achieve the goals of properly preparing the student to face his or her vital journey by promoting his or her cognitive development and personal growth.
So learning is a cognitive, social and cultural process, and it is more effective when approached in a contextualized manner and taking into account the student's own features. And the teacher should promote group work and interaction with the student, and should adopt the triple role of researcher, to know who the student is; as mentor, to direct his or her learning in the most appropriate way; and as facilitator, to enhance the capabilities of each of the students.
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 50
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
1.2. Then, how should we educate?
Do we teach 21st century students? Times are changing but, as it often happens, the methodologies and practices have done so to a lesser degree and they scarcely suit to the pedagogical tools and technologies we use today. And teachers can, and they should introduce the broad set of educational resources available to them that have amply proven to be effective and with very positive effects. In addition, the teacher must necessarily be a good communicator, he or she must have emotional management capabilities and be prepared for the different situations that can occur in the classroom for which the emotional control of the adult is fundamental.
It is true that many teachers have not received an adequate training, and currently only marginally and often almost by obligation they attend updating and teaching competence and skill improvement courses. But, although it is not an easy task, there is no doubt that the obvious deficiencies can become interesting opportunities of renewal and stimulus to make the classroom and teacher´s work a rewarding and enriching profession, with a some will and dedication. To achieve it, even being an obviousness, it is essential to assume that any person who is engaged in teaching must keep continuously being trained, must be conscious that learning is a life lasting task, and that in the daily practice the teacher must have a high knowledge of teaching tools and methodologies and apply the most appropriate innovation techniques among the many that are offered to us today, to each situation.
It should not be necessary to insist on how inappropriate it is to continue defending master classes and traditional pedagogical methods, but the data that show their inefficiency are overwhelming. If we look at the Pyramid of Learning of Cody Blair (Prieto Gil, 2010), we clearly see that with listening we only retain 5% of the information that is transmitted to us (in the following 24 hours).
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 51
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Figure 1 Learning and Retention Piramid
If we continue to descend, we observe that the next strategy with a low learning effectiveness is reading, another of the very common techniques used in Spanish classrooms. Although it is somewhat more effective than listening, it is only 5% more effective. Audio-visual contents, which cautiously and after many efforts a few decades ago entered in the classrooms, are more suitable for teaching, with a 20% retention rate, but even by themselves they do not have a significant effectiveness. The further down in the pyramid the retention rate increases, reaching 75% when the applied technique is learning by experience. According to this scenario, the teacher must move from being a passive subject, mere transmitter of knowledge to being a facilitator for learning. He or she should be able to create a trusting environment, an active learning environment, and he or she should be able to awaken the curiosity of the student, to propose challenges, to be updated and to use in his or her classes all the resources and innovative experiences that lead to
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 52
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
achieving a high quality education. Therefore, bringing up the phrase we inaugurated this text with: "Education is not the filling of a pail, but the lighting of a fire"
2. Methodology
In our study we have applied the coaching and gamification techniques and flipped classroom teaching methodologies in a real learning environment in the classroom in collaboration with the teachers responsible for the subjects.
In our research we have analysed, as a priority objective, the effectiveness of the coaching techniques applied to education. To achieve it, we have selected a sample of 12 teachers who teach classes in the different ESO1 courses (Mandatory Secondary Education) in a concerted school in the city of Valencia (Spain), and we have trained them to apply this above mentioned techniques to analize this performance in the classroom.
To analyse the application of gamification and flipped classroom techniques, a total of 49 students have been selected; (24 students) in an ESO 3rd degree group and another (25 students) in an ESO 4th degree group.
The analysis of each of the techniques has always been developed following the below explained phases:
To begin with, extensive personal interviews were conducted with the teachers who were invited to participate in the study. Then, after that first personal interview, we determined the teachers’ predisposition to introduce the proposed techniques and we gathered their impressions in relation to the deficiencies that their students would have, according to their perception, as well as the general problems they meet in their teaching practice.
1 Translation note. ESO: Spanish acronym for Mandatory Secondary Education.In Spanish current Education System, kids start the first of the four degrees the ESO has, at the age of 13 years old.
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 53
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Afterwards but prior to the application of each of the analysed techniques, the students were asked to respond to a semi-structured questionnaire in the same terms that had been used with the teachers.
Finally, and after the application in the classroom of the methodologies to be analysed, both the opinions of the teachers and of the students were again collected, in the same terms used in the beginning, to analyse the influence and effectiveness that the tools applied had had.
We have had the collaboration of the teachers in each of the sessions we have devoted to apply in the classroom the different analysed techniques, so that during an academic year the work dynamic was:
INITIAL QUESTIONAIRE
TRAINING THE TEACHER
CLASSROOM
FEEDBACK
We will now expose the features and pedagogical relevance that the different techniques are presumed to have in the classroom and that we have analysed in our study sample and in a real environment to determine its degree of applicability and effectiveness:
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 54
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
2.1 Coaching
Coaching is a relatively new discipline that broke into our vocabulary in the 80s, spreading with greater strength in our daily life in recent years. Although it currently has great media notoriety, its origins are not entirely clear, since coaching is nourished by different sciences, disciplines, thinkers, just as there is no unanimity when defining the term itself.
For our purposes, coaching can be considered a methodology whose objective is the personal and professional development of individuals. It is a process that occurs as an interaction between two people, the coach and the coachee (the client or person willing to make a change), in which the aim is to transform a current state (unwanted) into another state desired by the coachee in a specific context. It is important to bear in mind that coaching is in consequence focused on both the present moment and on the exploration and the vision of a desired future.
To achieve this the coach uses different methods and tools that generate in the coachee perspective changes; conscience, commitment and responsibility boost; increase of the desire of learning, and development of the already existing capacities so as to facilitate an impulse to the action that will revert in reaching the proposed goals.
The aim of coaching is to discover and release the full potential of the persons, to bring to light all the resources they possess to achieve their purposes. It understands that the person has the skills to achieve the desired goal and in the process the coachee will discover and use them to achieve his or her goals.
Coaching is therefore a process that invites us to experiment and to learn from our own experience. It invites us to use different ways to obtain our goals, to explore new ways of performing to reach our objectives. The coach is understood as a catalyst of the change process. As someone who is able to see the coachee not as what he or she is but as what he or she can become, and who understands that he or she has all the resources to produce that change.
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 55
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
This said, we are going to address all those techniques which we have trained the teachers on, and which they can use to achieve more dynamic classrooms, more motivated students and thus to achieve meaningful learning.
2.1.1 Coaching training given to teachers for their application in the classroom
All these techniques should be integrated by the teacher before applying them in the classroom in order to be able to extract a better harnessing out of them, that is why the first sessions in the process were dedicated to it, prior to the beginning of the academic year and then we run control and reinforcement sessions throughout the teaching period.
1) Creativity
As Esquivias (2004) states: "Creativity is a concept that alludes to one of the most sophisticated cognitive processes of the human being ... it cannot be approached as a simple feature of human beings, it is undoubted that aspects such as: the mind, the cognitive processes that take place in it, the personality, the motivation, the emotions and the affective world play a singular component in this process." And he continues: "On the other hand, we are all creative to a greater or lesser extent and what is even more encouraging, we can all develop it ".
To be creative is, therefore, to be curious, to get out of the marked paths, to be opened to the world and to be receptive to everything that surrounds us, to discover ideas that have the potential to unite and form something new. But also reorient our mind to unexpected directions, to be able to see new ways, to relate concepts that seemed to have nothing in common and, in summary, to be in the world in a certain way that encourages openness, exploration and changes.
In this sense the teachers were trained to:
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 56
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
• Observe as they had never done before.
• Increase the student's awareness. Keep the student here and now.
• Practice active listening with the student and have a perception of the environment.
• Introduce anti-routine changes.
• Use the Sleep-writing technique.
• Use the Brainstorming technique.
• Use the Six Thinking Hats technique, by Bono.
• Use the lateral thinking.
2) Powerful questions
One of the tools that make a coaching process effective is the open questions or powerful questions. These types of questions are those that cannot be answered with a yes or a no. These are questions that invite us to deepen in the discovery, in the awareness, drive us to action or reflection. In general, they are questions that lead us to introspection and of course they invite us to look inwards or into the future.
For this reason it is important that the teacher uses these types of questions with his students, to increase their curiosity, to invite them to reflect, so that they can investigate inside, although first it is convenient to do them as a teacher.
Teachers were given a battery of questions for their own reflection and its application in the classroom adapted to the students, such as:
• How do I contribute with as a teacher?
• How does teaching contribute to me?
• What resources do I have now?
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 57
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
• How far would I like to go?
• What resources do I need to achieve the given goals?
• Why do I want to teach?
• How do I think I am doing so far?
3) Marc SMART goals It is very important to get goals set, as this increases motivation, therefore, the teacher was trained in techniques to motivate their students with very clear objectives that meet the requirements known as SMART requirements:
• S (Specific). The objective has to be specific, the more the better. • M (Measurable). The goal has to be quantifiable. • A (Attainable). The goal has to be achievable. • R (Realistic). The objective must be realistic. • T (Timely). The objective must be time bounded.
4) Achieve commitment to the objective
Teachers have also been insisted that students must commit to the objectives proposed at the beginning of the course. Teachers in the classroom should regularly explore to what a student should say yes, and to what he or she should say no; that is, what they should give up in order to achieve their objectives. The same thing happens to the teacher, who should review at all times if some resignation needs to be made to achieve those goals, because choosing always entails a renounce.
This coaching technique makes it easier for the teacher to make his or her students responsible for their own learning by making them aware of what he or she is saying yes to and what he or she is saying no to.
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 58
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
5) Working with the “saboteur”
We call saboteur anything that prevents us from moving forward, that does not let us reach the goal and as a teacher we must prepare ourselves to know the saboteur, our own and that of our students. To try to find out in what ways the saboteur appears we suggest some questions like:
• Where do I let my energy escape?
• At what point am I breaking my self-commitment?
• How am I being too flexible?
• When do the resistances appear?
• What comfort zone do I have to abandon to achieve my goal?
• How do I limit myself?
We carried out this work with the teacher on a regular basis and once he became aware of what was preventing him or her from moving forward, we worked with that limitation to be able to permanently eliminate it. In the same way the teacher worked this aspect in the classroom with his or her students.
6) The wheel of life as a tool for measuring results.
Teachers have been trained in the use of this evaluation tool that can give us a good starting point of how the teacher and the student are, to set with them the group or individual objectives to be achieved. With it we get both an individual and joint vision that allows us to evaluate at all times the status and results throughout the process.
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 59
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Figure 2 Life Wheel (Source: Personal Excellence.co)
7) Give the students an effective feedback
Finally, in our methodology, feedback is crucial to determine if the proposed objectives are being met and if corrections and improvements in the implementation of the teaching- learning plan need to be introduced.
Feedback to be effective must be positive. Rebuke if possible in private and recognize and congratulate in public.
2.2 Flipped Classroom.
The flipped classroom model arose when professors Jonathan Bergmann and Aaron Sams (University of Colorado) began recording science classes for students who could not
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 60
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
attend to the classrooms. They realized that the marks of these students were very good, so they continued to record videos and extended it to the whole group of students in the classroom. Nowadays it is already a widespread practice in many schools around the world. According to its promoters, Sams and Bergman (200), the flipped classroom technique is a pedagogical approach in which direct instruction moves from the individual learning space to the group learning space and the resulting space is transformed into a dynamic and interactive learning in which the teacher guides students as they apply the knowledge and they can actively participate in the task.
It is a model that has been proven efficient, beyond fashion, since it allows the teacher to have more time to establish relationships with students in the classroom and improve interactions with them. For this reason the teacher will know better how each of the students works, so that the instructor can improve the teaching strategies in the classroom and can know what motivates the pupils, so that the students will feel that the teacher cares about their learning and this will increase their motivation. Let’s remember that without motivation there no learning is possible.
In the flipped classroom methodology, the student has worked individually, brings to the classroom some already clear concepts and –possibly- also some doubts, so that in that group space the pupil can solve them and integrate better individually. The teacher is necessary to be a facilitator, an expert at that moment in the class. Later the student will integrate the acquired knowledge and skills and from that moment the pupil will be able to carry out projects or solve more complex challenges.
To achieve this, the student has had to prepare the material before arriving to the classroom and the teacher has to be very clear about what the student has to do during the class time. The classroom must be a learning space with a high interaction among students and between teacher and students; thus, we are talking about active learning. The students will work in groups or individually, so that several situations are generated in the
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 61
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
class and the teacher will interact with each of the students, being able to personalize the learning according to the needs of each one.
2.2.1 Application of flipped-classroom methodology in the classroom with students.
Teachers were trained in this technique, stressing that its implementation required following good programming and preparation in order to have an impact on less work and a higher quality on their relationship with students and also on a better performance.
The tool used was a video related to the topic to be addressed, selected by the teacher and the methodology was developed in the following application phases:
1. Before the class: The teacher provided the students with audio-visual material to visualize and work on it at home individually, the day before the class session. 2. During the class: A group work space was established in which the study material was analysed, questions were answered, knowledge was settled and various related activities were carried out, together with the teacher. 3. After the class: A project was proposed based on challenges, and that involved the realization of teamwork in a complementary way to the performance of individual activities of greater complexity.
2.3 Gamification.
In the field of education there are several success cases related to the use of games (Diaz and Troyano, 2013). Gamification is defined by Zichermann and Cunningham (2011as a process related to player thinking and game techniques to attract the users and solve problems or as the use of mechanisms, aesthetics and the use of thought, to attract people, encourage action, promote learning and solve problems. Teachers have been insisted that the purpose of gamification is to influence the psychological and social behaviours of the player and to produce and create experiences that generate feelings of control and
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 62
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
autonomy, especially critical skills for the cognitive development in the educational stages the students analysed in the study are in.
Throughout the teaching period, we have also dedicated some sessions with teachers to train them in gamification techniques and in the use of the Kahoot tool.
3. Analysis and Outcomes
3.1 Case Study 1. Coaching.
We worked during the academic year with the 12 teachers selected from the stage prior to the beginning of the classes. Teachers who were part of the study sample were initially instructed in the life wheel and the leadership wheel in class, jointly analysing the strengths and areas to improve that they had to measure in their students.
The following aspects were taken into account: responsibility for the study, discipline, individual studying hours, participation in the classroom, interest in the subject, concentration and active listening in the classroom, material organization, task planning, punctuality, relationship with their colleagues and relationship with the teacher.
At the end of the course, after having followed with them both individual sessions and group sessions, both the life wheel and the leadership wheel were again passed to the students in the classroom, checking that the scores had remarkably increased in all the areas. The teachers, on the other hand, showed a high index of satisfaction and pointed out significant improvements in everything related to their feeling of personal and professional fulfilment at work.
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 63
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Figure 3 Performance improvement.
As can be derived out of the responses of the 49 students who participated in the study, the items "relationship with the teacher", "responsibility for the study", "interest in the subject" and "participation in the classroom" had significantly improved in cases where the teacher was actively coaching in the classroom.
3.2 Case Study 2. Flipped Classroom.
The 24 students in ESO 3rd degree studying the subject of Physics and Chemistry made a practice of decantation in the laboratory, which is a physical method to separate the components of heterogeneous mixtures (in this case water and oil), and a filtration, which is a process by which an element is passed through a filter to separate its parts, being retained those that do not pass through its size and being filtered those that do pass through the filter space (in this case sand and water).
Before, the way of working was to take the students to the laboratory and to begin the explanation of the practice there. What it used to happen was that not everyone would
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 64
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
understand it at first, one or more class sessions were used to explain the procedure and even so, when it came to performing the practice, not everything was clear.
As part of our research and under our supervision, the teacher applied the flipped classroom methodology for the same didactic unit that had been very difficult to learn to the students so far.
Before the practice and in their homes, each student watched a video where the two separation techniques that were going to be carried out in the laboratory were clearly explained. After the video they had as a previous task to answer a series of questions that were considered necessary to understand in order to perform the practice. This way, if the student after viewing the video did not know how to answer the questions, he would watch it as many times as he would need it until he would be able to answer them. On the other hand, they were provided with a written protocol of the practice, which was nothing more than what they had seen in the video but in written script.
Once in the laboratory they saw the videos again, they shared their opinions, they resolved the doubts and we made sure that they had understood well both the task to be carried out and the foundation of the practices, that is, the purpose of the practice.
When everything was clear, the students in groups of four generally did the practice. The teacher was able to solve doubts and difficulties and they could even watch the videos again at that time because, with this methodology, the students have great autonomy in the laboratory because they are clear about what they have to do and how they should do it.
By the end of the practice the students had to prepare a memorandum with the following structure: objective of the practice, methodology used, material used, results, drawings and also reporting everything that happened to them or that had surprised them during the execution of the practice.
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 65
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
After using the flipped classroom methodology with the Physics and Chemistry class, we conducted a survey on the 24 students participating in the pedagogical experience and these were the results obtained:
1. Do you think that the viewing time of the videos in your house increases the time you are in front of the computer screen? 85% answer no. 2. Has the video helped you to better understand the practice? 100% answer yes. 3. Have you always watched the videos before the practice? At the beginning, only 50% answered yes, but at the middle of the course 85% would have watched the videos. 4. Have you easily accessed the videos on the internet? 100% answered yes. 5. Has it been important for you to have your queries prepared in order to be more efficient in the laboratory? 85% answered yes. 6. Did you need to check the video again during the lab practice? 35% answered yes. 7. The teacher was asked why he thought it was useful to apply flipped classroom in the area of sciences and the answer was that he or she could save explanation time in the laboratory, the practices could be done in the scheduled sessions, something that previously did not happen and that the accidents in the laboratory had decreased as a result of the previous visualisation of the practices.
The joint analysis of the results with the head of the subject led us to conclude that, unlike the traditional methodology used until then, if the students watched the videos before the practice they would know ahead the method that was going to be use in the laboratory and for the teacher it was much easier to start the work in the laboratory and the teaching-learning process was much more effective applying the flipped classroom methodology that we had implemented.
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 66
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
3.3. Case Study 3. Gamification.
We use gamification techniques in collaboration with the classroom teacher in ESO 4th degree, during a year. We first trained him in the use of teaching-learning tools insisting on the fact that for any playful activity to provide meaningful learning it had to be well designed and with a good execution and conclusion.
In this specific case the Kahoot game was used as a learning tool in the subject Sciences Applied to Professional Activity. A series of questions were designed for each didactic unit and the game was carried out during the development of the class session in groups.
At the end of each content block, the same questions were taken as an exam. The result during the course was that the 25 students passed the partial exams done at the end of the game, obtaining in the final exams of the subject surpassed by 95% of the students with results well above the average of the previous courses.
Both the teachers and the students answered the final questionnaire of the subject indicating that they had better disposition throughout the whole teaching-learning process, and all indicated that this methodology was much simpler and more effective to assimilate the contents of the subject, showing clearly that the introduction of gamification tools in the classroom is of great pedagogical utility and facilitates meaningful learning.
4. Discussion and Conclusions
In this research, we have made a review of the joint application of coaching and gamification and flipped classroom techniques in the classroom and have proved that they enhance both the professional motivation of the teacher and the development of students and their academic performance.
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 67
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Researches carried out in recent years show that once children enter school, no other factor is as important for their development as the quality of teachers (Bruns and Luque, 2014).
Our main conclusion is that the joint application of these pedagogical techniques facilitates the improvement of the students' relationship with the teacher, who determines the effectiveness of teaching. Among all of them, we understand that coaching is a very useful tool for teachers as a constant improvement tool applied both to their professional practice and to improve the relationship with their students and facilitate their teaching- learning process.
We also understand that the results and conclusions obtained in this research reinforce the idea that in the education system there must be a revolution both in the approach and in the techniques that are currently applied in the classroom, since they are still very aligned with the traditional teaching methodology. Likewise, the continuous learning of the teachers cannot comprise isolated courses without connection among them, but they need to keep coherence and a mission that is to provide the teacher with valid tools for the students of the 21st century.
In summary, it is necessary to promote these avant-garde techniques and teaching- learning methodologies aimed at promoting the development of the students to achieve greater responsibility of the pupils, promote the teacher-student relationship, promote teamwork and, promote significant improvements in the results of the learning process and in the development of students as individuals.
5. References
Albrecht, C.S. (2012). The game of Happiness. Gamification of positive activity interventions. Maastricht University. Maastricht, The Netherlands.
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 68
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Baker, J. W. (2000). “The classroom flip: Using web course management tools to become the guide by the side.” Selected Papers from the 11th International Conference on College Teaching and Learning. 2000.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman.
BBVA Innovation Edge (2012). Gamificación, el negocio de la diversión, 3, 1- 65.
Bruns, B. and Luque, J.. (2014). Profesores Excelentes: Cómo mejorar el aprendizaje en América Latina y el Caribe. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Chi, M., Glaser, R. and Farr, M. (1988). The Nature of Expertise. Ed. L. Erlbaum Associates.
Chorney, Alan I. (2012). "Taking the game out of gamification", Dalhousie Journal of Interdisciplinary Management, 8, 1-14.
Claxton, G. (2008). What's the point of school? Rediscovering the heart of education. Oxford: Oneworld.
Diaz, J. and Troyano, Y. (2013). "El pontencial de la gamificación aplicado al ámbito educativo", III Jornadas de Innovación Docente. Innovación Educativa: respuesta en tiempos de incertidumbre. University of Sevilla.
Esquivias Serrano, M. (2004). "Creatividad: definiciones, antecedentes y aportaciones", Revista Digital Universitaria, 1 (5).
Gros, B. (2007). Videojuegos y aprendizaje. Barcelona: Graó.
Hargreaves, D. (2004-2006). Personalising Learning. Pamphlet, Series. London: Specialist Schools Trust.
Harvard Business Essentials (2005). Coaching y Mentoring: cómo desarrollar el talento de alto nivel y conseguir mejores resultados. Barcelona: Editiones Deusto.
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 69
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.9959 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Kapp, K. (2012). The Gamification of Learning and Instruction: Game-Based Methods and Strategies for Training and Education. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons.
Neisser, U. (1976). Psicología Cognoscitiva. Editorial Trillas: México.
Padilla, S.; Halley, F. and Chantler, J.C. (2011). "Improving Product Browsing whilst Engaging Users", Digital Engagement, 11, 15-17.
Pérez Rodríguez, P. M. (2004). "Revisión de las teorías del aprendizaje más sobresalientes del siglo XX", Tiempo de Educar, 10 (5), julio-diciembre, 2004, pp. 39-76.
Prieto Gil, A. (2010). «La pirámide del Aprendizaje». E-Innova BUCM.
Piaget, J. (1968). Genetic Epistemology. Columbia University Press. USA.
Rogers, C. (1961). El proceso de convertirse en persona. Buenos Aires: Ed. Paidós.
Sams, A., Bergmann, J. et al. (2014). Flipped Learning Network (FLN). The Four Pillars of F-L-I-P.
Strayer, J. (2014). “How Learning in an Inverted Classroom Influences Cooperation, Innovation and Task Orientation”, Learning Environments Research 15.2, 171–193.
Wang, Q. (2012). "Coaching for Learning: Exploring Coaching Psychology in Enquiry- Based Learning and Development of Learning Power in Secondary Education’, Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 69, 177–86.
Wolk, L. (2007). Coaching: el arte de soplar brasas. Buenos Aires: Gran Aldea Editores GAE.
Zichermann, G. and Cunningham, C. (2011). Gamification by Design: Implementing Game Mechanics in Web and Mobile Apps. Cambridge, MA: O’Reilly Media
Gómez-Ejerique and López-Cantos (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 46-70 | 70
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10390 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Replicating a study about children’s drawings concerning radiation
T. Plotz*, F. Hollenthoner
(ORCID ID: 0000-0002-7265-8149)
AECC Physik. University of Vienna, Porzellangasse 4/2/2, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
* Corresponding author: Email: [email protected]; Phone: + 43 1427760333
Received: 2018-08-15; Accepted: 2019-02-21
Abstract Radiation surrounds us in various forms and plays a huge role in our everyday life. However, little is known about student and children’s conceptions of this topic. This study is part continuation part replication of the studies carried out by Neumann and Hopf (2013). The method employed in both studies was identical. 459 students drew pictures associated with the concept “radiation” under observation. The resulting motives were subsequently categorized and compared. In this study the children barely associate the concept of “radiation” with the Fukushima Nuclear Disaster. Moreover, a number of differences could be realized when compared to the reference study. For instance, significantly more students drew cell phones and computer monitors in the current study. Additionally, a greater number of drawings related to radioactivity could be observed. Overall, the findings of this work indicate that not only are students exposed to the media at a much younger age, but also more frequently. This leads to the conclusion that more and more children build their own understanding of a particular subject, which could potentially result in misconceptions.
Keywords Radiation, children drawings, replication study, Fukushima, radioactivity
Plotz and Hollenthoner (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 71-88 | 71
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10390 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
1. Introduction
Students’ conceptions about radiation are a field of little interest in empirical science education research. However, this topic influences our everyday life on a broad basis. From mobile phone radiation to X-rays in medicine we are surrounded by radiation every day. Neumann and Hopf (2013) investigated the drawings of over 500 children to answer the question, what motifs are drawn and do these motifs change over time? This study replicates the study by Neumann and Hopf and expands the question. After five years the topic of radiation and Fukushima has disappeared from the media. Therefore it is interesting to find out if the increase of motifs related to radioactivity documented by Neumann and Hopf is visible today. Makel and Plucker (2014) stated the importance of replication studies in education research. They point out the fact, that only 0,13% of all published studies are replication studies. Replication studies have the potential to “identify, diagnose, and minimize many of the methodological biases (Makel and Plucker p. 305)“. There are many ways to design a replication study (for a good overview, see Schmidt 2009). In our replication study we use the same design and method to analyze the drawings. We also tried to investigate children from the same schools to enable a good comparison. Additional children from a rural area were part of this study to compare them to children from the city.
2. Previous findings
Many studies in the mid-nineties (H. Eijkelhof and Millar 1988; H.M.C. Eijkelhof 1996; H. M. C. Eijkelhof et al. 1990; Lijnse et al. 1990; Millar et al. 1990; Millar 1994; Millar and Gill 1996) revealed frequent misconceptions (false conceptions) on nuclear radiation. They documented problems with the concept of contamination and irradiation or the concept of activation: an object emits radiation after being exposed to radiation. Additionally, students linked the effects of nuclear radiation to other environmental issues like the greenhouse effect or the ozone layer. A lot of these misconceptions can be found
Plotz and Hollenthoner (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 71-88 | 72
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10390 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
today. Sesen and Ince (2010) reported in their study that those misconceptions are widely spread on the Internet. This source for students to learn can stabilize their misconceptions.
Other studies focusing on invisible radiation as distinct from nuclear radiation came up with very concerning results. Rego and Peralta (2006) found that students were unable to distinguish between non-ionizing and ionizing radiation. Most of the students could not tell the difference between various types of radiation. Libarkin et al. (2011) focused on infrared (IR) and ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The majority of students (age 10 to 16) believed that the sun is the only origin for UV-radiation. They also described UV as “light,” “bright light,” “strong rays,” “very violet,” “a color like red, blue, purple light,” or “harmful rays.” Concerning IR-radiation a lack of knowledge was revealed; scarcely anybody had heard of this kind of radiation.
Plotz (2017) summarized conceptions of nuclear radiation and various types of electromagnetic radiation. He provides a recent overview of the excising literature. A lot of the mentioned studies dealt with misconceptions and associations linked with radiation. Overall we see a nonpoint picture of the students’ conceptions. There is a clear gap in the knowledge of students’ conceptions in the field of radiation.
Due to the design of this study, the most important findings are those of Neumann and Hopf (2013). They showed first and foremost, that children are likely to draw the sun, when they are asked to draw about radiation. About 70 percent of the students drew a picture of the sun or sunlight. Overall, Neumann and Hopf showed, that the motifs are often connected to visible light and to sources of radiation like mobile phones and monitors. There was also a shift in motifs from younger (sun, visible light) to older children (artificial light sources). In addition to the first study 2009 Neumann and Hopf (2011, 2012), also investigated the change in motifs in 2011 after the nuclear accident in Fukushima. In figure 1, this change in percentage of motifs is visible. Neumann and Hopf documented a significant change in the motifs connected to radioactivity.
Plotz and Hollenthoner (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 71-88 | 73
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10390 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Figure 1. Results according to Neumann and Hopf (2013)
They explained the change with the enormous amount of coverage of the accident in Fukushima in the media. This connection has been documented in the drawings and in interviews with the students after they drew the first set of pictures. They also saw a significant increase of the motifs related to visible light sources and a significant decrease in the pictures of mobile phones. Both changes were not explained in the study. As mentioned above, there is a limited set of known conceptions concerning radiation.
3. Research method
The method of drawing associations is used to identify students’ perception of the concept “radiation”. Students are asked to draw pictures associated with the subject under consideration. In general, this method originated in the psychological field in the middle of the 19th century. There it was used to get some impression of the psychological state of children, to get a “window into his/her thoughts and feelings”. Later on it was believed, that drawings of children could tell us something about their intelligence. This
Plotz and Hollenthoner (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 71-88 | 74
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10390 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
assumption did not prove right and was dismissed. However, the idea that children’s drawings could provide information about their understanding of a particular concept proved fruitful and was further examined.
In natural sciences, this technique was already used by Chambers (1983) between 1966 and 1977 in his famous “Draw-a-scientist Test”. In this test children had to draw a picture of what they believed a scientist looked like. White and Gunstone (1992) also used this methodology to investigate processes of understanding. Children were asked to draw a teacher while he is teaching, at the beginning of the school year. Most of the drawings showed conventional teaching sequences, where a teacher stands in front of the class and children sit in rows facing him. At the end of the year those school students were asked to repeat the exercise. The resulting drawings looked quite different, as this year the children were taught in a very open way and the pictures reflected that. They showed a lot of mixed class structures, where for example a lot of teamwork sessions without teachers could be seen. Dikmenli (2010) used this method to discover perceptions concerning cell division. Rennie and Jarvis (1995) investigated what children understood under the term “Technology”. The following picture (figure 2) makes clear, that the results of Rennie and Jarvis (1995) are comparable to the drawings of this study. In both studies the children had to draw pictures of abstract concepts or terms.
Figure 2. A Year 6 boy’s drawing (Rennie and Jarvis 1995, p.246)
Plotz and Hollenthoner (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 71-88 | 75
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10390 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
In general, this method has a lot of advantages, as well as a number of disadvantages. Its biggest advantage is that it turns out to be ideal to examine concepts of progresses inherited by students. Dove et al. (1999) used it in their study of children between the age of nine and eleven, who were asked to draw a water cycle. It turned out, that most of the proponents did not know where a river starts, however they did know where it ends. Most of the time, rivers were drawn flowing from left to right. All this information probably would not have been observed with, for instance, interviews. Another advantage of this method is that it is very open. Questionnaires, especially multiple-choice tests have a lot of limiting factors, which limit the forms of expression of the proponents. On the other hand, questionnaires are far easier to interpret than drawings.
This leads to one of the biggest problems of this method. It is very difficult to interpret drawings. The statement that drawings enable us to look into the “heads” of children is an assumption, not a fact. It must also be considered, that drawing is not an easy exercise for children. They need to have certain cognitive skills and it could happen that they are faced with “organizational and procedural problems”. For example, (Brown et al. 1987) asked children to draw pictures of what they associated with nuclear power plants. No human beings could be observed around the power plants in most of the drawings. The reason for that was not that they did not imagine any people in that environment. It is very difficult for school students to draw humans and so the children avoided that task. In addition to that, children between the age of nine and ten start to criticize their drawings. It is frustrating to them, when a drawn object does not look like the real one. Last but not least, the common education systems lack the facilitation of drawing skills. From the age of six to ten school children still draw a lot but then at each step up the education ladder this skill is replaced by writing and reading.
In summary, this method gets more and more impractical as students get older. Nevertheless sometimes emotions of students are revealed through a drawing. There are examples where the picture shows happy children in the sun. Other one, obviously
Plotz and Hollenthoner (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 71-88 | 76
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10390 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
associated power plants with negative feelings because the look at the face of the person is sab. In general, the method is useful with younger children. It is real fun and therefore motivates students to participate. Thomas and Silk (1990) wrote, „children make drawings largely for the satisfaction they get from the activity”. Nearly every tested class welcomed the diversion from writing and reading. It seemed that the task had even a relaxing effect for most of the children.
In conclusion, the method is highly underestimated in its values to examine conceptions of children. However, it must be considered, that its usefulness depends on the subject under consideration and the age of students. Currently a study is being carried out, testing this technique with older children (age 16 to 18) on the subject of radiation.
We implemented the procedure described by Neumann and Hopf to collect drawings from the students. The students received a blank sheet of paper and the word “Strahlung” (the German word for radiation, as used in the term “elektromagnetische Strahlung”) was written on the board in the classroom. We or the teacher asked the students to draw whatever comes to their minds, whenever they read or hear the word. During the period of drawing, the teacher did not answer any subject-specific questions and the students were encouraged to draw any motif. After 10 to 15 minutes the drawings were collected. To analyse the drawings, we categorised the motifs using the five main categories from Neumann and Hopf.
The sun Artificial source of light (lamps, flashlight, …) Motifs related to radioactivity (nuclear power plants, radioactive warning sign…) Mobile phones Monitors (all types of different screens like, TV, computer or laptop)
In addition to these categories, we found new motifs, which we grouped into several side categories.
Plotz and Hollenthoner (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 71-88 | 77
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10390 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
In this study, we collected drawings from 459 students (age 9 to age 12) from seven different schools in Austria. Three schools are located in Vienna and four schools are in the countryside of Upper-Austria. The drawings were made and collected in December 2015. As shown in figure 4 the process of data collection was done four years after the second and six years after the first study. To be able to compare our data to the previous study of Neumann and Hopf we decided to collect drawings in two schools from their study (both in Vienna).
Table 1. Qverview of the collected sample.
2015 town countryside total
4th grade 54 39 93
5th grade 68 109 177
6th grade 45 144 189 total 167 292 459
To conclude the setting of the replication study was as similar to the original study as possible to be able to compare the numbers. However, there was a major change in the data collection process. We did not differentiate the gender of the students. This decision was based on the fact that the results did not vary significantly for most categories in the original study. We focused more on the overall numbers and the variation between the different age and location of our students. We addressed the following research questions.
Plotz and Hollenthoner (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 71-88 | 78
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10390 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Figure 3. Timeline of the different studies
3.1 Research questions
Due to the fact that this study is a replication study, the most important research question is if the results are the same as in the study of Neumann and Hopf (2013). Therefore the first two research questions match the questions from the previous study.
What do younger students (age 9 to 12) associate with the term “radiation”? Do these associations change with the age of the students?
The fatal accident in Fukushima occurred in March 2011. Since then the attention in the media has vanished. Neumann and Hopf (2013) assume in their discussion that media (newspaper, TV) and the discussions in school caused the increase of motifs related to radioactivity. Hence, we formulate the hypothesis that the number of associations with radioactivity should decrease to the level of 2009.
In addition to the questions above, we investigated two research questions.
Do students from the countryside associate other motifs than students from the city? Are there other motifs in our drawings beside the main categories?
Plotz and Hollenthoner (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 71-88 | 79
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10390 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
4. Results
First we compared the overall numbers with the results of the study from Neumann and Hopf (2013). In Figure 4, the results are shown for the five main categories. The percentage of drawings picturing the sun (χ2=1.145, df=1, p<0.01) and radioactivity
(χ2=1.317, df=1, p<0.01) has not changed in a significant way, compared to 2011. What stands out is the vast increase of pictures of mobile phones (χ2=38.1, df=1, p<0.01) and monitors (χ2=30.99, df=1, p<0.01). Both doubled the percentage from 2011 to 2015. We assume, that the different accessibility to mobile phones and computers are the main reasons for this increase.
Our hypothesis, that the increase in radioactive motifs from 2009 to 2011 should vanish, can be rejected, due to the slight but not significant increase in the percentage (to about 35%). We can also see a significant increase of pictures containing artificial light sources (χ2=12,11, df=1, p<0.01).
Figure 4. Comparison of the five main categories
Plotz and Hollenthoner (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 71-88 | 80
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10390 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
To investigate the second question further, we ordered the appearance of different motifs to the different grades. We can observe a very similar trend to Neumann and Hopf (see also figure 5).
(a) (b)
Figure 5. percentage of motifs from Neumann Hopf 2013 (a) and from actual study (b)
There is a decrease in motifs showing the sun and artificial light sources. For both motifs we see a significant drop-off between grade four and five. For the sun we have χ2=5,68, df=1, p<0.05 and for artificial light source the calculated χ2 is χ2=7,34, df=1, p<0.05. Looking to the other categories, a increase in the frequency of the appearance of mobile phone, radioactivity and monitors in various forms can be seen. In the categories mobile phone and radioactivity there is a clear significant jump from grade four and grade five. However, the difference between grade five and grade six is not significant for the first four categories.
There is an interesting new finding in the comparison of the different grades. In our analyses we found a decent amount of pictures depicting LASER in various forms. These motifs are new and were not documented before. They appeared on 11,3% of the drawings in all grades. However, there was a difference in the grades. The younger children drew the motif more often (27%) than the older one (5% in grade 6).
Plotz and Hollenthoner (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 71-88 | 81
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10390 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
In addition to the appearance of LASER-themed drawings we identified two interesting subcategories. Neumann and Hopf found, that the vast majority (81,4%) of the drawings related to nuclear radiation had a negative connotation, especially after the accident in Fukushima. They even pointed out that only three drawings showed positive aspects of radioactivity. Although our results showed a similar amount of drawings related to radioactivity, we also found in 13,7% of our drawings positive aspects related to radioactivity or radiation in general. There are different examples for this in the drawings like a smiling worker in a power plant or a smiling person in a “radiation chamber”.
The second subcategory we called the etymology category. To fit into this category the motifs should contain a connection to the word radiation or radiate. One example for those motifs was a picture of a smiling face. The German language normally uses the term “to radiate with joy” instead of “to beam with joy”. So therefore there is a connection for the children to the word radiation. The same argument can explain the appearance of the number line in some drawings. The German translation would be “Zahlenstrahl” (“number ray”). We found those motifs in about 4,1% of our drawings.
The comparison of the students from the schools in Vienna to their colleagues in the countryside can be seen in figure 6. There is no significant difference between those two groups in the two main categories sun and artificial light source.
Plotz and Hollenthoner (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 71-88 | 82
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10390 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Figure 6. comparison of the main categories town/countryside
In the main categories mobile phone (χ2=27,21, df=1, p<0.01), radioactivity (χ2=26,34, df=1, p<0.01) and monitors/screens (χ2=17,88, df=1, p<0.01) there is a significant difference. In all of those categories the students from the countryside drew the motifs more often. The subcategory LASER shows that the difference is the other way round (χ2=11,5, df=1, p<0.01). that the proposed methodology is on the way of being introduced right now, as the subject is taught this year for the first time (academic year 2012-2013), and during the spring semester. Consequently, the results that will be presented and discussed will be, up to now, incomplete. Finally some observations, which seem to show some disadvantages or difficulties that may appear during the evaluation process, together with some proposals to overcome them, will be mentioned.
Plotz and Hollenthoner (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 71-88 | 83
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10390 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
5. Discussion and conclusion
Looking into the results there is not much of a connection to the nuclear disaster of Fukushima. The slight increase in the radioactivity category occurred because of the pictures of applications like cancer treatment that were linked to nuclear radiation. Overall, the results correspond with the previous study and the overall trend in the appearance of the different motifs, although there are some interesting exceptions, like the picture of lasers from above. At the time of the data collection the new Star Wars film (The awakening of the force) premiered and laser swords were part of the everyday life of the students. Therefore it is reasonable to link the appearance of this topic relate to radiation in the media to the frequency of the pictures of this topic in our research. This link is also a possible explanation for the increase of motifs for radioactivity in the original study. Neumann and Hopf hinted this link in their discussion as they wrote:
„The analysis of the interviews reinforced our hypothesis that the reason for this change in the students’ associations could be found in the tragic events of Fukushima.“ (Neumann and Hopf 2013)
However, we are not able to explain the result that in 2015 the frequency of radioactive motifs is as high as in 2011. The media coverage has rapidly decreased in the years after 2011 and so there should be a decrease. The results did not show much of a connection to the nuclear disaster of Fukushima. The slight increase in the radioactivity category maybe occurred, because of pictures of applications like cancer treatment that were linked to nuclear radiation. We think that this point should be investigated further in the future. The initial hypotheses that the frequency of motifs related to radioactivity should decrease could not be confirmed. The increase in the initial study can therefore not be linked easily to the media coverage.
In our analyses we found pictures with smiling faces or the number ray and we decided to put these motifs into a new category. We called it the etymology category. Neumann and Hopf also discussed the impact of the language to their results.
Plotz and Hollenthoner (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 71-88 | 84
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10390 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
“We assume that these results are strongly influenced by the German language since the German word Strahlung (radiation) is commonly used in everyday speech, especially in connection with the word ‚sun’“. (Neumann and Hopf 2013)
In a similar fashion knowledge of the German language is necessary, to understand the connection between a smile and radiation. The phrase “A shining smile” means, the face is radiating in German. And the “Zahlenstrahl” contains the word “Strahl” which can be translated with ‘ray’. Keeping those explanations in mind it seems obvious, that further research is necessary. Therefore we plan to conduct a study in different European countries (Denmark, Italy, France,… ) to validate the hypotheses that there are certain motifs depending on the language and others that are independent thereof (for example the motif of the sun). Due to the very simple instruction to the students the collected data should be comparable and we hope to get a better insight into the conceptions of children concerning radiation.
New are the results from the comparison between the drawings of children living in a town to those living in the countryside. It is interesting, that there is a significant difference in three of the five main categories. In addition to these three there is an inverse difference in the LASER-motif. There is no good explanation for this result.
Overall we think, that this study helped to solidify some results from the original study. It also showed the importance of replication studies. Therefore we strongly recommend, that more replication studies should be conducted. We also see a possibility and a necessity to investigate this topic further.
6. Reference
Brown, J. M., Henderson, J., & Armstrong, M. P. (1987). Children's perceptions of nuclear power stations as revealed through their drawings. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 7(3), 189-199, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(87)80029-4.
Plotz and Hollenthoner (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 71-88 | 85
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10390 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Chambers, D. W. (1983). Stereotypic images of the scientist: The Draw‐a‐Scientist Test. Science Education, 67(2), 255-265.
Dikmenli, M. (2010). Misconceptions of cell division held by student teachers in biology: A drawing analysis. Scientific Research and Essays, 5(2), 235-247.
Dove, J. E., Everett, L. A., & Preece, P. F. W. (1999). Exploring a hydrological concept through children's drawings. International Journal of Science Education, 21(5), 485-497, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/095006999290534.
Eijkelhof, H., & Millar, R. (1988). Reading about Chernobyl: the public understanding of radiation and radioactivity. School Science Review, 70(251), 35-41.
Eijkelhof, H. M. C. (1996). Radiation Risk and Science Education. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 68(3-4), 273-278.
Eijkelhof, H. M. C., Klaassen, C. W. J. M., Lijnse, P. L., & Scholte, R. L. J. (1990). Perceived incidence and importance of lay-ideas on ionizing radiation: Results of a delphi-study among radiation-experts. Science Education, 74(2), 183–195, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sce.3730740205.
Libarkin, J. C., Asghar, A., Crockett, C., & Sadler, P. (2011). Invisible Misconceptions: Student Understanding of Ultraviolet and Infrared Radiation. Astronomy Education Review, 10(1), 10105, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/aer2011022.
Lijnse, P. L., Eijkelhof, H. M. C., Klaassen, C. W. J. M., & Scholte, R. L. J. (1990). Pupils’ and mass-media ideas about radioactivity. International Journal of Science Education, 12(1), 67–78, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0950069900120106.
Makel, M. C., & Plucker, J. A. (2014). Facts Are More Important Than Novelty. Educational Researcher, 43(6), 304-316, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0013189X14545513.
Plotz and Hollenthoner (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 71-88 | 86
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10390 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Millar, R. (1994). School students' understanding of key ideas about radioactivity and ionizing radiation. Public Understanding of Science, 3(1), 53–70, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0963-6625/3/1/004.
Millar, R., & Gill, J. S. (1996). School students’ understanding of processes involving radioactive substances and ionizing radiation. Physics Education, 31(1), 27–33.
Millar, R., Klaassen, K., & Eijkelhof, H. (1990). Teaching about radioactivity and ionising radiation: an alternative approach. Physics Education, 25(6), 338.
Neumann, S., & Hopf, M. (2011). Was verbinden Schülerinnen und Schüler mit dem Begriff "Strahlung". Zeitschrift für Didaktik der Naturwissenschaften, 17, 157–176.
Neumann, S., & Hopf, M. (2012). Students’ Conceptions About "Radiation": Results from an Explorative Interview Study of 9th Grade Students. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 21(6), 826–834, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10956-012-9369-9.
Neumann, S., & Hopf, M. (2013). Children’s Drawings About "Radiation" - Before and After Fukushima. Research in Science Education, 43(4), 1535–1549, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11165-012-9320-3.
Plotz, T. (2017). Students’ conceptions of radiation and what to do about them. Physics Education, 52(1), 014004, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1361-6552/52/1/014004.
Rego, F., & Peralta, L. (2006). Portuguese students’ knowledge of radiation physics. Physics Education, 41(3), 259–262.
Rennie, L. J., & Jarvis, T. (1995). Children's choice of drawings to communicate their ideas about technology. Research in Science Education, 25(3), 239-252.
Schmidt, S. (2009). Shall we really do it again? The powerful concept of replication is neglected in the social sciences. Review of General Psychology, 13(2), 90-100, doi:10.1037/a0015108.
Plotz and Hollenthoner (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 71-88 | 87
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10390 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Thomas, G. V., & Silk, A. M. (1990). An introduction to the psychology of children's drawings: New York University Press.
White, R., & Gunstone, R. (1992). Probing Understanding. London, New York: Routledge Falmer.
Plotz and Hollenthoner (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 71-88 | 88
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Neurocommunicative methodologies: attention and emotion of the audiovisual story in the classroom
Mario Rajas1, Vanessa Izquierdo2, María Luisa García3
1 Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, email: [email protected] 2 Garrigues, email: [email protected] 3 Universidad Complutense de Madrid, email: [email protected]
Abstract Audiovisual content as a learning tool has been incorporated extensively into lecture classes. Emotion-cognition is intrinsic to the functioning of the human brain, and therefore can explain the acquisition of knowledge and competencies in the educational field, and more specifically, the transformative impact on digital natives. Advances in the study of the brain have allowed for quantitative measurement of attentional (EDL) and emotional (EDR) terms. The objective of this article is to analyze and evaluate the correlation between attention and emotion during the viewing of two videos shown in a classroom in the academic space of a university. The method consisted of recording the electrodermal activity of various groups of Audiovisual Communication and Advertising and Public Relations students during the viewing of the two audiovisual stories. The main results and conclusions link characteristics of the audiovisual narrative and technical- expressive qualities and objectives of the videos with the levels of EDL and EDR recorded by the device and establish advanced lines of research in the field of neuroeducation and neurocommunication.
Keywords Neuroeducation, Audiovisual didactic, Teaching methodology, Attention, Emotion, Electrodermal activity, Story, Audiovisual language
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 89
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
1. Introduction and status of the question Educommunication integrates two disciplines of the social and human sciences that historically have been developed in parallel, communication and education, to form a new pedagogical paradigm (Freire, 1970). Recognized by UNESCO in 1979, educommunication "includes all forms of study, learning and teaching, at all levels and in all circumstances, the history, creation, use and evaluation of communications media as practical arts and techniques” (Morduchowicz, 1997). Masterman refers to the possibilities of education through audiovisual content (Masterman, 1985). Aparici (2010), meanwhile, warns of the danger of digital technologies repeating vertical and non-participatory pedagogical models, i.e., that greater frequency of use of audiovisual resources does not assume a real change in learning processes. Dejaeghere (2009) and Martinez-Rodrigo & Segura Garcia (2011) link the use of digital communications media in education to socio-cultural and personal-emotional transformations.
Analysis of the teaching and learning process through digital audiovisual media in the classroom can be approached from very heterogeneous perspectives, such as a study of the educational technology involved (Garcia Garcia & Rajas, 2011), the procedures for acquiring competences (Ferres & Piscitelli, 2012; Perez-Rodriguez & Delgado, 2012), media literacy in digital content (Perez-Tornero & Cerda, 2011), or in the field in which this article is developed, the effectiveness of current technology as a methodological tool in student learning (Aranda, Sanchez-Navarro & Tabernero, 2009, Gabelas & Marta-Lazo, 2008, Garcia Garcia & Gertrudix, 2009, Caceres, Ruiz San Roman & Brandle, 2011, Area, 2012).
Digital technology has boosted the production and distribution of online audiovisual content through the Internet and social networks (Gonzalez Valles & Valderrama Santome, 2014). In this media context in which visual text and sound
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 90
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
predominate, the videographic format acquires special relevance as audiovisual content support. With quantitative and qualitative exponential growth, young people invest hours of attention in viewing videos on the web. Written text gives way to image and sound as the predominant expressive substances in the learning process (Buckingham, 2003).
The search to optimize educational resources used in university classrooms has led to analyzing the attention that audiovisual content awakens in students. Equally, the interest in understanding, from rigorous scientific approaches, the quality of audiovisual teaching methods has raised interest in new research tools that measure the effects of the use of video in the classroom.
In this context, neuroeducation is a discipline that combines knowledge of neuroscience, education and psychology with the objective of understanding learning and teaching processes and their direct link with communication (Salas, 2013). It can be stated that "neuroscience allows for an approach that complements traditional research methods. Qualitative research offers variety and depth through interpretation, while the quantitative counterpart offers data” (Garcia Guardia & Llorente Barroso, 2014).
Several authors have established the direct relationship between neuroscience and education (Cacioppo, 2002, Battro, Fischer & Lena, 2008, Hardiman, Rinne, Gregory & Yarmolinskaya, 2012), and specifically between emotion and learning processes (Pekrun, 1992; Fernandez Abascal, 1995, Masson, 2015). Students, as emotional beings, learn and memorize better that which involves them, that which demands their sensory participation and that which they love. Information, before being processed by the cerebral cortex, passes through the limbic or emotional brain system, in whose areas of association neural networks are produced and
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 91
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
distributed, creating the abstract, ideas and the basic elements of thought (Mora, 2013).
The action of paying attention is one of the processes that most concerns teaching activities (Anderson, 2014). Without attention from the student, the communication involved in any act of teaching-learning achieves satisfactory results, either because it does not end, or because it does not even occur. Attentional, emotional and motivational processes are closely linked to the achievement of learning objectives (Carew & Magsamen, 2010).
This article provides an approach to analyzing the effects of audiovisual media on student learning through a neuroscientific experiment: measuring the attention (EDL) and emotion (EDR) that a series of audiovisual resources of a narrative nature provoke in the classroom.
Based on research on electrodermal activity and measurement of EDL and EDR levels (Ketterer & Smith, 1982, Tranel, 2000, Dawson, Schell & Filion, 2000, Martinez Herrador, Garrido Martín, Valdunquillo Carlón & Macaya Sanchez, 2008; Gomez, 2013) applied to audiovisual productions, an analysis was conducted to determine if videographic content in a didactic context can reinforce attentional and emotional levels; therefore, its use in the classroom merges the communicative- didactic process which concludes successfully with the acquisition of knowledge and competency by the student.
The study of audiovisual material in the classroom from this perspective is pertinent since attention and emotion are two cognitive processes strongly related to memory and consequently play a key role in learning.
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 92
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
2. Material and methods
The general objective of this research is to understand the attentional and emotional efficacy of the screening of audiovisual materials in university classrooms. Specifically, if the screening of audiovisuals during a given classroom lesson causes variation in attention and emotion during viewing that results in an increase in the attentional and emotional development of the class as a whole. The specific objectives are to test diverse audiovisual materials to compare the level of attention and emotion of each, and secondly, to test their efficacy in the communicative flow in relation to the audiovisual character of the lesson taught.
To achieve these objectives, we have chosen to conduct an experiment from applied neuroscientific formulations (Sutil, 2013). We are aware that we are faced with flexible and generic indicators (Ferres and Piscitelli, 2012) and that they must be adapted to the applicable educational situation, depending on age, objectives and competencies required by the curricular content; therefore particular attention has been given to the design of the experiment for a specific situation. Media communication depends to a large extent on reception spaces, therefore we have implemented a neuroeducative approach for a specific environment and experiment. In this specific case, a lecture was prepared to be taught by professors of Audiovisual Communication and Advertising and Public Relations that included the screening of a Video A and a Video B to determine which of the two videos was more relevant in attentional and emotional terms for the students.
The two audiovisual materials were selected and validated by a committee of experts in audiovisual narrative and emerging technologies consisting of 7 teacher- researchers from a general sample of 20 audiovisual productions. The videos address, in accordance with the above regarding emerging technologies and
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 93
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
education, the digital society of social networks, and include images, animation style motion graphics, voice over and different types of musical content. The image presents strong chromatic contrasts and different playback or timewarp speeds.
The videos validated by the committee of experts and screened were The Social Media Revolution by Evan Kutsko (2016) - Video A - and Socialnomics by Erik Qualman ( 2014) - Video B - both broadcasted on the YouTube platform. The screening of the materials began with Video A, longer in duration (4:25), followed by Video B, shorter in duration (2:22). The sampling procedure chosen was convenient, given the commitment the method offers in cost and reliability, since the sample was non-random.
The sample chosen consisted of 54 people between 18 and 30 years old - the most common age of enrollment in university studies - from both sexes in a similar proportion (50%): 26 students - Degree in Audiovisual Communication and 28 students - Degree in Advertising and Public Relations, at the Complutense University of Madrid. The size of the sample has been validated in accordance with recent studies and can be considered correct and reliable with respect to the neuroscientific method performed in this research in comparison with similar research (Martinez Herrador, 2007; Vecchiato, Cherubino, Maglione et al. 2014; Reimann, 2012; Karmarkar, Yoon & Plassman, 2015; Orzan, Zara & Purcarea, 2015; Tapia & Martín, 2016).
Field work was conducted in April 2017 at the Faculty of Information Sciences of the Complutense University of Madrid. The participants in this study were informed of the purpose of the research and subsequently provided the applicable verbal consent.
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 94
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
The procedure used for recording attention and emotion of the group was the measurement of the electrodermal activity (EDA) of the subjects. Due to reliability and efficiency of measurement, electrodermal activity is one of the most frequently used methods in analogous experiments (Martinez Herrador, Monge Benito & Valduquillo, 2012, Tapia, Martin & Puentes, 2016).
The technology used to observe electrodermal activity was developed by the scientific marketing company, Sociograph (www.sociograph.es). The technology consists of a wristband with two diodes placed on the index and middle fingers, which measures electrodermal activity; subsequently, the devices send the measurements to a central calculation unit for storage and processing (Aiger, Palacín & Cornejo, 2013).
The technology measures two parameters:
1) Tonic activity: related to attention (EDL). The unit of measurement used is the summation of the electrodermal resistance in kilo ohms (KΩ) of all the participants. In this article, the inverted values are shown to facilitate reading. 2) Phasic activity: related to emotion (EDR). The unit of measurement is the arithmetic mean of the electrodermal resistance in kilo ohms (KΩ) of all the participants. As a note, the machine simply detects the presence and intensity of emotion, but not the content or quality of it, research objectives that extend beyond the methodological framework of this experiment.
For the use of results, cross-sectional statistical models and techniques applicable to the study of time series were employed.
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 95
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Over the course of the class, the videos were screened separately to ensure each viewing was independent of the other – Video A was broadcast first, and after a sixty second pause, Video B was broadcast. The university professor taught a class that developed the content related to the videographic materials before and after the broadcasts, content that was part of the theme of the two subjects.
The sessions were also recorded with the objective of detecting potential deviations in terms of instructions received by the students from the teacher, performance of the task in general, correct broadcasting of the videos and development of the session.
3. Analysis and results
First, in relation to the attentional function (EDL), it should be noted that the model utilized demonstrates significant autocorrelation (0.838 in 16 delays, p value 0.000), which indicates the dependence of subsequent values on previous values. However, this data is applicable to the study of attention (EDL), but not to the study of emotion, as due to the sudden nature of emotion it does not demonstrate dependence.
3.1. Analysis of attention (EDL)
The average attention level demonstrated during the screening of Video A, longer in duration, maintained at an average attention measurement of -666.051 KΩ with a standard deviation of 16.926 KΩ. For the screening of Video B, -671.400 KΩ with a standard deviation of 5.488 KΩ. Given that the exposed value measures the inverse resistance, it can be stated, firstly, that more attention was paid on average
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 96
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
to the screening of the longer video than to the viewing of the shorter video. However, it is important to emphasize that the attentional dispersion was much higher in the case of longer video. I.e., more attention was paid during Video A on average, but that attention showed more ups and downs, which could be a relevant factor in the learning process. The difference was also statistically significant (T test of difference between averages, p value 0.000 per p value in Levene Test 0.000).
However, an analysis of the structure of the attention during the screening, as can be seen in the following figure (up to the red line of Video A, then Video B), allows extraction of other significant data.
Figure 1. EDL recording (Attention) during broadcast of the videos (-ΣKΩ )
Source: compiled by the author
The broadcast of Video A maintains - with slight ups and downs - attention for the first two minutes, at which time attention drops very intensely almost until the end - four minutes -, where a turning point occurs during which it increases again but without recovering the levels prior to the descent. I.e., during the broadcast of
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 97
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
almost half of the video - from minute two to four -, the students paid a low level of attention. Additionally, during this segment, the level of attention was significantly lower than during the course of the screening of Video B.
However, the structure of the attention given to Video B demonstrates a different evolution. It increases slightly during the first 20 seconds, notably declines during the next 30 seconds, and increases again - up to minute 1:20 - until recovering and maintaining the levels prior to the descent until the end of the screening.
Analysis of the attention of both videos must also be based on the study of the rate of change of the variable. This data reveals moments of increase and decrease in attention in response to the stimuli deployed.
The following figure shows the rate of change in EDL of the two pieces - equally, Video A extends to the red line and then Video B begins.
Figure 2. Rate of Change in EDL (-KΩ)
Source: compiled by the author
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 98
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
As shown, the recording of the rate of change in EDL demonstrates notable attentional alterations which are described in detail in the following table.
Table 1. EDL increments in rate of change Temporary ∑KΩ Description segment
Video A 00:13-00:21 1.30 Audio: electronic music. Alters tones on a constant basis. Image: on white background appears overlaid: “Welcome to the revolution. Over 50% of the population is under 30 years old. 96% of millennials have joined a social network.” 00:39-00:49 1.1480 Audio: electronic music continues. Image: on white background appears overlaid: “Years to reach 50 millions users. Radio. 38 years. TV. 13 years. Internet. 4 years.” 00:59-01:10 2.0274 Audio: electronic music continues. Image: on white background appears overlaid: “We don´t have a choice on whether we do social media, the question is how well we do it.” 01:34-01:43 1.4315 Audio: electronic music continues. A drum sample is added. Image: appears overlaid: “Twitter. What´s happening? Ashton Kutcher and Britney Spears have more Facebook followers than the population of Sweden, Israel, Switzerland, Ireland, Norway and Panama.” 02:28-02:34 1.2178 Audio: electronic music continues. A repetitive and unintelligible voice sound is added. Image: on white background appears overlaid: “If you were paid $1 for every article posted on Wikipedia you would earn $1,712.32 per hour. There are over 200,000,000 blogs.” 03:18-03:23 1.5969 Audio: electronic music continues. The voice does not continue. Image: on white background appears an image of a TV overlaid and the text: “Only 18% of traditional TV campaigns generate a positive ROI. 90% of people skip ads via TiVo/DVR.” 03:36-03:41 1.3615 Audio: electronic music continues. The same voice indicated above is added. Image: on a search box similar to that of Google appears the writing: “We no longer search for the news. The news find us. We no longer search for products and services.” 03:50-04:19 1.4053 Audio: electronic music continues. The voice does not continue.
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 99
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Image: on white background appears overlaid, “Successful companies in social media act more like Dale Carnegie and less like Mad Men. Listening first, selling second.”
Video B 00:09-00:13 0.9599 Audio: electronic music. Image: on blue background appears overlaid: “World Population. 1. China, 2. Facebook, 3. India, 4. Tencent, 5. WhastApp, 6. United States, 7. Google+, 8. Indonesia, 9. LinkedIn, 10. Twitter.” 00:50-00:54 1.299 Audio: electronic music. Image: on blue background appears overlaid: “1 in 5 divorces involve Social Media. What happens in Vegas stays in Facebook.” 00:59-01:03 0.8391 Audio: electronic music. Image: on blue background, an image of a mobile phone. On the phone, an image of a group taking a selfie, and above in white text, it reads, "Selfie is now a word in Webster." 01:10-01:14 0.7393 Audio: electronic music continues. A repetitive and unintelligible voice is added. Image: on white background appears various shields from American universities. 01:56-02:22 0.6203 Audio: electronic music continues and the voice is repetitive and unintelligible. Image: on blue background Oreo cookies and traces of milk can be seen. The text states: “Real time marketing and newsjacking are becoming staples for savvy brands. Goodbye 4 Ps of marketing: product, place, price promotion.”
Source: compiled by the author
Considering times when attentional increase occurs as a whole, a certain common pattern can be seen. The background, whether white or blue, focuses attention on the graphic overlay elements. The text on the image background stands out.
Regarding the text, large headings stood out with data that was surprising and unknown to the audience a priori, and attracted attention due to showing very high statistics in comparison with other numbers - for example, the relationship between the population of certain countries and inhabitants of the social networks.
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 100
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
8 attentional increases above 0.5 KΩ were detected during the screening of Video A, and 5 during the course of Video B, which indicate on average an increase in attention in the case of the first video every 33 seconds and in the case of the second every 29 seconds.
3.2. Analysis of emotion (EDR)
The average level of emotion recorded during the broadcast of Video A was 0.1489 with a standard deviation of 0.08280. The average value for Video B was 0.1572 with a standard deviation of 0.08724. Therefore, it is important to note, in the first instance, the similarity of the emotional values of both screenings. Therefore, this indicates a similar display of average emotional intensity. Additionally, a T test of difference between averages was conducted, which ruled out significant differences - p value 0.352 with p value 0.282 in the Levene test for equality of variances.
However, the fact that there are no relevant differences in terms of average intensity does not indicate the same homogeneity in emotional peaks. These are moments in which, in response to a certain stimulus, the audience responded suddenly with a peak of intensity.
The responses, as shown in the following figure, are produced on four occasions during the screening of Video A, and also on four other occasions during Video B, the difference being that in this case the peaks are much closer to one another.
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 101
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Figure 3. EDR of the screenings (KΩ)
Source: compiled by the author
The times indicated, of a sudden and independent character with respect to the previous content, are described in the auditory and visual plan in the following table.
Table 2. EDR increases (KΩ) Temporary KΩ Description segment
Video A 01:07 0.3993 Audio: electronic music; a voice repeats: “Right here, right now.” Image: a list appears in columns with the most populated countries in black text with the following highlighted in blue text: “3. Facebook.” 02:01 0.4436 Audio: electronic music; a repetitive voice, this time unintelligible. Image: on black background, white and blue text that states, "Instead they are distributing: ereaders, ipads, tablets. The social media revolution 2016.”
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 102
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
03:19 1.0307 Audio: electronic music, this time without a voice. Image: on white background, image of a TV and the text, "Only 18% of traditional TV campaigns generate a positive ROI." Suddenly the text, "90% of people skip ads via TiVo/DVR," appears. 03:37 0.4556 Audio: electronic music; the same unintelligible voice as before is added. Image: "We no longer search for the news. The news finds us," is written on a search box similar to that of Google.
Video B 00:10 0.3987 Audio: electronic music. There is the sound effect of a typewriter. Image: a classification on blue background is displayed: “World population. 1. China, 2. Facebook.” 00:51 0.413 Audio: electronic music. There is also a sound effect of broken glass. Image: on blue background appears an overlay: “1 in 5 divorces involve Social Media.” 01:00 0.4745 Audio: electronic music. There is no voice or sound effect. Image: on blue background, the image of a mobile phone is formed; a group of people taking a selfie is seen. White text states, "Selfie is now a Word in Webster." 01:06 0.4223 Audio: electronic music; a repetitive voice states, "Right here, right now." Image: on a white background, black text is shown that states, "Every second 2 new members join LinkedIn."
Source: compiled by the author
As with attentional increases, emotional increases of a more sudden and brief character are seen above the electronic music that keeps the viewer in a state of alert, in this case more frequent use of voice and sound effects that highlight or amplify the meaning of the image. The text is also shown as a large headline intended to provoke surprise in the audience.
It is important to note also, coinciding with the above, that in the case of Video A, two of the four times during which emotional content was generated took place in
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 103
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
sections of increased attention. The same situation is found in three of the four times during the screening of Video B.
Therefore, emotional content was generated more frequently in sections of increased attention. However, a related issue is whether there is a significant relationship between emotional and attentional increase, or formulated in another way, if attentional increase indicates emotional increase or not – and vice versa. The tests performed -Pearson correlations - do not allow for this relationship to be significantly validated (p value 0.517), therefore this link is not emphasized as significant.
3.3. Proposal for the development of an audiovisual performance factor.
As Mora (2013) emphasizes, attention and emotion are two fundamental cognitive processes in the learning process. Following this approach, we propose the establishment of a comparative performance index for audiovisual materials viewed in the classroom.
To accomplish this, the average rate of change and the average EDR at N(0.1) are normalized, as shown in the following table.
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 104
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Table 3. Average EDL rate of change and Average EDR normalized to N(0.1). EDL (Average Rate of Change) EDR (Average EDR)
Data Standardized Rate Data Standardized Rate Source N(0.1) Source N(0.1)
Average -0.1058 -0.0314 0.1489 -0.0348
Video A Standard Deviation 0.5163 0.9792 0.828 0.9812
Average -0.059 0.057 0.1572 0.0634
Video B Standard Deviation 0.5473 1.038 0.8724 1.0339
Source: compiled by the author
These indexes are considered in terms of attention and emotion equivalence. Likewise, the value of the standard deviation is studied to indiscriminately consider the intrinsic variation in the average values of each of the videos, the IPerformance correlation coefficient. IPerformance = EDL (Average + 2*Std. Dev.) + EDR (Average + 2*Std. Dev.).
In this way, the performance for Video A would obtain a value of 3.8546 and 4.2642 for Video B, which would indicate a higher general value for Video B. Video B achieves a higher score in EDL - where it decreases, but less than Video A -, and it also obtains a somewhat higher value in average EDR - although it also has greater dispersion -, which definitively describes why Video B obtained a significantly higher score.
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 105
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
4. Conclusions
When comparing the attention (EDL) of students during a university class on two videos, The Social Media Revolution by Evan Kutsko (2016) and Socialnomics by Erik Qualman (2014), the following conclusions were drawn.
In relation to the objectives proposed in the research, in the sense of understanding attentional and emotional efficacy of the screening of audiovisual materials in the university classroom by comparing the levels of attention and emotion of the different materials used, there is less attention regarding Video B, shorter in duration, although the attentional dispersion was greater. Video A, longer in duration, maintains attention with slight ups and downs during the first two minutes. Subsequently, there is a moment in which attention decreases very intensely until the end, with lower attention in the final two minutes than throughout the course of Video B. This fact indicates that the order of the videos and their total duration influenced the attention process, since they deal with two subjects that are very similar in content and form, which excludes other audiovisual language and narrative variables in the case of having used different recording or post-production techniques.
On average, attentional increases differed depending on the duration of the video: during the long duration video every 33 seconds and during the short duration video every 29 seconds.
In particular, there is an overall increase in attention when text overlaid on an image appears on a blue or white background. I.e., this type of expressive resource increases the attention of the students, equal to what was observed in the tables
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 106
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
above, a variety of surprising data due to the unsuspected nature both quantitatively and qualitatively, producing the same result where more attention is concerned.
On the other hand, when analyzing emotion, the values of both screenings were similar: the Pearson correlation with a value of 0.517 confirms that there is no relationship between attention and emotion in the two videos.
Similar to that which occurred with attention, sudden and short increases in emotion, which coincided with the use of electronic music, kept the students in a state of alert, in this case the use of voice and sound effects was more common, as explained in the experiment, to highlight the different informative and emotional messages intended to reach the spectators through the story.
Finally, it is important to note that IPerformance demonstrates that Video B obtains a higher value than Video A.
According to this data, it can be concluded that neuroeducational analysis can yield significant results regarding which audiovisual materials may be the most effective in provoking attention and emotion in the classroom, and when its efficacy or measurement is positive or negative.
After comparing and contrasting the results of this research, we propose to open discussion regarding the influence of the order of the screening of the videos by performing an experiment which begins with the screening of Video B, shorter in duration, followed by Video A, longer in duration, and likewise, if the merging of different expressive substances - audiovisual resources that bring into play other languages of image and sound - improves attention and emotion. Similarly, the possibility of crossing data with other research methods will be assessed - in
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 107
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
addition to video recording of the expressions made by the students - such as the use of a survey or focus group and other neuroscientific measurement systems including eye-tracking and microexpression analysis software.
The results obtained in this work refer to a given context, therefore it would be of scientific interest to create the experience with other types of learners in other knowledge areas, with different ages or other geographical environments, as well as to measure the delivery of content type lecture classes given in conjunction with audiovisual materials. This study presents relevant results given the lack of previous analysis regarding this type of experiment with audiovisual content in university classrooms, but its weakness is in the context; it is essential not to over emphasize the results, and to propose new experiments that result in greater global knowledge of the subject of study.
Therefore, neuroscientific experiments applied to the use of audiovisual resources in the classroom is a field of study that can provide relevant data and interpretations in the scope of teaching methodologies: attention and emotion are two fundamental aspects of the process of teaching a classroom or virtual class, and knowledge and use of these concepts can be applied to the development of audiovisual content and to the improvement of the way in which the communicative act of teaching and learning is produced and shared, the didactic story, ultimately.
Thus, for example, content analysis facilitates obtainment of valuable data when evaluating the narrative and aesthetic structure of videos, or in another area of equal interest, a comparison of EDL and EDR of the same content taught exclusively orally -lecture-, with the support of visual presentations, or in audiovisual form with a video, among other fascinating lines of research in the interrelated field of education, communication and neuroscience.
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 108
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
5. References
Aiger, M., Palacín, M. & Cornejo, J.M. (2013). Electrodermal signal by sociograph: Methodology to measure the group activity. Revista Internacional de Psicología Social: International Journal of Social Psychology, 28 (3), 333-347. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1174/021347413807719102
Anderson, O.R. (2014). Progress in application of the neurosciences to an understanding of human learning: the challenge of finding a middle-ground neuroeducational theory. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 12 (3), 475-492. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10763-013-9455-3
Aparici, R. (2010). La construcción de la realidad [The construction of reality]. In R. Aparici (coord.). La construcción de la realidad en los medios de comunicación [The construction of reality in communication media] (pp. 11-22). Madrid: UNED.
Aranda, D., Sanchez-Navarro, J., & Tabernero, C. (2009). Jóvenes y ocio digital: informe sobre el uso de las herramientas digitales por parte de adolescentes en España [Youth and digital leisure: report on the use of digital tools by adolescents in Spain]. Barcelona: UOC.
Area, M. (2012). Sociedad líquida, web 2.0 y alfabetización digital [Liquid society, web 2.0 and digital literacy]. Aula de Innovación Educativa, 212, 55-59.
Battro, A.M., Fischer, K.W & Lena, P.J (2008) The educated brain: Essays in neuroeducation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511489907
Buckingham, D. (2003). Media Education: Literacy, Learning and Contemporary Culture. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Carew, T.J & Magsamen, S.H, (2010). Neuroscience and Education: An Ideal Partnership for Producing Evidence-Based Solutions to Guide 21st Century Learning. Neuron, 67 (5), 685-688. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2010.08.028
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 109
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Caceres, M.D., Ruiz San Roman, J.A., & Brandle, G. (2011). El uso de la televisión en un contexto multipantalla: viejas prácticas en nuevos medios [The use of television in a multi-screen context: old practices in new media]. Análisis, 43, 21- 44.
Cacioppo, J.T. (2002). Foundations in Social Neuroscience. New York: MIT Press.
Dawson, M.E.; Schell, A.M. & Filion, D.L. (2000). The Electrodermal System. In: Cacioppo, J.T.; Tassinary, L.G.; Bernstom, G.C. Handbook of Psychophysiology. New York: Cambridge University Press, 200-223.
Dejaeghere, J. (2009). Critical Citizens Education for Multicultural Societies. Interamerican Journal of Education and Democracy, 2, 223-236.
Fernandez Abascal, E.G. (1995). Manual de motivación y emoción [Manual of motivation and emotion]. Madrid: Centro de Estudios Ramón Areces.
Ferres, J., & Piscitelli, A. (2012). La competencia mediática: propuesta articulada de dimensiones e indicadores [Media Competence. Articulated Proposal of Dimensions and Indicators]. Comunicar, 38, 75-86. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3916./C38-2012-02-08.
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogía del oprimido [Pedagogy of the oppressed]. Mexico: Siglo XXI.
Garcia Garcia, F., & Gertrudix, M. (2009). El mare nostrum digital: mito, ideología y realidad de un imaginario sociotécnico [The digital mare nostrum: myth, ideology and reality of a sociotechnical imaginary]. Icono14, 7(1), 7-30 http://www.icono14.net/ojs/index.php/icono14/article/view/331 (Date of access: 10/15/2016).
Garcia Garcia, F., & Rajas, M. (2011). Narrativas audiovisuales: mediación y convergencia [Audiovisual narratives: mediation and convergence]. Madrid: Icono14 Editorial.
Garcia Guardia, M.L., & Llorente Barroso, C. (2014). Neurocommunication, Neuroshopping and Efficacy. En J. Timoteo Alvarez (Ed.), Social Neurocommunication. Applying the findings from Neurosciences and Network
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 110
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Theory to the Science and Communication Industry (pp. 217-237). Porto: Media XXI.
Gonzalez Valles, J.E., & Valderrama Santome, M. (2014). Comunicación actual: redes sociales y 3.0 [Current Communication: social networks and 3.0]. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
Karmarkar, U., Yoon, C., & Plassmann, H. (2015). Marketers should pay attention to fMRI. Harvard Business Review. goo.gl/5tDXbJ (Date of access: 10/6/2016).
Ketterer, M.W., & Smith, B.D. (1982). Lateralized Cortical/Cognitive Processing and Electrodermal Activity: Effects of Subject and Stimulus Characteristics. Psychophysiology, 19, p. 328-356.
Hardiman, M., Rinne, L., Gregory,E., & Yarmolinskaya, J. (2012). Neuroethics, neuroeducation, and classroom teaching: Where the brain sciences meet pedagogy. Neuroethics, 5 (2), 135-143. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12152-011-9116-6
Martinez Herrador, J.L. (2007). La Medida de la Atención y la Emoción de grupos sociales mediante una nueva técnica: Sociograph. [The Measure of Attention and Emotion of social groups through a new technique: Sociograph]. XI Conferencia Española y I Encuentro Iberoamericano de Biometría, Salamanca [11th Spanish Conference and 1st Ibero-American Meeting of Biometrics, Salamanca].
Martinez Herrador, J.L., Garrido Martin, E., Valdunquillo Carlon, M.I., & Macaya Sanchez, J. (2008). Análisis de la atención y la emoción en el discurso político a partir de un nuevo sistema de registro psicofisiológico y su aplicación a las ciencias políticas [Analysis of attention and emotion in political discourse based on a new psychophysiological record system and its application to political science]. DPSA. Documentos de trabajo del Departamento de Psicología Social y Antropología, 2 [Working documents of the Department of Social Psychology and Anthropology, 2].
Martinez Herrador, J.L., Monge Benito, S., & Valdunquillo Carlon, M.I. (2012). Medición de las respuestas psicofisiológicas grupales para apoyar el análisis de discursos políticos [Measurement of group psychophysiological responses to support the analysis of political discourse]. Tripodos, 29. 53-72.
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 111
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Martinez-Rodrigo, E., & Segura Garcia, R., (2011). Jóvenes digitales. La dinámica de las emociones en el uso de las tecnologías [The dynamics of emotions in the use of technologies]. In E. Martinez-Rodrigo y C. Marta-Lazo (Coords.), Jóvenes interactivos: nuevos modos de comunicarse [Interactive youth: new ways of communicating] (pp.19-35). La Coruña: Netbiblo.
Masson, S. (2015). How neuroeducation learning can contribute to educational practice: From neuromyths to current research findings. ANAE - Approche Neuropsychologique des Apprentissages chez l'Enfant, 27 (134), 11-22.
Masterman, L. (1985). La enseñanza de los medios de comunicación [The teaching of communications media]. Madrid: Ediciones de la Torre.
Mora, F. (2013). Neuroeducación [Neuroeducation]. Sólo se puede aprender aquello que se ama [You can only learn what you love]. Madrid: Alianza Editorial.
Morduchowicz, R. (1997). La escuela y los medios. Un binomio necesario [School and media. A necessary binomial]. Buenos Aires: Editorial Aique.
Orzan, G., Zara, I., & Purcarea, V.L. (2015). Neuromarketing Techniques in Pharmaceutical Drugs Advertising. A Discussion and Agenda for Future Research. Journal of medicine and life, 5 (4), 428-432. ID PubMed: 23346245
Pekrun, R. (1992). The Impact of Emotions on Learning and Achievement: Towards a Theory of Cognitive/Motivational Mediators. Applied Psychology, 41, 359–376. doi: 10.1111/j.1464-0597.1992.tb00712.x
Perez-Rodriguez, M.A., & Delgado, A. (2012). De la competencia digital y audiovisual a la competencia mediática: dimensiones e indicadores [From Digital and Audiovisual Competence to Media Competence: Dimensions and Indicators]. Comunicar, 39, 25-34. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C39-2012-02-02
Perez Tornero, J.M., & Cerda, J.F.M. (2011). Hacia un sistema supranacional de indicadores mediáticos [Towards a supranational system of media indicators]. Políticas de alfabetización en la Unión Europea [Literacy policies in the European Union]. Infoamérica: Iberoamericanan Communication Review, 5, 39-57.
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 112
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Rienda Gomez, J.J. (2013). Técnicas de diagnóstico en neuromanagement [Diagnostic techniques in neuromanagement]. En L. Sutil (Coord.), Neurociencia, empresa y marketing, 165-176. Madrid: ESIC.
Salas, C. (2013). Neurocomunicación [Neurocomunicacion]. In L. Sutil (Coord.), Neurociencia, empresa y marketing, 195-213. Madrid: ESIC.
Sutil, L. (2013). Herramientas del neuromanagement [Neuromanagement tools]. In L. Sutil (Coord.), Neurociencia, empresa y marketing, 101-116. Madrid: ESIC.
Tapia, A., & Martin, E. (2016). Neurociencia aplicada a la televisión: medición de la atención y la emoción de la serie Forever [Neuroscience applied to television: measuring the attention and emotion of the Forever series]. Revista de comunicación Vivat Academia · 19 (134), 69-82· doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.15178/va.2016.134.69-82
Tapia, A., Martin, E., & Puentes, J.E. (2016). Neurociencia y publicidad. Atención, emoción y premios obtenidos en el Festival Internacional de Publicidad de Cannes [Neuroscience and advertising. Attention, emotion and awards obtained at the Cannes International Advertising Festival]. Analisi, 54.
Tranel, D. (2000). Electrodermal Activity in Cognitive Neuroscience: Neuroanatomical and Neuropsychological Correlates. In: Lane, R.D.; Nadel, L. (eds.). Cognitive Neuroscience of Emotion. New York: Oxford University Press, 192-224.
Vecchiato, G., Cherubino, P., Maglione, A.G., Ezquierro, M.T.H., Marinozzi, F., Bini, F., Trettel, A., & Babiloni, F. (2014). Neurophysiological tools to investigate consumer´s gender differences during the observation of TV commercials. Computational and mathematical methods in medicine, 91, 29-81. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/912981.
Videography
Kutsko, E. (2016). The Social Media Revolution. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N4znQDyz038 (Date of access: 10/30/2016).
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 113
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.10670 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Qualman, E. (2014). Socialnomics. goo.gl/NWrTLW (Date of access: 10/30/2016).
6. Key ideas
The study interrelates the use of audiovisual resources in the classroom with the analysis of attention and emotion in a group of communication sciences (Advertising and Public Relations and Audiovisual Communication) students. The introduction of various visual and sound stimuli - such as key words in motion graphics and specific references in the voice over -, as well as the temporal construction of stimuli displayed by the videos produced significant changes in EDL and EDR values.
Therefore, we highlight the possibility that neuroscientific experiments can be applied to the use of audiovisual resources, in the narrative and aesthetic construction of these materials to obtain higher levels of attention and emotion, as well as in the integration in university classrooms with other types of content and how it can provide relevant data and interpretations in the field of teaching methodologies, both in the classroom and in virtual classes, with the intention of improving the teaching-learning process in the era of digital content.
Rajas et al. (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 89-114 | 114
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11743 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
VIABILITY OF USING WIND TURBINES FOR ELECTRICITY GENERATION IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Francisco Rubio1 , Carlos Llopis-Albert1
1Centro de Investigación en Ingeniería Mecánica (CIIM), Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain
Emails: [email protected], [email protected]
Received: 2019-02-08; Accepted: 2019-04-25
Abstract
This paper presents a feasibility study of applying a fluid energy recovery system by means of wind turbines for charging batteries of electric vehicles. This is because the main disadvantage of electric vehicles with regard to conventional fuel automobiles is the scarce capacity of storing sufficient energy to run long distances. This can be carried out by recovering a percentage of the energy used to overcome the aerodynamic drag of the vehicle. This work analysis different case studies, with different driving modes, to quantify the theoretical energy recovered from the vehicle aerodynamics. Results have shown the theoretical possibility to implement this technology in actual electric vehicles.
Keywords
Electric vehicles, wind turbines, energy recovery, aerodynamics, battery charging.
Rubio and Llopis-Albert (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 115-126 | 115
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11743 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
1. Introduction.
A wind turbine can operate as an energy recovery system (ERS) similar to the brakes, i.e., regenerative braking (Valero et al., 2017). When a car changes its speed in any sense or direction, its amount of energy varies (Bangi et al., 2017; Ferdous et al., 2011). When it loses speed, that energy tends to dissipate. Traditionally the dissipated energy has been wasted. That is, the kinetic energy of the vehicle is transformed into heat during braking. In recent years, due to greater awareness of society about environmental issues, pollution and climate change, there is a great interest in developing energy recovery systems. One of the best known is the regenerative braking systems, which is based on the kinetic energy recovery system (KERS) during vehicle braking. This allows reductions in consumption (efficiency increases) of up to 45%.
In this article we analyze the feasibility of using a wind turbine as an energy recovery system, quantifying the savings that can be made in its two possible uses: as an energy recovery system and as a system using the aerodynamic drag, i.e., the force acting opposite to the relative motion of the vehicle moving with respect to the surrounding air (Wen-Long Yao and Chiu., 2015;
Valero et al., 2019). The recovered energy can be used for electric vehicle charging, thus reducing costs (Llopis-Albert et al., 2015; 2018; 2019). This can play a major role since electric vehicles sales have increased significantly during last years (Zheng et al., 2018). In addition, a procedure for shape optimization of the wind turbine should be performed to increase the energy recovered
(Llopis-Albert et al., 2018a). There are many optimization procedures in the literature in different research areas (Rubio et al., 2015; 2016; 2019; Llopis-Albert and Pulido-Velazquez, 2015; Llopis-
Albert and Capilla, 2010; Llopis-Albert et al., 2016).
Rubio and Llopis-Albert (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 115-126 | 116
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11743 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
2. Case studies.
This work uses a wind turbine with a horizontal axis and 50 cm of diameter installed in the frontal part of a vehicle. This vehicle will be subjected to three different driving scenarios that will be characterized by speeds, accelerations and time of circulation.
2.1 First scenario: corresponds to a Worldwide Harmonized Vehicle Test Procedure (WLTP).
In this cycle, the vehicle undergoes a 30-minute ride with certain characteristics of speeds and accelerations and routes (Table 1). Accelerations from 0 to 50 km/h must be made between 5 and
10 seconds and a distance of 27 km is travelled. It is intended to measure the power used to get the vehicle to move under the stipulated driving conditions.
More specifically, the WLTP cycle lasts 30 minutes and consists of 4 phases:
- Phase 1: low speed (589 s-9.18 min); maximum velocity (Vmax) = 56.5 km/h. - Phase 2: average speed (433 s.-7.22 min); V maximum velocity (Vmax) = 76.6 km/h. - Phase 3: high speed (455 s-7.58 min); maximum velocity (Vmax) = 97.4 km/h. - Phase 4: very high speed (323 s.-5.38 min); maximum velocity (Vmax) = 131.3 km/h.
Different driving modes (Rubio et al., 2019) are simulated covering city (urban), secondary road, autonomous or national road and freeway. In the freeway the maximum speed will be 131 km/h and the average protocol speed of 46.5 km/h.
Rubio and Llopis-Albert (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 115-126 | 117
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11743 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Table 1: Circulation characteristics for scenario 1 (WLTP cycle). V: velocity, A: acceleration
Time Stop Distance V_max A_min A_max Phase % stop (s) (s) (m) (km/h) (m/s2) (m/s2) Low 589 156 3095 26.5 56.5 -1.47 1.47 Medium 433 48 4756 11.1 76.6 -1.49 1.57 High 455 31 7158 6.8 97.4 -1.49 1.58 Super 323 7 8254 2.2 131.3 -1.21 1.03 high Total 1800 242 23262
2.2 Second scenario: It corresponds to a purely urban driving (in city) with the following characteristics:
Cycle time: 20.25 min.
Time in circulation: 15.55 min Stop time: 4.7 min Distance travelled: 8.84 km Maximum speed: 50 km/h
During the journey there are ups, downs, accelerations, decelerations and stops.
2.3 Third scenario: It corresponds to an interurban driving (highway) with the following characteristics:
Cycle time: 1.7 h
Time in circulation: 1.7 h Stop time: 0 min Distance travelled: 198.79 km
Rubio and Llopis-Albert (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 115-126 | 118
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11743 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Maximum speed: 120 km/h
During the journey we have considered ups, downs, accelerations and decelerations.
3. Driving modes and acting forces.
Table 2 shows the driving modes of the vehicle and the braking or driving force that must be provided for the vehicle to move under the conditions set by the corresponding driving mode.
Table 2: Driving modes
Case 1: Acceleration in plain
Fa Fm
Fr Fi
푭풎 = −푭풊 + 푭풓 + 푭퐚+푭풘 Case 2: Deceleration in plain
Ffren Fi Fa Fr
푭풇풓풆풏 = −푭풊 + 푭풓 + 푭퐚+푭풘 Case 3: Constant velocity
Fa Fm
Fr
푭풎 = −푭풊 + 푭풓 + 푭퐚 + 푭풘
Rubio and Llopis-Albert (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 115-126 | 119
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11743 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Table 2: Driving modes (continued)
Case 4: Acceleration upwards
Fm
Fa Fi Fw Fr
푭풎 = −푭풊 + 푭풓 + 푭퐚 + 푭퐰
Case 5: Constant velocity upwards
Fm
Fa Fw Fr
푭풎 = −푭풊 + 푭풓 + 푭퐚 + 푭퐰
Rubio and Llopis-Albert (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 115-126 | 120
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11743 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Table 2: Driving modes (continued)
Case 6: Deceleration upwards
Fi
Ffren Fa Fw Fr
푭풇풓풆풏 = −푭풊 + 푭풓 + 푭퐚 + 푭퐰 Case 7: Deceleration downwards
Ffren Fa
Fr
Fi
Fw
푭풇풓풆풏 = −푭풊 − 푭퐰 + 푭풓 + 푭퐚 Case 8: Constant velocity downwards
Ffren Fa
Fr
Fw
푭풇풓풆풏 = −푭풊 − 푭퐰 + 푭풓 + 푭퐚
Rubio and Llopis-Albert (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 115-126 | 121
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11743 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Table 2: Driving modes (continued)
Case 9: Acceleration downwards
Ffren Fa Fi Fr
Fw
푭풇풓풆풏 = −푭풊 − 푭퐰 + 푭풓 + 푭퐚
The forces considered in the conduction of the automobile are:
푭풎 = driving force F 푭풊 = inertia force 푭풓 = rolling force 푭풂 = dragging force 푭풘 = weight 푭풇풓풆풏 = braking force
The power is calculated as follows: 푷 = 푭풎/풇풓풆풏 ∙ 풗.
4. Results. Analysis of the consumed power
The most important vehicle characteristics and the set of parameters used in the calculation of the different forces that act on it are presented in Table 3:
Rubio and Llopis-Albert (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 115-126 | 122
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11743 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Table 3: Parameters 2 A 2,2 m C 0,32 - m 1000 kg θ 0 rad ρ 1,225 kg/m3 g 9,81 m/s2
Where A is the front area of the vehicle; C: drag coefficient; m: mass of the vehicle; θ: angle of the ramp up or down; ρ: air density; g: acceleration of gravity;
For the calculation of the rolling force, the coefficient of rolling resistance is 풇풓 = ퟎ. ퟎퟏ ∙
푽 (ퟏ + ), where the velocity (V) is given in km/h. ퟏퟔퟎ
The value of the air density has been considered ρ = 1.25 kg/m3 at atmospheric pressure and at
15 ºC and θ corresponds to the slope of the up and down ramps. The acceleration in each section is calculated using the equations of the uniformly accelerated rectilinear movement taking into account the initial, final speed and the elapsed time. The values obtained for the different scenarios allows to determine the motor power and braking power required to drive according to the circulation characteristics described for each scenario. In these scenarios, the different driving modes described in Table 2 have been taken into account. The driving power affects the energy consumption of the vehicle to maintain the desired circulation characteristics. The braking power corresponds to the power dissipated in the form of heat to maintain the vehicle speed. It appears when the brakes of the motion regulation intervene.
Rubio and Llopis-Albert (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 115-126 | 123
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11743 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
The dissipated power can be converted back into energy recovered by the use of regenerative brakes or wind turbines. In this analysis we propose the recovery made by using a wind turbine.
Table 4 summarizes the results about the recovered power.
Table 4: Ideal percentage of power that can be recovered Recovery system Recovery syst. + drag force Theoretical % Theoretical % Scenario 1 21.9 63.45 Scenario 2 40.95 52.06 Scenario 3 19.73 78.34
5. Conclusions
This paper is a first step to investigate the feasibility of implementing a technology for energy recovery using wind turbines in electric vehicles. This is carried out by considering the effects of the airflow through wind turbines and the vehicle aerodynamic drag during its motion. This allows to recover a percentage of the energy supplied by the batteries to the vehicle engine. Dissipative forces such as the tyre rolling resistance force are responsible for not being able to recover all the energy supplied by those batteries.
Results have shown the theoretical viability to successfully develop this technology. As important fact, this study has shown that the use of wind turbines allows the possibility of recovering an important percentage of the energy provided by the batteries, although it strongly depends on the assumptions of each case study. However, further research is needed to verify the data with experimental tests.
Rubio and Llopis-Albert (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 115-126 | 124
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11743 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
References
-Bangi, V.K.T., Chaudhary, Y.; Guduru, R.K.; Aung, K.T., Reddy, G.N. (2017). Preliminary investigation on generation of electricity using micro wind turbines placed on a car. International Journal of Renewable Energy Development, 6(1), pp. 75-81. DOI: 10.14710/ijred.6.1.75-81.
-Ferdous, S.M, Salehin, S, Bin Khaled, W. (2011). Electric Vehicle with Charging Facility in Motion using Wind Energy. World Renewable Energy Congress 2011 – Sweden Sustainable Transport (ST), 8-11 May 2011, Linköping, Sweden. DOI: 10.3384/ecp110573629.
-Llopis-Albert, C., Rubio, F., Valero, F., (2019). Fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis applied to the design of a network flow of automated guided vehicles for improving business productivity. Journal of Business Research, DOI: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.12.076.
-Llopis-Albert, C. Rubio, F., Valero, F. (2018). Designing Efficient Material Handling Systems Via Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs). Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, Social and Technological Sciences, 5(2), 97-105.DOI: 10.4995/muse.2018.10722.
-Llopis-Albert, C., Merigó, J.M., Xu, Y.J. (2016). A coupled stochastic inverse/sharp interface seawater intrusion approach for coastal aquifers under groundwater parameter uncertainty. Journal of Hydrology 540, 774-783. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.06.065.
-Llopis-Albert, C. Rubio, F., Valero, F. (2018a). Optimization approaches for robot trajectory planning. Multidisciplinary Journal for Education 5(1), 1-16. DOI: 10.4995/muse.2018.9867.
-Llopis-Albert, C., Rubio, F., Valero, F. (2015). Improving productivity using a multi-objective optimization of robotic trajectory planning. Journal of Business Research 68, 1429–1431. DOI: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.01.027.
-Llopis-Albert, C., Pulido-Velazquez, D. (2015). Using MODFLOW code to approach transient hydraulic head with a sharp-interface solution. Hydrological processes 29(8), 2052-2064. DOI: 10.1002/hyp.10354.
-Llopis-Albert, C., Capilla, J.E. (2010). Stochastic Simulation of Non-Gaussian 3D Conductivity Fields in a Fractured Medium with Multiple Statistical Populations: Case Study. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering 15(7), 554-566. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0000214.
-Rubio, F., Llopis-Albert, C., Valero, F., Besa, A.J. (2019). A new approach to the kinematic modeling of a three-dimensional car-like robot with differential drive using computational mechanics. Advances in Mechanical Engineering, DOI: 10.1177/1687814019825907.
Rubio and Llopis-Albert (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 115-126 | 125
Multidisciplinary Journal for Education, https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2019.11743 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
-Rubio, F., Valero, F., Llopis-Albert, C. (2019a). A review of mobile robots: Concepts, methods, theoretical framework, and applications. International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, 16(2). DOI: 10.1177/1729881419839596.
-Rubio, F., Llopis-Albert, C., Valero, F., Suñer, J.L. (2016). Industrial robot efficient trajectory generation without collision through the evolution of the optimal trajectory. Robotics and Autonomous Systems 86, 106-112. DOI: 10.1016/j.robot.2016.09.008.
-Rubio, F., Llopis-Albert, C., Valero, F., Suñer, J.L. (2015). Assembly line productivity assessment by comparing optimization-simulation algorithms of trajectory planning for industrial robots. Mathematical Problems in Engineering, vol. 2015, Article ID 931048, 10 pages, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/931048.
-Valero, F., Rubio, F., Llopis-Albert, C. (2019). Assessment of the Effect of Energy Consumption on Trajectory Improvement for a Car-like Robot. Robotica, 1-12. DOI:10.1017/S0263574719000407.
-Valero, F., Rubio, F., Llopis-Albert, C., Cuadrado, J.I. (2017). Influence of the Friction Coefficient on the Trajectory Performance for a Car-Like Robot. Mathematical Problems in Engineering, vol. 2017, Article ID 4562647, 9 pages. DOI: 10.1155/2017/4562647.
-Wen-Long Yao, A. and Chiu, C.-H (2015). Development of a Wind Power System on Trucks. Universal Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 3(5), pp. 151–163. DOI: 10.13189/ujme.2015.030501.
-Zheng, X., Lin, H., Liu, Z., Li, D., Llopis-Albert, C., Zeng, S (2018). Manufacturing Decisions and Government Subsidies for Electric Vehicles in China: A Maximal Social Welfare Perspective. Sustainability, 10(3), 672. DOI: 10.3390/su10030672.
Rubio and Llopis-Albert (2019) http://polipapers.upv.es/index.php/MUSE/ Mult. J. Edu. Soc & Tec. Sci. Vol. 6 Nº 1 (2019): 115-126 | 126