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SINCE-1993

Study Material Civil Services Main Examination Optional Subject Paper-I HISTORY

PAPER-I: SET-2 HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL

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PREFACE

The importance of Optionals cannot be overstated in the preparation of UPSC. History is one of the most scoring Optional with signifi cant overlapping with GS syllabus. The syllabus is vast but can be managed by smart work. The present updated and revised module of History of forms an important part of History Optional Paper I and is in accordance with this spirit and the latest trends of questions asked in UPSC Main Examination. The latest trend signals towards more analytical approach in asking questions by the UPSC where rote learning is of less importance and the acquaintance with the basic concepts seems to be of prime importance. This module aims to incorporate this pattern by focusing more on the core aspects of events related to Medieval Indian History. To increase the credibility and attractiveness of your answer, views of various historians and debates concerning a particular event of medieval history has also been added. The vastness of the syllabus and its monotonicity sometimes makes the reading of History boring. To overcome this challenge, the present module incorporates number of images, tables, maps along with point-wise description of many events so that the interest and enthusiasm of reader is maintained. To further the readability experience, the font has been changed to make it more pleasing to the eyes. The index has been thoroughly updated with sub-points to easily access individual topic.

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SYLLABUS HISTORY PAPER - I

HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA 1. Early Medieval India, 750-1200: Polity: Major political developments in northern India and the Peninsula, origin and the rise of ; The Cholas: administration, village economy and society; “Indian Feudalism”; Agrarian economy and urban settlements; Trade and commerce; Society: the status of the Brahman and the new social order; Condition of women; Indian science and technology. 2. Cultural Traditions in India, 750-1200: Philosophy: Shankaracharya and , and , Madhva and Brahma-Mimansa; Religion: Forms and features of religion, Tamil devotional cult, growth of Bhakti, Islam and its arrival in India, Sufi sm; Literature: Literature in , growth of , literature in the newly developing languages, Kalhan’s Rajtarangini, Alberuni’s India; Art and Architecture: Temple architecture, sculpture, painting. 3. The Thirteenth Century: Establishment of the Sultanate: The Ghurian invasions—factors behind Ghurian success; Economic, social and cultural consequences; Foundation of and early Turkish ; Consolidation: The rule of Iltutmish and Balban. 4. The Fourteenth Century: “The Khilji Revolution”; Alauddin Khilji: Conquests and territorial expansion, agrarian and economic measures; Muhammad Tughluq: Major projects, agrarian measures, bureaucracy of Muhammad Tughluq; Firuz Tughluq: Agrarian measures, achievements in civil engineering and public works, decline of the Sultanate, foreign contacts and Ibn Battuta’s account. 5. Society, Culture and Economy in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries: Society: composition of rural society, ruling classes, town dwellers, women, religious classes, caste and slavery under the Sultanate, Bhakti movement, Sufi movement; Culture: Persian literature, literature in the regional languages of , literature in the languages of north India, Sultanate architecture and new structural forms, painting, evolution of a composite culture; Economy: Agricultural production, rise of urban economy and non-agricultural production, trade and commerce. 6. The Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries—Political Developments and Economy: Rise of Provincial Dynasties: , (Zainul Abedin), , , Bahmanids; The Vijayanagra Empire; Lodis; , First phase: Babur and Humayun; The Sur Empire: Sher Shah’s administration; Portuguese Colonial enterprise; Bhakti and Sufi Movements. 7. The Fifteenth and early Sixteenth Centuries—Society and Culture: Regional cultural specifi cities; Literary traditions; Provincial architecture; Society, culture, literature and the arts in . 8. : Conquests and consolidation of the Empire; Establishment of Jagir and Mansab systems; policy; Evolution of religious and social outlook, theory of Sulh-i-kul and religious policy; Court patronage of art and technology. 9. Mughal Empire in the Seventeenth Century: Major administrative policies of Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb; The Empire and the Zamindars; Religious policies of Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb; Nature of the Mughal State; Late Seventeenth century crisis and the revolts; The ; Shivaji and the early Maratha Kingdom.

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10. Economy and Society in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries: Population, agricultural production, craft production; Towns, commerce with Europe through Dutch, English and French companies: a trade revolution; Indian mercantile classes, banking, insurance and credit systems; Condition of peasants, condition of women; Evolution of the Sikh community and the Khalsa Panth. 11. Culture in the Mughal Empire: Persian histories and other literature; and other religious literature; Mughal architecture; Mughal painting; Provincial architecture and painting; Classical music; Science and technology. 12. The Eighteenth Century: Factors for the decline of the Mughal Empire; The regional principalities: Nizam’s Deccan, Bengal, Awadh; Maratha ascendancy under the Peshwas; The Maratha fi scal and fi nancial system; Emergence of Afghan Power, Battle of Panipat: 1761; State of politics, culture and economy on the eve of the British conquest.

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER-1 EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA (750-1200) 11

G POLITY: MAJOR POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN NORTHERN INDIA AND THE PENINSULA

G RISE OF THE RAJPUTS

G FEUDALISM IN EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA

G THE ARAB CONQUEST

G THE CHOLAS: ADMINISTRATION, VILLAGE ECONOMY AND SOCIETY

G THE GHAZNAVID EMPIRE

G INDIAN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER-2 CULTURAL TRADITIONS IN INDIA (750-1200) 48

G PHILOSOPHY

G GROWTH OF BHAKTI

G ISLAM AND ITS ARRIVAL IN INDIA

G LITERATURE

G ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA

G SUFISM

CHAPTER-3 THE 13TH CENTURY 72

G THE GHORIAN INVASIONS AND FACTORS BEHIND THE GHORIAN SUCCESS

G CAUSES OF TURKISH SUCCESS AGAINST RAJPUTS

G ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONSEQUENCES

G QUTUBUDDIN AIBAK

G ILTUTMISH

G BALBAN

G IQTA SYSTEM

CHAPTER-4 THE 14TH CENTURY 95

G THE KHILJI REVOLUTION

G JALALUDDIN FIRUZ KHILJI (1290-1296)

G ALAUDDIN KHILJI (1296-1316)

G MONGOL INVASIONS

G CONQUEST AND TERRITORIAL EXPANSION | 7 |

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G CONCEPTION OF KINGSHIP

G LAND REVENUE

G ECONOMIC REFORMS

G MUHAMMAD TUGHLUG

G POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CONCEPTS OF THE

G MUHAMMAD BIN TUGHLUQ AND HIS MAJOR PROJECTS

G CHARACTER AND ESTIMATE OF MUHAMMAD TUGHLUQ

G FIRUZ TUGHLUG

G DOMESTIC POLICY

G IRRIGATION

G PUBLIC WORKS

G RELIGIOUS POLICY

G FOREIGN POLICY

G DECLINE OF THE DELHI SULTANATE

G FOREIGN CONTACTS: IBN BATTUTA

CHAPTER-5 SOCIETY, CULTURE AND ECONOMY IN THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES 147

G SOCIETY

G SUFI MOVEMENT

G SOCIAL ROLE OF THE SUFIS, THEIR ATTITUDE TOWARDS STATE, ULEMA, CONVERSIONS, SOCIETY, ECONOMY, ETC.

G LINGAYATS

G BHAKTI MOVEMENT

G LITERATURE

G INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

G SULTANATE ARCHITECTURE OR TURKISH ARCHITECTURE

G SULTANATE PAINTING

G TRADE AND COMMERCE

G CONDITION OF ARTISANS AND PEASANTRY

G SYSTEM OF TAXATION

G GROWTH OF URBAN CENTRES

CHAPTER-6 THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) 178

G RISE OF PROVINCIAL DYNASTIES

G THE LODIS (1451-1526 A.D.)

G THE MUGHAL EMPIRE—FIRST PHASE, BABUR AND HUMAYUN

G THE SUR EMPIRE—SHERSHAH’S ADMINISTRATION | 8 |

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G THE PORTUGUESE COLONIAL ENTERPRISES

G BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENT

G NATURE OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT

G IMPACT OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT

G WEAKNESS

G SUFISM IN ITS PANTHEISTIC PHASE

CHAPTER-7 THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE) 217

G REGIONAL CULTURES AND LITERATURES

G PROVINCIAL ARCHITECTURAL STYLES

G SOCIETY, CULTURE, LITERATURE AND THE ARTS IN VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE

CHAPTER-8 AKBAR 226

G CONQUESTS AND CONSOLIDATION OF EMPIRE

G NEW CONCEPT OF MONARCHY

G ESTABLISHMENT OF JAGIRDARI AND MANSAB SYSTEMS

G RAJPUT POLICY

G EVOLUTION OF AKBAR’S RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL OUTLOOK

G THEORY OF SULH-I-KUL AND RELIGIOUS POLICY

G COMPOSITE NOBILITY UNDER AKBAR

G ABUL FAZL, THINKER AND HISTORIAN

G COURT PATRONAGE OF ART AND TECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER-9 MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY 243

G JAHANGIR’S ACCESSION—HIS EARLY DIFFICULTIES

G THE REBELLIONS OF SHAH JAHAN AND THE COUP DE MAIN AT MAHABAT KHAN

G STATE AND RELIGION IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE 17TH CENTURY

G SHAH JAHAN—CONSOLIDATION AND EXPANSION OF THE EMPIRE

G SHAH JAHAN’S RELIGIOUS POLICY

G AURANGZEB’S REIGN AND HIS RELIGIOUS POLICIES

G NATURE OF THE MUGHAL STATE

G LATE 17TH CENTURY CRISIS: REVOLTS

G EVOLUTION OF DECCAN POLICY OF MUGHAL RULERS

G AURANGZEB’S RAJPUT POLICY

G THE AHOM KINGDOM

G SHIVAJI AND THE EARLY MARATHA KINGDOM | 9 |

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CHAPTER-10 ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES 283

G POPULATION OF MUGHAL INDIA

G AGRICULTURAL AND CRAFT PRODUCTION

G AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE

G TEXTILES

G MINERALS, MINING AND METALS

G ORGANISATION OF PRODUCTION

G COMPOSITION OF POPULATION (URBAN CLASSES)

G ADMINISTRATION OF THE EUROPEAN COMPANIES

G THE INDIAN RULERS AND THE EUROPEAN COMPANIES

G INDIAN MERCANTILE CLASSES—BANKING, INSURANCE AND CREDIT SYSTEMS

G COMMERCIAL PRACTICES

G EVOLUTION OF SIKH COMMUNITY

CHAPTER-11 CULTURE IN THE MUGHAL EMPIRE 323

G PERSIAN HISTORIES AND OTHER LITERATURE

G MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE

G INTERREGNUM: THE SUR ARCHITECTURE

G ARCHITECTURE UNDER AKBAR

G ARCHITECTURE UNDER JAHANGIR AND SHAH JAHAN

G BUILDINGS OF AURANGZEB

G MUGHAL PAINTING

G PROVINCIAL ARCHITECTURE AND PAINTING

G SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

G MYSTIC ECLECTICISM: DARA SIKOH

G VAISHNAV BHAKTI AND DHARMA

CHAPTER-12 THE 18TH CENTURY 345

G FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

G THE REGIONAL PRINCIPALITIES

G RISE OF MARATHA ASCENDANCY UNDER THE PESHWAS

G BALAJI VISHWANATH (1713-20 A.D.)

G MARATHA ADMINISTRATION UNDER THE PESHWAS

G MARATHA FISCAL OR FINANCIAL SYSTEM

G EMERGENCE OF AFGHAN POWER

G STATE OF POLITICS, CULTURE AND ECONOMY ON EVE OF THE BRITISH CONQUEST

UPSC (MAIN) EXAMINATION, 2017 QUESTION PAPER I 377 | 10 |

Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com century, remained the centre of political political of centre the remained century, Kannauj decline of the imperial Guptas, and its its and Magadha Guptas, imperial the of decline of the multi-state system. Due to this multi-state multi-state this to Due system. multi-state the of the period) was nations within the nation”. the within the nations In was period) the capital Pataliputra, which since the sixth century century sixth the since which Pataliputra, capital system, it is not possible to describe the unifi the ed describe to possible not is it system, two well-marked phases: (a) From the tripartite tripartite the From (a) phases: well-marked two of ; and (b) From the invasions the From (b) Ghazni;and of Mahmud of till their final decline or beginning of the invasions struggle and ascendancy of the Gujara Prathiharas following the in described is India North of states Prof.of Prasad,words Ishwari the In (during “India of India North which led further to the emergence India. inNorth activity capital to Kannauj. From now (A.D. 606-7) onwards his shifted and Kannauj of kingdom Maukhari the empire. Gupta the of eclipse the of cause the With main the were India Northern of differentparts in principalities independent numerous established by the independence of provincial Governors who invasionsrecurring of the Hunas from abroad into century. sixth The the fiof the beginning of or fth IndiaandthePeninsulaNorthern Polity: Political Major Developments in on his death and the process of emergence of of emergence of process the and death his on in activity political of centre the been had B.C. the Gupta territory and internal disruption marked united his ancestral kingdom of Thansewar with with Thansewar of kingdom ancestral his united political conditions of the period under discussion. numerous centres of power started in different parts following pages the history of some of the important till the Turkish conquests at the close of the twelfth North India, lost their importance when Harsha Harsha when importance their lost India, North India was preserved to some extent, but it crumbled Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com Under Harsha, the of political unity Northern close the disintegratedat empire Gupta The a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA(750-1200) CHAPTER-1 | 11 IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success from a ‘fi repil’ points to the assimilation of these these of assimilation a ‘fi the from to points repil’ of the latter till the fi nal conquest of North India India North fi of the conquest till nal latter the of the ruling dynasties of North India in this period period this in India North of dynasties ruling the close of the twelfth century by the Chalukyas of of Chalukyas the by century twelfth the of close ruled over Kannauj between close of the eighth eighth the of close between Kannauj over ruled ancient to early medieval phase. Since most of of most Since phase. medieval early to ancient kingdom of Kannauj after the death of Harsha. of death the after Kannauj of kingdom Yasovarman ruling there. His invasion of Gauda Gauda of invasion His there. ruling Yasovarman were the Rajputs, the history of the period, in more formations which transformed Indian history from Turkish empire century. at thecloseoftwelfth About A.D. 730, we find a famous monarch named Kannauj DYNASTIES OFNORTH INDIA lack of interaction between North and . of Cholas the and Vengiof Chalukyas Kalyani,the of Rashtrakutas the and Kanchi Pallavasof the by south India wasthe during period first dominated foreign tribes into the Indian fold. Ultimately, these time of their origin and other factors point to their speculation.and The discussion much of subjects conservative terms, is also known as the “history of (Bengal) formed the subject of the poem poem Prakrit the of subject the formed (Bengal) by Muhammad Ghori and the foundation of the the of foundation the and Ghori Muhammad by the Rajput period”. The origin of the Rajputs has been Manyakheta, and form the close of the ninth till the the subject of much discussion and speculation. and discussion much of subject the foreign origin. The traditional account of their origin Gaudvaho by Vakpat. After Yasovarman, three kings, Tanjavur. During these four centuries, there is a total namely Vijarayudha, Indrayudha and Chakrayudha, Rajputs won recognition as Kshatriyas. The history of Taking advantage of the weakness of these Ayudha The time of their origin of the Rajputs has been the century century till the second decade of the ninth century. Tripartite Struggle: Struggle: Tripartite This period is also marked by the feudal feudal the by marked also is period This Little is known of the the of known is Little the Gurjara-Pratiharas of Bhinmal (),the Bhinmal of Gurjara-Pratiharas the (Maharashtra) fought against each other. This This other. each against fought (Maharashtra) and strategic immense the by lured and rulers Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta economic potentialities of the kingdom of Kannauj, H ISTORY Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com

OF M EDIEVAL I NDIA | 12 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success ue, aaht I, h fudd h Gurjara- the founded who II, Nagabhata ruler, nearly twonearly centuries. for survived Kannauj,which at kingdom Pratihara tripartite struggle continued for nearly a century and ultimately, ended in favour of the Gurjara-Pratihara SINCE-1993 ® attacked and killed him in the ensuing war. His war.His ensuing the in him killed and attacked and 1085 after defeating a chief named Gopala. named chief a defeating after 1085 and invadedasende in A.D. 1018. But Rajyapala, instead of successors ruled over his diminished dominion, but act, the Chandella king or his son of Gwalior, Chalukyas of Anhilwara, the Parmaras the Anhilwara, of Gwalior, Chalukyas of strength of his forces. Mihir ’s successor was his In the inscriptions assumes the full full the assumes Chandradeva inscriptions the In so suddenly that it is difficult to determine precisely transferred his capital to that city. He defeated a defeated city. He that to capital his transferred Kavyamimansa etc. But after Mahendrapala I, the the I, Mahendrapala after etc. But Kavyamimansa a branch of the famous Rashtrakutas or Rathors.or Rashtrakutas famous the of branchIt a ofthem. littleisknown very safertoa place. Toforcowardlyhim a punish such Rajyapala, Ghazni of reignwhose during Mahmud number of independent principalities arose at the and decline to tended kingdom Gurjara-Pratihara was also a liberal patron of letters and the greatest the greater of part Magadha and Bengal.North He effithe to Bhoja’sof ciency the and administration traveller, Sulaiman, writing in A.D. 851, pays tribute dominions his and conquests extensive made He (A.D. Mihir or Bhoja 836-85). Mihir under zenith its of his son, Rambhadra, the Pratihara reached glory India.rule brief North a of powerAfter formidable Pala contemporaries,the his including of number 33),Kannauj,of out Chakrayudha out driving after (A.D.A.D.II Rajputana.NagabhataAbout805- 816 beginning the till ninth the of beginning fromthe Pratiharas or simply Pratiharas, ruled from Kannauj the celebrated author of Karapuramanjari, Karapuramanjari, of author celebrated the Rajasekhara, was court his of ornament literary Arab The Gwalior. of region the and king, Dharmapala, and made the Pratiharas, the most greater part of the present ,Malwa, Uttar present the of part greater dynasty at Kannauj some time between A.D. 980 between time some Kannauj at dynasty opposing the invader, deserted Kannauj and retired disintegrate. Taking advantage of this situation, a situation, this of disintegrate.advantage Taking of Dhara etc. One of the last Pratihara rulers was was rulers Pratihara last the of etc.One Dhara of of the eleventh century. They originally hailed from included Eastern Punjab, most of Rajputana, the the Rajputana, of Punjab,most Eastern included of the Pratihara empire, such as, the Kachhapaghatas son, Mahendrapala I (A.D. 885-910), who conquered who they were. Some scholars think that they were appears that Chandradeva founded the Gahadavala close of the tenth century on the tottering remains Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com The Gahadavalas: h Gurjara-Pratiharas: The a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt The Gahadavalas emerged h Gurjara- The | 13 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success power even during his father’s lifetime. As crown lifetime.As father’s his during even power and the second that of another village when in in when village another of that second the and and annexed some portions of Magadha. This is is This Magadha. of portions some annexed and maintained the Gahadavala authority intact over intact authority Gahadavala the maintained district), Kusika (Kannauj), and Indrathana (Delhi). Indrathana and (Kannauj), Kusika district), Chandradeva’s son and successor, Madanapala. Madanapala. successor, and son Chandradeva’s he east, the U.P. In present the of length whole the over almost extended jurisdiction his Thus, much reliance can be placed on these bardic bardic these on placed be can reliance much He drove back the forces of Khusrau Malik, who who Malik, Khusrau of forces the back drove He tales. Like his father, also stood as as stood also father, Vijayachandra his Like tales. Vigraharaja Visaladeva, who wrested Delhi from from Delhi wrested who Visaladeva, Vigraharaja (A.D. 1098-1115), underHajib Tughatigin. III king,Mas’ud Gahznavid the by sent expedition Muslim the A.D.repulsed to 1109,prince,he prior his son, Govindachandra, who wielded substantial Jaichandra, who ascended the throne in A.D. 1170. his hands. conflinto come have west,must with the he in ict South , but it appears from an inscription that Muslims.the of aggressions the against bulwark a not victories,but extensive with him credits Raso law, procedure, andotherinteresting topics. Kashmir of Jayasimha with friendship of terms on also conquered Dasarna or eastern Malwa. He was residence at Mudgagiri (Monghyr) in A.D. 1146. He sanctioning grants—one his of two from evident had occupied Lahore after their expulsion from from expulsion their after Lahore occupied had the gift of a village in Patna district in A.D.1126, in district Patna in village a of gift the (A.D. 1128-49) and Siddharaja Jayasimha of Gujarat holy places” of Kasi , Uttarakosala (Faizabad imperial titles and calls himself “the protector of the Laksmidhara, who produced the Kritya-Kalpataru Kritya-Kalpataru the produced who Laksmidhara, activities of Vijayasena of Bengal. Chandradeva died at the expense of the decadent Pala monarchy, Pala decadent the of expense the at probably took part in repressing the aggressive aggressive the repressing in part took probably (c. A.D. 1095-1143), and perhaps even with the Cholas Vijayachandra, shortly after A.D. 1154. The Prithviraja- (Kalpadruma), one of the most important works on about A.D. 1100, his last known date being A.D. 1099. Gahzni by Alauddin Ghori. In the east, Vijayachandra of the South. Govindachandra’s reign was marked by Shortly Shortly before A.D. 1114, the latter was followed by the literary efforts of his minister for peace and war, Govindachandra expanded his kingdom kingdom his expanded Govindachandra about known is useful anything Hardly Vijayachandra’s successor was his son, son, his was successor Vijayachandra’s Govindachandra was succeeded by his son, his by succeeded was Govindachandra E ARLY M EDIEVAL I NDIA (750-1200) the city of Ajayameru or , and beautifiAjmer, and it or ed Ajayameru of city the completely routed and killed the king. Chauhan the killed and routed completely obviously Jaichandra. The bards narrate a romantic Pratiharas and ruled in different parts of Gujarat and with its capital at Sakambhari (Modern Sambhar Sambhar (Modern Sakambhari at capital its with that the annihilation of his great rival would clear the between Jaichandra’s daughter, Samyogita The Chahamanas of Sakambhari who came into into came who Sakambhari of Chahamanas The son, Harishchandra, was allowed, by Sihabuddin, to Governor of Sind under Caliph Al Mamen (817-33). stated in literary work to have repelled an attack of II,Nagabhata is of vassal a Guvaka),as called (also the expedition against Gauda. His son Govindaraja in overlordVastsarajPratihara his jointed dynasty in Ajmer of district Rajasthan). Durlabharaja of this in Rajputana the seventh and eight centuries. One Ajmer andDelhi Harischandra methisend. rule on his behalf. We do when not and know how Kannauj and met Jaichandra on the plain between did he know that his own doom was awaiting him. reign was the invasion of Sihabuddin Ghori. In A.D. author ofNaishadha-charita, lived inhiscourt. subsequent the and swayamvara the about story by Lakshmanasena of Bengal. The sena king claims his kingdom further east, Jaichandra was opposed Probably in his attempt to extend the boundary of prominence in the early twelfth century, twelfth founded early the in prominence of Ajmer: of and returned he year next very the that much the Sriharsha, scholars, some to according and but Ajmer, of III Prithviraja Chahamana the and was who Kashi, of king the defeated have to Sultan Vega Varisha identified with Bashar, the Arab modern scholars. Jaichandra was a patron of poets, 1191, the latter was defeated by Prithviraja at Tarain Jaichandra kept himself in proud isolation, thinking and slain, but the kingdom was not annexed. His not was kingdom the but slain, and Chandawar and Etawah. The latter was defeated defeated was latter Etawah. The and Chandawar with palaces and temples. Another famous member of their offshoots ruled at Sapadalaksha country country Sapadalaksha at ruled offshoots their of its authenticity has rightly been doubted by the the by doubted been rightly has authenticity its way for his own supremacy over northern India. Little and this debacle rankled in the Sultan’s mind so so mind Sultan’s the in rankled debacle this and H ISTORY Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com The Chahamans or or Sakambhari By far, the most important event of Jaichandra’s In A.D. 1194, Sihabuddin marched towards towards marched Sihabuddin A.D.1194, In Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com

OF M They arose as vassals of the imperial imperial the of vassals as arose They EDIEVAL I NDIA | 14 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success lord of the territories of Sambhar and Delhi—to Delhi—to and Sambhar of territories the of lord poet and a patron of letters. The Harakeli-nataka,letters. The of patron a and poet enthusiastically to the call of their compatriot. In In compatriot. their of call the to enthusiastically plains of Hind”.Tarain at fi of the engagement plains In rst to the neighbouring potentates, who responded responded potentates,who neighbouring the to near the Sasuti (). Ajmer was taken, and and taken, was (Saraswati).Ajmer Sasuti the near credits him with the conquest of Delhi which he he which Delhi of conquest the with him credits hero of many popular songs in northern India. northern in songs popular many of hero Prithviraja or historians Muslim the of Pithaura similarly Vigraharaja, Lalita play, another while and destruction” so desperately that by sunset sunset by that desperately so destruction” and probably Prithviraja whom with Another contemporary . in fortresses other and Somadeva. discovered, was written in his honour by Mahakavi composition;his be to supposed din-ka-jhopra,is Adhai- named mosque a of wall the on slab stone Prithviraja fled from the fi eld for, but was captured ranks.Hindu the in confusion complete was there ensued,thatbattle the invadersthe carried “death force to avenge it. Prithviraja appealed for succour 1192, he returned to Hindustan with a reorganised Sultan,year,the troubled next very the and A.D.in of Gujarat (c. 1179-1240). collision, Chalukya warlike intoII came Bhima was her carried daringly and ceremonies the of midst affitraditions and Kannauj latterthe when that rm Vigraharaja Visaladeva was also an accomplished an also was Visaladeva Vigraharaja III (1179-92). There is a strange halo of romance of halo strange a is There (1179-92). III He was not on friendly terms with Jaichandra of of Jaichandra with terms friendly on not was He or Paramala (1165-1203), and occupied Mahoba Mahoba occupied and (1165-1203), Paramala or who was gradually advancing into “the alluring alluring “the into advancing gradually was who Sihabuddin was rescued with diffi culty from the diffithe from with rescued culty was Sihabuddin away. He also attacked the Chandella king, Paramardi in A.D. 1191, fortune favoured him and the Ghori Ghori the and him favoured A.D. fortune 1191, in round his personality, which has made him the the him made has which personality, his round 64). An inscription found at Bijolia () specially furious charges of the Chauhans. This rout constantly troops were so completely overwhelmed that even portions of which were recovered from an inscribed held a svayamvara (selection of bridegroom) for his daughter, Samyogita, Prithviraja appeared just in the resist the attacks of Sihabuddin Muhammad Ghori, of the dynasty was Vigraharaja IV Visaladeva (1153- or Tomars. Besides being a successful military leader, must have wrested from Vijayachandra Gahadavala The greatest monarch of this house was Rai Rai was house this of monarch greatest The Prithviraja was next called upon—being upon—being called next was Prithviraja SINCE-1993 ® minister, Chach, married to widowed queen, and and queen, widowed to minister,married Chach, the Arab invasions Sind was under the dynasty dynasty the under was Sind invasions Arab the of Ajmer to a son of Prithviraja “on a promise of of promise a “onPrithviraja of son a to Ajmer of victors. The family was not exterminated and the the and exterminated not was family victors.The of Debal for having seised a vessel carrying rich rich carrying vessel a seised having for Debal of modern Rohri) as their capital. When Huen-tsang Huen-tsang capital.When their as Rohri) modern and in the east it was bounded by the Indian desert. repulsed by Nagabhata I. From his time onwards, the Chandra (Chach’s brother) had to face a serious Arab particularly active. He conquered a number of areas founded by the Brahman Chach. It was preceded by by a Buddhist monarch of the caste. After the a vigorous policy of expansion and Junaid, who was in western India. In this direction, he was perhaps perhaps was direction,he this India. In western in A.D. 636-37, Omar. theKhilafat during the Arab plundering raids, which began as early as of culmination the Sind.was of Thisconquest the completing A.D.723,thus in Multan reduced and stormed Debal in A.D. 712, captured Bahmanabad, the confines ofKashmir. upon abutted have to described is authority,and crown.reignthe long assumed his himself During his dynasty this of ruler last the of death was travelling in India (A.D. 629-45), Sind was ruled ficomprising family said areRai kings,who the ve of time the it.at about that written have Welearn historians Arab the whatscanty, to limited almost sometimes included large of portions Baluchistan, it west sea;the the in to down Multan from valley Sind in A.D. 1301. the of branch a where Ranthambhore to retire to had uncle,prince his Hariraja,this of activities the tribute”.large a paymentof punctual toowing But Chahamans ruled till its capture by foresight of Sihabuddin “delivered” the country country the “delivered” Sihabuddin of foresight of forty years, the kingdom grew in extent and and extent in grew kingdom the years, forty of extremely is history early its of knowledge Our to have held power for 137 years with Alor (near (near Alor with years 137 for power held have to invasion because he did not chastise the people people the chastise not did he because invasion of Iran. Muhammad bin Qasim led the expedition; he its governor under Khalifa Hisham (A.D. 724-43), was presents from the king of Sri Lanka to Hajjaj, governor shortly after Delhi too fell into the hands of the the of hands the into fell too Delhi after shortly Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com Having got control of Sind, the Arabs initiated Sind roughly denoted the lower Indus Indus lower the denoted roughly Sind His son, Dahir, who succeeded Chandar or or Chandar succeeded who Dahir,son, His a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt | 15 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success ascendancy of the Palas is shrouded in obscurity. in shrouded is Palas the of ascendancy No doubt, Islam spread, but Hindu temples were temples Hindu spread, but Islam doubt, No considered inviolable. The were even even were Brahmins The inviolable. considered At this time, West Bengal was known as Gauda Gauda as known was Bengal West time, this At the to up Harsha of death the from Bengal of certain certain respects yielded to the subtle influences of in also Arabs(jeziya). The tax poll the and (khiraj) tax land natives,the the paid of who hands the in offered them a determined opposition. In Sind, the laterthe compelledthe toseek this Arabs and the years. the future greatness of his family. According to the foundationsof the laid and kingdom the in peace by thepeople. was election nothing but his acceptance as a ruler which was not possible in those days. Perhaps, the not in democratica strictly or constitutional sense rule of strong devouring the weak), leading up to a andBihar Bengal fables ofthePanchatantra. in the interior of India if the Pratiharas had not not had Pratiharas the if India of interior the in Astronomy and Mathematics from the , and Pratihara kings continued to be the greatest foes of gradually displaced the Arabs in Sind; but it appears their Indian environments. For instance, they learnt not known, there is no doubt that he introduced he that doubt no is there known, not that the Arabs would have achieved more successes centres, the internal administration was mostly left conquerors followed a farsighted policy of toleration. there for about three centuries, and were followed by after his death the former region virtually asserted its that the conquests of Mahmud of Ghazni were not so and East Bengal as Vanga. Bengal was subjected subjected was Vanga.Bengal as Bengal East and alliance of the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta. It is likely (Grahita) by the people. This is, however, to be taken translated into Arabic, the work of Charaka and the revolution by which a local chief Gopala was elected While the Arab garrisons were stationed at strategic Tibetan Lama, Tarantha, Gopala built the celebrated permitted to build or repair the dilapidated temples. to internal disorder, what is called matsya (The the Sammas in the middle of the fourteenth century. monastery at Odantapura and reigned for forty-five through in lower as in upper Sind. Accordingly, soon independence under the Hindu Sumras, who ruled The Palas of Bengal and Bihar: and Bengal of Palas The In the eleventh century, the Ghaznavids the century, eleventh the In Although, the details of Gopala’s career are are career Gopala’s of details the Although, E ARLY M EDIEVAL I NDIA (750-1200) The history history The by his son, Devapala, who is rightly reckoned the the reckoned rightly is Devapala,son, who his by consolidation having already been accomplished by an energetic personality, and the task of internal internal of task the personality, and energetic an testimony to his liberality as well as to that of other race of the Utkalas, humbled the pride of the Hunas Bhoja (836-85), who attempted to extend his power at Vikramashila (Patharghata, Bhagalpur district). Its most mightily Pala potentate. Epigraphic records potentate. Epigraphic Pala mightily most foreign expeditions. His most notable achievement (Orissa) (Orissa) and also Pragjyotisha (Assam). The Gurjara Utkala of submission the securing for responsible Gurjara”.and Bhagalpur the from learn further We Dravida of rulers the of conceit the scattered and donors. eloquent bear monasteries and temples splendid contest with the Pratihara conqueror at Mudgagiri ”.the and fl Ganga the between eeing The routed himseparately. not (c.could 779-94), who Rastrakuta Dhruva and deposed,Indrayudha,he of whom defeat the was his further advance was effectively checked by the successes,but initial some with met eastward. He arms. Inscriptions record that both Vatsraja Pratihara in vain and he suffered a reverse in a sanguinary sanguinary a in reverse a suffered he and vain in Govinda III Rashtrakuta (c. 794-814). Finally, Finally, 794-814). (c. Rashtrakuta III Govinda to themselves” surrendered Chakrayudha and “Dharmapala that testify further plates Sanjan was he “as ruler Gauda the vanquished he that contemporaries, other with wars Dharmapala’s Kannauj. of throne the to Chakrayudha raising took place in the Gangetic Doab, for we are told told are we Doab,for Gangetic the in place took inscription claims that Devapala “eradicated the the “eradicated Devapala that claims inscription Dharmapala’s dreams of supremacy in the North North the in supremacy of Dharmapala’sdreams Dharmapala, of pretensions imperial the tolerate came to an end when Nagabhata II Pratihara seised at the dethronement of his protege, but all was was all but protege, his of dethronement the at credit him with extensive conquest. The Badal pillar adversary of Devapala may be identified with Mihir to have founded the famous Buddhist establishment (Monghyr). Dharmapala was a Buddhist and he is said his father, he found himself in a position to undertake inscription that Devapala’s cousin, Jayapala, was was Jayapala, cousin,Devapala’s that inscription however, appear to have been disastrous to his his to disastrous been have to however,appear Kannauj from Chakrayudha. Dharmapala was furious H ISTORY Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com Gopala’s son and successor, Dharmapala, was The engagement with Dhruva perhaps perhaps Dhruva with engagement The After a long reign, Dharmapala was succeeded Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com

OF M EDIEVAL I NDIA | 16 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success Pratiharas. Thus, Magadha and northern Bengal Bengal northern and Magadha Thus,Pratiharas. from the Palas. Finally the Pala power remained remained power Pala the Finally Palas. the from seventeenth year of his reign he granted from from granted he reign his of year the in seventeenth that records inscription Bhagalpuri The constructed he and , of patron a was Mahipala I, the Pala power declined under his his under of declined death power Pala the the I, After Mahipala Tippera. and Gaya Patna, southern and western to limited was authority Gauda monarch. It appears from a copper plate, copper a from appears It monarch. Gauda upkeep of a Buddhist monastery built there by by there built monastery Buddhist a of upkeep who ruled for at least fileast (c.858-912).atyears for fty-four ruled who between c. A.D. 815and855. flcontinuedto Buddhist of seat chief the as ourish Balaputradeva, ofSumatra andJava. king discoveredNalanda,at Devapalagrantedthatfi ve Mahipala I. Mahipala 1023. Passing through Orissa and Southern , of incursion northern the was Mahipala’sreign of confined to a small part of South Bihar, where they invasions. external fiThe deliveredbywas blow rst and dissensions internal of account on successors had powerPala the that clear inscriptions,is his it filine.the Fromthe of of prince ndspots powerful Bengal. Chandras,Pala the the under Bengal eastern with having come under the sway of the Pratiharas and along with Bengal,northern onto the hands of the years of Mahendrapala I, prove that later it passed, under Narayanpala’sremained of reign, Magadha Rajendra Chola turned northwards and defeated and northwards turned Chola Rajendra villages, for “various comforts” of the Bhikshus as as Bhikshus the comforts” of for villages, “various Rajendra I Chola some time between A.D. 1021 and well as for writing the Dharmaratnas and for the the for and Dharmaratnas the writing for as well ruled till about A.D. 1175. The most important event once more revived, and that his dominions included temples and monasteries in Magadha. Thus, art and places so widely apart as Dinajpur and Muzzaffarpur, learning. The limits of Devapala’s reign may be fixed the Senas, who conquered east and west Bengal Bengal west and east conquered who Senas, the to the shrine of Siva and built one thousand temples Mudgagiri (Monghyr) a village in Tira-Bhukti (Tirhut) the Palas, but several inscriptions, dated in the regnal in honour of the same deity. During the earlier part architecture received a fresh impetus, and Nalanda Besides being a great conqueror,Devapala, great a being Besides The next monarch of note was Narayanapala, Mahipala Mahipala I, son of Vigrahapala II, was another SINCE-1993 ® Unfortunately no building of that age is extent, is age that of building no Unfortunately under their patronage. Monasteries were generously described himself as a Kshatriya of Karnata and “born in West Bengal. The title Brahma-Kshatriya title Bengal.TheWest in Radha art and literature. Vincent Smith has mentioned mentioned has Smith Vincent literature. and art endowed, being the most effective agencies for for agencies effective most the being endowed, no means unfavourable towards . They towards unfavourable means no freely made gifts to Brahmins, and even constructed the foreign students from those regions. A Buddhist conquered a large part of Pala territory, while earlier in a family of Brahma-Kshatriyas”,of family a in called place a at South,the to traced be may dynasty this of origin it was threatened in the east by Samantasena. The replaced by the Senas whose first king, Vijayasena, the Phyag-sorpa. Mitra workTibetan ofKalyana and Java to went years later his in Srijnana monk (Java Suvarnabhumi of king a by endowment the in cited evidence striking most the which seas,of the development of India’s cultural links across the temples inhonourofHindugods. century.eleventhwere, Palasthe however,The by monks, the famous Atisa, is known to have gone to the promotion of learning and religion. One of the utility.Palapublic of works in tookmonarchs They Vitapala,their who for fame highest “acquiredthe kingdom.of their patrons greatestwerePalas The of infllimits and the than wider much were uence were dynasty the of members powerful most The with capital their locateto able havebeen yet not centuries,the four over for fortune of vicissitudes were the earnest followers of Buddhism which which Buddhism of followers earnest the were dug channels and tanks of number large a but son his and Dhiman artists, two of names the and Sumatra) was of a special college at Nalanda for learnt Buddhist scriptures there, as mentioned in in mentioned there, as scriptures Buddhist learnt skill as painters, sculptors and bronze-founders”. and sculptors painters, as skill Tibet on a Buddhist mission about the middle of of middle the about mission Buddhist a on Tibet certainly, but it may have been Mudgagiri (Monghyr), developed newer Tantric forms and was revived revived was and forms Tantric newer developed from where the Pala kings issued several grants. several issued kings Pala the where from during their rule bear witness to the interest the the interest the to witness bear rule their during Palas disappeared from the stage of history. Scholars Dharmapala and Devapala; their spheres of activity to the Chalukyas. Its founder was Samantasena who Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com The Senas: The Thus, having ruled Bihar and Bengal with many The Palas made important contributions to contributions important made Palas The a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt The Pala power in Bengal was was Bengal in power Pala The | 17 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success to the Turkish invader belies his previous history, previous his belies invader Turkish the to Lakshmanasena found his asylom at Vikrampura Vikrampura at asylom his found Lakshmanasena in West Bengal and Vikramapura in East Bengal. East in Vikramapura and Bengal West in Radha, Varendra, Vagdi, and Vanga. At that time, that At Vanga. and Varendra,Vagdi,Radha, known as Kulinism by which the nobility of birth birth of nobility the which by Kulinism as known shows that Samantasena was a Brahmin but his his but Brahmin a was Samantasena that shows is said to have founded two capitals, Vijayapuri Vijayapuri capitals, two founded have to said is of (king “Navya defeated have to stated is he Dhoyi, poet the by composed inscription Deopara the In power. Sena the up built really an author of Danasagara, a work on and and Smriti on work a Danasagara, of author an Mithila was included in Ballalasena’s kingdom as as kingdom Ballalasena’s in included was Mithila in East Bengal where his sons Visvarupasena and and Visvarupasena sons his where Bengal East in by the Senas from the East and the Gahadavalas Gahadavalas the and East the from Senas the by the king of Kalinga; conquered many minor rulers Kalinga;minor manyof conquered king the Gauda;of king the Vira;and attacked Mithila) and and late asascetic. turned fourteen yearsfourteen andthe latter for three years. Kesavasena continued to rule. The former ruled for Lakshamanavati).or Lakhnauti (renamed Nadia at for his life by flight (1194). This cowardly surrender were ofblood carefullyand purity protected. Adbhutasagara,Astronomy.on work a Ballalasena from the West. Palathe power was weakenedby jointthe attacks how the Pala power was weakened by the local local the by weakened was power Pala the how show the wide extent of his territory. Vijayasena territory.Vijayasena his of extent wide the show humbled the king of ; lent his support to Vijayasena was succeeded by Ballalesena (1165-85) his fi fth province, the other four provinces being being provinces four fi other his province, the fth is credited with an important social movement movement social important an with credited is along the course of the Ganga”. The inscription shows invader Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji and escaped and despatched his full fleet in his victorious career successors called themselves simply Kshatriyas. He Turkish invaders had an easy way to the Sena capital before an attack of only eighteen Turkish horsemen. himself states that he fought the outlaws of Karnata chiefs of whom the Senas were one. His inscriptions the famous Ballal Sen of Bengali tradition. According recording his conquests in different directions. The who was unable to offer any resistance to the Turkish to the literary texts, Laghubharata and Ballalacharita, The story, as told by Minhaj, goes that the capital fell Ballalasena is known as a man of letters letters of man a as known is Ballalasena His son Vijayasena succeeded him. Vijayasena Ballalasena was succeeded by Lakshmanasena E ARLY M EDIEVAL I NDIA (750-1200) beginning of the eighth century. They originally originally century. They eighth the of beginning Chola. Chodaganga ruled for over seventy years, seventy over for ruled Chodaganga Chola. over various parts of Orissa, the most important were of Kalinganagara (Kalingapatam or Mukhalingam in the magnifi cent temples of Bhuvaneswar with a with Bhuvaneswar of magnifi the temples cent the Kesaris of Bhuvaneswar and the Eastern Gangas by his Chola wife, Rajasundari, daughter of Rajendra Kalinga suffered a good deal from foreign incursions. the Eastern Gangas began to be harassed by the the by harassed be to began Gangas Eastern the so called because he was the son of Rajaraja Ganga “profusion of decorative motifs”. The great Lingaraja who defeated his contemporary, identificontemporary, with his ed defeated who in the fourteenth century.in thefourteenth “Jajnagar”fi Orissa arms or their to prey a fell nally by Lakshmanasena. Early in the thirteenth century, bounds of his realm. Later on, it was again ravaged the extended considerably Puri;he of and temple the known limits of his reign being A.D. 1077-1147. powerAnantavarmanunder Chodaganga. was He however, the family Ganga rose to the zenith of its is of known the earlier Gangas, during whose time anything Mysore.Hardly of Gangas the of branch unique intheworld. monuments,noblest their of one as stands truly is Shaivas,devoutdistrict). were Ganjam Kesaris The Orissa ofPavanadutam.the poet Gitagovindam,Halayudha, linguist,the Dhoyi,and Jayadeva,as of celebrities author the literary such of galaxy a by adorned was court prosperous.His or with Devavarman. In the east, the the east, the In Devavarman. with or Vijayapala , was dynasty this of rule greatest The until depredations their continued who Turks a thus, were, and (Kolar) Kolahala to belonged the about Kalinga in themselves established day this to which century), eleventh (c. temple constructing by sway their immortalised and very culturally was it disastrous, politically into prominence under Kokalla of the Gahadavalas. as inspired orgy of sculptural ornamentation almost literary literary men of the first rank. At his court, flourished Towards the last quarter of the eleventh century,eleventh the of quarter last Towardsthe Tradition ascribes to him the building of the famous H ISTORY Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com The Eastern Gangas: Eastern The The : Though the reign of Lakshmansena was was Lakshmansena of reign the Though Among the dynasties that ruled simultaneously Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com

OF M EDIEVAL I NDIA The Eastern Gangas Gangas Eastern The The Kalachuris rose | 18 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success kingdom Jejakabhukti was given after the name name the after given was Jejakabhukti kingdom the Gonds or Bhars and promoted to the rank of of rank the to promoted and Bhars or Gonds the Kalachuris so much that Kalachuri king Lakshmi- king Kalachuri that much so Kalachuris Next, Karna utterly routed Bhoja Paramara of of Paramara Bhoja routed utterly Karna Next, of the Pratiharas of Kannauj. The name of their their of name The Kannauj. of Pratiharas the of Bundelkhand: (c. Chandella. 1042-68)andKritivarman the at reverses further .suffered Karna off alliance, Bhima I worsted him, and the Parmaras Karna met with a series of disasters. Having broken Dhara with the help of Bhima I Chalukya of Gujarat to have got the upper hand in this trial of strength. appears latter the III,and Vigrahapala son his and conflNayapala into both came with Kalachuris ict In A.D. 989 or 990 when Jayapala, the Shahi king of Kanyakubja”.the of king inflthe over defeat icting Jeja as known kings Chandella early the of one of prominence intoKshatriyas. came Chandellas The to related chiefs aboriginal of clan a been haveto Bundelkhand sank into insignificance. fi Kalachuris Tripuriweaklings,the were nally who Kosala. In the time of the successors of Gaya-karna, north,powerin their Gahadavalasestablished the alleged that “he attained supreme lordship after after lordship supreme attained that “he alleged at the cost of the Kalachuris. Similarly, during the the Similarly,Kalachuris. during the of cost the at hands of the Chalukya Somesvara I Ashvamalla I Somesvara Chalukya the of hands of the Kalachuris asserted its independence in South under (c. 950-1002). One of his inscriptions the Chandella Madanavarman (c. 1128-64) won won 1128-64) (c. Madanavarman Chandella the in the early ninth century. They were the feudatories (c. 1022-64). But towards the close of his career, his of close the towards But 1022-64). (c. Paramara paid off old scores against the Kalachuris Yasah-karna. But Yasah-karna too could not arrest the of Malawa also regained their independence under Jejakabhukti or modern Bundelkhand, are believed by attacking and storming their capital Tripuri. In the or Jejjaka. It appears that sometime in the middle of steady decline of the family fortunes. Lakshmadeva of Pratihara overlordship and became independent the tenth century, the Chandellas threw off the yoke reign of Yasah-karna’s son and successor, Gaya-karna, karna in his last days probably abdicated in favour of some military successes, and the Ratnapura branch Kannauj and Varanasi and aggrandised themselves These repeated invasions shattered the the shattered invasions repeated These The Chandellas of Jejakabhukti or or Jejakabhukti of Chandellas The The Chandellas, who ruled at at ruled who Chandellas, The SINCE-1993 ® the vassals of the Pratiharas or the Rashtrakutas, as the Pratiharas; and the Paramaras must have been advantage of the decline of the Pratihara power,Pratihara the of decline the of advantage in 1182-83 at the hands of the Chahamana King King Chahamana the of hands the at 1182-83 in embanked lakes. Three most important cities in the son, Ganda, too joined the coalition formed by Shahi Pratihara king Rajayapala in A.D. 1019 for having for A.D. 1019 in Rajayapala king Pratihara Vidyadhara could not defend Chandella territories; invasion of Kalanjara by Qutbuddin-Aibak. Parmardi the Punjab, invited prominent northern states to states northern prominent Punjab,invited the however, when Mahmud Ghazni attacked Kalinjara, responded with men and money and shared the the shared and money and men with responded died in action and Qutbuddin occupied Mahoba. occupied Qutbuddin and action in died the Paramaras became an independent power in power independent an became Paramaras the Malwa civil capital”. the as palace its with third the and military the as as the religious, the second with its strong fortress (Mahoba,district,Mahotsavanagar U.P.).Hamirpur (Chhatarpur Khajuraho were dominion Chandella edifireligious exquisite of number and large ces a 1203,in an during completefacedannihilation he Mahoba. occupied Subsequently who PrithvirajIII (c. 1129-63) and Parmardi or Parmal (c. 1165-1203) army from thePunjab inA.D. 1090. resisted an invasion of his byterritory a Ghazanvid Kirtivarman,kings, Chandella later the of one but Mahmud.of Ganda’s son Vidyadhara,waswho the king Anandapala in A.D. 1008 to repel the invasion Dhanga along with other potentates promptly promptly potentates other with along Dhanga district, M.P.), Kalanjar (Banda district, U.P.) and and U.P.) district, (Banda M.P.),Kalanjar district, they and builders great were Chandellas The fi Madanavarman notable gures. most the were About these Vincent Smith remarks: “the first-named help him in resisting the aggressions of Subuktigin, greatest Chandella king, attacked and killed the the killed and attacked king, Chandella greatest But during the reign of Parmardi, the fortunes of the they alternately gained ascendancy in Malwa. Taking Chandellas declined. He faced his first serious reverse king of Dhara and the Gahadavala king Vijayachandra. surrendered before Mahmud Ghazni. Four years later, disaster suffered by the confederate army. Dhanga’s greatly beautifi ed their kingdom by constructing constructing by beautifi greatlykingdom their ed defeated the Chedi monarch of Tripuri, the Parmara town with its magnificent temples may be regarded Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com The Paramaras of Malwa: Among later Chandella rulers, Madanavarman a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt Malwa was under | 19 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success three centuries and a half (c. 950-1300). One of of One 950-1300). (c. half a and centuries three and importance their lost gradually Paramaras as known college a founded also He . and medicine on work a Ayurvedasaravasva, a on works dozen two about authored have to religion, grammar, architecture etc. Among them,etc. Among grammar,religion, architecture 55) who was a rare combination of military ability, military of rarecombination a was who 55) Dhara,preserves Munjasagara,at still the situated Tripuri King Chalukya the and TailapaII. one in But (c.A.D. 974-997-8), of defeatedwho Kalachuris the Dhara inMadhya (both Pradesh). capital was at , but they later transferred it to century.tenth the of half Initially,second the their Gujarat influence by century. thecloseoftwelfth modern of south the to Bhojapur of city the built are the most noteworthy. He expanded Dhara and ofDhara andravagedcity Malwa. favour of the confederates who occupied the royal of Chalukya Kalyani,the of Chalukyas the as such constructive statesmanship and literary genius. He greatest ruler of the dynasty was Bhoja (c. 1010- (c. Bhoja was dynasty the of ruler greatest fought against a number of his contemporaries, his of number a against fought Dasarupa), Dhanika, Halayudha and others. But the of the encounters with the Chalukyas, he was taken He is called Kaviraja in an inscription and is said said is and inscription an in Kaviraja called is He his name. He also built splendid temples in the the in temples splendid built also He name. his forces. During the progress of the war, Bhoja passed Bhojasala at Dhara. After this fl the glory, this of After icker Dhara. at Bhojasala variety of subjects, such as medicine, astronomy,medicine, as such subjects, of variety Samaranganasutradhara, a rare work on architecture, Anhilwara etc. But during the last year of Bhoja, the poet and a liberal patron of men of letters. His court was graced by Padmagupta, Dhananjaya (author of literature. He built many artificial lakes, one of which or Solankis ruled in Gujarat and for nearly away and his death changed the situation entirely in principal principal cities of his kingdom. He was also a gifted the Kalachuri King Lakshmi-karna and the Paramara prisoner and killed. He was a great patron of art and Chalukya King Bhima I entered into a coalition with kingdom kingdom was attacked from two sides by the allied The Chalukyas of Anhilwara:of ChalukyasThe India.of king scholar greatest the was Bhoja The first great Paramara ruler was Vakpati Munja E ARLY M EDIEVAL I NDIA The Chalukya Chalukya The (750-1200) . During the region of Bhima II (c. 1178- the two most illustrious rulers. The power of the the of power rulers. The illustrious most two the edifices in his kingdom and patronised learning. He 724-760) and Jayapid Vinyaditya (779-810) were were (779-810) Vinyaditya Jayapid and 724-760) middle of the ninth century. The first among Utpalas of avalanches. Avantivarman founded a new city city new a founded avalanches.Avantivarman of plundered the great temple of Somanath. When When Somanath. of temple great the plundered Aibak led two expeditions. Anhilwara was plundered formed a confederacy with Lakshmi-karna Kalachuri was Avantivarman who reigned during A.D. 855-83, impetus to the agriculture of Kashmir by draining by Kashmir of agriculture the to impetus further a gave who Suryya builder its after called New towns and irrigation works were constructed. Karkotas was supplanted by the Utpalas about the the Loharas, ruled over during the period.Kashmir Kashmir andtheNarmada. Sabarmati an out carved chief period,Vaghelathe same the army.TurkishIn the by occupied temporarily and scholar Jain celebrated the of patron the also was Avantinatha. He also erected a number of religious Paramaras,the against victory of adoptedtitle the against theParamaras. whose reign Mahmud Ghazni overran Gujarat and prosperity. dinaras earlier, showing the revival of the country’s Anandavardhan.time,his In Kalhana,accordingto next next important king was Bhima (c. 1022-64), during invasion of Gujarat (A.D. 1178) and Qutbuddin- and 1178) (A.D. Gujarat of invasion his of commemoration in who, ruler Chalukya Sultan the When Kutch. in refuge took I Bhima independent principality in Gujarat between the the between Gujarat in principality independent court was adorned by the two poets, Ratnakara and Of the Karkota dynasty, Lalitaditya Muktapida (c. Muktapida dynasty,Lalitaditya Karkota the Of towards internal administration than to conquests. consolidated the Chalukya authority in Gujarat. The the earliest kings of this line was Mularaja, who who Mularaja, was line this of kings earliest the marshes and protecting the fields against the deluge Avantipur (Bantipur). He was a patron of learning. His Mahmud appeared before the capital city Anhilwara, 1241), Muhammad Ghori made an unsuccessful unsuccessful an made Ghori Muhammad 1241), rice was sold for 36 dinaras per khari, as against 200 with his able minister—Sura. He devoted more time One of these towns was Suryapura (modern Sopar), withdrew, Bhima I revived the Chalukya power and H ISTORY Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com Three dynasties, the Karkota, the Utpala and Utpala dynasties,Karkota,the Three the Jayasimha Siddharaja was the greatest greatest the was Siddharaja Jayasimha Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com

OF M EDIEVAL I NDIA | 20 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success administrative ability, but unfortunately his own own his unfortunately ability,but administrative Naravahana who helped her to crush a rebellion rebellion a crush to her helped who Naravahana deposed and his mother Sugandha became the the became Sugandha mother his and deposed of prosperity by choosing a right ruler named named ruler right a choosing by prosperity of famine terrible a affl by then icted was Kashmir during the previous half century. Yasaskara died died century.Yasaskara half previous the during He was too critical of his minister who got him him got who minister his of critical too was He son Kshemagupta, whose queen Didda with her her with Didda queen whose Kshemagupta, son A boy king was placed on the throne as a puppet puppet a as throne the on placed was king boy A upper hand in this chaos deposed the queen after the getting (tantrins) ruler.military the virtual But theroyal patronagecurtailing oflearning. by supported were wars.wars of These number a death in A.D. 958, Kashmir was ruled by Didda for Didda by ruled A.D.was in 958, death Kashmir Kshemagupta’scoinage.After on appeared name government.female Her a up set relations Lohara to came anend. dynasty the Utpala queens,939),his evenby mourned not was which immorality rendered him unpopular and led to his and military his by Chakravarman named brother last, this rule of corruption was ended by the king’s exorbitant prices for food and other necessities. At He was Nirjitavarman, a cousin of Samkaravarman. Yasaskara. Kashmir had not seen such good days good such seen not had Yasaskara. Kashmir Samgramadeva, with a regency of ministers, one one ministers, of regency a with Samgramadeva, of his people. He also replenished the exhausted exhausted the replenished also people.He his of was more disappointing as a ruler by his cruelty and by corrupt ministers in league with the military. the with league in ministers corrupt by excessive taxation, affecting the economic condition treasury by plundering the treasures of temples and in A.D. 948 and was succeeded by his minor son, minor his by succeeded was and A.D. 948 in another fi fty years. She ruled as a regent for her her for regent a as ruled fi She years.another fty short short reign. He was succeeded by a more unworthy war among rivals of whom Samkaravarman, the legal which was exploited by corrupt officers who charged murder (A.D. 937). His brother, who succeeded him, heir, came out victorious. He is known to have waged of whom, Pravaragupta, killed him and usurped his villainy which knew no bounds. With his death (A.D. of her own military followers cost her life (A.D. 914). throne. He was notorious for his exactions and had a two years. Her effort to regain the throne with the aid young son, Abhimanyu, assisted by an able minister Avantivarman’sdeathwas followed by civil a An assembly of Brahmins ushered in an era an in ushered Brahmins of assembly An His young son, Gopalavarman, succeeded him. SINCE-1993 ® came completely under the infl uence of his low- infl his the of under uence completely came failure emboldened his enemies to conspire against led by her disloyal ministers. She continued her her continued She ministers. disloyal her by led caste favourites. murdered.then him Samgramaraja have and him with whom a new dynasty, the Loharas, began. His nephew,her to Samgramaraja,throne the leaving in memory of her son. The queen died in 1003, in died queen The son. her of memory in temples creating by administration benefi cent Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt | 21 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success administration and the fi tempted the and which nances, administration under Ananta, reigning from A.D. 1028. His His 1028. A.D. from reigning Ananta, under of which failed. He then abdicated in favour of his favourof failed.in which abdicated of then He the improved she help whose with ministers able Ananta to launch out into military campaigns, most son, Kalasa, while retaining in power his able minister, saved by his queen named Suryamati who appointed extravagance led him into debt from which he was A new era of happiness dawned on Kashmir Kashmir on dawned happiness of era new A E ARLY M EDIEVAL I NDIA (750-1200) heavy taxation. This resulted in a rebellion led by led rebellion a in resulted taxation.This heavy military. The frustrated father committed suicide, committed father frustrated military. The son of Harsha’s friend and wrote from personal personal from wrote and friend Harsha’s of son reforms and fashions. But, unfortunately, like so so like unfortunately, But, fashions. and reforms wars ended in reverses, which further worsened worsened further which reverses, in ended wars of controversy. There are two views regarding their Uchachhala, the exiled general. Harsha’s reign is is reign Harsha’sgeneral. exiled the Uchachhala, Rise oftheRajputs Rise (A.D. 1586). rule till the was kingdom finally annexed by Akbar Muslim by replaced was and ended virtually now Suhadeva after Kashmir of king became Rinchana anarchy.invasions Muslim to preyfell country The endedinA.D.the dynasty 1172. fiand Lohararulers weak of succession quick nally a faced Harsha’s death,Kashmir knowledge.After the was who Kalhana of Rajatarangini in narrated fito morals,need in was and looting by money nd and learning, and art. He was also a leader of social Kalasa,imprisoned whocommitted suicide. turn,in Harsha but rebellion the against him help second son, Utkarsha, as his successor. But his half- his nominated Kashmir. He of prestige lost the of some recoverto able was famous. Kalasa Kashmir who reformedKalasa once at tragedy double This pyre.the to him followed consort faithful his and but his designs against them were defeated by the of the twelfth century. Their origin is still a matter a still century.is twelfth origin the Their of close the to seventh the of middle the from India record both at home and abroad, he lapsed in in lapsed he abroad, and home at both record made which measures to himself devoted now ruled well but was murdered in A.D. 1323. Hindu rule 20). The havoc of Muslim invasion was compounded Kalasa released his brother Harhsa from captivity to temples and desecrating shrines. His ambitious ambitious His shrines. desecrating and temples his able administration and patronage of culture culture of patronage and administration able his origin. Some like Col. Todd hold that the Rajputs were brother, Vijayamalla, revolted against him. Thereupon Haladhara. Kalasa proved disloyal to his parents parents his to disloyal proved Kalasa Haladhara. his fi nancial situation which he tried to save by by save to tried he which fisituation his nancial under Dulucha during the reign of Suhadeva (1301- whose daughter, Kotadevi, he married. The foreigner many of Kashmir’s previous rulers, after a good good a after rulers, previous Kashmir’s of many by a Tibetan invasion in the north. The Tibetan chief H ISTORY Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com The next century saw more of civil wars and wars civil of more saw century next The Harsha retrieved the byof lost Kashmir glory The Rajputs dominated the history of northern Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com

OF M EDIEVAL I NDIA | 22 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success in Chand’s Hindi epic, Prithviraja Raso and other other and Raso Prithviraja epic, Hindi Chand’s in the help of ethnology inscriptions, traditions and and inscriptions,traditions ethnology of help the bracketing them with the Hunas, the absence of of absence the Hunas, the with them bracketing religion and culture. A familiar legend appeared appeared legend familiar A culture. and religion of Central Asia and a devotion and pride in Hindu in pride and devotion a and AsiaCentral of people the of qualities like war the themselves in race.new a racenew this Theof combinedpeople of emergence the in up ended population native the with races foreign these of intermingling The manners.and religion their adopting people local India in settled had who Hunas the and Kushanas descendants of foreign tribes. Their argument is as observes, “it is not probable that the form of their of form the that observes,probable not is “it Hindus. Aryan the of H.differentthose from Risley not does poet’sand a of fancy product a only was probabilities. of Agnikula He holds that the theory in India.Aryans with He his tries totheory support Lunarand KshatriyasSolar the with them connect foreignof Rajputs.the of origin mentionedtheory oftheRajputs. origin foreignthe evidencesof further as mentionedare qualifi became people caste Hindu enterthe to ed to Crooke, a rite of purification by fire by which the historical the expressMt. to Abu.said is myth This argument against the theory of foreign origin is is origin foreign of theory the against argument any references to them before the sixth century century sixth the before them to references any of the Epic Age. C.V. Vaidya holds that they were they that Age.C.V. holds Epic Vaidya the of and the resemblance of their coins with Huna coins follows. Foreign races like the Sakas, the Pallavas, the system. The pastoral habits of the Rajputs, Bana’sRajputs, the of habits pastoral system.The Legendary accounts preserved in the Rajput families attach any importance to it. The most powerful powerful most it.The to importance any attach clans mentioned above are said to have descended great documents which grouped together four four together grouped which documents great impurity of the foreigner was removed and the the and removed was foreigner the of impurity that the physical features of the Rajputs are not very from four heroes Pawar, Parihar, Solanki and Chauhan the most chivalrous representatives of the Vedic the of representatives chivalrous most the refers to the Gurjara (Rajput) king as a Kshatriya. a as king (Rajput) Gurjara the to refers rose in Southern Rajputana. It represents, according following their invasions, gradually merged with the Chhahamanas—as being Agnikula. The four Rajput who issued from the sacrificial fire-pit of Vasishta to calls them Kshatriyas. Hiuen Tsang heads, the most persistent of racial distinctions, was Rajput Clans—Pratiharas, Paramaras, Chalukyas and truth that the four clans were related and that they Some scholars, however, differ from the above SINCE-1993 ® long been an organised community should have should community organised an been long the theory of indigenous origin. The connection connection origin.The indigenous of theory the claiming aristocratic status. All clans following Hindu fidelity and generosity that gave them the first place rituals and carrying on the work of government government of work the on carrying and rituals not refer to a race descent or relationship by blood. common customs which made them homogeneous They had the same feeling regarding the honour of and adoption of common customs. They were all all werecustoms. They common of adoption and certain homogeneity by constant intermarriages intermarriages constant by homogeneity certain distinguished by their clan feeling, their implicit implicit their feeling, clan their by distinguished 1. The early medieval period shows transition,shows period medieval early The 1. FEUDALISM INEARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA Age oftheRajputs. Golden the as of spoken often are centuries 12th in the history of Indian chivalry. The 10th, 11th and an agriculturist. It is this code of honour, and those and Jauhar. They all refused to up take the work of widow-burningwomen; of their custom same the habits warlike of clan or tribe a denotes merely It andLunarSolar dynasties. and betweenthe Kshatriyas the Rajputs could not representatives.rank amongtheirmosttypical take to as completely so them by absorbed been entering India at a date when the Indo-Aryans had the to type one of extreme the from transformed formed the Rajput people. The clans acquired acquired clans The people. Rajput the formed of blood relations, their sense of communal property. be established beyond doubt. The Agnikula theory and unique. It is their rare and noble traits of valour, . Feudalism refers to a practice of establishment 2. defies reconciliation with the theory of descent from forms involved in the process. Vaidya further argues extreme of another without leaving any transitional that it is not likely that waves of foreign conquerors obedience to their chief while claming the equality Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com Whatever their origin, the term Rajput does does Rajput term the origin, their Whatever There are certain diffi culties in accepting accepting in diffi culties certain are There historians to propound the theory of tohistorianstheory propoundthe ‘Indian society, economy, polity, and agriculture. The in place taking developmentschanges, and of superior rights over land which becomes which land over rights superior of Feudalism’. in this period is the expansion of the land land the of expansion the is period this in basis of appropriation of a part of produce of part a of appropriation of basis most significant change that can only be seen grants system which is often cited by Marxist a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt | 23 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success 7. Earlier Sharma proposed that decline of of decline that proposed Sharma Earlier 7. into taking theory his explained Kosambi 6. 5. “Feudalism from below” “Feudalismcomplex,from more was 5. 3. The early medieval period was considered considered was period medieval early The 3. 4. “Feudalism from above” was the fi the above”stage was from rst “Feudalism 4. witnessing the rise of rural landowners as as landowners rural of rise the witnessing account both “feudalism from above” and above”and from “feudalism both account synonymous with Indian feudalism. Indian Indian feudalism. Indian with synonymous feudalism emerged as a separate school in in school separate a as emerged feudalism historians like D.D. Kosambi and R.S. Sharma. to landandseveral inhabitants. led to a great uproar in the Marxist circles.led to agreat uproar intheMarxist feudalism.of This cause the is trade foreign mainly interested in “feudalism from above”. into afeudalcommunal property. property land-owning class. in which the direct relationship between between relationship direct the which in Marxist were proponents early Its 1970s. powerful intermediaries between the ruler ruler the between intermediaries powerful decentralisation and the conversion of the the of conversion the and decentralisation and the peasantry which led to administrative without the prevalence of an intermediary intermediary an of prevalence the without overlord and his tributary/autonomous vassals “feudalism from below”, whereas, Sharma was and acquisition of several other rights related (c) Expansion of agriculture was the only only the was agriculture of Expansion (c) - The superior rights accord the the accord rights superior The - Acrig o axs cags n a in changes Marxism to According - (b) The grantees therefore derived many many derived therefore grantees The (b) - They envisaged the feudal formation formation feudal the envisaged They - a The donees enjoyed the revenue right as (a) positive feature of the early medieval medieval early the of feature positive outside. Changes in social, economic, social, in Changes outside. above” and “feudalism from below”. stages:two in from India “Feudalism in structure. beneficiaries, the status of overlord and inequality, andpeasant exploitation. peasantry.ruler andtheactual subordinate relationship agrarian agrarian relationship overlord subordinate typical a develops hence peasantry of status the subordinate, society comes from within not from from not within from comes society of different castes, hierarchisation, social well as administrative and judicial rights. material advantages at the cost of both, times. Otherwise, there was broadening E ARLY M EDIEVAL I NDIA (750-1200) 10. In 1966, D.C. Sircar criticised the feudalism feudalism the criticised D.C.Sircar 1966, In 10. 11. The intellectual arguments changed after after changed arguments intellectual The 11. 8. Later in early 1970s, Sharma proposed the the proposed Sharma 1970s, early in Later 8. . Later to counter his critics R.S. Sharma invented 9. H ISTORY Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com disappearance of metallic money, and and money, metallic of disappearance the kali age crisis theory to explain the cause of thestate. power the reduced which decline anoverall of theory urban decay. Urban decay resulted 1979 whennewideascame. beforeof criticism 1979. 1979andafter land grants. model. But there was a difference in the style indecline of trade, collapse of artisan activity, a In 1979, Harbans wroteMukhia a paper (a) (a) Before 1979 scholars were criticising criticising were scholars 1979 Before (a) started rulers crisis the overcome To (c) b The critics were fighting on a battlefi (b) eld (b) The climatic conditions were better in in better were conditions climatic The (b) (a) He said that the Brahmanical system system Brahmanical the that said He (a) b The Brahmanical order and system (b) Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com

OF M they can bring order in the society. society. the in order bring can they that so Brahmanas to lands granting of Brahmanical ideology and expansion and political structure originates from originates structure political and the feudalism school by using its own its using by school feudalism the fertile. Indian peasants owned their lands. titled, “Was There Feudalism in India?”He of agriculture. andothertexts. superiority. internal contradictions. India than Europe. Indian soil was more system Europe. inIndialike feudalism advocates. and “collapse ofcities”). decay”,“urban money”,metallic of “loss trade”,as “declineof (such terminology discussed that there was no manorial manorial no was there that discussed of Vaishyas and . They started started Shudras. They and Vaishyas of Land grants resulted in dissemination dissemination in resulted grants Land were questioned. This led to the kali age chosen and prepared by the Indian Indian the by prepared and chosen Brahmana-Kshatriya the challenging prosperity the with threatened was crisis which is also prophesied in the the in prophesied also is which crisis EDIEVAL I NDIA | 24 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success 12. Another big blow to feudalism theory came came feudalismtheory toblow big Another 12. 4 Argument against oftrade”“Decline 14. 3 Argument against “Urban decay” and “Collapse 13. in 1980sand1990s. from Hermann Kulke and B. Chattopadhyaya of artisan activity” of artisan (a) K.N. Chaudhury had shown that by the by that shown K.N.had Chaudhury (a) (b) He argues that in the period before before period the in that argues He (b) (c) It It is not possible that suddenly after 4-5 (c) (d) Chattopadhyaya says that history is a is history that says Chattopadhyaya (d) (c) In Europe, land and agricultural tools tools agricultural and land Europe, In (c) (a) Chattopadhyaya questioned the very very the questioned Chattopadhyaya (a) a B.D. Chattopadhyay has argued that the (a) b Inferences about the continued vibrancy (b) stretch from the Red Sea and Persian Persian and Sea Red the from stretch opposite (as reconstructed by Sharma). activity.expansion ofartisan offeudalism school.basis andthinking before tillingtheirown land. peasants.the tolordwere giventhe by decline oftrade. of instead changed trade of nature the from Southeast Asia to East Asia. Hence have patronised been by urbanelites. must which architecture and sculpture of the numerous works literary and the some newonesthat emerged. flto continued that as ourished,well as wereothers there centresbut urban of inthoseareas. agricultural activity to state the by given were grants Land process and everything is connected. is everything and process century the situation became totally totally became situation the century coins, metallic in cities,increase and towns new of expansion development trade, of see we century 4th-5th land lord’s on work to had Peasants coast to Indonesian archipelago and and archipelago Indonesian to coast was divided into smaller segments—the early medieval period saw the decline decline the saw period medieval early eleventh century, the Indian Ocean trade of city life can also be made on the basis Gulf to Gujarat and Malabar, from Indian were granted in virgin territories to bring consolidate its power. Most of the lands SINCE-1993 ® 5 Argument against “Disappearance of metallic 15. 16. Argument against “Reduced power of the the of power “Reduced against Argument 16. 7 Argument against “the theory of kali age crisis” 17. Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com state” money” a b Stein talked about the Brahmana peasant(b) (a) In 1980s, Burton Stein proposed the the proposed Stein Burton 1980s, In (a) the of symptom being from Far (a) types coin of reduction a was There (b) (a) John S. Deyell has argued that money money that argued has Deyell S. John (a) b The increase in the wealth and power of (b) c Yellava Subbarayalu says that at any time (c) Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of segmentary state theory which was was which theory state segmentary policies legitimising and integrative several the of one were too Brahmanas grants land Royal disempowerment, and polities of disintegration and decline in the aesthetic quality of of quality aesthetic the in decline and was not scarce in medieval India, nor nor India, medieval in scarce not was shows that developments were not same from afinancial crisis. simultaneously. pre-tenth where hierarchy century had of delta Kaveri the from collected data on based India of overwhole crisis age kali of theory a build we can howThen land was given to Brahmanas as grants. wasinscriptions found. model. expense ofRoyal power. adopted by Kings. circulation. in non-Brahmanical settlements. This This settlements. non-Brahmanical in come in the Brahmanical settlements settlements Brahmanical the in come another blow to the Indian feudalism feudalism Indian the to blow another everywhere and all areas do not change 20% of the total land. There is remarkable coins but not in the volume of coin in in coin of volume the in not but coins but there was communal ownership ownership communal was there but grant land of number maximum the suffering time the of states the were a section of Brahmanas and institutions in history not more than 20% of the total such as temples did not take place at the alliance in the Tamil Nadu region where ' s success rt | 25 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success . Feudalsystem was aworldwide phenomenon 1. 18. Recent historical studies and writings have writings and studies historical Recent 18. feudalism Difference between IndianandEuropean 4. In India, feudal lord received only small part part small India,only received In lord feudal 4. Europeanfeudalism shows the manor system 3. 2. Feudalism in India was far less developed developed less far was India in Feudalism 2. of production, generally 25%. Most of the the of Most 25%. generally production, of to new ideas, interpretations, theories, and and theories, interpretations,ideas, new to the system is referred as Samantha system. inIndia as well as in Europe. InIndian literature applicability the on severalraisedquestions harvest was retained byharvest peasant cultivators. as important feature. Manor was the palace or European feudalism. the in expressed strongly far were elements of the term ‘Indian Feudalism’ to early not early should we to all, in All society. Feudalism’ medieval ‘Indian term the of fort of feudalfortof lord. Manorcontrolled politico- administrative, socio-cultural and economic life. than European feudalism whereas the feudal connections while reconstructing the history. restrict ourselves to rigid models but be open during 800 A.D.-1200 A.D. because it was prevalent In India though the feudal lords owned - a I Ida ao sse ws absent. was system manor India In (a) Although the feudalism got integrated in - b Agricultural activities (b) on the land owned by feudalism andEuropean feudalism. activities. agricultural activities, where as in Europe feudalism inEurope. quite small. independent peasant proprietors were proprietors. In Europe most land was was land most Europe In proprietors. differences among Indian version of of version Indian among differences feudal lord determined agricultural agricultural determined lord feudal cultivatordeterminedthehimself and cultivators tenant by performed were of feature essential an was Serfdom still but land of percentage large a various spheres of lives there are certain most of the land was owned by peasant owned by feudal lords and number of number and lords feudal by owned serfdom was absent. Agricultural activities feudal lords were performed by serfs. In India E ARLY M EDIEVAL I NDIA (750-1200) penetrate India. The Ist military expeditions were expeditions military Ist India.The penetrate expeditions were sent to conquer an outpost of of outpost an conquer to sent were expeditions conquer Kabul but was frustrated. Another attempt Sind only after A.D. 705. An Arab ship fell in the hands book, the Arabs made systematic inroads on the the on inroads systematic made Arabs the book, the Caliphate. Zabul was conquered only in 870 A.D. The weakness of the Arabs was undoubtedly due to history of the conquest of Sind by the Arabs. An An Arabs. the by Sind of conquest the of history three kingdoms of Kabul, Zabul and Sind. Baladhuri 700 provoked them, is not accepted by the book “A of pirates near Debal. A muslim governor demanded A.D. 712 was preceded by a number of efforts to efforts of number a by preceded was A.D. 712 expeditions of the Arabs was sent against Debal Debal against sent was Arabs the of expeditions more expedition was sent by the Caliphate of Ali to Sind, whichall endedinfailure. Chachanama, a Persian translation of an old Arabic of control the from escaped again but conquered caliphate the of weaknesses and troubles internal India”.of History comprehensive the to According in territorial acquisition, till the ruler of Sind in A.D. sent to Thana near Bombay in A.D. 637. More were CONQUESTTHE ARAB mostly were lords feudal and kings India In 5. at their failure to conquer Sind. Thus, the governor of and Hindi. For long time the Arabs chafed governor of Iraq was appointed for both the areas some time before A.D. 643 like this a series of of series a this like 643 A.D. before time some in A.D. century 7th the in Sind of history the was Kabul repeated. were designs earlier the The view that the Arabs indeed were not interested was made in 698 A.D., which was still less successful. says that after 650 A.D., the Arabs entered India. One their release and also arrest of the pirates. It appears, Dahir refused to oblige. As a matter of fact, the the fact, of matter a As oblige. to refused Dahir sent in the coming years against Broach and Debal. H ISTORY Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com The Arabs resumed their aggression against aggression their resumed Arabs The number of details Good are found regarding The establishment of Arab rule in Sind in in Sind in rule Arab of establishment The Their relations were harmonious. unit.a as together worked lords feudal and is one powerof the because loggerheads at threat to another, whereas in Europe the king In Europe most of agricultural production - Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com

OF M survive. to share small only receivedtenants or was retained by feudal lord. The serfs serfs lord. The feudal by retained was EDIEVAL I NDIA | 26 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success of Dahir, to reoccupy Bahamanba. Jundaid the the Jundaid Bahamanba. reoccupy to Dahir, of divided into two independent states. Neither of of Neither states. independent two into divided The challenge was met by rulers of the day. It is is day. It the of rulers by met was challenge The But the might of Islam was experienced in Sind. in experienced was Islam of might the But governor of Sind,governorof him took and defeatedJaisimha toinsulted death. andtortured Qasim was suddenly cut short by political changes of Sind. that very often treachery led to the Arab conquest A.D.on Debal to seize laid and 711. Makran to The army. wellequipped a with sent was advanced He defeat andconquer Sind. to pretext as opportunity the seised merely Hajjaj consciousness oftheday. the successors of Md. were bin Kasim checkmated India.of history the in episode mere a was Sind of Significance them could become powerful. Sind of control Sind.lost to Arabs themselves The the longresistance offered by Sind to theArabs. independence ofSind. prisoner. Thus, ended the dynasty of Dahir and the Muhammad bin Qasim, the son-in-law of Hajjaj Hajjaj of son-in-law the Qasim, bin Muhammad now well-known that the political ambitions of of ambitions political the that well-known now particular resistance bears testimony to the political king, Nagabhatta I and Pulkesin, the Chalukya chief over Hindu civilisation by about A.D. 1000. A few A.D. A 1000. about by civilisation Hindu over by Lalitaditya, Bhoja and a few other rulers. This rulers.This other few a and Bhoja Lalitaditya, by interior of India. They were defeated by the Pratihara Muslim traders earlier settled in the Malabar region. Caliphs once again started to re-establish their their re-establish to started again once Caliphs Abbasi The Ummayids. of years last the during capital was conquered then, Muhammad advanced power, Sind became virtually independent and was of Hajjaj, Mohammad bin Qasim was taken prisoner, of Gujarat. These defeats forced the Arabs to confine along the Indus to conquer the whole area. It appears Muhammad, son of Kasim, should not make us forget What this event reveals is the sea change that came at home. Since the new Caliph was the sworn enemy power in Sind. But after the collapse of the Abbasid The development made Jaisimha, the son son the Jaisimha, made development The preparations, elaborate making After The comparatively easy conquest of of conquest easy comparatively The Later, Junaid sent several expeditions to the to expeditions several Later,sent Junaid The triumph and career of Mohammad bin bin Mohammad of career and triumph The It It is no longer believed that the Arab conquest SINCE-1993 ® Vellar, roughly including the modern districts of of districts modern the including Vellar, roughly and jungles”. He does not mention the ruler but but ruler the mention jungles”.not and does He a Chola prince, named Elara, conquered Ceylon Ceylon conquered Elara, named prince, Chola a chose to leave Hindu religion practices untouched. brigands go through the country openly”. Their real the tolerance that was shown to Hinduism by Islam. In other words, what the history of Arabs in Sind Sind in Arabs of history the words, what other In heights. It is said that the fi rst sangam or literary literary fi or the sangam that rst said is It heights. and ruled over it for a considerable period. Another country lies between the two rivers, Pennar and and Pennar rivers, two the between lies country Tanjore and Trichinpoly and a portion of the former ancient India like the digital system and knowledge says,small,and troops very and is population “the Tsang,India. southern visited Cholas foundthe He and the Cheras. Towards the middle of the seventh of the Pallavas and the aggressions of the Pandyas rise the of because declined Cholas the of power academy fl thisperiod. during ourished tanks. ofirrigation construction and land of reclamation the byevidenced as ruler of Asoka. Chola south.traditional far The the to indigenous ECONOMY ANDSOCIETY was nottheavowed ofIslam. doctrines conveys the fact that persecution of other religion Although jaziya was collected, the Arab governors of medicinereached asfarwest Asia. of Indian culture-Panchtantra and scientific lore of Arab conquest of Sind also led to the transmission ages.middle the in cultureThe bhakti famous the sufism which in turn occasioned the emergence of Pudukottai state. The earliest historical reference to Pandyas and the Cheras. He was a benevolent benevolent a was He Cheras. the and Pandyas THE CHOLAS: ADMINISTRATION, VILLAGE ruler, Karikala Chola (circa 190 A.D.) defeated the the defeated A.D.) 190 (circa Chola ruler,Karikala Christian era that Tamil literature reached great great reached literature Tamil that era Christian century A.D., the famous Chinese pilgrim, Hiuen- pilgrim, Chinese famous A.D., the century the Cholas as a ruling power occurs in the edicts edicts the in occurs power ruling a as Cholas the the two cultures. Sind was the birth place of later day country “deserted and wild, a succession of marshes Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com During the third (or fourth) century A.D., century fourth) the (or third the During the of centuries early the during was it And About the middle of the second century B.C., The Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras were signifiThe in lies conquest Arab the of cance The Arab rule in Sind led to interaction between a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt | 27 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success Vengi, who gave his daughter in marriage to the the to marriage in daughter his gave Vengi, who A large portion of Mysore was also conquered. conquered. also was Mysore of portion large A of invasion An captive. made was king Pandya the and occupied, was Madura suzerainty. own powerful monarch. He defeated the Pallava king,Pallava the defeated He monarch. powerful (c. 907-953), the Pandyan territories were annexed, the western Gangas. During the reign of Parataka I Talkad, occupied of he capital that the said also is oftheCholas.and madeitthecapital probably began his reign in the neighbourhood of A.D.),(c.Vijayalaya846-871 who by restored were was Phoneix like. acknowledged by acknowledged A.D.)(1011-1018 Vimaladitya of was Vengi.of overlordship His kingdom Chalukya territory,Chalukya but he was eventually repulsed the western Chalukyas. The Chola king overran the conflinto him with brought ict Rajaraja’s victories of part the island, which became a Chola province. northern the of Ceylonoccupation the resultedin Cherashis under broughtand Cherathe kingdom Great Cholas. He destroyed the naval power of the suzerainty proud the it for earned almost and top the at authority Chola the placed more once who they could notrecover. decades three blow, about terrible for this and by well.as crushedwere temporarilyCholas the Thus Cholas, and killed Parantaka’s eldest son, Rajaditya, the king,defeated Ganga a by assisted III Krishna in the battle of Takkolam (North Arcot district) in in district) Arcot (North Takkolam of battle the in The decline of the Pallavas in the ninth century century ninth the in Pallavas the of decline The provides an excellent opportunity for the Cholas to of the south. With him, began the history of the the of history the began him, With south. the of in Ceylon. The victorious Chola monarch invaded monarch Chola victorious Ceylon.The in Aparajitavarman, and annexed Todamandalam.annexed It Aparajitavarman, and Ceylon, but the expedition was unsuccessful. Then, he Uraiyur as a vassal of the Pallavas. Later, he captured as far as Nellore in the north. The Rashtrakutas were alarmed at the rapid expansion of the Chola power. stage a comeback. This re-emergence of the Cholas 949 A.D., and probably occupied Tanjore and Kanchi Tanjore from some subordinate allies of the Pandyas history begins from the middle of the ninth century. by Satyasraya. But soon Rajaraja invaded the eastern vanquished the Pallavas and extended his authority and the Pandyan king, Rajasimha, had to take refuge Rajaraja I: Rajaraja His son, Aditya I (circa 871-907 A.D.), was a very To start with, the fallen fortunes of the Cholas It was Rajaraja I (c.I Rajaraja was It A.D.) 985-1016 E ARLY M EDIEVAL I NDIA (750-1200) Rashtrakutas, he too, directed his armies towards armies his too, directed he Rashtrakutas, for the possession of the province of Vengi. of “The province the of possession the for area.” This confl ict followed the same old pattern— He had proved his worth as a conqueror during during conqueror a as worth his proved had He struggle with the western Chalukya king, Jayasimha fact that his mother was a Chalukya. As comparative of the modern Madras and Andhra states, parts parts states, Andhra and Madras modern the of as far as the and overran the dominions dominions the overran and Ganges the as far as sea’. He possessed a powerful fleet and with his help, conqueror. Further, Rajaraja is credited with the the with credited is Rajaraja Further,conqueror. old islands of the sea’, numbering 12,000 which which 12,000 sea’, the numbering of islands old in the commerce of the Chola empire including including empire Chola the of commerce the in within the narrow limits of southern India. Like the mission ofmerchants in1077to China. a sent Kulottunga why trade.is overseas That the time,his prevailedpeace during spurt a was there Kulottunga I (1070-1118), probably because of the snatched the capital of the Later Chalukya, Kalyani. other’seach territories.into raidsCholas the Once same the over Chalukyas later the and Cholas the ghost of the old Pallava-Chalukya confl ict over the the Chola rulers was drawn towards the Chalukyas the control ofthelatter. under Tungabhadrathe remained of north the to II, cannot be precisely determined: for, the territory Pandya and Kerala territories, thereby bringing the the Cholas. he laid the foundations for the maritime empire of the of other ‘islands Ceylon,and of part northern Coorg,and the Mysore of estates erstwhile the of whole the almost included islands.dominions His campaigns in Indian history. His army marched marched army His history. Indian in campaigns he when reign, father’s his of years closing the I Chola Rajendra by glory its of summit the to regions under effective subjugation. The result of his successfully raided and conquered the whole of of whole the conquered and raided successfully The confl ict was less serious during the reign of of reign the during serious conflless The was ict Ceylon. He entrusted to his son the viceroyalty of the the north and won one of the most remarkable remarkable most the of one won and north the (c. 1016-1011 A.D.) Rajaraja’s able son and successor. conquest of Kalinga, and the occupation of ‘the ‘the of occupation the and Kalinga, of conquest The Chalukyas, in return, avenged this defeat in 1015. rich province of Vengi reappeared in wars between are usually identified as the Laccadive and Maldive H ISTORY Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com It was after Rajendra I that the attention of of attention the that I Rajendra after was It Rajendra Chola’s ambition was not confinot Chola’swas Rajendra ambition ned aeda I: Rajendra Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com

OF M EDIEVAL The Chola power was raised raised was power Chola The I NDIA | 28 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success Chola’s son and successor, was also an able ruler. able an also successor, was and Chola’s son were involved, the Chola king decided to attack attack to decided king Chola involved,the were overseas empire. On the other hand, Dr. Romila Dr.Romila hand, other the On empire. overseas were the settlement of some Carnatic chieftains chieftains Carnatic some of settlement the were were probably intended to promote commercial commercial promote to intended probably were which crossed the Bay of Bengal and conquered conquered and Bengal of Bay the crossed which of some saivas from the north to the south. In In south. the to north the from saivas some of (in Kisala southern Orissa, subjugated Rajendra today). As the interest of the Indian merchants merchants Indian the of interest the As today). the by threatened were territory Shirivijaya in an for desire his of because Asia south-east in east the in Cholas the of enterprises naval The the Shrivijaya kingdom. The naval expedition of of expedition naval The kingdom. Shrivijaya the filled with water by channels from the Kolerun and was it city; the near constructed was tank large A founded a new capital, Gangaikonda-Cholapuram. Bihar.and Bengal of This king PalaMahipal, the of territories as well as in Ceylon, and celebrated his celebratedCeylon, and in as well as territories Molucca. of straits the along place strategic of number a of occupation the to led success. It a was I Rajendra rulers (something like the threat of nationalisation by considerations of trade. The Shrivijaya kingdom Thapar holds the view that the confl ict was caused islands ofthesea’, conquered by hisfather. intercourse between south India on the one hand, islands.Nicobar and Andaman Peguthe wellas as like his father, Rajendra possessed a powerful fleet, the bed of the magnificent tank, a thick forest. Just Vellar rivers. The proud city is now a heap of ruins and and eastern Bengal. His troops probably raided raided probably troops His Bengal. eastern and in western Bengal, and possibly, the importation importation possibly, the and Bengal, western in Bengal (Balasore, Midnapur, Birbhum and Burdwan), Rajendra assumed the proud title of Gangaikond and commemoration of his victories in the Gangetic delta, victory by performing an ashvamedha ceremony. But lay between China and south India. Indian merchants 1021 and A.D. 1025. A Chola inscription tells us that He suppressed rebellions in the Pandyan and Kerala expedition probably took place sometime between In the west, Rajendra maintained his hold on the ‘old and Burma and the Malayan peninsula, on the other. these regions, but he definitely did not annex them. modern ), some portions of western The tangible results of his grand expedition grand his of results tangible The Rajadhiraja I (c. 1044-1055 A.D.), Rajendra Rajendra A.D.), 1044-1055 (c. I Rajadhiraja Rajendra I attacked the Shrivijaya kingdom kingdom Shrivijaya the attacked I Rajendra SINCE-1993 ® descendant of two great southern dynasties, the the dynasties, southern great two of descendant the Kaktiyas and the Pandyas divided the territories his hostility towards the western Chalukya monarch, and twice overan Kalinga. But he failed to maintain suppressed rebellions in the Pandya and Kerala Kerala and Pandya the in rebellions suppressed weak rulers who failed to keep intact the extensive Tanjore itself was sacked by the Pandya king. As the the Cholas. Kulottunga is still remembered as an an as remembered still is Kulottunga Cholas. the (A.D. 1246-1279), Jatavarman Sundra Pandya overran Kudal-Sangaman. He also defeated II, son, Adhirajendra, and usurpation of the throne throne the of usurpation and Adhirajendra, son, achievements was the excellent arrangement made on the battlefield. He continued the struggle against the Chola territory and occupied Kanchi. and occupied the Chola territory A.D.(circa 1266),III Rajaraja of reign Cholas.the In the of authority the off shook gradually kingdom taxation andrevenue purposes. of possessions overseas the lost he that probable in the Chola kingdom, resulting in the death of his expedition to theEast Indies. territories.naval Finally,a sent monarch Chola the of Vengi.throne the to II allay Vijayaditya Then,he haveseverelyof defeatedbattle the Somesvarain (c.to A.D.), Rajendra said 1064-1070 of Vira is who lost his life in the battle of Koppam (A.D. 1052). His Someswara I Ahavamalla, ended in disaster: he he disaster: in ended Ahavamalla, I Someswara Chola empire. Ceylon, Kerala and the Pandya Pandya the and Kerala Ceylon, empire. Chola for land the of survey a conducting for him by a was who A.D.), 1070-1122 (c. I Kulottunga by administrative reformer. One of his most remarkable royal blood. Like his Chola predecessors, Kulottunga the Hoysalas gradually attained prominence. It is is prominence.It attained gradually Hoysalas the became a province of the Chola kingdom, and it it and kingdom, Chola the of province a became territories. He fought against the Paramaras of Malwa eastern Chalukya kingdoms under one scepter. Vengi his hold on Gangavadi (southern Mysore) where where Mysore) (southern Gangavadi on hold his power of the Cholas began declining, the Hoysalas, among themselves. During the reign of Rajendra IV was henceforth usually governed by princes of the Somesvara. The same story was repeated in the reign brother, Rajendra II (c. 1052-1064 A.D.) was crowned subdued a few rebellions in the Pandyan and Kerala Somesvara’s younger son, and restored his obedient Cholas and the Chalukyas. He united the Chola and Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com Kulottunga was followed by a succession of succession a by followed was Kulottunga After Vira Rajendra’s death, there was confusion a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt | 29 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success 13th century, Chola power was on the decline. decline. the on was power Chola century, 13th extended even to the Malayan peninsula.Malayanone the At to evenextended empire successfully carried on an oceanic policy policy oceanic an on carried successfully empire and carried a war across the seas stretching over stretching seas the across war a carried and Achievements oftheCholas Administrative, Cultural andColonial the Chola power to came anend. south.the how in is roseThat Madurai Pandyasof interesttheir confiwasas history north.tothe ned empire.Chola the destroyedthe Cholas the When of expense the at grew powers neighbouring The rule over Ceylon. for a considerable period, fromapart extending its too,Calais),that and and Dover between water of thousands of miles (not a mere twenty-three miles the that note to interesting is it power;but Chola fipart,the forin responsible the of breakdown nal thousand miles. the territories which are separated by not less than a butmatterisit singularof credit tohave controlled besaid about the colonising activities of the Cholas, territoryon the coast of Malaya. In the 13th century, time, they established bases in Nicobar and acquired years war with the Sailendras. The Chola empire was eleventh century. Rajendra Cholas began a hundred-oftheSailendras wasdisputed bythe Cholas inthe whichwas andcommercial.” political both policy in the political, literary and cultural . Hoyasalas delivered deadly blows.Meantime, the deadly delivered Hoyasalas Kaktiyas. The Yadavas did not fi gure in the Chola Chola fi the not in Yadavasdid Kaktiyas. The gure And at one place, Nilakanta Sastri says, “The age age says, “The Sastri Nilakanta place, one at And Chalukya power, it recoiled on them because the the because them on power,recoiled it Chalukya of the Imperial Cholas (A.D. 850 to 1200) was the the was 1200) to (A.D. 850 Cholas Imperial the of chunks of Chola territory. Out of these two, the the two, these of Out territory. Chola of chunks feudatories of the Chalukyas soon attacked the the attacked soon Chalukyas the of feudatories of the Cholas in the field of colonisation. The authority golden age of the Tamil literature”.Tamil the of age Moreover, the golden value of naval power and also undertake an oceanic the Sailendrasthe eveninvaded Ceylon. cannotMuch Chola kingdom the Yadavas, the Hoyasalas and the Cholas were the first Indian rulers to appreciate the drained the resources of the empire, was no doubt, Southern India constitutes an extraordinary period On the other hand, the two other powers took away Thefour hundred in years Cholaof authority True, their with warfare the Sailendras, which Thus, it was during the third quarter of the the of quarter third the during was it Thus, The first aspect to be taken up is the achievement E ARLY M EDIEVAL I NDIA (750-1200) patronage. The counterpart of the purohit of the the of purohit the of counterpart patronage.The emperor discharged his onerous responsibilities responsibilities onerous his discharged emperor were of various types. In the Ur variety, the local local variety, the Ur the In types. various of were on which the whole administration revolved.administration The whole the which on known as districts or nadus, each district composed of the Cholas furnish valuable information about about information valuable furnish Cholas the of with the advice and help of his ministers. As the the As ministers. his of help and advice the with the administrative system was the village. In this this In village. the was system administrative the province was split into divisions known as Kottam or own assemblies. A little information is, however,is, information little A assemblies. own administrative system, the most remarkable feature statues of the deceased rulers were worshipped. were rulers deceased the of statues the assemblies. But the assemblies of the villages the of assemblies the assemblies. But the of functions and constitution the about available ofawhole province.the assemblyofpeople of units various the in existed assemblies of types of a group of villages called Kurram. At the base of Valanadu. They were further sub-divided and were in subordinates feudal the war, of like time just in royalblood. vassalunder Therewere principalities the of princes to entrusted were provinces the of empire,the some within forcesdisintegrating the viceroys.by overTocheck presided were them of says, Sastri Nilakanta reached kingship Chola “The in the Chola north empire was the rajguru. He was kings.todead royalthe of Therunninghousehold The building of temples were regarded as tributes pompous titles like Chakravartigal or emperor. The took kings powerful,the was government central and general control of the royal officials the sabha assisted was villagers. It brahmin the of assembly without any formal rules or procedures to be be to procedures or rules formal any without nadu, kurram and grama. There are references to references are grama.There and nadu,kurram administrative system of the Cholas. The inscriptions was very elaborate. Equality lavish was the royal the was lavish Equality elaborate. very was both the confident and confessor of the royal family. their administration. The emperor was the pivot pivot the was emperor The administration. their Europe. The province was designated mandalam. The chiefs who paid tribute and rendered military service people assembled to discuss important matters matters important discuss to assembled people was divided into provinces. The most important important most provinces.The into divided was adhered to. The Sabha or the mahasabha was an an was mahasabha the or to.Sabha adhered The was the popular assembly known as sabha. Different by a number of committees. Under the supervision its gorgeousness equal to the Byzantine monarchs.” H ISTORY Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com Districts and towns (nagram) had their their had (nagram) towns and Districts convenience, of sake the for empire, The The second aspect to be considered is the the is considered be to aspect second The Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com

OF M EDIEVAL I NDIA | 30 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success mantras and brahamanas, owned a house, aged aged house, a owned brahamanas, and mantras were elected by lot, and held offi ce for only one one offi only held for and lot, ce by elected were times, villages were divided into wards and each each and wards into divided were villages times, had representatives. Although the villages were were villages the Although representatives. had administration. They owned the village lands; lands; village the owned They administration. of election, the inscription state that the name name the that state inscription the election, of for qualifi cations of number more inscription enumerates The taxes. land paid and 35 above and economic in both entities self-sufficient theft, adultery and associated with the criminals, the with associated and adultery theft, collected taxes; disposed of petty criminal cases; criminal petty of disposed taxes; collected could be a member of more than one assembly. At Generally speaking, each village was administered temple orinapublichall. year.a in held were assembly the of meetings The members education.All primary after looked and enjoyed full powers in all the of departments local of them should constitute the garden committees readbe by present. all the priests Then each ticket byout arbitratoran taken be should should it and assembly great the of meeting full drawn,a were should be written on tickets. After the tickets were persons.these down layingof While selection the of knowledge his for known was who person one on the orders of one Raja--Mangala-Priyan. It inscribed was Uttaramerur. was It town such One These feudatories worked through the assemblies. by an assembly of the villagers. In larger villages, larger In villagers. the of assembly an by prohibitions, the inscriptions states that a person person a that states inscriptions prohibitions, the who was guilty of killing brahmins, drinking alcohol, observer and counsellors rather than administrators. throws immense light on the working of the sabha. was under the feudations. The feudatories collected dropped, they should be put in a pot. After the tickets This particular village had 30 wards. Each ward elected old. The temple priests should be present. The tickets in the affairs of the village, they were more like like more were they village, the of affairs the in autonomy. Although the Chola officials participated ward had its own assembly. Some of the assemblies there was more than one assembly, while a villager administrative matters, quite an amount of territory the revenue and paid a part of it to the king as share. should be summoned including the young and the administration and they are designed as tarkurrams. should not be chosen. Regarding the regular process should be chosen for the annual committees. Twelve Large townships had their own autonomous The Chola villages enjoyed considerable considerable enjoyed villages Chola The SINCE-1993 ® The assessment was pre-fi paid was mostly assessment was The xed. It are masterpieces of this medium of art. Temple art. of medium this of masterpieces are Whenever land was held private property, the owner William the Conqueror.” Land revenue was one-sixth were carried out. The other sources of revenue were the reclamation of waste land, clearing of forests and were maintained by an arbitrator.Ultimately, the an by maintained were to enter the temples. They were often employed for wicked men might perish and the rest may prosper. labour. As the land-tax was pre-fi of was survey land-tax xed, a the labour. As bronsed are well-reputed. The Nataraja bronsed bronsed Nataraja The well-reputed. are bronsed the building of temples. The state’s major source of large number of working men. These working men not very large.not very the out.land was carried The average holding was revenue was the land tax. Apart from this, the state castes;permittedlow not in weresay they no had in kind. In addition to the land-owners, there was a King’soffithe assembly. to the tax or his cers paid Kasu,called orinkind. The latter was preferred. currency gold in made reality. be couldPayments K.N. Sastri, the levy could be as high as one-third in many.greatto Accordingwere imposts petty but of record Doomsday famous the before century a least at registered properly were holdings all and surveyed carefully were lands etc.cultivated “The the various duties, taxes on animals, tanks oil-mills, sixth of the produce. Periodical surveys of the land one- of consisted which land-tax the revenuewas matters ofqualifications ofmoney. andspending in variations small forexcept same the almost are Some other inscriptions found in the Chola region made for the prosperity of the village in order that from office if found guilty of any offence. Accounts offithe removedmembership, be of could ce they land was collectively owned by all the people. people. the all by owned collectively was land in the fi eld of arts, much can be said. The Chola Chola said. The be can much fiarts, the of in eld Such villages paid revenue as corporate entities. corporate as revenue paid villages Such method was the traditional one. The major source of inscription states that all these arrangements are arrangements these all that states inscription duties, judicial fi nes and the equivalent in forced in equivalent fi the duties,judicial and nes secured some revenues from mines, forests, custom men shall hold office for full one year. While holding and remaining six form the tank committee. All these Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com Tenancy was of two kinds. In some villages villages some In kinds. two of was Tenancy With regard to the Chola achievements achievements Chola the to regard With With With regard to the Chola taxation system, the a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt | 31 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success Panikkar says: “The great works of irrigation were irrigation of works says:great Panikkar “The of Kambar. Besides these, two books books two these, Besides Kambar. of Ramayana dedicated to ; but Kulottunga I’s hostility hostility I’sKulottunga but Vishnu;to dedicated them,Rajaraja,Siva.likeoftemples of built Some others. In all the cities built by them, the temple temple the them, by built cities the all In others. fi jewellers.”nished like Pallavas.the by pioneered Fergussonarchitecture said gateways.well or is gopurams ornamented It richly the by eclipsed later were towers,which or vimanas the are temples the of features chief The massive gopuram) and Gangaikonda-Cholapuram huge the are architecture Chola of examples best feet and is crowned by a massive dome consisting example is furnished by the Siva temple at Tanjore, in Sanskrit were few. very in Sanskrit versifion written were grammar.and cation Books the growth of Tamil classics, the age witnessed the of medical science. Sibakasin damani, a great Tamil temples.testifyexistenceto Manythe inscriptions of theempire.” deltaagranary Cauvery of construction the channels.In and sluices stone length,in miles with sixteen wasand Cholapuram artificial lake by Rajendra Chola near Gangaikonda irrigation works, built excellent road and cities. The sculptures in some of the temples are excellent. are temples the of some in sculptures which were thrown across the river, Kaveri, and and Kaveri,river, the across thrown were which temples of Tanjore, Chidambaram (famous for its its for (famous Tanjore, of Chidambaram temples says, “The Chola artist conceived like giants and and giants like conceived artist Chola says, “The classic, was composed in this period. More than than More period. this in composed was classic, undertaken by successive kings which made the the made which kings successive by undertaken the Puranas was imparted through discourses in in discourses through imparted was Puranas the brahminical Hindus and mostly devoted to the worship dams, the Cholas used huge blocks of dressed stone, that the Cholas perfected the Dravidian style of of style Dravidian the perfected Cholas the that consisting of fourteen storeys, rises to a height of 190 architecture also reached great heights. The best best heights.The great reached also architecture of a single block of stone weighing eighty tons. The (the new capital built by Rajendra Chola). The figure- of institutions catering to higher education inclusive to colleges, mass education based on the epics and Chola achievements are commendable. In addition public utility. They undertook extensive and fruitful was the focal point. Writing on these achievements, built by Rajaraja the Great. The great Sikhara (dome) In the educational and literary fi literary and educational also,the eld In the With regard to religion, the Cholas were were Cholas the religion, to regard With of works of builders great also were They E ARLY M EDIEVAL I NDIA (750-1200) and clothing. They had their own craftsmen to cater wonder. Taking all these things into account, we account, into things these wonder.all Taking civilisation was not confined to the Indian continent Cholas. Dr. Tripathi opines. “It is noteworthy that that noteworthy is opines.Dr. Cholas. “It Tripathi (heartland being Tamil land) experienced such a such experienced land) Tamil being (heartland requirements of the people were also a few. a This also were people the of requirements organisation. The village were self-sufficient in food on the decline, but some Buddhist monasteries monasteries Buddhist some but decline, the on economic activity was brisk, the amenities of life of amenities the brisk, was activity economic there are scanty references (except in the poems poems the in (except references scanty are there were a few. The brisk economic activity was felt felt was activity economic brisk few. The a were coming ages as the standard or norm by which which by norm or standard the as ages coming judged. be to is individual an of conduct and thinking the constitutes ageofsouthIndia. theclassical Life the During Times oftheCholas ofHinduIndia. of thechapters inthehistory last the constitutes history Chola the that say can India. Their brings out history the truth that Indian on yajna orsacrifices.” Perhaps greater stress was laid on Dana than (gift) the in slant peculiar a be to Finally, appears there However,kings. Chola the the from gifts received the focal point of both economy and political political and economy both of point focal the the this, from Apart also. trade overseas the in succeeding history Chola the the words, other In government generations. to continued of matter a still are achievements architectural the by patronised and professed as Hinduism celebrated the compelled toward century that towns grew because of developments royal gifts were normally monopolised by Brahmins. view of life (simple living) persisted through the the through persisted living) (simple life of view in industry, and thereby trade and commerce. Some alone but it spread to south-east Asia also. Their Asia south-east to spread it but alone the Hoysala territories. and Buddhism were vaishnava reformer, Ramanuja, to seek shelter in in shelter seek to reformer,Ramanuja, vaishnava extraordinary importance in the history of Southern sacrifices by Chola kings. Indeed, the solitary allusion to their daily needs. It was only by the end of the 11th to the Asvamedha occurs in the record of Rajadhiraja. of the Sangam period) to the performance of Vedic state of civilisation and culture that their standards H ISTORY Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com During the Chola period, the village was was village the period, Chola the During rule Chola under was that territory The of is history Chola the manner, this In The life led by the people was simple. Although Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com

OF M EDIEVAL I NDIA | 32 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success the developments in the economic organisation organisation economic the in developments the associations formed by merchants to look after after look to merchants by formed associations on the east coast, Quilon, continued to play an an play to continued Quilon, coast, east the on the trade, which were known by the name of of name the by known were which trade, the and merchants invested money init. kings the probability economy.all Chola In the in the was India of imports the interestingfeaturein west.the to wereexported commodities same An state a became it country latter the China,in and with regard to China. As the state became such an role infuture ages. important the guilds of merchantmen, or by the villagers. The by king,or the by built either life.was temple The still constitutes the focal point of Tamil culture and temple spirit,the life.In of centre the was temple the unitofexchange was ameasure ofrice. had coins period,copper Chola the of end the By Sialendras oftheSrivijya kingdom. the against I Rajendra by waged was that war the byout borne as intereststhem the of after looked merchantguilds, kings the that certain almost is it were kings the recordedthat evidenceno is there merchant guilds were so rich as to purchase entire were known by the name of nagaram. Some of the merchants local of interests.guilds own The their Cholakingdom.the of controlledMerchantguilds villages and donate them to temples. Although Although temples. to them donate and villages the were valanjiyar.These the and manigraman was unrestricted circulation of gold coins. From the responsible for looking after the interest of the the of interest the after looking for responsible came into existence in the mainland opposite to opposite mainland the in existence into came spices, drugs, jewels, ivory and ebony. Almost the the ebony.Almost and spices,drugs, jewels, ivory 11th century onwards these coins were debased.were coins these onwards century 11th greater circulation. Nevertheless, in the rural areas it of the towns that came to be founded in this period like Mahabalipuram, Javeripatnam, Shaliyur, and and Shaliyur,Javeripatnam, Mahabalipuram, like institution of promissory notes came into vogue. The was barter that prevailed for acquiring articles, and horse. Apart from it, trade played an important part monopoly. It is also stated that an Indian settlement use of coins also was very extensive and brisk. There Formosa. The exports from south India were textiles, important element in the relationship between India The brisk increase in trade was facilitated by facilitated was trade in increase brisk The As the economic activity was very brisk,the very was activity economic the As Trade reached an unprecedented volume volume unprecedented an reached Trade Apart from this brisk economic activity, the activity,the economic brisk this from Apart SINCE-1993 ® position. They could defy the social conventions. social the defy could position. They invested their money in trade and commerce of the most privileged part of the community. Some of the is interesting to note that the mention of Kshatriyas, the people was the caste system. The Brahmins Brahmins The system. caste the was people the temple was acquired through donations. The temple southern history, Brahmins represented an alien alien an represented Brahmins history, southern courtesans of the town had a more respectable respectable more a had town the of courtesans record of Cholas. Amongst Sudras there was further of Chola life. It was common to be taught by the the by taught be to common was life. It Chola of However, the vast majority of women were nothing the richest because it had an income of 500 pounds was also present. It appears that both men and and men both that appears It present. also was as prostitutes and their earnings were collected collected were earnings their and prostitutes as 600 and stones precious of pounds 250 gold, of occupying a vantage position both in economic and temple once again fiagain once temple aspect important an as gures not institutionalised. temples.Fortunately,the was to practice sold this and thosewhosetouch was polluting. sub-division, those whose touch was not polluting day andsomeeven journeyed to south-eastAsia. community,the restof fromthe apart stood while but chattels. hand,the other the authorities.On temple the by treatedweredevadasis the as abused was system the performers of Bharatanatyam dance. Soon, the Chola the of templesprevalent the was of most in staff.large a had devadasis,also 400 maintained It noting. In all probability, the temple at Tanjore was readers of scriptures and 212 attendants, apart apart attendants, 212 and scriptures of readers from hundreds of priests. The devadasi system system devadasi The priests. of hundreds from way in which the temples were maintained is worth women were sold as slaves. Some of them were were them of Some slaves. as sold were women section of the community, the rest of the community pounds of silver. The rich wealth of this Tanjore this of wealth rich silver. The of pounds leader. He was very often exempt from taxes. In early Vaishyas and Sudras is very negligible in the available political field. The southern Brahmin was the religious (non-brahmins) occupied a lower status in society. It (women meant for entertaining), 57 musicians and period. The talented amongst them were trained as culture; but in the Chola period they constituted the Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com Apart from the caste degradation, slavery slavery degradation, caste the from Apart of life the in feature important next The Coming to education, we notice that the the that notice we education, to Coming As the Brahmins constituted the most powerful a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt | 33 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success of the day Sanskrit occupied the pride of place. of pride the occupied Sanskrit day the of century. Their founder was one Basavaraya. The The Basavaraya. one was founder Their century. precincts of the temple to decide the point of of point the decide to temple the of the in precincts assembled scholars The priests. temple such as post-puberty and widow widow and marriages post-puberty as such salvation. However, Ramanuja attributed love to to love attributed However,Ramanuja salvation. of various professions was imparted through the the through imparted was professions various of period and it reached its climax during the Chola the during climax its reached it and period chief belief of the people to start with. This religion Jayangondur are ofconsiderable standing. and Pugalendi the of writings the and Ramayana centres, fromthreethese important colleges were controversy. To some extent the Buddhist and Jain God. A devotee can reach Him.on God.reach emphasising can devoteeIn A attaining of ways the of one only was Marga Jana remarriages. The later Chola period also witnessed practices which were disapproved of by brahmins, of form the in worshipped they and hypocrisy;religious attacked sect this followersof or Virashaivas. They became prominent in the 12th against thedomination ofbrahmins. protestof mark a as so did sects religious these of wine of pot a carried they it with along and food sacrifi performed them of and involving blood ces Pashupatas.and Some Kapalikas, like cults territory.other Chola more few a were There to the developments of various other sects during led brahminism of climax period.the expected As came to be fi rmly established during the Pallava the fiduring be established to rmly came the individual’s relationship with God through love, sexual orgies. For example, the Kalamukhas carried the skull of human beings from which they ate their The vernaculars were neglected. The knowledge knowledge neglected. The were vernaculars The period experienced the emergence of the Lingayats or phallic emblem. They encouraged some social social some encouraged emblem.They phallic or guilds. However, the language of the land, Tamil, had Some of the writings in Tamil language like Kamban’s and a club. Some of the people who joined the ranks its own development without any royal patronage. with Sankara in so many ways. According to Sankara, monasteries also provided education carrier. Apart like the tantric and the shakta cults appeared in the the later half of the Chola period. The mystical sects the Vaishnava philosopher, Ramanuja. He disagreed also there in the days of the Cholas. In the education Apart form these developments, the later later the developments, these form Apart In matters of religion, brahminism was the the was brahminism religion, of matters In E ARLY M EDIEVAL I NDIA (750-1200) Chola period definitely constitutes the classical age from this standpoint (liberal interpretation) the the interpretation) (liberal standpoint this from he struck an entirely different note. In later ages the These sculptural pieces are mostly kept in the inner the superiority of brahmins), the development in in development the brahmins), of superiority the Chalukyas laid stress on hewing temples out of rocks auspices. The gateways or gopurams of temples temples of gopurams or gateways auspices.The 1. The Cholas were great pioneers in temple temple in pioneers great were Cholas The 1. preachings of Ramanuja became the starting point but the Cholas concentrated on free-standing stone witnessed a new development and perfection. The structures. The size of the temples grew under their the social field (temple as the focus of attention and True, classical age means the age that witnessed witnessed that age the means age True, classical . Architectural trend that followed during the 2. Development of Architecture under Cholas and civilisation of Tamil landtilltoday. tanks, constitute the warp and woof of the culture developmentsin Tamillanguage), importance the in up set standards the because India southern of the whole way of life culture because is nowadays standards in literature and art; but when we give a was a watershed in the history of southern culture. and saints. fithe in masterpieces as regarded sculpture.of eld the Shirarangam temple. for thebhaktimovement. development of bronze sculpture. These are are These sculpture. bronze of development of the village autonomy and the importance of the shrine of the temple if they are those of donors donors of those are they if temple the of shrine example, the Meenakashi temple at Madurai and and Madurai at temple Meenakashi example, the liberal interpretation to the term, we should include architecture and sculpture, the literary traditions (the described described as the worthy part of the life of a people; replaced the shikharas in ornamentation. As for for As ornamentation. in shikharas the replaced H ISTORY Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com More important that architecture was the the was architecture that important More In the field of architecture, too, the Chola period In this manner, life during the time of the Cholas Chola rule, consisted mostly of the temple temple the of mostly consisted rule, Chola architecture. And it got hype from the the from hype got it And architecture. building; they incorporated characteristics characteristics incorporated they building; of the Pallava temple-building traditions. A traditions. temple-building Pallava the of their kingdom, which carried the significance and his son Rajendra Chola I.and hissonRajendra Chola Rajaraja of genius the and conquests of theDravidian temple design. large number of temples were built al through Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com

OF M EDIEVAL I NDIA | 34 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success 3. Most of the features of the early chola chola early the of features the of Most 3. who helped in the agricultural operations and and operations agricultural the in helped who of association an assembly its and peasants of villages. Their main occupation was agriculture. agriculture. was occupation main Their villages. spare time. his in out himself hire to ready was peasant small the common land. the outcastes. These were also rewarded by shares in separate negotiation between theparties. of matter a was work each for them.wage to The in the village and ready to take up work as it came nature of retainers of inducements to them to stay the landowners. agriculture.them of proceedsof the Some shared labourers landless of class large fairly a was there own. The village was, thus, essentially a settlement atoccupation, aimed his Everyone, of irrespective land.of ownershipto attached was prestigeGreat Village Communities intheSouth to do with the management of local affairs than than affairs local of management the with do to 4. Improvements were made on the styles of of styles the on made were Improvements 4. the common land of the villages, which were of the were in a condition of serfdom. All of them had less landowners, big and small. Besides the landowners, . The ‘makaratoranas’ become tall with narrow 5. having a small piece of land which he could call his The artisans of the village had shares from from shares had village the of artisans The Therewasalso staffa menialof servants from The vast majority of the people lived in in lived people the of majority vast The Day labour was usually paid in grain. Even the carried carried on top over the abacus, the structure had a smooth surface, though in a few cases architecture. petals. was inverted and smooth in earlier, later had it is ornamented with vertical grooves or ribs. architectural monuments which were the the were later which monuments the architectural in spotted be can architecture of the maturity and splendor of the Chola Chola the of splendor and maturity the of and Gangaikondacholapuram are evident evident are Gangaikondacholapuram and temples only. The two temples of Tanjavur of temples two only. The temples the ‘kumbhapanjaras’ were also developed and these temples later on like, the ‘torus moulding’ reverse curves on each side. Other features like thinner types and the padma below it, which in the basement, which was rounded and then of a ‘panjara’. The ‘phalaka’ also transformed to SINCE-1993 ® rights were assigned to high offi nobles high and to cials assigned were rights gardens and orchards, in the neighbourhood of of neighbourhood the in orchards, and gardens the produce. Permanent assessment of land for for land of assessment Permanent produce. the complaints of tax-gather’s oppressive methods. oppressive tax-gather’s of complaints rate of tax and the manner of collecting might have fixed either by the terms on the original endowment and charitable uses and of which temples,maths which of and uses charitable and or by separate negotiations in each case. Very often records mention black land and red land in addition or where the collection of tax was framed, both the pressed hard on the peasants. Even under liberal liberal under peasants.Even the on hard pressed cultivation for thefirst time. under it brought and land reclaimed who people wereconcessionsoffered tax and facilities Special work.labourers was and This peasants the of part waste land and the clearing of forest was a regular there were no natural streams. Steps were taken to where areas serve to excavatedwere tanks Large to theusualwetland, garden land, andwaste land. land, dry and wet both on pulses and grains food Wetlandsintodivided several were gradesfurther was made between garden-land, including flower- ofthelandthey cultivated.less part-owners and Brahmanas were the landlords. But where where But landlords. the were Brahmanas and and cultivation vegetable fl and ower intensive forestland. and dryland wetland, cities, capital and on the tax collecting agency. Tenant conditions understood. Dams were erected across streams and sugarcane were widely practised. The Chalukya Chalukya The practised. widely were sugarcane only on seasons but also on the conditions of tenure the raising of commercial crops like cotton and and cotton like crops commercial of raising the corporation institutions. The terms of tenancy were for extension of agriculture for specified periods to channels taken off from them wherever possible.wherever them from off taken channels according to their natural fertility. Besides cultivating ensure their proper maintenance. Reclamation of of maintenance. Reclamation proper their ensure land under cultivation meant an increase in revenue. particularly on lands belonging to temples and other such tenants had rights which made them more or administration of the Imperial Cholas, there were Cholas,there Imperial the of administration Land tax was generally assessed at one-third of of one-third at assessed generally was tax Land were probably easier on lands set apart for religious encouraged by the government since the increase of Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com For taxation and other purposes a distinction The importance of irrigation was well well was irrigation of importance The common quite was cultivation Tenancy The prosperity of the peasants depended not a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt | 35 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success wait for shorter or longer periods of time. Even if if time.Even of periods longer or shorter for wait arrangements of the village communities were were communities village the of arrangements constitutional The evolved. was affairs local of only against physical but also against mental mental against also but physical against only of methods improved evolve to revised often the husband in some cases (as when the wife is is wife the when (as cases some in husband the on a number of specifi of Nevertheless,grounds. number ed a on autonomous rural institutions. A highly developed effithe the communities,was of functioning cient tocraftsmen attend to itsneeds. on thepeasant. strain a was temples and assembly by levied dues her supersession, they provide for her residence in maintainedmust be by him. relatives,her she to over made accordingly is and to has he alone) children female or children dead produces or barren is she when (as cases other in todevoted is but disease chronic a from suffering her in points some emphasise to tendency strong for ofheroffspring.unchastity thesake not independent”.guarded be also must wife The .the in down laid line the less or more “The Condition of Women administration inthelight ofexperience. the superseded wife angrily leaves her husband husband her leaves angrily wife superseded the a characteristic of this period. For most members members most period.For this of characteristic a the purpose was known but was not usual.Local not was but known was purpose the ensure the wife’s right to maintenance in case of of case in maintenance to wife’s right the ensure must so arrange things that the wife never becomes Chandrika after the fashion of the old Smritis with a of a village community there was little wealth to wealth little was there community village a of favour. The wife, we are told, may be superseded superseded be told,may are favour.wife,we The raising and dairy farming. Land was set apart for apart set was Land farming. dairy and raising pasture. The tendency to hoard wealth was not not was wealth hoard to tendency The pasture. Commentaries and digests of this period follow follow period this of digests and Commentaries husband and other male relations, to begin with, begin relations,to male other and husband hoard. The village was economically self-sufficient. It provided its own food and clothing and had enough her husband’s welfare) has to ask her permission, and abandonment of the wife are repeated in the Smiriti- committee system (Variyars) for the administration The most striking feature of the village village the of feature striking most The If the rulers in the Smriti-Chandrika, thus, Smriti-Chandrika, the in rulers the If and supersession the to relating laws The Closely associated with agriculture was cattle- As regards the position of the wife, the Smiriti E ARLY M EDIEVAL I NDIA (750-1200) century, Queen Ballamahadevi of the Alupa dynasty dynasty of Kalyana. In the latter half of the thirteenth queen of Ananta, rose to be the de facto ruler of of ruler facto de the be to rose Ananta, of queen the wife is guilty of slight adultery, she must be be must she adultery, slight of guilty is wife the (in Dakshina Kannada district) ruled for at least least at for ruled district) Kannada Dakshina (in that the advent of the Sena dynasty of Kannada Kannada of dynasty Sena the of advent the that include the queen in the list of the king’s informants. even in the event of her committing adultery. When her husband’s house as well as her maintenance maintenance her as well as house husband’s her of her sonless deceases husband provided she is is she provided husband deceases sonless her of evidence of the political influence of women in the administrative charges under the Western Chalukya sometimes exercised a commanding influence upon the kingdom and ended up by persuading the king change in the practice of royal land grants so as to Deccan and south India, it is interesting to observe such of light Polo.the Marco In travellerVenetain contemporary the of admiration the won success the Rudramba, bearing queen Kakatiya forth.The Maharajadhiraja,of Parabalasadhaka,titles so and masculine the with 1201-14) (Saka years fourteen India.Princessessouth and Deccan the of records abidicate infavour son. oftheirunworthy against the judgement of his wisest counsellors to women,of dependence perpetual the of doctrine his death. We have a number of instances showing chaste and the property was divided at the time of Smirit-Chandrika.by widow, emphatically The is it religious ofwomen. inferiority andsocial and the digests repeat the old rules relating to the penance.a of performance her commentariesThe Trade andCommerce origin into Bengal brought with it a signifi a cant it with brought Bengal into origin the in especially period, this during traced be how queens and princesses, in the face of the Smriti prestige by participating in the maintenance of of maintenance the in participating by prestige maintained, is entitles to succeed to the whole estate male name of Rudradevamaharaja, ruled the kakatiya the administration of the state. In Kashmir, Suryamati, became governors of provinces and held minor minor held and provinces of governors became kingdom for nearly forty years, and her conspicuous of her male relations is emphatically maintained maintained emphatically is relations male her of prosperity to merchants, they sought to gain social maintained, though deprived of conjugal rights, till H ISTORY Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com As growth of trade brought economic economic brought trade of growth As can ladies royal of infl uence political The property the inherit to right woman’s The Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com

OF M EDIEVAL I NDIA | 36 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success text of the eleventh century from Western India, Western from century eleventh the of text occupied important ministerial positions at the the at positions ministerial important occupied scale sea or land trade enjoyed great reputation reputation great enjoyed trade land or sea scale merchants for these purposes. Some merchants merchants Some purposes. these for merchants prestige not only from wealth but also from the the from also but wealth from only not prestige and dishonest merchants. The Kashmiri author, Kashmiri The merchants. dishonest and (Twelfth Al-Idrisi as such travellers and authors He and his descendants, and Tajapala, and Vastupala descendants, his and He bodies. and artisans were a part of the local administrative thirteenth century inscription from central Gujarat Abu. Mount A at gods Jaina to dedicated temples region.the of life cultural and political the in role the was who caste Modha of merchant a to refers offi inscription ministers.century and tenth cials A by goods or cash of grant the to refer inscriptions or occupational sub-castes. as But trade revived in many of the guilds were reduced to mere regional protect to them by formed associations or guilds were considered low insociety. views these may,of some however,that noted be people. dishonest It of list the in artisans includes foodgrains.hoarded his on A money good expect could he because calamity other some or famine selfi typically Kshemendra,a to refers merchant sh business dealings. But in the contemporary Indian Indian traders for their truthfulness and honesty in while small merchants such as hawkers, retailers,hawkers, as such merchants small while reveals that many important merchants, traders traders merchants, important many that reveals who used to feel overjoyed at the approach of a of approach the at overjoyed feel to used who of their position and character—high and low. It and character—high and position their of refl ect the contemporary feudal tendency in which literature, we come across many instances of greedy measures were looked down upon in society. It also persons working with their own hands and resources court and are known for building the famous marble weakened the corporate activity of merchants, and became very influential and joined the ranks of state divides merchants in two main classes—on the basis points out that rich merchants who indulged in large century) and Marco Polo (thirteenth century) praise chief of Sanja (near Thane) in Maharashtra. In Gujarat, etc. who cheated people by using false weights and temples, priests and religious functions. Numerous their interests. In the first phase, the decline of trade the merchant family of Vimala played an important The merchants derived their power and and power their derived merchants The Character and Conduct of Traders: The foreign SINCE-1993 ® horses, perfumes, etc. They were formed by both both by formed were etc.perfumes,horses,They area, if they found the local authorities hostile or or hostile authorities local the found they area,if initiative or action but still he enjoyed numerous enjoyed he still but action or initiative and could even decide that specific commodity was the custodians of religious interests. The inscriptions code of discipline and was also robbed of some some of robbed also was and discipline of code to be answered. Well the guilds were voluntary voluntary were guilds the Well answered. be to tolls and taxes on behalf of his fellow merchants.fellow his of behalf on taxes and tolls religious interests. The inscriptions refer to numerous of local merchants having permanent residence residence permanent having merchants local of additional tax on the sale and purchase of their goods deciding the economic affairs of the guild. He could local as well as itinerant merchants. The associations They could refuse to trade on a particular day by its in town was more permanent in nature than the the than nature in permanent more was town in benefits. He received full backing of the guild in all of representative the as acted them of many and toconsolidate powertheir society,in position and violated the guild rules. One of his main duties was for the maintenance of temples or temple functions. paytoagreedan collectively they when instances as acted also uncooperative.merchants guild The members.its by day particular a on sold be to not the endofeachventure. at terminated specifiwas a and for journey only c grains,as such commodity of textiles, leaves,betel it function? What were the benefits which accrued life. phase,second the as reappeared guilds merchant He performed the functions of a magistrate in in magistrate a of functions the performed He to its members? These are important questions questions important are These members? its to their members on the local administrative councils. code of conduct. They fixed the prices of their goods leadership of a chief who was elected by its members. refer to numerous instances when they collectively of association of itinerant merchants which was formed an important feature of the contemporary economic to deal directly with the King, and settle the market The growth of corporate activity enable guild-chiefs regulations regarding the membership and the the and membership the regarding regulations associations of merchants dealing in the same type members. They could refuse to trade in a particular punish, condemn or even expel those members who Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com Guilds: A member of the guild worked under a strict The guild normally worked under the the under worked normally guild The and rules own their framed guilds The a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt What was a merchant guild? How did | 37 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success operation corresponded to the present day state day present the to corresponded operation Andhra Pradesh. The Chola kings from the tenth tenth the from kings Chola Pradesh. The Andhra century led to the emergence of many merchant many of emergence the to led century and commerce through trade missions, maritime missions,maritime trade through commerce and called the Shreni-karana was constituted by the the by constituted was Shreni-karana the called carrying on trade with other countries. Shreni, Shreni, countries. other with trade on of carrying purpose the for together travel who castes by merchants of body corporate the to refer guilds or organisations in south India too. The The too. India south in organisations or guilds troops own their maintained guilds merchants according to Medhatithi, was a group of people people of group a was Medhatithi, to according and authoritative at times, the merchants found found merchants the times, at authoritative and of south India were known as the Ayyavole and and Ayyavole the as known were India south of or vendor,or greaterhadhecredibility market thein moneylenders, artisans, etc. thought some authors economic protections. onaccount ofhis membership ofthe guild. Thus,in from was,thus,saved and activities economic his century century onwards made a concerted effort to trade South and Maharashtra,Karnataka,TamilNadu of Manigraman.the their Geographically,of area the rules andregulations. of set a follow to members its among contract or was probably merchants. aguildoflocal alone. The artisans of group a be to it considered various terms, such as naigama, shreni, samuha, shreni, naigama, as such terms, various of the guilds of merchants and artisans in their their in artisans and merchants of guilds the of sartha, samgha, etc. The naigama is described as as described is naigama etc.samgha, The sartha, kings of western India to look after the activities activities the after look to India western of kings an association of caravan merchants of different different of merchants caravan of association an inscriptions refer to these organisation often as as often organisation these to refer inscriptions the harassment of local offilocal of cials.harassment hawker a Unlike the agriculture and the growth of trade from tenth tenth from trade of growth the and agriculture samaya, i.e. an organisation born out of an agreement spite of the fact that guild-chiefs tended to be rude from western India refers to vanika-mandala which (shrenibala) for personal safety. Inscriptions too refer region. Another text, Manasollasa, reveals that many expeditions, abolition of tolls etc. It greatly increased to the corporate activity of merchants. An inscription guilds an important means of seeking physical and Lekhapaddhati indicates that a special department the activities of these guilds which were involved in following the same profession such as that of traders, The digests and commentaries of the period period the commentariesof and Thedigests The two most important merchant guilds guilds merchant important most two The India: south in Guilds E ARLY M EDIEVAL The expansion of of expansion The I NDIA (750-1200) known as the guild of “the 500 Swami of Aihole” of Swami 500 of “the guild the as known elsewhere. The commercial inflcommercialelsewhere. Ayyavole The of uence as it gradually came into close contact with the the with contact close into came gradually it as plane and had developed deep socio-economic socio-economic deep developed had and plane activities activities and covered a large part of the peninsula. Nadu) in the South. The number “five hundred”, also activity by collecting agricultural goods from the the from goods agricultural collecting by activity guild of Ayyavole) operated on a trans-regional trans-regional a on operated Ayyavole) of guild quite rich and powerful, and acquired the title of of title the acquired and powerful, and rich quite Ayyavole, it greatly improved upon its inter-regional regions, religious and castes. It is in this context context this in is It castes. and religious regions, interests between the ninth and fifteenth centuries. certain individual merchants in South too were were too South in merchants individual certain larger body and drew its members from various various from members its drew and body larger India was the Manigraman.the wasfi India It along appeared rst guilds. of working the on control their establish to trying samaya chakravarti, i.e. the emperor of the trading Ayyavole became increased, members its of some Burma,Java,at foundSumatra inscriptions the by organisation. became conventional as the guild became a much denying the fact that with the growth of trade and no is there 500. But of membership initial an had over a or district two. The organisation might have formed small and workable federations extending across theBay ofBengal. the Kerala coast in the ninth century A.D. However, and Sri Lanka. As the mercantile activities of of activities mercantile the As Lanka. Sri and indicated is It India. south beyond even spread local the with interacted guild Ayyavole the of in district Sangli (in bhalvani from spread They association the that shows of Ayyavole study Kannada detailed a merchants, of unificorporation ed single a not and merchandise of types various in traders primarily were organisations such that argued have some While nanadeshi. not only inter-regional but also inter-oceanic trade that the term nandeshi came to be used for this this for used be to came nandeshi term the that organisation. It may suggest that as in the North, the in as that suggest may organisation.It hinterland and distributing the goods brought from Maharashtra) in the north to Kayalpattinam (in Tamil commerce, the Vira Banajas (representing the trading markets called nagaram, and promoted commercial H ISTORY Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com Another important merchant guilds of south The merchant guild called Ayyavole was also In course of outward expansion, the members Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com

OF M EDIEVAL I NDIA | 38 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success Narayana in the possession of Chakra; like Rudra, like Chakra; of possession the in Narayana and harmony with one another. The guild-chiefs,another. The one with harmony and race of Vasudeva, Khandali and Mulabhadra who who Mulabhadra and Vasudeva, Khandali of race in purity of conduct; like Bhima in adventurous adventurous in Bhima like conduct; of purity in believe. Like the Manigramam, it also began its its began also it Manigramam, the Like believe. scholars some as castes or fi of communities ve an represented probably which India, south in India was controlled by a number of merchant merchant of number a by controlled was India heroic. the of code the of maintenance the of the following by obtained virtues numerous of the of inscription stone Kolhapur the in found engaged in the long distance sea trade from the the from trade sea distance long the in engaged unfailing adventurous spirit who are born in the the in born are who spirit adventurous unfailing Vira Bangajas of the Ayyvole,the of instance, Bangajas for Vira said are genealogies of traders of various corporations. The century. interactedIt both with local merchants as eleventh the by India south of areas coastal other eight or ninth century, and gradually spread out to foreignof merchants,association group a not and beginning.very was it that Malaya,indicates of coast Westthe on organisations which worked in close cooperation close in worked which organisations thesuninbrilliance”. andlike in charity Karna like righteousness Yudhishitiraspirit; in like Bhisma valour; like in Arjuna perseverance; like in like are who gaze their by opponents their slaying in fi the destruction is world who the of re like arts;profifour of sixty respect the in of ciency truthfulness,of consisting Bananjas conduct,pure firenowed the Men of Heroic religion hundred ve dated Gandarditya inA.D.Shilahar King 130: Bananjas may be seen in the following description epic various of those with compared are qualities heroes. A typical prashasti (panegyric) of the Vira Vira the of (panegyric) prashasti typical heroes. A commercial activity along the Kerala coast in the the in coast Kerala the along activity commercial in the whole world; who are virtuous by reason reason by virtuous are who world; whole the in agreeable behaviour, political wisdom, courtesy and A ninth century Tamil inscription found at Takua Pa to have been born in the race of Vasudeva and their apparent in the conscious attempt to trace exalted mercantile knowledge ...... who are exalted with their well as the Ayyvole and Manigramam organisations. are invincible when they fight; who are like Brahma “Hail! They who are adored by a multitude multitude a by adored are who They “Hail! The importance acquired by trading guilds is In short, the vast trading network in south south in network trading vast the short, In Anjuvannam was another body of merchants SINCE-1993 ® literary and inscriptional references to numerous numerous to references inscriptional and literary the penetration of money in the market invoke invoke market the in money of penetration the on account of their control on trade and trading trading and trade on control their of account on houses and enjoyed great name and fame in the the in fame and name great enjoyed and houses coins of early medieval India. Thus texts such as as such texts India.Thus medieval early of coins concerned, one can say that the practice of minting terms purporting to described various types of of types various described to purporting terms organisations, established close links with the royal 4. How far are the inscriptional references to references inscriptional the are far How 4. . Whether references to coins are in the context 1. found in contemporary literature. There has also also has literature. There contemporary in found relationship with one another. Nothing could be be could another. Nothing one with relationship 3. The personal involved in these transactions;involvedthese personal in The 3. detailed exploration are: references.such of contexts the requiring Aspects bag mixed a from gleanings numismatic of listing Chalukya,Chahmana, Pratihara, Pala, Candellaand century.mid-tenth the Paramara, Thein drammas level and degree the about discussion substantial is,discussion.however,There under centuries the Problem ofCoinage society. of money in the market; simply on the basis of of basis the on simply market; the in money of of varieties to refers alone the inscription example, Siyadoni For references. inscriptional are may and tanka, gadyanaka, gadhaiya-mudra, nishka, dramma, dinar, karshapana, vimshatika, rupaka, bhagaka, mention etc. Lakhapaddhati, Dravyapariksha, Lilavati, Prabandhachintamani, of contenders the often Very monetisation. of Chola inscriptions corroborate most of the terms terms the of most corroborate inscriptions Chola been considerable speculation about the value value the about speculation considerable been . The types of exchange centres and the nature 2. of the these coins, their metal content and their their and content metal their coins, these the of more simplistic than to suggest the penetration penetration the suggest to than simplistic more other coins with their multiples. No less prolifi less c No multiples. their with coins other help from the re-emergence of metal money during of inscriptions and literature. We need to scrutinize Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com As far as the actual specimens of coins are are coins of specimens actual the as far As The revival of trade received considerable considerable received trade of revival The of “market” where such transactions take take transactions such where “market” of and place; setting; coins onlynotional? of exchanges in the rural area or in the urban a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt | 39 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success centres and markets and prosperity of merchant merchant of prosperity and markets and centres of Kashmir and some Chola Kings in Tamil Nadu Nadu Tamil in Kings Chola some and Kashmir of and Madanavarman in Central India, King Harsha Harsha King India,Central in Madanavarman and deep into the economic ethos. Masses were far far were Masses ethos. economic the into deep of money in circulation is almost negligible. Nor Nor negligible. almost is circulation in money of penetration of money. Despite the plethora of of plethora the Despite money. of penetration (A.D. Gangeyadera by revived was coins gold and perhaps even in inter-national commerce. commerce. inter-national in even perhaps and an still was Barter currency. Pandyan poor very families took place only with the help of “partial of “partial help the with only place took families cannot be thought in terms of what we know as as know we what of terms in thought be cannot regionalbasis, toproveus help deep not the does concerned, the little work that has been done on a at inRajasthan. (nearJodhpur) Shrimol functioned century.mint thirteenth important An India. North-western in toAccording Westernand also issued gold coins. Reference has already been in Uttar Pradesh, the Chandella rulers Kirttivarman 1019-1040); the Kalacuri King of Tripuri (in Madhya away from handling of coins.awayof handling from system currency The dominationscoinsand of remainedThe not types 1250), was also marketed by limited use of money. monetisation”. shows medievalRajasthan early of study case The expandingareapopulationsettlement,and of the weight. rising in reducedthe Also,and of terms in debased highly were period the of used.coins All metal coins,medievalthe early of the irrespective references to coins, the evidence of overall volume There are references which indicate the carvanas carvanas the indicate which references are There ( area), under the (c. A.D.850- (c. Shilaharas the under area), (Konkan one estimate, about nine mints were founded in in founded were mints nine about estimate, one only extremely localised but could not penetrate not could but localised extremely only the transactions at all levels of the society were not made above to certain early medieval coin types types coin medieval early certain to above made fabulous expenses reported to have been incurred can one overlook the poor purchasing power of of power purchasing poor the overlook one can Pradesh) after a gap of more than four centuries.four than more of gap a after Pradesh) of south India, during A.D. 950-1330, also shows that Govindachandra, the Gahadavala king near Varanasi different parts of Karnataka during the twelfth and by the Pandyas as regular buyers of imported horses that the revival of trade, multiplication of exchange use of money seems to have been highly restricted. important means of exchange in local inter-regional equally affected by coined money. For example, the As far as the actual role of metal money is is money metal of role actual the as far As Similarly, the cash nexus on the Western coast E ARLY M EDIEVAL I NDIA (750-1200) All that they were required to do was to render render to was do to required were they that All of merchants exchanged their commodities with with commodities their exchanged merchants of Mahasamantas and Samantas were the mainstay of Lakhapaddhati, a text which throws light on the life the whole administrative machine and all important to various means of raising loan for consumption as well as commercial ventures through the mortgage yet no less significant was the parallel development spices or ivory. These Indian goods enjoyed constant another and, thus, the obstacle to commerce due to complete autonomy in the administration of his his of administration the in autonomy complete land cultivated from slaves, serfs and forced labour. of Gujarat in the twelfth-thirteenth centuries, refers affairs. Those who received lands were independent but no longer as offias as mercenaries,longer but and no cials but ruled land-owners great rule;the not war, did but the affairs.got their They of administration the in Society of land, houseandcattle. exchange of bill the or hundika called device a to cash transferredcouldof be handling the without alloverdemand inthemarkets theworld. wereabroadfromin for not paid imported horses account,regions.one other to According of those positions intheArmy.”positions the king with troops and money. He was given given was He money. and troops with king the provide to required was recipient the return in and land granted king The service. their of lieu offi in cers administrative or military was to and granted Land time. that at system political land mainly the to were the due India of in structure chaos administrative and instability to merchant one by extended be could credit device, this Through transactions. commercial for merchants by used been have might which cash but in Indian goods which may have been silk, of credit instrument by which debits and credits credits and debits which by instrument credit of independent lords. They constituted the master class money. In the texts of the period, we find references the Government. That made the Government weak. claiming for itself all the prerogatives of Government, monetisation” was contributing to economic growth, In the words of Arnold Hauser, “The King waged waged King Hauser, Arnold “The of words the In military service and also pay a fi a pay amount.The also xed and service military shortage shortage of coined money could be overcome. The H ISTORY Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com It is rightly pointed out that regionalism, regionalism, that out pointed rightly is It “partial even of revival the Though Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com

OF M EDIEVAL I NDIA | 40 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success brothels. Nobles could not live without women women without live not could Nobles brothels. went to the front, Hemachandra has described a described has Hemachandra front, the to went respected women. They were generous towards towards generous were women.They respected pleasures at their harems.their at the enjoyedpleasures nobles The differentwomencountries,from and with regions were thecentres oflife andculture. bards and beggars. They were reckless in gallantry. hunder, people looked like burnt trunks of trees and broken skulls. Darkened and emaciated by heat and Every war brought a lot of havoc. The practice was to country. That resulted in regional rivalries and wards the ambition to conquer the enemies, or rivals of his a lot of their time in their company. Every noble had andembroideries. Theycollected alarge number of lives alife ofluxury. were warriors open,werewhich markets in which caused an atmosphere of beauty by their sports, in instantly was passion sex whom men,in which in people slept with a longing go auspicious dreams, words:these in camp military camp, “The which in and no wonder, they carried them even when they and taverns in life the with deal which Sanskrit in were magnanimous towards their enemies.They their towards magnanimous were liked ostentatious living. They fi harems living. They their ostentatious lled liked houses of the prostitutes. There are many books books many are prostitutes.There the of houses things except stones and pebbles were consumed by They were so brave that they did not bother for their aroused, were keeping vigils, in which their fatigued walked about with acute trouble. Every state was a war in love-making and indulged in intrigues. Their forts company of their women in their private apartments, on battle-fields and wasted their time in their harems. dancers, musicians, bards, poets and dwarfs and wasted by excessive and their eyes sunk and they were very particular about the charms and set fire to towns and villages and the result was that all They were indulgent and indolent. They took pride cool and calculating spirit. They desperately fought free from the considerations of good and bad sleeps, was pleasant like the city of the Gandharvas.” Nobles which crippled the morale and strength of the country. lives while fighting. However, they did not possess a retreats and swimming pools. They even visited the by the exhaustion caused thereby, in which women fire. The Earth was strewn with fleshless skeletons and Their halls were decoratedweregold,hallsTheirwith jewels They cared very much for their dresses and and dresses their for much very cared They These nobles had their and vices. They They vices. and their had nobles These SINCE-1993 ® beating them. Kshmendra tells us that the poor poor the that us tells Kshmendra them. beating state and all the energies and resources of the people Theyplunderedcountry. the Theyshowed utmost behaved like demons. They cared more for acquiring to the inclemencies of wind and weather. They had tells us that the civil servants were given to vice and resultedduelsdeathinandthereand could no be weredirectly towards war. Thepeople were trained ledto afl ight or war. Even amarriage procession was refers to the tyranny, treachery and exactions of civil people, such as false weights and measures and and measures and weights false as such people, them and the offi cers got money out of them by them of offiout the money and got them cers meet.ends both their make to Thefltraders eeced weights and measures. false using by them cheating also and customers salt and wood and charging high prices from their days, but gave nothing by way of charity. There are bath on the occasion of eclipses and on other holy long religion,took on lectures to people,listened manner. objectional them beforemotive only The office rather thandeath.” the civil servants and they were “swallowed by the diplomacy.and wars servants on civil centred The brutality and boorishness in their actions. noblesrobbed the temples and fl eeced the people. oftheir mutual jealousies, rivalries andconfl icts, the political stability in such an atmosphere. On account war-mania was created among the people.for warfare Everything from the beginning and no wonder, a sort of ear-lobes and breasts, their needle-like narrow narrow needle-like their breasts, and ear-lobes deplorable. Their income was very little and they they and little very was income deplorable.Their balances, high rates of interest, etc. He refers to them servants. The people groaned under the tyranny of mouths, their methods adopted by them to exploit people slept on the bare ground and were exposed references to merchants storing cereals, cotton, cereals, storing merchants to references were exploited by everybody. It was difficult for them was profit and the acquisition of more wealth. Kalhan got full freedom to do whatever they pleased. Kalhan turned into a battle-fiturnedintoa eld. Commontalksjokes and as the thieves of the day. They posed as religious as day. posed the They of thieves the as wealth than for the good of the people. Kshmendra refers to their sandal-covered fore-heads,eyelids,sandal-covered their to refers and corrupt as all the energy of the Government was Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com The condition of the poor people was simply The traders and merchants behaved in a very head-strong,were bureaucrats despotic The a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt | 41 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success me and do not even offer me a seat.Todaythere a me offer even not do and me cruel to them. Maladhari Hemachandrasuri, who who Hemachandrasuri, Maladhari them. to cruel to offer (to the offi cials). My relatives are drunk drunk are relatives offi My the cials). (to offer to people. The movement started by Sarahapada Sarahapada by started movement The people. distinctions the against was He Sarahapada. as suffered not only from biting cold, but also from from also cold, but biting from only not suffered with their riches; other rich men look down upon upon down look men rich riches;other their with nothing have I wife? weep.my give I should What A.D.the in wroteof condition 1123,the described poor because their masters were mostly harsh and coiled their hands and feet and lapsed into silence. starvation. With empty bellies and sad hearts, they a shudder through the frail limbs of the poor. They tells us that the cold winds and rains of winter sent to put up with the pangs of hunger. They wore out of thelower castes. However, they were more popular with the people Siddhas.the of followers became professions and the to came Siddhas called saints and teachers of people.common number the largeto A appealed class.high and privileged the as He sanctity much known be to came on,he monk.Later Buddhist a religious movement was started by Rahulabhadra, should Igo?” back,where debts their want rich me,the against in alive,God mystill is enemy My adore? I should Which spell or cult should I practise? Or which God country.blow? elsewhere?I go should WhatI May perverse, it is not possible to live any longer in this house is old and leaks, my wife quarrels, the king is members are ill and I have no money for medicine. house. The earthen pot is empty. What will happen nothing,is evenghee,not oil, salt, fuel, myin cloth forefront. Some of them were prolifiwere and them writers of c forefront. Some by degrees. Babbar, a poet of the 11th century A.D., on their spiritual potentially and equality with other versatile scholars. People of all the castes, creeds creeds castes, the all of People scholars. versatile or anger of death did not mean anything to the the to anything mean not did death of anger or poor in these words: “I have no money with me, with money no have words: “I these in poor son is too young and cannot make money. The family whereas the people are making merry. My children to the family tomorrow? The daughter is aging! The that the depressed and the degraded classes had a between the high and the low people. His view was advocated the cause of the poor and put emphasis The housewife is angry, many guests have come. The Puspandanta, another poet, tells us that the pleasure Towards the end of the 8th century, a new new a century, 8th the of end the Towards E ARLY M EDIEVAL I NDIA (750-1200) Bhairavaofferingby oblations humanoffl withesh founder of the Sahajayana school in Buddhism. Buddhism. in school Sahajayana the of founder devoid of all the formalities. They did not believe in anyrestraint. Somasiddhanta emphasisputthe on dance, sing and enjoy. To quote Sarahapada, Sarahapada, “O! enjoy.quote To and sing dance, and performing rites or bathing or purification and to the curved way. The enlightenment is near at at near is way.enlightenment The curved the to They were also opposed to religious formalities and the extreme restraint of senses. According to them, theenjoyment meat,of drinkanddamsels without pretensions. Their contention was that salvation was pleasureintercourseof calledwithwomenheand human blood, gushing from the newly-severed head. They considered the Brahmanas and Chandalas Chandalas and Brahmanas the considered They no need of undergoing suffering, observing fasts fasts suffering,observing undergoing of need no easy path.” The view of Laksminakara was: “There is any suffering. He wore a garment of human bones and thatas eternal pleasure which was not alleviated by ofBhairavananda,of thedoctrines aSaiva ascetic. account flan century,get 10th we the in ourished movement ofeastern India. Shahajiyas Buddhist them.The to attached being life a illiterate.for the stood and They learned the between equals.distinction as no made also They did not believe in distinctions of castes and creeds. rather an inner discipline of the mind. The Siddhas renunciation.of penance, of austerity ideas the in full of enjoyment and pleasure and did not believe offer concentration mud.with wood,or But stone the about anyillusion harbour not do believeand Lanka”.distant the to yourself take hand. be Don’t take don’t and path straight the leaveman,don’t fat,intestine and cerebrum and pouring libations of According to Tadakapada, “O Yogin! act as you you as act Yogin! “O Tadakapada, to According life. married a lead could one and world the other rules of Society. Nor do you need to bow down The Siddhas advocated a married life which was was which life married a advocated Siddhas The Perfection in life could be attained even while eating, According to him, it was not necessary to renounce took his food in a human skull. He worshipped the god exercised a deep influence on the Vaisnava Sahajiya worship only to your body where all the gods reside.” one could indulge in sensual pleasures without without pleasures sensual in indulge could one before the images of god which are prepared of of prepared are which god of images the before drinking and merry-making. Man should heartily heartily should Man merry-making. and drinking H ISTORY Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com Siddha Sarahapada or Sarouhavajra was the was Sarouhavajra or Sarahapada Siddha The followers of the Kaula cult believed in believed cult Kaula the of followers The who Rajasekhara, of Karpurmanjari the In Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com

OF M EDIEVAL I NDIA | 42 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success dancing girls. Alberuni tells us that income from from income that us tells Alberuni girls. dancing world are turned into women, all the mountains mountains the all women, into turned are world were asked whether they were hale an hearty, an hale were they whether asked were young prostitutes (Vesya kumari) became the the became kumari) (Vesya prostitutes young They always lived in embrace with women and and women with embrace in lived always They be shaped to the image of the court ladies and and ladies court the of image the to shaped be (Nilapata) be happy unless all the inmates of the the of inmates the all unless happy be (Nilapata) prostitutes was enough to meet the expenses of of expenses the meet to enough was prostitutes gentlemen. As the offi cial religion became more more offibecame the religion As cial gentlemen. their reply was:reply their Blue-clothes of wearer a can “How publicly indulged in intercourse with them. they If wine, andDhatura Ganja was common. trumpets.them,Among intoxicantsof use like the and door, horns to blowing door from went They they had multi-coloured caps on their heads. They wine as the remover of the meshes of the soul. goddess loomed in inaccessible holiness,inaccessible in loomed goddess host the differentthe fashions. courts,the Like temples the kings.the of says, armies Goetz the the of life “The thousand twenty than more contained Gujarat of intercoursesexualwomen in of engaged thatand and architects that was Bhoja of art.view Thethe better thanlove withone’s legally-wedded wife. were Krishna and Radha circles.of affairs love The intoturned currents ofwine.” are turned into heaps of meat and all the rivers are maintained that love with another woman was was woman another with love that maintained too had to be fashionable. If the great gods and and gods great the If fashionable. be to had too of heavenly nymphs (Apsaras, Surasundaris) and and Surasundaris) (Apsaras, nymphs heavenly of courts, however, was luxurious, and this is shown in U.N. Ghoshal tells us that the four thousand temples hanging in their necks. They put on wooden sandals. He always lived with a Kapala-woman and considered had large drilled in their ears and ivory or metal metal or ivory and ears their in drilled large had of Radha and Krishna in his Gitagovinda. It was was It Gitagovinda. his in Krishna and Radha of minor deities (Gandharvas), accompying them, could sculptors should decorate the monuments by figures superficial in the later middle ages, so did beautiful hands. They had sheets of clothes of different colours of the heroes desirous of sex-play with slim damsels. rings dangled in them. They had long wands in their described in detail the sexual love and erotic sports described in the most objectionable forms. Jayadeva There was a sect of Nilapata or Blue-clothes.or Nilapata of sect a was There The craze for sensual indulgence dominatedindulgencecrazeThefor sensual There was laxity of morals in the Vaisnava Vaisnava the in morals of laxity was There About the Natha-Yogins, Puspadanta says that SINCE-1993 ® columns and ceilings of the temples. During the the During temples. the of ceilings and columns and sex enter into an unholy combination in the the in combination unholy an into enter sex and dalliances and escapades. Like the jewelled roof roof jewelled the Like escapades. and dalliances from foreign dangers. The materials prosperity of prosperity materials dangers.foreignThe from that there is no country like theirs, no nation like like nation theirs, no like country no is there that participate was to incur the wrath of ghosts and and ghosts of wrath the incur to was participate Dr. R.K. Mukherjee says, “Not only did salvation, wine The chief of the festival dressed himself as a last centuries before the Muslim invasion, many many invasion, Muslim the before centuries last result inthedefeat oftheHindus. theirs”. like science to bound was attitude an Such theirs,theirs, like theirs, king like religionno no no defence.of sense false suffereda from people The forwereconstructed forts no and wereneglected provision was made for the defence of the country with bells, ascending anddescending.” of the Goddess, with waving chowries, raised aloft, public galleries,the even picture the and terraces and was common from the tenth to the thirteenth month a for lastedLakshmi), which or (Gauri Devi the of festival swing public religion,the but Kaula withleavesbodies theaboriginals. andmudlike their covered people Vijayadasami,of daythe the not did who he thatfollowed believedhim. was It the guise of sweepers, cowherds, barbers, etc., and Udakasevamahotsava, people the the of occasion obscene groupsfrankly were notrare.” identifi be even can even stage last the ed),in and of these figures (in a werefew cases they portraits walls,the adorn to used females sexy fashionable the country also weakened the people. Armies Armies people. the weakened also country the no that was result The security. of sense false a amorous from occasion the became century, and women Men, house. to house from about roamed and mud with bodies their besmeared children drank a lot and indulged in obscene plays. true of the lower classes. It is stated that on the the on that stated is It classes. lower the of true in secret Tantrika rituals, and so also were statues of fashion as temple-dancers (Devadasi) and partners gardens, where the religious swing before the image pride. Alberuni tells us that “The Hindus believed Hindus that “The us tells pride. Alberuni goblins. On the occasion of Savarotsava, held on on Savarotsava,held of occasion the On goblins. and roamed about on an ass. The others put on on put others ass. The an on about roamed and with showy rows of banners, dazzling white, and dazzling banners, of rows showy with a few centuries, the people were suffering from from suffering were people the centuries, few a Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com What was true of the higher classes was also was classes higher the of true wasWhat They sang all kinds of dirty songs about women. As there had been no invasion of India for for India of invasion no been had there As a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt | 43 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success as a corrupter of the youth and a frequenter of of frequenter a and youth the of corrupter a as regard to food and drink became very rigid. The very became drink and food to regard from the rest of the world. They were so much much so were They world. the of rest the from beliefs. They were not obligatory but were were but obligatory not were They beliefs. details. for caring without rules, derived with were uneducated and educated the of beliefs The . and Nagas Kinaras, Rakshasas, Uneducated people worshipped images. “This is is images. “This worshipped people Uneducated of unmarried girls were dedicated to the service service the to dedicated were girls unmarried of country placed them in a very weak position.weak very a in them placed country That Their ignorance of the developments outside their about what was happening beyond their frontiers. in the hearts ofmenwhenthey die.” in thehearts veneratedmuch certain of honour in monuments the cause which leads to the manufacture of idols, general principles while the latter were contented classes of spiritual beings, viz., the Devas or angels, religious places.” walker,nun,street false go-between,a a a as as as sphere every in adventures her describes heroine or Prostitute”.Biographya of “The book this In “the hesitate to write obscene books. A minister of one not did writers temples.Great in and corruption temples.to big led in That deity the of their memory when they are absent or dead, to to dead, or absent are they when memory their became static and caste-system became rigid. There contented with themselves that they did not bother learning, now became centres of luxury and idleness. persons, priests, sages, angels, destined to keep alive system prevailed in the temples. A large number number large A temples. the in prevailed system different. The former believed in abstract ideas and Daily Danava, Gandharvas and Apsaras,Yakshas, and Gandharvas Danava, Daily was no re-marriage of widows. Restrictions with with Restrictions widows. of re-marriage no was also created a sense of stagnation among them. among stagnation of sense a created also of society as a courtesan, as the mistress of a noble, Most of the monks lived a life of licence. The Devadasi of the kings of Kashmir wrote a book named Kuttini There was decay on all sides. Architecture, painting Matam or “Opinions of a go-between.” Kshemendra untouchables were forced to live outside the towns. and fine arts were adversely affected. Indian society create for them a lasting place of grateful veneration (990-1965 A.D.) wrote a book called ‘Samaya Matrak’ The Mathas which were formerly the seats of Pilgrimages formed a part of Pilgrimages Hindu formedreligious a part eight in believed Hindus the of majority The The people of India were living in isolation isolation in living were India of people The E ARLY M EDIEVAL I NDIA (750-1200) three ways: by fia ways:by into flthree body by re, the or oating eclipse or they hired somebody to drown them in the of AlberuniperformedofthatwasSatithe isbyonly disillusionment and licentiousness and abnegation. beenbornlive.and Burning oneself wasforbidden striking contrasts of chivalry and instability, heroism stream, by being cast away to fed wild animals. wild fed to away cast being by stream, Dr.R.C. says, Majumdar “Scenesbraveof resistance and anarchy, richness and poverty, indulgence and presented India invasionof Muslim the of eve the is thesoul, thesoulfree from thebody.” to lowerreward, the his receivein to upper the in world of men. In the Madhyaloka, man has to earn, Madhyaloka, called is livei.e.,we which in one the called Svargloka, i.e., Paradise, the lower Narakloka, upper,the middle.the lowerand is one upper The fire whichraises it(to God).” them,flto the itself by attaching partly the of ame Sun,raysthe the byof effected is it soul the partly that think Hindus God),the (to soul immortal the to Brahmanas and Kshatriyas by a special law. If they wereprised as the most suitable for man to acquire Vaishyas and Sudras, especially at those times which dies, all wives burn themselves on his pyre.” The view attained ahighdegree ofart. which merit.to placebring toconsidered every In anxious thoughts for the safety of the motherland and heroic self-sacrifi ces alternate with abject abject with alternate self-sacrifices heroic and of return the “Regarding Buddhists.” the so not had they this, In ablutions. for intended ponds i.e., the world of the serpents, the middle world, that wanted to kill themselves, they did so at the time of an in them,in futurefora repetition life,of bettera form also prevailed among the Hindus. They believed that and condition than that in which he happens to have receive punishment...... but in either of them there The Brahmanas wailed aloud for their dead but but dead their for aloud wailed Brahmanas The there were three worlds where the soul stayed. “The some holiness was ascribed, the Hindus constructed surrender; patriotic fervour and wild enthusiasm for national cause give place to narrow selfish interest; Ganges, keeping them under water till they were dead. Hindus called the world ‘Lok’. Its division consists of H ISTORY Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com “The disposal of the dead was in one of the of one in was dead the of disposal “The Satiwas prevalent in those days. “WhenaRaja It is pointed out that the Indian society on on society Indian the that out pointed is It The idea of reward or punishment for the soul Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com

OF M EDIEVAL I NDIA | 44 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success capable of resisting external pressure. Hinduism Hinduism pressure. external resisting of capable petty internal squabbles that sap the vitality and and vitality the sap that squabbles internal petty for the safety of the motherland is followed by by followed is motherland the of safety the for who renegades, abject with side by side move relations; dearest upon heaped indignities and the end of the tenth century, Dr. Panikkar says says Panikkar Dr. century, tenth the of end the lick the very feet that trod them down; them wonderful trod that feet very the lick nothing could move-not even dishnour of women personal vanity; keen sense of honour and respect to yield interest national of view enlightened and merely an episode in the history of India. However, invasionwas their but invadeIndia to conquerors The Ghaznavid Empire invaders.the Muslim in the South was different. There were the national invaders. Muslim the check conditionto The India of people the enable to enough not was that and people the united that interests dynastic the only the foreigner. There was a corrupt bureaucracy. It is forgotten.completely Partition BharatwasVarsha was weak. There was no sense of unity. The ideal of for colonisation peace,and of commerce account faith.one into differentsects the were people The without provoking anational outcry.” was absent. There was no determination to resist to determination no was absent.There was a few centuries. However, the political structure structure political However,the centuries. few a that the Hindu social structure was fiwas was and structure rm social Hindu the that heroic souls, who preferred death to dishonour, to death preferred who souls, heroic prosperous. A lot of wealth had accumulated on on accumulated had wealth of lot A prosperous. spirit of cooperation involving extreme self-sacrifice satisfi ed the more intelligent minds and united united and minds intelligent more satisfi the ed monarchies of the Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas. On forms which satisfied the religious aspirations of the of thousands for saving the purity of a single temple for family contrasts with supreme callousness, which and sanctity of religion are most violently outraged masses and with a philosophical background which freedom is at stake; heroic, almost suicidal, sacrifice defilement of hundreds of sanctuaries, and even the most cherished sentiments of the honour of women integrity of the nation at the very moment, when its gradual absorption of Buddhism, with new popular had received a new and vigorous impetus with the sadly contrasts with the supreme indifference to the the whole, India was not ready to meet successfully About the general picture of India towards towards India of picture general the About It is true that the Arabsthatthe truewere is fithe It Muslim rst SINCE-1993 ® year an-expedition against India and no wonder wonder no and India against an-expedition year son Ismail as his successor. The result was that Ismail was also made an expert in the science of statecraft. Ghazni. It is for his reason that Mahmud is sometimes marched against him, defeated and imprisoned imprisoned and defeated him, against marched against India. According to Sir Henry Elliot, Mahmud Mahmud led a very large number of expeditions expeditions of number large very a led Mahmud thoroughly materialistic in their outlook. They were called Mahmud Zbuli. Very little is known about the the Turks. In the eighth and ninth centuries, the the centuries, ninth and eighth the Turks.In the the daughter of a noble of Zabulistan, district round They were more aggressive than the Arabs and and Arabs the than aggressive more were They was put on the throne by the nobles. Mahmud was and Amin-ul-Militant (Custodianand Amin-ul-Militant ofFaith). robe of honour and also conferred on him the title Balkh of confidominion to the Bokhara in him rm not prepared to tolerate this. He his asked brother, his charge. of Lamghan. The whole of Khorasan was put under battle the in position responsible a given was He us that Subuktgin took a lot of interest in giving all of Subuktgin, was born in A.D. 971. His mother was the tenth andeleventh centuries”. master movement in the Mohammadan Empire in the of expansion Poolethe Turksdescribes as “the empire in establishing the a East.military Dr Lane- sword.the They of point the at Islam spread they Baghdad. The Arabs.Turksthe differentwerefrom full of ambition. They were eminently fi for eminently tted were They ambition. of full of Khalifas the over hand upper the got Turks him. After that, he asked the Samanid ruler of of ruler Samanid the asked he that, After him. of Yamun-ud-Daulah (the right hand of the empire) Ismail, to divide the kingdom and keep Balkh for Balkh keep and kingdom the divide to Ismail, kinds of training to Mahmud. He was not only given and consequently the latter nominated his younger early early career of Mahmud but all contemporaries tell were not cordial at the time of the death of Subuktgin training in the arts of warfare and administration, but Mahmud as his Lieutenant, he asked him to lead every the work started by the Arabs was completed by completed was Arabs the by started work the and Ghazni. Khalifa Al-Qadir-Billah gave Mahmud a were brave and full of boundless energy. They were not accepted by Ismail and consequently Mahmud himself and give Ghazni to him. The suggestion was Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com Mahmud Mahmud Ghazni (997-1030): The relations between Subuktgin and Mahmud It is stated that when the Khalifa appointed Khalifa the when that stated is It a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt Mahmud, son | 45 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success scattered in all directions and like a tale of old in in old of tale a like and directions all in scattered and humane. Written complaints were fi were and led complaints Written humane. and Mahmud. This versatile genius was born in A.D. in born was genius versatile This Mahmud. cherish of course, the most inveterate aversion aversion inveterate most the course, of cherish the of prosperity the ruined utterly “Mahmud God in believed Hindus educated The gods. of was also captured. He came to India along with with along India to came He captured. also was much impressed by the learning of the Hindus. He India.of condition political and social very was He scholar. Sanskrit the accountof full givena has He stayedand Mahmud herefor time.some wasa He was conquered by Mahmud in A.D. 1017. Al-Beruni Khiva Khiva.When modern of territory the in 973 that 17ismore thenumber correct. the mouths of the people.the of mouths the Theirscattered remains exploits wonderful those performed and country words:these in India on invasions Mahmud the of of effects the referredKannauj.to also and has He to refersstates. Al-Beruni small of number large a diffi country the cult. intodivided was country The caste rigid them.fora meaning was Thereno had wereBrahmansproduce and completely ignoring stolen. the value oftheproperty principle of equality of law among the Hindus; the will,freealmighty, by acting all-wise, living, giving who was one, eternal, without beginning and end, marriage. wereMarriages arranged by the parents common but there was no custom of widow re- widow of custom no was there but common nations of the world and their want of sympathy of want their and world the of nations life etc. The administration of justice was liberal liberal was justice of administration etc. The life whom he called Mlechchhas. Early marriage was was marriage Early Mlechchhas. called he whom the interests of the country. The word word “national”country. The the of interests the led as many as seventeen expeditions. However,expeditions. seventeen as many as led The punishment for theft varied in accordance with criticised the Hindus for their isolation from the the from isolation their for Hindus the criticised by which the Hindus became like atoms of dust dust of atoms like became Hindus the which by Criminal Criminal law was comparatively mild. There was no great mathematician, philosopher, astronomer and and communication with peoples of other countries Brahmans were exempted from capital punishment. Cases were decided on the testimony of witnesses. sometimes even oral complaints were entertained. some historians given the number as 12. It appears of children. The Hindus worshipped a large number system and that made the task of the unification of the States of Kashmir, Sindh, Malwa, Gujarat, Bengal Al-Beruni also belonged to the court of of court the to belonged also Al-Beruni The share of the state was 1/6th of the the of 1/6th was state the of share The E ARLY M EDIEVAL I NDIA (750-1200) of Kalyanavarman, which at that time was about about was time that at which Kalyanavarman, of in A.D. 966, Bhattotpala revised the original work original the revised A.D. Bhattotpala 966, in Pritusvami, Bhattotpala and Vijayanandi, the author Mahavira is fixed at about A.D. 850. Mahavira appears does not cite any passage from this Aryasiddhanta. sciences have retired far away from those parts of the many commentaries on several works including including works several on commentaries many the author of Ganita Skandha. His commentaries are himself Vatesvara, he is said to have lived in the the in lived have to said is he Vatesvara, himself century. On the strength of the fact that he calls calls he that fact the of strength the century. On the history of this science in India in the earliest earliest the in India in science this of history the is the same as the one referred to by Bhattotpala,by to referred one the as same the is of idea good a reader its gives Samhita Brihat The accuracy.author’s the of proof learned. bear They to belong the10thcentury.of Kranatilaka be much earlier than A.D. 966 because Bhattotpala Manu of Brihanamansa II.king,AmogavarshaThe tohave enjoyed patronagethe Rashtrakuta the of refersSarasamgrahaauthor. his this to dateTheof to similar work a written Sridhara.had of Sridhara Mathematics, Astronomy andAstrology INDIAN SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY and other places.” 300 years old. that appears itself,Saravaliit of evidence internal last quarter of the ninth century A.D. But from from But A.D. century ninth the of quarter last fi wrote the He eld.in predecessors his of study Kashmir. to belonged probably Alberuni) of (Vittesvara Vatesvara . of Yoganitra the also and Jyotihsastra of branches all a on works Balabhadra, Brihanmanasa. the on based commentaries on many works. He was probably probably was He works. many on commentaries stages. It was composed in A.D. 966. The Saravali A.D.966. The in composed was It stages. resident of Kannauj wrote several independent independent several wrote Kannauj of resident the Lilavati of Bhaskaracharya. He is perhaps the the perhaps is He Bhaskaracharya. of Lilavati the Aryabhata II wrote the Aryasiddhanta. He cannot cannot He Aryasiddhanta. the wrote II Aryabhata which our hand cannot yet reach, to Kashmir, Banaras Of these, Bhattotpala made a deep and accurate accurate and deep a made Bhattotpala these, Of Munjala composed, about A.D. 932, the Laghumanasa written by Kalyanavarman, since this, Kalyanavarman country conquered by us and haveflandcountryconquered us by placedto ed is ascribed to the last quarter of the 9th century. 9th the of quarter last the to ascribed is towards all Muslim. This is the reason, too, why Hindu same as the author of the Gautasastra. Mahavira in, he is assigned to a period earlier than the 10th 10th the than earlier period a to assigned is he H ISTORY Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com In mathematics, welcome across the name name the across welcome mathematics, In Alberuni refers to all these in his writings. writings. his in these all to refers Alberuni Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com

OF M EDIEVAL I NDIA | 46 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success Madhavakara treats in this work for the fi the for time work rst this in treats Madhavakara Lilavati and the Bijaganita mentioned in the the in mentioned Bijaganita the and Lilavati the entitled chapters two the are mathematics to bring perfection to the branch of pathology pathology of branch the to perfection bring to that of Euclid 1.47. The deductive proof in Euclid Euclid in proof deductive 1.47.The Euclid of that investigated by Brahmagupta. But the solution of solution the Brahmagupta. But by investigated divisor.given a by is,remainder That he a without II.Bhaskara described Bhaskara the solution of the of commentaries that appeared on this work. He is together. Its popularity is borne cut by the number Medicine Astronomy. on works are Satananda of Bhasvati and Bhoja to ascribed Bhaskara.Rajanigriganka by written also fit together againto form athird square. triangle,angled the right whereas a of sides three representssquaresthe the drawnupon externally from distinct Pythagoras,is of which theorem the ofnumbers. the theory of history the in fortime name all his perpetuated was effected by II in Bhaskara a manner which has and Bijaganita have been used very widely since since widely very used been have Bijaganita and known also as after its author or simply nidana. simply or author its after as also known of importance to Mathematics and Astronomy after in the great masterpiece called Ruguvinischaya, Ruguvinischaya, called masterpiece great the in in the history of Indian medicine of all diseases diseases all of medicine Indian of history the in fi rst degree equation in terms of the pulverizer pulverizer the of terms in equation fi degree rst a given number, and the product added algebraically (kuttaka), a quantity such that, when it is multiplied by valuable writings on astronomy. Karanakutubalu was from the Siddhantasiromani of Bhaskara are the most but is simply a practical demonstration which shows the general equation by cyclic method (Chakravala) had already been composed, it was left to this period how two given squares may be so cut that the parts generally assigned to the ninth century A.D. Vrinda, figure in Bhaskara is not a part of a deductive system satisfy the equation. Indeterminate equations of the to a given quantity, the sum or difference is divisible Siddhartasiromani of Bhaskaracharya II. The Lilavati their composition. No scholar contributed anything obtained the whole number values of x and y which second degree in the forms and have been already The Bijaganita contains a demonstration of of demonstration a contains Bijaganita The Though the principal samhitas on medicine on samhitas principal the Though But the most important treatises on on treatises important most the But The Grihaganita and the Gola, the two chapters SINCE-1993 ® in course of time, it was no longer regarded as a as regarded longer no was time,it of course in order of diseases and treatment as found in the the in found as treatment and diseases of order the author of Vridamadhana closely followed the the followed closely Vridamadhana of author the Nidana. He is placed about A.D. 1000. The Nighantu In fact, surgery became the profession of barbers.of profession the became fact, surgery In regardedlowof workcastespeople the of only.as that much so down slowing started period this in Susruta. and Charaka on respectively Bhanumati and Ayurvedidipika name the under is saidto have usedthiswork inhisKosa. available to us. It is found in two recensions. Amara of Dhanvantri about which a reference has already by astrology. There were many reasons for the the for reasons many were There astrology. by Surgery science. fi of the eld in country leading Astronomy was slowly pushed into the background declined because the dissection of dead bodies was been made is the oldest medico-botanical dictionary Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com On the whole, the growth of Indian Science Indian of growth whole, the the On Chakrapanidatta of Bengal wrote commentaries a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt | 47 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success He says, “They (the Brahmanas who formed the the formed who Brahmanas (the says, “They He to say that science can grow only along with the the with along only grow can science that say to stagnation of Indian science during the period. the during science Indian of stagnation take the take greatest possible care to withhold it from in communicating that which they know, and they self-conceited,solid. are,They nature,by niggardly haughty,are India) of people foolish, learned vain, growth ofurbanlife. have any ofscience whatsoever. knowledge to their belief, no other created beings besides them makes a special mention of this fact in his work. his in fact this of mention special a makes men of another caste among their own people, still growth of society. Another reason was the tendency The Indian society was becoming increasingly rigid for the Indians to isolate themselves from the main and narrow in character. There was a setback in the affected by growing religious orthodox. It is needless currents of scientific thought outside India. Alberuni much more of course, from any forienger. According The development of communications was was communications of development The E ARLY M EDIEVAL I NDIA (750-1200) of devotion in religion. He propounded his doctrine the philosophy of Advaita conceded the great value is primarily philosophical. He unifi Mahayana He ed philosophical. primarily is him. Several of his hymns glorify Siva as the God God the as Siva glorify hymns his of Several him. In the South, Saivism received a great impetus from familiar hymn of this forms of worship is ‘Saundarya which had crept into it from the practices of the the of practices the from it into crept had which doctors of Mimamsa and the of Buddhism. with a philosophy of his own, Shankara debated debated Shankara own, his of philosophy a with Shankara. orginator.it as Shankara claims goddess most The the of worship of form Samayacharatantrics. The Devi the of worship the in features objectionable these religious debates. all in victorious out came he that states Tradition Advaita.Gita,the of essence revealsthe he Armed inflwas Shankara the in upbringing his by uenced education.of completion his after India Northern lieshere.place ofShankara exceptions.no complexity perplexing the Despite PHILOSOPHY tradition. Shankara’s contribution to Hinduism Hinduism to contribution Shankara’s tradition. by composed beauty, of waves the or Lahari’ ancient the to it tracing by Vedanta Advaita of . In his commentary of the Bhagavad the of commentary his In Upanishads. South. He composed devotional hymns addressed to of Hinduism, there is hard core to Hinduism.The to core hard is there Hinduism, of anything to anyone, atheism and agnosticism being with the scholastic teachers of the age, both the the age,both the of teachers scholastic the with of gods. He was a great synthesiser in the Indian Indian the in synthesiser great a was He gods. of revolutionised the spiritual outlook of men in India. Shiva, Vishnu and the Devi. This clearly illustrates that as Hinduism is a labyrinthine puzzle. It can mean mean can puzzle.It labyrinthine a is Hinduism as CULTURAL TRADITIONSININDIA(750-1200) Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com In his short life (died in his 32nd year), Shankara Shankaracharya's Vedanta: In particular, Shankara purged the the purged Shankara particular, In Born in Kaladi in Kerala, Shankara came to to came Shankara Kerala, in Kaladi in Born Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com What is known known is What CHAPTER-2 | 48 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success that out of the three , Jnana can lead lead can yoga yogas,Jnana three the of out that coils so that the individual soul merges with the the with merges soul individual the that so coils soul, makes him at once an idealist and a realist. a and idealist an once at him makes soul, of the race. Nevertheless, he maintains that any any that maintains he Nevertheless, race. the of One might argue that Shankaracharya’s attitude attitude Shankaracharya’s that argue might One philosophy of Vedanta. But the most striking striking most the But Vedanta. of philosophy argument that he advances here is that the the system that caste the is and organisation here brahminical advances he that The caste. on argument brahminical based life social the of organisation approved Shankaracharya separate a not is soul individual the since soul, the individual to liberation from his own mortal mortal own his from liberation to individual the one ultimate reality in the metaphysical sense and monism extreme his is philosophy his of features dualist Vedanata. his evolved and with Vedanticthought Buddhism soul is an imperfect manifestation of the absolute the manifestationof imperfect an is soul i.e.highest knowledge liberation ofthesoul. the absolute soul. with merging soul individual the of liberation the seek then and around Maya the perceive can one soul.absolute words,other In knowledge through maintains soul. absolute the Shankaracharya with merges realisation soul,with individual which the is,that soul absolute realizethe to individual each logically,soul absolute the of reach the within is it itself,it and ways, entity some in limited though is in itsstate ofignorance. philosophy of Vedanta known as Advaita or non- or Advaita as known Vedanta of philosophy represent the collective experience and wisdom wisdom and experience collective the represent world around as Maya, an illusion of the finite mind person belonging to any caste could attain the the attain could caste any to belonging person which makes Brahman i.e. the absolute soul the the soul absolute the i.e. Brahman makes which the potential to realize his Brahman or the absolute However, each individual is endowed with with endowed is individual However,each Apart from this hard core in his philosophy, his in core hard this from Apart Shankara is not absolutely original in the the in original absolutely not is Shankara This view, along with his opinion that individual SINCE-1993 ® Downloaded from KnowledgePhilic.com

Mishra's a of successrt

CULTURAL TRADITIONS IN INDIA (750-1200) and philosophy called for negation of the world mind, and a passion for the ancient traditions of and withdrawal from the normal activities of life. India or Sanatan Dharma, Shankaracharya was able It also means that self-sacrifi ce and detachment to show clearly that Buddhist metaphysical was should constitute the principal value of human life. only a poor imitation of Sanatan Dharma. Indeed, Such an interpretation of Shankaracharya’s Buddhism, by then, was already on the decline, and philosophy could amount to belittling his the defeat that was infl icted by Shankaracharya by contribution. The fact is that his philosophy his debates, discussions and arguments spelt the CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA pulsates through Hinduism, even till today. He intellectual death of Buddhism. In fact, Shankara travelled incessantly all over India preaching his did not banish Buddhism: he assimilated it into the new philosophy and his passion for reaching the Vedic tradition. He applied the Maya of Buddhism to ultimate. Instinctively, he perceived the fundamental Vedanta. Some of his Brahmin opponents equated unity of India. Befi ttingly, after his death, the four his concept of absolute soul with the Nirvana or void math of Shankaracharya came to be located in of Buddhism. It is because of these reasons he was the four corner of India—Shringeri in Karnataka, called a Prachanna Buddha i.e. a disguised Buddhist. Dwarka in Gujarat, Puri in Orissa, and Badrinath in Apart from the service mentioned above, the . An unspelt design of his travels was Shankaracharya wrote commentaries on the to bring the whole country under one philosophical Upanishads, the Bhagavata Gita and Brahma umbrella. In the language of Nehru: “In a brief life (sacred scriptures of India), and these commentaries of 32 years, he did the work of many long lives and are still regarded as the masterpieces of Indian left such an impress of his powerful mind and rich religious and philosophical speculations. personality on India that it is even evidenced today.” In the later years, some saints and philosophers The long and arduous journeys that Shankaracharya did not follow the philosophies and deviated from made all through the length and breadth of the spiritual contribution of Shankaracharya, but they India are still followed by ordinary people. Even kept alive the spiritual and philosophical traditions today pilgrims trek from one end of the country of India. The Vaishnava saints who appeared in to the other seeking divine blessings or spiritual the 12th century preached loving adultation of satisfaction. People loving in northern India go on Vishnu as the means of salvation. The other group, a pilgrimage to Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh, Madurai Vaishnava saints, preached its intellectual aspect. and Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu. Sabarmala in Kerala The former are known as Alvars, and the latter are and Bhubaneshwar and Puri in Orissa. People of known as Acharyas. Their combined contribution the Deccan and Southern India go on a Pilgrimage is that doctrine of Vishishtadvaita or qualifi ed non- mostly to Badrinath and Banaras and some to them dualism, as opposed to Shankaracharya’s doctrine. to Vaishno Devi in Jammu. Later, Madhavacharya of Karnataka also preached Although these pilgrims might not be dualism. In his commentary on the Vedanta Sutras genuinely motivated by spiritual or philosophical and other works, he opposed the monism and the considerations, such travels spread over centuries Maya of Shankaracharya. After a few centuries, once have built subtle and intangible bonds between again the Vedantic philosophy of Shankaracharya region and region. Nehru writes: “Whatever the was revived by Vivekananda in the second half of the

religious signifi cance of these pilgrimages in the Success 19th century. The spirit and philosophical content minds of the people might have been, they were of of Vivekananda did infl uence a great number of looked upon also, as they are today, as a holiday time reformers, including Mahatma Gandhi and Pt. Nehru. and opportunities for merry-making and seeing The latter at one time claimed that ‘each individual different parts of the country. is endowed with a part of truth which is the ultimate An important intellectual achievement of god’. Shankaracharya during his travels in India was In brief, the contribution of Shankaracharya the defeat of the Buddhist scholars in arguments. consists in providing a unifying factor to the

Endowed with a powerful intellect, and incisive Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru apparently complex and baffl ing Hindu religion, | 49 | Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Downloaded from KnowledgePhilic.com

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 and the central tradition of Hinduism as asserted the various religions of the world makes it obvious by Shankaracharya is not lost till today. that any religion attempts to provide some answer ‘Shankara’ claim to a permanent place in history to the gnawing anxiety of each individual. Man’s lies in the fact he created an extraordinary position lot being what it is, the question of “why” in life for Vedanta. This is evident from the fact that he was can never be satisfactorily explained by logic followed by a number of able and distinguished alone. Ever since man has developed the talent writers in Vedanta; and gradually, several different for conceptualisation logic has become his faculty. schools of arose. What is more ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Such being the evolution of man, an answer which important is that writers belonging to the established satisfi es the imponderables of life is a must for man. sects of religion, such as Vaishnavism and , As stated by a modern writer: religion is what one began to utilize the Vedanta as the philosophical does with his solitude. basis and background of their respective creeds. By A.D. 1000, something had gone wrong This is done by a subtle identifi cation of the god with Hindu religion as it was understood and of their creed with the Brahman of Vedanta. Thus a esteemed. All the things associated with religion Vaishnava like Ramanuja would say that Brahman had lost their human touch. In the North, Hindu is no other than Vishnu of his worship. Some like religion degenerated into empty ritualism would go so far say that Brahman is no (Meemamsa), adventurist attitude (Tantricism), other than Krishna of Vrindavan. And a Saiva like highly intellectualised stance (the philosophy of Srikantha would say that Brahman is identical with Vedanta) and a some perverse forms (like Kapalikas). Siva of his worship, who is called by other names In the South, too, the affl iction was the same. In the also, such as Pasupati, Rudra etc. 8th century Shankara preached Advaita. He was To conclude, Shankara is an austere and lofty a great logician. He dismissed the earthly world fi gure with his rigorous system and uncompromising as Maya or illusion. His preaching was primarily logic. But stories are told to reveal what in modern intellectual. In other words, Shankara’s approach parlance would be called his human character. was akin to that of the dry Vedantic philosophy of Sometimes, he was prepared to go against the the North, although he was given some credit for tradition. He could be called a rebel because he defeating the Buddhist scholars in arguments and defi ed the accepted practices and became almost thereby, completing the cenotaph of Buddhism in a child sanyasin. He was deeply attached to his India. mother and he returned to his birth place on her As already argued above, no religion can death and performed his funeral rites. This also went against the Shashtras. But the story reveals survive if it fails to give a due place to the human the importance of the mother in the larger cultural aspect of it. It was the gap that was partly fi lled by context of India. Is it not signifi cant that a father is Ramanuja of the 11th century. He was born in a expected to fall at the feet of his sanyasin-son but town close to the modern city of Madras in 1027. not the mother? The mother is revered even by a He studied Vedanta at Kanchi or Conjeevaram. jagadguru (world teacher). Frustrated with married life, he renounced family bonds and took to Sanyasas by settling down at We, thus, see Shankara in many roles: teacher, Srirangam. Partly, he devoted his life to study and philosopher, reformer, synthesizer. A point that is

Success partly, he toured Southern India. During the progress often emphasised is that he saw India as one country of of his tours he converted a large number of people to and it is for this reason that he established ‘mathas’ Vaishnavism and restored many Vaishnava temples. in different parts of the country. He recognised the various traditions and harmonised them. Above all, Credit must be given to Ramanuja for bringing he was an inquirer who had hardly any equal. human element to philosophy or religion. Ramanuja relied on intuition while Shankra on logic; the former Ramanuja stressed on the theistic aspect of Upanishads, while Religion basically is a personal affair because the latter on the intellectual. The philosophy of

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CULTURAL TRADITIONS IN INDIA (750-1200) dualism. He concedes that the Ultimate Principle to the observance of religious rituals—rights as is real and exists. This he qualifi es by arguing that sanctioned by the tradition and the rules of caste. human souls are real although they are dependent The offi cial language of Ramanuja and his followers on the Ultimate Principle. He also insists on the was Sanskrit. The teachings were strictly confi ned continued existence of the individual soul after his to the higher classes of society while the Sudras release from the worldly chains. Finally, he agrees had no access to it. These points show that the with Shankara’s thesis that there is nothing but the preachings of Ramanuja were not as egalitarian as Ultimate Principle and maintains that the world and ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA those of Kabir and Bhakti savants. the human souls are separate in order to serve the To conclude, the contribution of Ramanuja Ultimate Principle. consists in emphasising on the human element in This philosophy of Ramanuja clearly shows religion. This aspect of his preaching was further that the Ultimate Principle is not free from earthly broadened by the later-day Bhakti savants like Kabir, realities. In other words, he attributes qualities Nanak and Chaitanya, who extended their appeal to God. The world around is treated as an aspect to the lower castes or classes of society. In the end, (Prakara) of God, but not as Maya or illusion as in we have to mention that Ramanuja contributed Shankara’s philosophy. In this contribution the most some religious works to the evolution of religious important aspect is the stress on theism, that is consciousness in India—Sri Basya, a commentary God would reveal himself to a devotee who loves on Vedanta (a classic text of the Vaisnavas), and adores him. The other name for this doctrine is Vedantasara and a commentary on the Bhagvad Gita. Bhakti. This attitude towards religion is very ancient Religion and hence Ramanuja belongs to the mainstream During A.D. 750-1200, Indian religious scene of without being a heretic or an became mostly Dionysian. Some mystical cults also innovator. Epigraphic evidence shows that the word made their appearance like Tantricism and the cult “Bhakti” (synonymous with “theism”) existed at the of Kapalikas. The one striking feature of this period commencement of the 2nd century before Christ. was the decline of Buddhism, except for its way is This attitude belongs to both Aryan thought Bengal. as well as to Semitic thought. This idea became The Palas were, of course, patrons of Buddhism prominent in India from the days of the Bhagvat and they generously owed Buddhist monasteries in Gita. This portion of Ramanuja’s teachings is treated Bengal & Magdha. But here, Buddhism had moved as Shri Sampradya (the second part of the word far away from its original moorings. The new tantric meaning “school”), one of the facets of Bhakti Marga. forms, which it had developed had transformed This part of Ramanuja’s philosophy is supposed it almost beyond recognition. The monks were, to have infl uenced the later-day Bhakti savants of however, still fi red with missionary zeal. It is the India, like Madhava (12th century), (15th famous Buddhist monk Dipankara called by Tibetans. century), Chaitanya (15th century), Ramananda Atisa, who went beyond the frontiers of India (13th century), Kabir (14th century) and Nanak (15th to Tibet about the middle of the eleventh century century). Since Ramanuja stressed on devotion or to spread the light of his faith. The decline of the love towards God as salvation, he laid stress on the Pala power after the tenth century was a blow to central teachings of the Upanishads, Bhagvat Gita Success Buddhism. But even more serious were the internal of and Vedanta Sutra, unlike the singular emphasis on developments in Buddhism. The Buddha had the Upanishads by Shankara. preached a practical philosophy with minimum of Although Ramanuja is the pioneer of Bhakti priesthood and speculation about God. With the or theistic movement in India, he was unlike rise of the Mahayana school of Buddhism in the some of the exponents of the movement in the early centuries of the Christian era, the Buddha 14th century. For example, Kabir disregarded the had begun to be worshipped as God. This worship authority of the and the Brahmanic traditions. now became more elaborate. The belief grew that a

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 magical words (Mantra and making all kinds of of the latter’s preaching and encyclopedic learning, mystic gestures). They also believed that by these Jainism rapidly spread in Gujarat, Kathiawad, Kaccha, practices and by various kinds of austerities and Rajputana and Malwa. In the North, however, its secret rites, they could attain supernatural powers, infl uence remained very limited for lack of royal such as the power to fl y in the air, to became invisible patronage. to see things at a distance etc. Here as well as in south India, the dominant Many Hindu Yogis also adopted these practices. faith was Brahimism or Pauranic Hinduism and CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA The most famous among them was Gorakhnath. The princes and the common people alike venerated followers of Gorakhnath were called -Panthis the Brahminical gods. Among these, the most and at one time they were popular all over North prominent were Vishnu and Shiva, who were known India. Many of these yogis belonged to lower castes. by a number of other names also. The pantheon They denounced caste system and the privileges further included Brahma, Surya, Vinayaka Kumara, claimed by Brahmins. The path they preached was Skanda, Kartikeya, Indra, Agni, Yama, Varuna, Marut called which was open to all, irrespective of and goddesses like the divine, goddesses (Bhagvati caste distinctions. or Durga, Sri Lakshmi), besides, a host of minor Thus, Buddhism did not so much decline, as deities. Many of them still command the popular it assumed forms which became indistinguishable allegiance and thus, modern Hinduism may be said from Hinduism. to have taken shape by the end of this period. As now, there was no exclusiveness in worship. Unlike Buddhism, the Jain religion appears to have gained strength in some part of India. From This must have doubtless by promoted a the sixth to the tenth century in the coastal regions spirit of toleration and concord among the votaries for the most part in the ports, it was Jainism that of competing sects. Persecution and sectarian became the mass religion. The most famous of all animosity were, therefore, not much in evidence then. the Jaina temples were that of Aihole (Aivalle), built An instance to the contrary is, of course, furnished by in the seventh century. The Jaina enjoyed special Kulottunga I, whose disfavour compelled the great infl uence among the Tamil population. However, Vaishnava reformer, Ramanuja to leave Srirangam between the sixth and 8th centuries, the Bhaktas and retire to the Hoysala dominions. Generally, waged a fi erce struggle against Jainism and the however, the Cholas and other rulers of the South latter began to yield its ground to Hinduism. By were tolerant of all creeds and Vaishnav Alvars and the 15th century, Jainism had only succeeded in Saiva Nayanars were free to preach and propagate retaining some infl uence in Gujarat, although small their doctrines. These religious teachers infused new Jain communities for the most part those of the life and vitality in the current beliefs and practices merchants and moneylenders, remained in many by their precept and example. Indian towns. south India also produced, during this period, In the Deccan, it was honoured by certain such towering personalities in Philosophy was early Chalukya kings and by Rashtrakuta rulers Kumarila Bhatta, Shankaracharya, Ramanujacharya like I, Indra IV, Krishna II and Indra and , who have left an indelible III. Many of the Western Ganga kings also were impress on Hindu religion and Philosophy by their favourably disposed towards it. Chamundaraya, a Success moral favour and intellectual grandeur. of devout Jain and a minister of the Ganga king, erected Lastly, it may noted that Vedic sacrifi ces do not the deliberated image of Gomateswara at Sravana appear to have been in vogue then. In the inscriptions Belgola in about A.D. 983. Under the Cholas, who of the Rashtrakutas, however, there are references were staunch Shaivas, the Jain continued to pursue to the performance of Hiranyagarbha ceremony their tenets in peace. But Jainism had its most notable and Tuladanas. A Chola inscription of the time of triumphs under the Kumarapala chalukya, in the Rajadhiraja I also contains a solitary allusion to the 12th century, who drew inspiration from the great asvamedha. Probably, greater stress now began to

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CULTURAL TRADITIONS IN INDIA (750-1200) with their intricate and cumbersome details. On Thus, both in South and North India, the revival the other hand, the great Muslim scholar, Alberuni and expansion of Hinduism took two forms—a writings in A.D. 1030 explain their discontinuance renewed emphasis on the Vedas and Vedic worship, as follows: “The sacrifi ces differ in duration so that on the one hand, accompanied by a powerful literary only he could perform certain of them who lives and intellectual movement, and on the other, a a very long life and such long lives do no longer popular movement based in North India on Tantra occur in this our age. Therefore, most of them have and in south India, on Bhakti. Both Tantra and Bhakti CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA been abolished and only few of them remain and disregarded caste inequalities and were open to all. are practiced now a days. In Eastern India, a new form of worship arose. As said above a series of popular movements This was the worship of Shakti, or the worship of the arose in south India during the period which female principle as the cause of creation. Thus, the popularised the worship of Shiva and Vishnu and Buddhists began to worship Tara as the consort of turned people away from Jainism. This was the one of the earlier Buddhas: and the Hindus, Durga, Shakti movement. The Bhakti movement was led Saraswati, Kali etc. who were associated with Shiva. by a series of popular saints called Nayanars and Alvars. The saints rejected austerities. They looked This change in religion did not lead to a upon religion not as a matter of cold, formal worship different role of life. In Hindustan, there are a large but a living bond based on love between the God number of sects and trends, which differ as regards and the worshipper. They spoke and wrote in Tamil both the God selected from the extensive Hindu and Telugu, the languages which everyone could pantheon that the faithful might Venerate, as well understand. These saints went from place to place as the religious rites and customs to be observed. carrying their message of love and devotion. Most However, certain customs and ideas are common of them belonged to the lower classes and few to all the Hindus. They attack great importance to were Brahmanas. There were also a few women. the concept of virtue or duty (Dharma) that consists Almost all of them, disregarded the inequalities of in the steadfast and unwerving execution of caste caste, though they did not try to oppose the caste obligations. Thus, for the higher castes, Dharma system as such. The path of Bhakti advocated by involves just admiration or courageous behaviour on these saints was open to all, irrespective of caste. the battlefi eld, and for the lower ones conscientious The bhakti movement not only won into fold of execution of their traditional occupation and respect Hinduism many adherents of Buddhism and Jainism, to be shown to persons of elevated origin. Hinduism it also won over many tribes which had previously instills the idea that the division of society into castes remained outside the fold of organised religion. has been predestined, that all castes are essential Many tribals were Hinduised by fi tting them into the and that the position of each individual in caste caste system. Generally, they continued to worship structure has been determined by his behaviour their old tribal gods and goddesses who were made in the life that preceded his current one. Man’s companions or consorts of the chief gods, Shiva soul does not die but after the death of his body, it and Vishnu. Legends played an important part in transmigrates to another being: if a man has led a this process of cultural assimilation. virtuous life, then after his rebirth, his caste status Another popular movement which arose will have been enhanced. If on the other hand, he during the twelfth century was the Lingayat Success had led a corrupt life, then he might be reborn of movement. Its founder was Basava and his nephew, as an untouchable or even as some loathsome Channabasava, who lived at the court of the Kalachuri animal. Hence everything appears just, for even kings of Karnataka. They established their faith after if a good man suffers all kinds of misfortune, this bitter disputes with the Jains. The Lingayats are is seen as punishment for misdemeanours in the worshippers of Shiva. They strongly opposed the past existence. caste system and rejected fasts, feasts, pilgrimages Common to all Hindus was the concept of and sacrifi ces. In the social spheres, they opposed ahimsa namely, the idea that one should avoid

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 homage paid to a number of animals—in particular, purity. He built four monasteries and introduced the cow that is worshipped by all Hindus. The rituals reform in the community of sanyasi ascetics. performed at various occasions through man’s life, However, in the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth from the cradle to the grave, were also a shared centuries, Shankara’s ideas, comprehensible only tradition even though the details of these rituals to the chosen few, began to lose their popularity. might vary. All Hindus had to make sacrifi ces— Ramanuja (eleventh century) simplifi es the concepts some, animal sacrifi ces but mostly, just offerings of the Vedanta school making them accessible to the CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA of fl owers and incency; all were called upon to people at large. According to his the people at large. make offerings within their particular means to According to his theory God created the world from the Brahmans and the temples; and all revered matter, time and soul—three substances separate holy men various hermits, ascetics, wandering from himself. In order to comprehend God there was preachers, etc. All Hindus also viewed as obligatory no need to have extensive knowledge of the sacred the performance of caste rituals and the observance texts. Far more important was man’s love for God of caste prohibitions, and indeed these were seen as which alone could bring him to a true understanding no less important than the worship of the divinities. of God. Love for a devotion to God were not effected It was in this period that the six classical by the caste of the believer. In the teaching of systems of which originated Ramanuja God is presented not as an indifferent in the Gupta period took defi nitive shape: Nyaya, creator of the world, but as a creator interested , Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta. in the destiny of each individual, he responds to These systems were regarded as orthodox in so far as man’s prayers and can bring about changes in man’s they accepted the authority of the Vedas, and each of destiny. The philosophy of Ramanuja constituted the them made its own particular contribution to man’s fundamental belief for many Vedanta sects. knowledge of the worlds, and the laws of thought, Growth of Bhakti although the ideas were presented in a religious- Bhakti was a new attitude to God, emotional, cum-mystical form. Apart from these offi cial systems, passionate bhakti, which replaced the old there were also the Buddhist philosophical schools approaches of sacrifi cial and monistic meditation. of the Madhymikas and Vijnanavadas, who rejected As a result of this development, forms of religious the reality of the world. The Madhyamika school expression changes. Love-songs to God were sung asserted: “If God has no beginning then he himself and group singing created a new popular cultural does not exist”. All they recognised as real was pure form, the kirtan. Besides pushing aside old gods, old consciousness, viewed as cosmic essence. On the attitudes, old cultural forces, the Bhakti movement other hand, the sect spread a materialist also drove the sacred language, Sanskrit back into teaching rejecting the existence of the soul, In so far the memories of the Pandits and the precincts of as it is impossible to prove it exists independently temples and mathas, and helped the growth of of the body. For the same reason the also modern Indian vernacular literatures moulded by rejected the existence of an absolute soul or God. this religious movement. While the dominance of From the late eight and the early ninth century brahmanas over the socio-ritualistic order was not onwards, the Advaita-Vedanta school founded by destroyed, they lost much of their spiritual authority

Shankara (788-820) became even more popular. This Success which now passed in to the saints and gurus. While of school spoke out in favour of reviving the ancient the Hindu social framework was not destroyed, the teaching of the Upanishads, declaring that God ideas of brotherhood and equality of all before the should be accepted as the sole reality while the loving god predominated. Its saints drawn from world should be viewed as no more than an illusion different levels of society proclaimed that caste had and be aware of their oneness with Brahman (with no meaning in bhakti. God). Shankara was not only a philosopher but Earlier it was believed that the bhakti, whether also a religious reformer, striving to strip Hinduism it was in the north or the south originated under the

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CULTURAL TRADITIONS IN INDIA (750-1200) fact that the earliest genuine devotional bhakti could not have been the vehicle helping its spread. poetry of Tamil Nadu precedes the advent of Islam. It must have happened through the Sanskritisation It was only at a later date that Islamic, particularly of the new spirit. The Vaishnavite Brahman scholars Sufi infl uences, were felt. infused this new spirit into the Bhagavata Purana We may distinguish two types of bhakti—a (ninth century) which travelled the highroads of personal devotion, contemplative and sober, to Sanskrit tradition and soon became the main text of a personal loving good. Such a type is very well Vaishnavism all over India, marking a turning point CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA explained in the Bhagavad-Gita. The second type is in the history of Vaishnavism. found expressed in the new literature of Puranas. The The tenth book of this work erupts in a Krishna myth had undergone a great transformation. magnifi cent expose of the bhakti centred around The Krishna of Bhagavad-Gita receded into the Krishna’s childhood and youth. The fi gure of Krishna background. The focus of attention shifted to the holds the stage, as child or love; hero or trickster. He marvels of his birth and childhood, and to his was marvellous and entrancing even in his most heroic and amorous exploits as a youth among the daring exploits. This puranic development of new cowherds and cowherdesses of Gokula. While, it is bhakti was paralleled by its growth in the work of true that there is a connection between this change great theologians, both Saivite and Vaishnavite. They on the Krishna myth and the slow transformation formed religious orders and their monks carried of bhakti itself, generally it is accepted that the fi rst their messages all over India. The fi rst and greatest clear manifestation of the new Bhakti, emotional, among them was Ramanuja, the founder of the ardent, ecstatic often using erotic imagery; has Srivaishnava sect. appeared fi rst in the Tamil country, in the early In the Bhakti movement in Bengal, two distinct seventh century, in the hymns of Nayanmars and religions determined its growth. The fi rst was the Alvars collectively known as the Pannirutirumurai infl uence of the Vaishnava tradition. The Vaishnava and in the Tamil, Vaishnavite hymns collectively impetus came fi rst all through the Bhagavata Purana known as the Nalayira divyaprapandham. The most with its glorifi cation of the Krishna-lila. This had famous portion of the is the Tevaram (the taken place when Bengal was under the rule of Garland of God). While Hinduism is one of the most the Palas. The movement found its typically Bengal metaphysical of religions, it is also cone that can be literary transformation in Jayadeva’s Gita-Govinda, felt and lived by the poor and the ignorant. Salvation towards the close of the 12th century. The Gita- can be attained not only through jnana (spiritual Govinda brings, into Bengali Vaishnavism, a new wisdom, no intellectual knowledge) but also through aspect which was driven from a source other than bhakti. The devotees who require a concrete support the Bhagavata Purana. to their worship believe in a personal god. Bhakti is This new aspect was the prominence given to not the love which expects to be reciprocated. Such Radha, who was given the centre of the stage in this a love is a human affection and nothing more than form of bhakti. The non-Vaishnava infl uence itself prayer become meditation, the worshipful loyalty came from two sources. Though distinct, they are of will which identifi es itself with the good of the interrelated. The fi rst one is the Buddhism which world. A true devotee becomes a knowing as well was decaying. In its decadence it produced forms as a virtuous soul. He knows how to identify himself Success which affected the development of Vaishnavism. of completely with the object of devotion by a process Both those Buddhist and Vaishnava forms infl uenced of self surrender. The distinction between god and the Bengali deviationism. Their emphasis was on the worshipper is only relative. Love and knowledge female principle of the universe and they exalted have the same end. They can only be conceived as the religious value of sexual passion. They preached perfected when there is an identity between lover the doctrine of naturalism while reacting against and beloved, knower and the known. the rigours of the Mahayana disciple. In this way, From Tamil Nadu, it spread into Maharashtra, they idealised the sensuous and showed a new

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 emotionalism and eroticism pervaded their rites and when he started attaching belief in the gods of their mystical teachings. Thus, developed an erotically forefathers, they turned hostile. When the situation inspired Krishna bhakti of Bengal after A.D. 1200. became very serious, Muhammad decided to leave Mecca for Madina. This event which took place in A.D. Islam and its Arrival in India 622 is known as Hijira emigration and the Hijira era Islam was founded by prophet Muhammad, is associated with this event. At Madina Muhammad who was born in c. 571 A.D., in Mecca—a holy city in acquired a large following.

Arabia. His father, Abudullah, is said to have died two ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA This had made him lead military campaign months after his birth and his mother died when he against Mecca, which was captured in A.D. 630. A was only six years of age. He was brought up by his large number of the people of Mecca accepted his uncle Abu Talib, who was a merchant. He helped his uncle in his business and soon acquired a capacity faith in the ninth year of the Hijira, the deputies of for business. When he was twenty-fi ve, a rich widow all the tribes of Arabia swore obedience to him. by name Khadija, employed him as her trade agent. Muhammad now became the ruler of Arabia. The In her service, he seems to have visited a number triumph of his mission was now assured. Sooner of places while accompanying caravans. Later he after this, he passes away in A.D. 632. It has been married her and had by her, four daughters and rightly said the prophet Muhammad found the Arabs two sons. One of his daughters, Fatima, married Ali, sunk in a degrading and sanguinary superstition. his uncle’s son. Later, Ali became the fourth Khalifa He inspired them with the belief in one sole god of of Islam. truth and love, he gave them rallying point in the From his early days, Muhammad was of new religion; and he supplied them a bond which contemplative nature. He spent whole night in was more permanent than a dynasty. contemplation at Mt. Hira near Mecca. He dwelt Islam means to make peace and it implied more and more on the mysteries of life. His own the making of peace with God by paying homage spiritual and moral promptings made him feel to his oneness. It is based on an uncompromising every kind of religious experience. He believed that monotheism. Muhammad taught that there is no God revealed himself to other people through his God but Allah and Muhammad is the prophet of prophets. Soon the thought that he himself had Allah. He asked his followers to have faith in angels been called to the mission of a prophet began to who brought messages from God. His followers ripen. For a long time his shyness prevented him were asked to have faith in a fi nal resurrection and from appearing as a prophet in public until at last were told of a Day of Judgement when everyone an extraordinary experience which he underwent on would be punished or rewarded according to his Mt. Hira dispelled that shyness. At forty years of age, deeds. Muhammad condemned idolatry. Islam does he announced his prophetic mission. An expectation not believe in priesthood and monasticism. It place of a judgement day for each individual formed the reason and common sense above obscurantism core of his oldest revelations. He himself stood in and mysteries. It insists on the direct responsibility fear of it. It was only later that he spoke of a great of man’s spirit to God, his maker. judgement on his entire people which would wipe off Allah’s enemies and his own from the face of the The prophet enjoined fi ve duties upon his

Earth. In sharp contrast to these visions of error, he Success followers—Kalmia (profession of faith) Namaz next described the joys of paradise in glowing terms. of (prayer), Zakat (alms), Rozas (fast), ushering the Muhammad’s fi rst followers were his wife and month of Ramzan and Haj (pilgrimage to the sacred his daughters. They were followed by his cousin, Ali, shrine at Mecca). These duties constitute the fi ve his slave, Zayd and his friends Abu Bakr and Sa’d “Pillars of the Faith”. The Holy Quran is declared Ibn-Waqqas. His other followers were of humble to be a revealed book and its authority is not be origin. In the beginning, Muhammad was on good questioned by any Muslim. terms with the ruling classes. He shared with them The successors of Muhammad are called the

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CULTURAL TRADITIONS IN INDIA (750-1200) in-law, Abu Bakr, who was followed by Omar, then LITERATURE Osman and then Ali. These are called the pious Many dramatical works were produced in Khalifas. During their regime, Islam began to spread this period. Bhima or Bhimata who lived in the into various parts of the world. It is to be noted ninth century wrote fi ve dramas. Of these, Svapna here that Quran enjoins the Believers to fi ght in Dasanana had won him chief fame. His Pratibha- the way of God (jihad). It says that those who have Chanakya is modelled after Mudrarakshasa. He is fought in the way of God are the blessed and they

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA connected with the Chandella king, Harsha. Murari shall be admitted to the Garden of Paradise, while lived to the end of the eighth or the beginning of the unbelievers will be cast into the fi re forever. In the ninth century. His work Anargha-raghava reveals view of the long distance of Madina from the most his linguistic abilities. To the same period belongs prosperous parts of the empire, the capital was fi rst Saktibhadra, the author of Chudamani. Hastimalla, shifted to Kufa. In 661, Ali was dead. a Jain author has given us no less than eight plays The pious caliphs were now replaced by including Vikrantakaurana, the Subhadraharaha the umayyads. With the rise of the umayyads the and the Maithilikalyana, Rajasekhara composed dynastic monarchs of Islam was established. Within, four dramas—the Balaramayana, the Balabharta, a hundred years of the death of the prophet, the the Viddhasalabhanjika and Karpuramanjari, a Muslims overthrew two mighty empires, the Sassarid sattaka wholly in Prakrit. He was also the author and the Byzantine empires. They overran the whole of Bhuvanakosa, Kavyamimsa (a work on poetics), of Syria, Iran and Mesopotamia. The Khalifas became Harivalasa (a mahaprabandha) Kshemisvara wrote the most poter and absolute monarchs. Their empire his Chandakausika for Mahipala, Naishadhananda had grown fast that they had to shift their capital was also another work by him. The Mahanataka, from Madina to Damascus. (Hanumannataka), which holds a unique position A revolution in A.D. 750 led to the establishment in in many respects belongs to of the Abbasid Khalifate. In A.D. 762, the Abbasid’s the 10th century. It is not a nataka in the strict sense shifted their capital to Baghdad. At Mansur and of the term but something between an epic and a Harpur, Rashids were the most important of the dramatic composition. Abbasid Khalifas. Jayadeva has given us the Prasanna- In course of time, the Muslims were divided raghava. Umapatidhasa wrote Parijatavarna. into a number of sects of which the Sunnis and the Ramachandra wrote two dramas, Nalavilasa and Shiahs are the most important. Nirbhijayabhima. The Kerala king, Kulasekhara, treats of the stories in his two plays Tapati- The two sects diffused on political as well as Samvarana and Subhadra-Dhananjaya. Vijayapala religious grounds. The religious difference centred wrote the Draupadisvyamvara. The Chahamana around the interpretation of verses of the Quran and king Visaladeva was the author of Harakelinataka. over the Hadis (corpus of tradition about the sayings A few natakas deal with stories of court life and doings of Muhammad). The political difference based on legendary, semi-historical or fi ctious was related to the succession of Muhammad. The themes. The Karna Sundari of Bhilhana, belongs to this Sunnis believe the Muhammad appointed no category. It belongs to the irregular type of dramas successor and left the matter to the discretion of Success which are outwardly dramatic in form but devoid of the elite of the Umma (community of believers). The of any dramatic action, being merely a collection of Shias asserts that, even after Muhammad, the last poetical stanzas. Dutangada of Subhata also belongs of the prophets, people still require intermediaries to this kind. Four monolouge plays (bhanas) written between themselves and God. They call such by Varauchi Sundraka, Isvaradatta and Syamilaka intermediaries the Imams and regard Ali, the cousin under various titles were published under the and son-in-law of Muhammad as their fi rst imam. title Chaturbhani. Knapuracharita of Vatsarja also Their jurisprudence and religious practices are based belongs to this category. Among the Prakarnas

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 by Ramachandra. The Prabodhachandrodaya of Among the historical kavyas produced Krishna misra is an example of the allegorical dramas during this period is the Navasabasankacharita produced in this period. of Padmagupta. Bilhana, a Kashmirian wrote the In the fi eld of the Kavya, notable contributions Vikramankadeva-Charit, glorifying the life of his were made by the Buddhist and Jaina authors. patron king Vikramaditya VI, the Chalukya king of The Buddhist Sivasvamin has given us an Kalyana. epic, the Kapphanabhyudaya. He wrote under After him, comes the celebrated Kashmirian, CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Avantivarman of Kashmir. Jinasena has given us Kalhana, who fl ourished in the middle of the twelfth the Parsvabhyudayakanya. Another Jaina, Asaga, century. has given us the Vardhamanacharita. Kanakasena Historical Works: Ramacharita of Vadiraja wrote the Yasodharacharits. Rajanka Sandhyakaranandini deals with the history of Ratnakara, who fl ourished under Jayapida and . This is the fi rst sustained instance of a Avantivarman of Kashmir wrote a long epic narrating sleshkavya. Among the minor historical works of the story of Siva killing the demon Andhaka under the period are Atula’s Mushikavamsa, Sambhu’s the title Haravijaya. Abhinands (Son of Jayanta), Rajendrakarnapura, Jalhana’s Sornapalavilasa, another Kashmirian poet, wrote the Kadambari- Hemachandra’s Kumarapala-charita (which is also Kathasara which is an epitome of Bana’s Kadambari a Dvyasraya-kavya, either because it is written both in an epic form. Another poet by name Abhinanda in Sanskrit and Prakrit or because the work besides (Son of Jayanta), another Kashmirian poet, wrote being a history also serves the purpose of illustrating the Kadabari-Kathasara which is an epitome of the rules of grammar) and Prithviraja-vijaya of an Bana’s Kadambari in an epic form. Another poet unknown authorship. by name Abhinanda (Son of Satananda) has given Poetry and Phrase: Different types of shorter us the Ramacharita. One more Abhinanda, also poems were produced during this period. As regards styled Gauda, has given us an epitome of the lyrics, Bilhana’s Chaura-Panchasika and Jayadeva’s Yogavasishtha in forty-eight cantos. Vasudeva has Gitagovinda belong to the category of lyric poetry. given us three long epics— the Yuthishthiravijaya, Arya-aaptanati by Govardhana is a collection of the Saurikathodaya and Tiripuradahana. 700 erotic stanzas in the Arya metro. Among the duta-kavyas produced in this period was Dhoyi’s Sriharsha’s Naishadhacharita is regarded as Pavahaduta. Sambhu’s Anyoktoamktalatasataka and the last masterpiece exhibiting the industry and Silhana’s (identifi ed with Bilhana) Santisataka belong ingenuity that a mahakavi is capable of Sriharsha to the category of didactic poetry. Kahamendra has is also credited with the authorship of some other written on several subjects. His Samaya matrika deals works. One of them is a philosophical treatise under with snares and trickeries of harlots. His Kalavilasa the title Kaudana-khandakhadya. This was written in speaks of numerous occupations and tricks and support of the standpoint of Sankara. Kshemendra, follies of wandering singers, doctors, goldsmiths the court-poet of king Ananta of Kashmir, has and astrologers. given us the epitomes of the two great epics in Literacy form called anthology originated his Bharata-manjari and Ramayana-manjari. His shortly before A.D. 1000. The earliest anthology

Padya-Kadambari is the metrical rendering of Bana’s Success was Subhashitavali of Vallabhadeva. of masterpiece. His Dasavatarucharita, though not Up to the 10th century, compositions were strictly a mahakavya, described the ten incarnations either in prose or in verse almost exclusively and even of Vishnu. Mankha was another Kashmirian poet of when they were in pause and verse intermingled, the twelfth century. His Srikanta-charita narrates the latter was used only occasionally and for some the destruction of Tripura in epic style. Jayadratha’s defi nite purposes. But the yearning of poets to Haracharitachintamani was not really a mahakavya display their mastery over both simultaneously, but a mahatmya. Kaviraja’s Parijntavarna came out led to the use of a new form of Sanskrit literature

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CULTURAL TRADITIONS IN INDIA (750-1200) Negacharpu (Damayantikatha) of Trivikramabhatta. named Purmabhadra, prepared another version The Madalasachampu is also ascribed to him. under the title Panchakhyayika. Somadova (a Jaina) is the author of Yasatlakachampu Scientifi c Literature: The period witnessed composed in A.D. 959. The Udayasunderkatha the production of a number of scientifi c literature. Of composed by Siddhala is sometimes regarded as a the lexicons, the Dhanvantari Nighantu, the earliest Champu. A part of the Ramayana-champu is ascribed medical lexicon in its present form belong to this to Bhoja (11th century) and the remaining was period. Of the ordinary dictionaries (kosa), only CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA furnished later by one Lakshmana Kavi. one can be assigned to this period and that is the In the fold of romance, there are the Abhidhans-ratnamala of Halayudha. Yadavaprakasa’s Madhavanala-Kamakaudala-Katha and the Vaijayanti, the Namamalika of Bhoja, the three Tilakamanjari. The former is the well-known love lexical works of Purushottamadeva, a Buddhist viz. story of the Brahmana Madhavanula. It is written by Trikandasesha, Haravali and Varnadesana, Visvapraka Ananda. Dharmapala is the author of Tilakamanjari, composed by Mahesvara, Anakarthucsa written by composed in imitation of Bana’s Kadambari, Sodhala Maukha and the four lexical works of Hemachandra (11th century) wrote the Udayasundarikatha. A viz., Abhidhanachintamani, Anekarthasamgraha, Digambara Jain by name Odeyadeva (12th century) Nighantusesha and Desinamamala—all belong to closely imitates the Kadambari of Bana in his his period. Gadyachintamani. Rugvinischaya, also known as Madhava- As regards the story literature, though we are nidana, written by Madhanakara is a masterly not fortunate in having with us the Brihatkathas of work on medicine. This work treats of all diseases Ganadhya, we can form some idea of the original together for the fi rst time in the history of Indian form from the three versions—two Kashmirian and medicine. Vrindamadhama (Siddhiyoga) of Vrinda one Nepalese—that are available today. One of the closely follows the order of diseases and treatment three versions is the Brihatkathaslokasamgraha of as found in the Madhava-nidana. Chakrapanidatta Buddhasvamin. The manuscripts of this version wrote commentaries called Ayurvedadipika and are from Nepal. It may be dated in the 8th century Bhanumati respectively on Charaka and Susruta. A.D. The Brihatkathamanjari of Kshemendra (11th His Chikitsasara Samgraha is important in the century) is one of the two Kashmirian versions. The history of Indian medicine for making an advance Kathasaritasagara is the other Kashmirian version. in the direction of metallic preparations which Its author is Samadeva (11th century). It is more had been introduced since the time of Vaghbhata important than the other Kashmirian version. and Vrinda. He also wrote Sabdachandrika, a The Vetalapanchavimsika has come down to vocabulary of vegetable and mineral substances and us in three versions. Of these, the one of Sivadasa Dravyagunasamgraha a work on deities. Suresvara belongs to the 12th century. The Sukasaptati has wrote Sabdapratipa and Vrikshayurveda on medical come down to us in two recensions of uncertain botanical terms and Lohapaddhati on the medical date. The Simhasaradvatrimsika is available in three use and preparation of iron. Vangasena wrote Bhoja important versions. The work is placed between gives information about the horses, their diseases the 11th and 13th centuries A.D. These and the and remedies.

anonymous Vikramodaya and Viracharita of Ananta Success In Mathematics, we have a number of works. belong to the category of romantic tales. of Aryabhata II, the author of Aryasiddhanta, was the We have also a few didactic tales belonging most important author of this age. Prithusvami to this period. The most important is the Bhattatpala and Vijayanadi, the author of Karanlika Parisishtaparvan of Hemachandran, an appendix are noted by Alberuni. to his Trihashtisabakapurushacharits. Alberuni refers to Balabhadra as the author A few derivatives from the original of several independent works on all the branches took shape in this period. These are of Jyotihsastra and also several commentaries on

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 The Sangita Makaranda attributed to More fruitful activity was evinced in the Narada perhaps belongs to the eleventh century. fi eld of poetics in this period. Great rhetoricians It deals with dance and music in two separate like Udbhatavarmana, Rudrata, Anandavardhana, parts. Jagadekamalla Pratapachakravartin’s , and Kuntaka fl ourished in this period. Sangitachudamani, belongs to the 12th century. It is this ago that various theories of poetics emerged. It also deals with both music and dance. The Udhbata wrote the Alamkara sarasamgraha. Rudrats encyclopedic Manosollasa of Somesvara devotes was the author of Kavyalmkara. Vamana is known CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA 2500 verses to music and musical instrument. for his Kavyalamkara-sutravritti. Anandavardhana’s The Panchasayaka of Jyotirisvara and the Dhvanyaloka and settled all the important problems Ratirahasya of Kokkha are works on the science of of the poetics. Abhinavagupta has several works love produced in this period. to his credit such as the Lochana Kuntaka. He was the founder of a new theory called Vakrokti which On the subject of omens, we have the is explained in his Vakroktijiva. The Kavyamimsa Samudratilaka begun by Durlabharaja in A.D. 1160 of Rajasekhara treats of various topics which are and completed by his son Jayaddeva who also wrote useful to the poet. This book may be said to be a an independent work on the dreams; under the practical handbook of a poet. Mukulabhata in his name Svapnachintamani. The Abbutasangara, began Abhidhavritti matrika discusses the two powers of by Ballalasena was completed by Lakshmanadeva. words, viz., abhidha and lakshana. The Narapatijayacharya Svarodaya of Narahari (12th century) describes how the results of war and of Rajanaka Mahimabhatta in his Vyaktiviveka other adventures can be prognosticated with the accepts only two senses of Sabda viz., the vachya help of diagrams. (actually expressed) and the anumeya (inferable). The avowed object of this work is polemical. Grammar: In grammar, we come across the It was forgotten in the later times. Bhoja’s name of Maitreyarakshita, a Buddhist, the author Sarasvatikanthavarans is a voluminous work on of Tantrapradipa, a commentary on the Nyasa this subject. His Sringaraprakasa is the largest and Dhatupradipa, based on the Dhatupaths of known work in Sanskrit poetics. Kshemndra’s Panini. The Anuyasa by Indumitra and Bhagavritti Anchityavicharacharoha is yet another work on by Vimalamati are works on grammar belonging to poetics. The Kavyaprakasa of Mammata occupies a the ninth century A.D. Sakataya, the founder of a new unique position in the Alamkara literature. Rajanka school, also belongs to the ninth century A.D. His Ruyyaka’s Alamkarasarvasva shows a remarkable main work is the Sabdanusana. Durgasimha is the degree of insight and independence of judgement. oldest known commentator on Katantra grammar Hemachandra’s Kavyanusara constitutes a complete or Kalapa. He probably lived about A.D. 800. New manual of poetics. and popular schools of grammar came into being after 1000 A.D., intended to simplify grammar for On dramturgy, we have Dasarupaka by the enlightenment of layman. There are also many Dhananjaya and Natakaranakasa by Sagaranandin recasts of Panni’s Asntadhyayi. Among the works of who seem to have written another work, a play, the Panini school were Kashirasvamin’s Dhatuvrithi, named Janakiharan Natyadarpana, by Ramachadra which deals with the science of dramaturgy in four Kaiyata’s Pradipa on the Mahabhashya of Patanjali Success and Haradatta’s Padmamanjari. Vardhamana’s of sections. prakasana of Saradetanaya describes Canaratnamahodadhi is the only complete work ten types of drama and twenty types of Nritya. on Paniniya Ganapatha. Durghavritti written by Utpala was a noted writer in Sanskrit metres. Sarnadeva, a Buddhist, deals with the difficult Kashmendra composed a work on Sanskrit metres passages of Panini’s text. Among the non-Panini under the title Suvrittatilaka. Hemanchandra wrote systems, the Chandra school disappeared from the Chhandonusana, a very exhaustive work on India during this period. The Jainendra school was Sanskrit, Prakrit and Apabhavamsa metres. Jayakriti

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CULTURAL TRADITIONS IN INDIA (750-1200) Hemachandra’s Laghu-Arhanniti deals with eminent writers of Dharmasastra. He is probably such topics as war, punishments, law and penances. identical with the guru of Ballalasena. Ballalasena Yuktikalpataru of Bhoja and the Nitiratnakara of composed at least five works. Of these, only Chandesvara also deal with politics. Some scholars Danasagra and Adbhuasagara alone are known to believe that the original text of Sukranitisars was exist. Halayudha’s Brahmanssarvasva is a guide for composed in this age. the Kanva Sakha Brahmans of the Sukla Other: Many religious works appeared in this to the Vedic mantras employed in the daily rites period. The two great epics had now practically ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA and periodical ceremonies. reached their fi nal form. Large additions were made The greatest name in philosophy is that to the Puranas. Two compilations of Dharmassastras, of Vachaspati Misra, to whom the epithet Chaturvimsatimata and the Shattrimsanmata Sarvatantravantatra or Sarvadarsanavallabha is probably belong to this age. On the whole, however, generally applied. He wrote commentaries such as it may be said that the age of original literature in Vyasabhashya on Patanjali’s yogasutra and some Dharmasastra is over, and that commentators and Nyaya works such as Nyayasuchini bandha. His writers of digests (nibandhas) have taken up the fi eld. Tattvabindu is an independent work on the Bhatta Visvarupa wrote his Balakrida on the Yagnavalkya- Mimamsa. Bhamati on Sankara’s Bashya on the Smriti. The digests contained a synthesis of all the Brahmasutras is too well-known. dicta of the ancient Smritikaras on various topics Udayana, the author of the Tattvasuddhi, a of Dharma. The general tendency from the twelfth commentary on the Nyayavarthikatatparyatika, century onwards was to compose digests than Buddhadhikkara, Nyayaparisishta, stands next to commentaries. We do not know whether Bhoja’s Vachaspati. Two more authors on the Nyaya School work on Dharmasastra was a commentary or a digest. who deserve to be mentioned are Jayata, the author Jitendriya wrote an extensive work on Dharmasastra. of Nyayamanjair and Bhasarajna,’ the author of Balaka wrote on several branches of Dharmasastra. Nyaysara. Gangesa’s Tattvachintamani which Bhavadevabhatta composed several valuable works appeared in the last quarter of the twelfth century on Dharmasastra such as Vyavaharatilaka (hitherto is a standard text of the Modern Nyaya School. In undiscovered). Govindaraja wrote a commentary on yoga we have the Rajamartands, the Yogavrittika, the Manusmriti and Smritimanjari dealing with all and the Yogasarasamgraha. The fi rst is a commentary principle topics of Dharmasastra. The Krityakalpataru on Patanjali’s Yogasutra composed by Bhoja. of Bhatta Lakshmidhara is unique among the digests. The literary activity of the Vaiseshikas is No other digest has attempted such a logical and restricted mainly to the commentaries. The earliest of comprehensive presentation of the Smriti matter these is Lakshanavali by Udayana, whose Kiranavali as this one. Vijnanesvara’s Mitakshara represents is a sort of commentary on Prasastpada’s Bhashya the quintessence of Dharmasastra speculation on the Vaiseshikasutra. that preceded it. It is no mere commentary on the Yagnavalkya-Smriti. It is in the nature of a digest of In Vedanta, besides Vachaspati, we have Smriti materials. It is necessary to note here that Sarvajnatmamuni, the author of Samkshepasariraka, in several matters of Hindu law Mitakshara is of Nathamuni, the author of Nyayatattva and the supreme importance in modern law courts in all parts Yogarahasya and Yamunacharya who gave us several of India except Bengal (where Dayabhaga prevails) Success works such as Agamapramanya. of and Maharasthra (where Mayukha prevails). Aparaka Saivism too, like Vaishnavism were also wrote a commentary on the Yagnavalkya-Smriti. It is developing systematic schools in great affi nity with also in the nature of a digest more extensive than the the Vedanta. In Kashmir, there were two schools. One Mitakshara. Jimutavahana who probably fl ourished of them was Spandasastra, founded by Vasugupta. in the fi rst half of the 12th century is known for his God Siva is said to have revealed to him the Sivasutra. work Dayabhaga. Sridhara’s Smrityarthasara deals Kallata’s Spamdakarika is equally important work of with the usual Dharmasastra topics. Aniruddha, this school. The important works of the other school

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 the Pratyabhinjnasutra composed by Somanada was produced in this period by Hemachandra. and Utpala respectively. The latter of these is more His Siddahemachandra deals with various Prakrit important. Abhinavagupta has also given us two languages. more works of this schools—the Tantralok and the Paramarthasara. GROWTH OF TAMIL LITERATURE Prakrit: There was a growing tendency among This period, being the golden age of Tamil the Jains to neglect Prakrit and to adopt Sanskrit culture, was naturally marked by the widespread CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA for their literary works. Siddhasena Divakara was practice of Tamil literature. In general literature, probably the fi rst among the Jain pandits who an anonymous work. Nandikalambakam, a quasi- turned to Sanskrit for the propagation of his faith historical work, dealing with the events of the reign and philosophy. Another notable fi gure turning to of the last great Pallava monarch, Nandivarman III Sanskrit was Haribhadra. The tendency found its (826-849) made its appearance. Perundevanar, the culmination in the great Hemachandra who lived in author of the Bharatam, of which only a small part has survived, appears to have been a contemporary the court of Kumarapa’s in the twelfth century AD. of Nandivarman III. The Jivakachintamani of the Jaina Still the period saw the production of a number of ascetic and poet, Tiruttakkadevar, was composed Prakrit works. Haribhadra wrote Samaraditya-katha early in the 10th century. The poem has another and the Dhurtakhyana. The other Prakrit works name, Mana-nul (The Book of Marriages) on account composed earlier than the 11th century which of each of the hero, Jivaka’s early adventures may be mentioned here are the Upadesamala culminated in a happy marriage. Another Jaina of Dharmadasagani, the Jnanapanchamikatha writer, Tolamoli, wrote the Sulamnai, a Jaina puranic of Mahesvarasuri, the Bhuvavasundarikatha of theme in mellifl uous verse. It is counted as one of Vijayasinha, the Ajita-Sati-Stava of Nandishena. the fi ve minor kavyas of Tamil literature. Kallandam, The eleventh and twelfth centuries saw written by Kalladanar, contains 100 pieces each the production of narrative Prakrit literature. The purporting to depict a particular mood of love. The Surasundarichariya of Dhanesvara was composed in Kalingattupparani of Jayangondar is the earliest A.D. 1038. The Mahaviracharita of Gunachandru was and best of the Paranis (war poems) available. written in A.D. 1082. The Adinathacharita, Santi Suri’s Kuttan or Ottakkuttan sang Ulas of each of the Prithvichandracharita belongs to the 12th century. Chola kings who patronised him. He was given The greatest Jain writer of the 12th century was the title Kaviccakravarti. Besides the three Ulas, he Hemachandra who bore the title Kaliala-Sarvajan. composed a Parani on the Kalinga war of Vikrama The last two cantos of the Kumarapalacharita were Chola and in Pillaittamil on Kulottunga II. Other written in various Prakrit dialects. poems attributed to him are Takkayagapparani, The Neminatha charita composed by another Sarasvatiandadi, Arumbattollayiram, Ittiyelupsdu Hemachandra, the Munisuvratasvamicharita and Elupplupadu. A greater poet than Kuttan was by Srichandra, the Supa Banthachariya of Kamban, the author of Ramayanam, the greatest epic Lakshmanagani, the Sanatkumaracharita by another in Tamil literature. Two mediocre poems, Erelupadu Srichandra are among the other biographies of and Satakoparandadi are ascribed to him. the twelfth century. There are also some Prakrit The impulse to produce devotional literature works of the types of life stories. Haribhadra wrote Success of the earlier period continued unabated in this of the Mllinathacharita and Chandraprabhacharita. period. It was in this period that the Saiva Caoon Somaprabha wrote Kumarapala-pratibodha in was arranged into eleven books (Tirumural) by prose and verse. Some Prakrit stotras were also Nambi Andar Nambi. Nambi himself wrote six composed. Ullasikkama-thaya of Jinavallabha is on Gnanasambandar and one on Appar one among them. A few didactic poems were besides Tiruttodar tinvandadi which gives a brief also composed Silovaesamala by Jaykirti and account of the lives of the sixty-three saints. All Gathakosa by Munichandra belong to this category. these and the poems he wrote in praise of Vinayaka

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CULTURAL TRADITIONS IN INDIA (750-1200) book of the canon. Nambi’s senior contemporary of Saiva-Siddhanta had its beginnings late in this was Pattinattu-pillaiyar whose fi ve compositions period. Two works Tiruvundiyar by Tiruviyahur- celebrating the Saiva shrines of Chidambaram, Uyyavanda-devar and Tirukkaliruuppadiyar Kalumalam (Sirkali). Tiruvidaimarudur; Kanchipuram, Tirukkadavur-Uyyavanda- belong to this period. and Orriyur are included in the eleventh book. They are the only ones among the fourteen works The Tiruvisaippa, forming the ninth book of the comprising the siddhanta-sastra that precede Siva- canon, was composed by nine people including Gnana Bodam of Keykaodar. Gangaraditya, the son of Parantaka I and a Karuvur ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Literature in the Newly Developing Devan who has hymns on the three famous Chola temples newly built in his day the Adityesvara Languages at Kalavidai, the Rajarajesvara at Thanjavur and Kannada: The earliest extant work on rhetoric Gangaikondasolesvara at Gangaikoodssolapuram. in Kannada is the Kavirajamarga, written by Ripatmga The Tiruttondarpunarm or Periyapuraman was Amoghavaraha I, the Rashtrakuta emperor. But the composed by Sekkilar in the reign of Kulotunga fi rst extant work of all literature is Sivako’s (900 A.D.) II (1133-50). It was hailed universally as a veritable Vaddaradhane, a prose work on the lives of Jaina fi fth Veda in Tamil. It forms the twelfth book in Saiva units. This work was written in Purvahala-Kannada. Canon. It is considered to be one of the masterpieces Then comes Pama who punished in the court of of Tamil literature. Arikesari II of Vemulavada, a feudatory of Rashtrakuta Vaishnava religions literature in Tamil Krishna III. His adipurana describes the life story of belonging to this period comprises the works of the fi rst Jaina Thrthankara. In his other work, the alvars and acharyas. It is possible that Tirmangaialwar Vikramarjuna Vijaya, he gives his own version of the lived in the reign of Nandivarman II (A.D. 710- Mahabharata story. For this reason, it is called Pampa- 775). Kulasekhara is said to be a contemporary of Bharata. Ponna wrote Santipurana, the legendary Tirumangaisalwar. history of the sixteenth Tirthankara. The authorship of two other works the Bhuvanai-Karamabhyudaya Nammalvar and Madhuarakavi lived far into and Jinaksharmale—is ascribed to him. Krishna III this period. Ramanjarandadi of Tiruvarangattu conferred on him the title of Ubhayak vicakravari Amudanar is held in great esteem to this day. (Supreme poet in two languages—Sanskrit and Jivasambodini of Devendra munivar is a Jaina Kannada). work expounding the twelve modes of meditation Ranna was the court poet of Chalukya Taila II in the form of an address to the soul. and his successor. His Ajitapurana is a Champu on In the field of grammar, we have two the life of the second Tirthankara. His Sahasabhims- authoritative works on prosody, the Yapparugalam vijaya or Gadayuddha is also a Champu. Two and the Yapparungalakkarigai composed by a other works of Ranna—Parasurama-charita and Jaina ascetic, Amitasagara. Buddhamitru wrote the Cakresvaru-charita—are not extant. Ranna Kauda, Virasoliyam. The Dendiyalamgaram is modelled a lexion, may well be his work Pampa, Ponna and on the Kavyadarsa of Dandin. The name of the Ranna are said to form the Three Gems. author is lost. The Neminadam of Gunavirapandita Chavundaraya-Purana or Trishastilakshana- is a short treatise on the arthographs and parts of mahapurana, one of the earliest extant prose works speech of the Tamil language. Its author is a Jaina. Success in Kannada, describing the legends of twenty-four He also wrote the vaccanndi-malai (The Garland of of Tirthankaras, twelve Chakravartis, nine Balabhadras, Vaccanandi), named after his guru. It is also known nine Narayanas and nine Pratinarayanas, was as Venbapattiyal, Pavanandi wrote his Nannul (The composed in 978 A.D., by Chavundaraya, the man Good Book) in this period. He was also a Jaina. who set up the colossus Gommatesvara at Sravana- Another Jain, Aiyamaridanar wrote the Purupporul Belgola. venbamalai. Chandombudhi (ocean of prosody) is the In Jericography, we have the Pingalam. Little earliest work on the subject in Kannada. It was

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 The next important piece of literature is the Vemula Bhimakavi, associated with Pancatantra of Durgasimha. It is Champu based Anantavarman Chodaganga (A.D. 1078-1148), on the Brihatkatha. Among the contemporaries wrote the Kavijanasraya, a Telugu grammar and the of Durgasimha was Chandaraja, the author of Bhimesvara Purana, relating to legends connected Madantilaka, a Champu on erotics in the form of a with the shrine of Bhimsesvara at Daksharama. He dialogue between the author’s patron and his wife. is said to have written also Raghava-Pandaviya, The author claims that he had used the most modern giving the story of both the Ramayana and the language of his time (posa-kannada). Lokopakara, ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Mahabharata together. This is not available to us. written by a portage of Jayasimha II Jagadekamalla When Virasaivism became an important factor by name Chavundaraya, is a cyclopedic miscellany in in the religious life of the Telugus from the twelfth good verse on various subjects such as astronomy century A.D. onwards, some of the poets started and astrology, sculpture, construction of buildings, developing a sectarian outlook and writing to omens, divination of water, medicinal herbs and their propagate their faith. Famous among them was uses scents, cookery and toxicology. Sirdharacharya Mallikarjuna Pandita. His Siva-tativa-saram expounds wrote the earliest work on astrology in Kannada the principles of Virasaivism. Nanne Choda, a Telugu- under the title, Jataka-tilaka. Candracudamani- Choda prince, wrote the Kumarasambhava, based on sataka, dealing with the ethics of pronunciation, the Sanskrit works on the same theme by was written by Nagavarmacarya, patronised by a and Udbhata. He employed Kannada and Tamil feudatory of Soma vara II at Banaasi by name Ganga works in his work which was not received well by Udayaditya. every one. Nagachandra (c. 1105 A.D.), a Jaina, wrote the Malayalam:Ramacaritram, said to have been Mallinathapurana, a Champu. But he is best known written by an ancient ruler of Travancore sometime for his Ramachandra-caritapurana. In this work, between the 10th and 13th centuries A.D., may he gives the Jaina version of the Rama legend in be regarded as a work very much nearer to being a Champu. Brahmasiva wrote a Jaina polemic, the called true literature. Somewhat later is the work, the Samayaprikshe, in order to establish the superiority of Ramakathappattu of Ayyipillai Asan. Bhashakautilya Jainism over all other creeds. Kirttivarma’s Govaidya a Malayalam commentary on Kautilya’s Arthasastra, is a work on veterinary science, half-medicine and may be assigned to the same period as the two half-magic. About 1145 A.D., Karnaparya wrote works mentioned above. The author of this work the Neminathapurana dealing with the life of is not known. A strong impetus to literature came the twenty-second Tirthankara. About that time, only from about the 13th century A.D., mainly due Nagavarma II wrote an important work on the to the development of Chakkiyar-kuttu, a dance grammar and rhetoric of Kannada under the title recital of literary work. the Kavyavalokana. He also wrote another work on grammar, the Karnataka bhasha bhushana. His Kalhana’s Rajatarangini Vastrukosa is a short lexicon. A Chola prince seems He has given us in his Rajatarangini, the to have written a short work on the art of poetry chronicles of the kings of Kashmir right from the under the name Udayadityalankara. This work was beginning to his own days. The historical kavyas based on Dandin’s Kavyadarsa. reached the high water mark in Rajatarangini. The

Telugu: , as we know, may Success work was completed in 1150. This great Indian of be said to begin with Nannaya’s translation of the historian lived in an unfortunate period of Kashmir Mahabharata undertaken in the reign of Rajaraja history, his father being a minister of Harsha, ‘the Narendra (1019-61 A.D.). The translation was not Nero of Kashmir’, yet he had certain advantages. He literal. The poet, exercise his powers of imaginative knew his country and its public affairs quite well creation freely. Nannaya was perhaps also the and had opportunities for studying its geography author of Andhra-sabha-cintamani, the fi rst Telugu and topography. He understood the inwardness of grammar. This work had earned for its author the the contemporary history of Kashmir. His interest

title Vaganusansana, the law-giver of the language. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru in antiquarian remains was great. A Brahmana by | 64 | Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Downloaded from KnowledgePhilic.com

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CULTURAL TRADITIONS IN INDIA (750-1200) birth and devoted to Siva, he was free from sectarian observing intently the process of current events in outlook. He seemed to have carefully studied the lieu of becoming a mere book-worm, and trying epics, the works of classical authors and earlier to fi nd satisfaction for a keen intellect in recording historians and many other sciences. His historical the events around him and those of earlier days in studies commenced with Bilhana’s Vikramankadeva lieu of the participation in affairs traditional in his charita, Bana’s Harshacharita and the numerous family and congenial to his tastes. chronicles of Kashmir, abridged and unabridged,

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Alberuni’s India whose many discrepancies and errors are deplored by him. He went through various eulogies and family Alberuni (c. 972-1048), the fi rst prominent records then available to him. He went further and Muslim Indologist, was one of the greatest explored the archaeological remains with such intellectuals of the eleventh century. He was born great care that his description of them had served of ‘Iranian stock’ in the territory of Khiva, then as guide to modern explorer and researcher. He called Khwarizm. He was a man of ‘encyclopedic deciphered the inscriptions and studied the copper- learning’ who distinguished himself in the plates available to him and did not neglect even the multifarious disciplines of ‘science and literature’ old coins of Kashmir. of his day; he was a theologian, philosopher, logician, mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer One may note certain blemishes in this work. and physician—all rolled into one. He was a man As one writer puts it, “manifest impossibilities and of studious habits who remained constantly busy exaggerations and superstitious beliefs such as in reading and writing. Though brought up in the abhichara or magical operations are reproduced school of adversity, Alberuni exhibited no weakness without a mark of doubt or critical misgiving”. For for material acquisitions and comforts of life. He example, one Ramaditya is said to have ruled for was the political counsellor of the Khwarizm Shah 300 years. For the early period the popular legends of the Mamuni dynasty, in 1017, when his native are given without any comment. In some respects country was invaded and conquered by Mahmud Kalhana was extremely credulous and we may of Ghazni, Alberuni being one of them. He had suppose that he was led away by the legendary already acquired fame as munijjim—‘astrologer character of the early records of Kashmir. But cum astronomer’, well-versed in Greek as well as from the 7th century his account becomes sober, India systems; therefore, on his arrival in Ghazni, though it is occasionally vitiated by overstatements he was released immediately and allowed to lead and his chronology becomes tenable. From 837 his life as a free man. Mahmud’s invasion of Khiva we get correct dates in the years of the Laukika seems, however, to have had a deep impact on the era and from 855 the year, month and day of the mind of Alberuni. beginning and end of each reign are given and the Once deprived of his native hearth and home, narrative is completely reliable. The contemporary he refused to set up a new one in Ghazni. He did not part of Kalhana’s history is based on his own direct enter the service of the state nor sought patronage knowledge and on that of his acquaintances. of Sultan Mahmud albeit he had a causal contact On the whole, Kalhana exhibits an impartial with his court in the capacity of a munijjim and and independent outlook. We see him making hones a learned sage. Alberuni built no material assets criticism of even his patron. He is fair even to Harsha. Success during the lifetime of Mahmud of Gahzni though he of Further, he does not tell a vanished tale but could have amassed wealth simply by accepting the dwells on the merits and defects of the makers offerings and gifts from his admirers and the nobility of history and their coadjutors. His honesty is of Ghazni. In his old age, however, he accepted the beyond doubt. His general accuracy is equally grant of a pension from Sultan Masud, the successor unquestionable. He was no mere analyst or chronicler. of Mahmud, so that he might continue to devote He is a true historian, though he may fail to conform himself to literary pursuits. Alberuni did not stay in to modern standards in some respects. His work Ghazni for long; in 1018-19, he accompanied the

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 valley as a freelance observer. The invaders fought seen across at extremely wide chronological and battles and indulged in loot and plunder but geographical horizon. From the simple beginnings Alberuni just wandered about as a forlorn individual; at Sanchi, in the fi fth century of the Christian era, to in deep anguish and disgust, he simply observed the the great edifi ces at Kanchi, Jhanjavur and Madurai wanton destruction of Indian towns and temples, is a story of more than a millennium. and the grievous injuries infl icted by man upon The prominent Shilpashastras that deal with his own species in the satisfaction of his lust for the subject of temple architecture are; Mayamata, power and wealth. Mahmud’s armies returned to ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Manasara, Shilparatna, Kamikagama, Kashyapashilpa Ghazni and showed their appearance in India, in and Ishanaguru devapaddati. the same fi ery mood, a couple of times again, but The geographical distribution Alberuni stayed behind for a number of years. He 1. Their differentiation from the point of view travelled extensively in various parts of the country, of shapes, and studies the language, religion and philosophy of the Hindus (Alberuni learned Sanskrit so that he might 2. Their presiding deities and castes. go to the sources of Hindu Thought; he read with All these topics, however, are not mentioned delight the ; he studied of in all these works. Since later texts as the , the book of Patanjali and acquainted himself Kamikagama and Kashyapashilpa show that the somewhat with the Purana;... For a Muslim living in nature of ornamentation, number of storeys, the the days of Sultan Mahmud, almost under his roof, size of prasadas etc. also constituted the bases of to study Sanskrit and things related to Hindus was differentiation. no mean achievement; it demanded an exceptional Major Styles: The ancient texts on Indian spirit of determination and perseverance and not a temple architecture broadly classify them into little audacity.) and wrote the classic account of the three orders. The terms Nagara, Dravida and Vesara country and its people in Arabic, entitled Tarikh ul indicate a tendency to highlight typological features Hind; it was translated later into Persian. of temples and their geographical distribution. These It is an authentic primary source of information terms describe respectively temples that primarily about the socio-religious condition of India of employ square, octagonal and apsidal ground Mahmud of Ghazni’s times. It gives a scholarly plans which also regulate the vertical profi le of the analysis of the social and religious institutions of structure. Nagara and Dravida temples are generally the Hindus and throws light on their rich cultural identifi ed with the northern and southern temple heritage, including science and literature. The book styles respectively. All of northern India, from the presents a deep sociological study, characterised by foothills of the Himalayas to the central plateau of the Deccan is furnished with temples in the northern a rare spirit of enquiry, modern scientifi c attitude style. There are, of course, certain regional variations and sympathetic insight. It also gives a dispassionate in the great expanse of this area. A work entitled account of the weaknesses of the Indian character Aparajitapriccha confi nes the Ngari (Nagara) style and the shortcomings of their socio-political order, to the Madhyadesha (roughly the Ganga-Yamuna which led to their defeat and humiliation at the plains) and further mentions Lati and Vairati (Gujarat hands of the invaders. Alberuni made extensive and Rajasthan respectively) as separate styles. The use of the Sanskrit literature from which he quotes Success local manuscripts of Orissa recognize four main chapter and verse in support of his contentions. He of types of Orissa style temples, viz., the Rekha, Bhadra, died in Ghazni at the age of seventy-seven. Kharkhara and Gaudiya. ART AND ARCHITECTURE The Dravida or southern style, comparatively speaking, followed a more consistent development Temple Architecture track and was confi ned to the most southernly, Indian temples have symbolised the very ethos portions of the sub-continent, specially between the of lifestyle of the people through the millennia. The Krishna river and Kanyakumari. The term Vesara is

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CULTURAL TRADITIONS IN INDIA (750-1200) the Vesara style to the country between the Vindhyas The Dravida style has a polygonal, often and the river Krishna but there are texts placing it octagonal shikhara and a pyramidal vimana, which between the Vindhyas and the Agastya, the location is rectangular in plan. A temple of the Dravide of which is uncertain. Since the temples of the type is also notable for the towering gopurams or Nagara type are found as far south as Dharwad gatetowers of the additional mandapas. From the (in Karnataka) and those of the Dravidan type as days of Ganesh ratha of the Pallava times (seventh far north as Ellora (in Maharashtra), a narrow and century) at Mahabalipuram (near Madras) to the compartmentalised geographical classifi cation ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA gigantic Brihadishyara temple (c. 985-1012 A.D.) is misleading. At certain periods, there occurred of the Cholas at Thanjavur, the Dravida style took striking overlapping of major styles as infl uences many strides. from different regions confronted each other, e.g., Sculpture: Temples were dedicated not only the temples of the early Chalukyas whose kingdom to two great gods of the Brahmanical pantheon, viz., was strategically positioned in the middle of the Shiva and Vishnu but to the Great Mother Goddess as peninsula in the seventh and eighth centuries. The well. In fact, consecration and depiction of divinities— Kandariya Mahadeva temple in Khajuraho is another big and small, benevolent and malevolent, celestial striking example where the various architectural and terrestrial, atmospheric and heavenly, devas and elements combined into an integrated whole. asuras and countless folk deities such as vakshas, Similarly, the Kerala temples display variety in vakshis, apsaras and kinnaras represent a world their plan types. Square, circular or apsidal-ended of their own. It is indeed fascinating to see that buildings are utilised. The earliest examples in Kerala even animal or bird ‘vehicles’ (vahanas) of these go back to the twelfth century. divinities shed their muteness and become eloquent Shapes, Plans and Language of Temples: carriers of meaningful symbolism. Thus, Nandi, the Each temple style has its own technical language, agricultural bull of Shiva is fully expressive of the though some terms are common but applied to god’s sexuality; Tiger, the mount of Durga embodies different parts of the building in each style. The here fi erce strength and aggressiveness. The river sanctuary, which is the main part is called the goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna are identifi ed by vimana where the garbhagriha or the inner sanctum their vahanas, viz. crocodile and tortoise respectively. containing the main presiding deity is located. Lakshmi’s association with elephants, lotus fl owers and water not only symbolize her popularity as The part surmounting the vimana is known as the the goddess of fortune but more importantly as a Shikhara. divinity conveying the magical power of agricultural The other lements of ground plan are: fertility—an aspect that goes back to the days of mandapa or pavilion for the assembly of devotees; the . Swan carrying Saraswati typifi ed not antarala, which is a vestibule connecting the only her grace and elegance but classic Kshira-nira vimana and mandapa and the pradakshinapath, viveka—the tremendous intellectual discerning i.e. circumambulatory passage surrounding these. capacity which is an integral element of this goddess The natmandir or dance hall and bhogamandapa of learning. The Kashyapa Shilpa a chapter were evolved subsequently in the Orissan temples on the deities to be enshrined in the principal styles such as the famous Sun temple at Konarka, to add mentioned above. Thus, the Shantamurtis (peaceful, to the dignity and magnifi cence of the deities who calm and serene deities) are to be installed in Nagara; were honoured in them. The exterior of the Nagara Success of couples or moving deities in vesara shrines; and type is characterised by horizontal tiers, as in the heroic, dancing or enjoying deities in the Dravida jagamohan or porch in front of sanctum of the structures. However, these injunctions about Lingaraj temple at Bhubaneswar and the vimana is presiding deities, like the basic styles, ought not to usually circular in plan. Fundamentally, there is no be taken in a compartmentalised sense. Similarly, structural similarity between the Brahmanical and textural prescriptions about the Nagara, Dravida the Jain temples in the North except that the need and Vesara styles being associated with brahmana, for housing the various Tirthankaras dominates the Kshatriya and Vaishya varnas respectively cannot

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF EARLY Central Indian school of architecture (Khajuraho) MEDIEVAL INDIA 1. Constructed under the patronage of the Chandella rulers between the tenth and the Western Indian school of Architecture twelfth century, the temples of Khajuraho 1. Grand temples were created in Gujarat and represent the epitome of Nagara style of Rajasthan in the early medieval period under architecture. the patronage of various Rajput dynasties

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA 2. Chandellas were originally feudatories that emerged in the western Indian from the of the Gurjara-Pratihara rulers and by the seventh century CE. ninth century CE they had established their 2. Both the Brahmanical and the Jaina temples independent rule in the Bundelkhand region. were constructed under the patronage of the 3. The Chandellas traced their lineage to the Guhilas of Mewar, the Gurjara-Pratiharas and Moon god and claimed a Kshatriya-Rajput the Solanki (Chalukyas of Gujarat). status. According to the oral tradition eighty- 3. Undertaking projects of temple construction fi ve temples stood at Khajuraho, but today was not limited to kings, Jaina merchants got only twenty-fi ve survive. several temples constructed in western India. 4. The Chandella temples stood on large (a) Jaina merchant brothers Tejapala and platforms and the school of architecture Vastupala patronised the famous marble developed most remarkable style of Nagara temples of in Rajasthan. shikharas composed of several miniature (b) Samar Shah, a Jaina merchant from Patan shikharas. is also credited with construction and 5. They are smaller than Orissa temple and repair of several Jaina temples. only have the Garbhagriha, Mandapa and 4. The Sun temple at Modhera was constructed in Ardhamandapa, which are treated as a whole, the eleventh century CE under the patronage while Orissa treated them as separate entities of Solanki ruler Bhima I (1022-63). joined by vestibules. (a) The temple faces east, where lies a large 6. The Shikara also are curved for the whole kunda or water tank. length, dotted by miniature shikaras, like a (b) On the western end of the tank stands an high pak surrounded by miniature mountains, ornamented freestanding torana, which giving the effect of organic natural growth. acts as a transition between the tank and 7. The kalinga roof is pyramidal, while Khajuraho’s the temple. was corbelled roof which looks like a fl at (c) The temple itself consists of a dome. It has pillared windows and small porch followed by an assembly hall transepts to the assembly hall. (gudhamandapa), a grabhagriha and a 8. Unlike Orissa the interior is also carved, along pradakshinapath. with the ceiling. Sculptures lack solidity and vigour of Orissa e.g., Parsvanatha, Visvanath and Kandariya temples of Khajuraho.

Success 9. Presence of erotic sculpture on some of the

of temple walls is one the characteristic feature of the Khajuraho temple. 10. The Khajuraho temples are generally dedicated to two religions—Hinduism and Jainism. 11. Important temples at Khajuraho—Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, Lakhsmana Temple, Chaturbhuja Temple, Vishwanatha Temple, Sun Temple Modhera (Gujarat)

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CULTURAL TRADITIONS IN INDIA (750-1200) 12. The eleventh century Kandariya Mahadev temple is dedicated to Brahmanical lord Shiva. (a) The temple stands on a high platform and consists of a porch, a mandapa, a maha-mandapa, a grabhagriha and a pradakshinapath.

(b) The shikhara of the temple symbolised ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA , abode of Shiva and consists of eighty-four smaller shikharas. kalinga architecture 2. The Shikara is on top of the Deul, with vertical inlets, was crowned by the Amalakha and Kalassa (fi nal). 3. The exteriors are lavishly decorated, but interiors are unadorned. Roofs are corbelled and rested on four large pilasters, often supported by iron girders. 4. Rekha Deula Temples (a) Shikhara of the Lingraja Temple in Bhubneshwar. (b) Shikhara of the Jagannath Temple in Puri.

Kandariya Mahadev Temple, Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh) 5. Pidha Deula is a square building with a pyramid shaped roof. (a) Jagmohan of the Sun temple of konark. (b) Digambar Jain Temple of the Khandagiri in Bhubneshwar. 6. Khakhara deula is a rectangular building with a truncated pyramid shaped roof. The temples of female deities are generally of this type. (a) Baitala Deula, Bhubneshwar. (b) Durga Temple, Banki. 7. The Kalinga school of architecture developed between the seventh and thirteenth centuries in Orissa. 8. The temple construction in Orissa began under the Shailodbhavas, who ruled till the BASIC ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN OF second half of the eighth century, later the

Success patronage was primarily provided by the

KHAJURAHO TEMPLES of Somavamsi and the Ganga rulers. Kalinga Style of Architecture (Orissa) 9. The early temples of Kalinga style had simple 1. The temple consists of the Bhog Mandir (hall for curvilinear tower over a square garbha griha offerings), Nat Mandir (for dancing), Jagmohan and a mandapa called the jagamohan with (for assembly) and Deula (Garbagriha or fl at roof, the best example of early Kalinga sanctuary) connected by the Autarala. style architecture is the seventh century - There are three types of deulas- Rekha Parashurameshvaram temple in Bhubanshwar

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 - Dedicated to Shiva, the temple consists The pious and sincere followers of Islam had to of a mandapa (jagmohan) and a reprieve the profane desires and ambitious policy garbhagriha, topped by a curvilinear of the Muslims, whose number increased day by day shikhara (know as rekha deul), with an as new countries were brought into the fold of Islam amlaka on top. and material prosperity seemed to make them forget 10. The Mukteshvara temple in Bhubaneshwara, God. Those who regarded all outward splendour constructed in the tenth century under and wealth as an infraction of the principles which CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA patronage of Somavamshi dynasty marks governed the true Islamic life, retired from the world the transition between early and late Orissan to lead a life of abstinence and renunciation. style architecture and beginning of mature The name of sufi was fi rst applied to Abu phase of temple architecture in Orissa Hashim of Kufa who died in A.D. 778. The Sufi s of the (roughly 7th and 8th centuries A.D.) were - The temple faces west and is enclosed ascetics. Since the early Muslim ascetics wore cloths within a short wall. The entrance is of rough wool, they came to be called sufi s. They through a free standing beautifully were men of deep religious feeling. They laid great carved torana (arched gateway). The plan stress on the principles of repentance (Tauba) and of the temple consists of a jagmohana trust in God (Tawakkul). They were inspired by the with a phamsana roof and a garbhagriha Quranic conception of a transcendent God. Their with a rekha deul. meditation was confi ned within the limits of the 11. The best-known example of the later style Quran and the practice of the prophet. By the end of Kalinga school is the eleventh century of this period, sufi sm had become a monotheistic Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneshwara and theosophy. Fear of God and the Day of judgement thirteenth century Sun temple at Konark. were the prominent features of this theosophy. At the same time, the element of loving adoration was not altogether absent. Rabia, a woman mystic of the second century Hegira, says “Love of God hath so absorbed me that neither love nor hate of any other remains in my heart”. It was she who began the popular practice of using the symbolical language of human love to describe the relations between the mystic and his divine beloved. Dhul Nun Misri has used in his verses the Gotic imagery which is full of passionate devotion to the Divine Being. In fact the nature of love is such that it tends to resolve all differences The Mukteshvara Temple, Bhubaneshwara (Orissa) between the lover and the beloved into one simple Sufi sm unity. In later centuries, the allegory of love became The term Sufi sm is derived from the Arabic an important, feature of Sufi literature. word sufi , meaning wool. Sufi sm is the name given to Success In the third century of the Hegira (roughly of mysticism born in the bosom of Islam. It is as old as 9th century A.D.), the asceticism of the early sufi s Islam. Muhammad, the prophet was himself a mystic. gave birth to the regular government of Tasawauf. The mystical notes sounds clearly in the utterances The chief aims of the movement were the loving of Quran. Among the Suhabah (the companions of devotion to God and a discipline of the individual Muhammad, the prophet), there were some people soul. Under the Abbanils, the sufi theosophy attained who despised the world and led on austere life. This its perfection. That was the time when the infl uence tendency affi rmed itself among the Muslims during of Greek thought had shaken the very foundations

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CULTURAL TRADITIONS IN INDIA (750-1200) day. To meet this situation, the Muslim theologians Abdul Kasim al-jili had expounded the cardinal had to justify their faith and doctrines by logical doctrines of sufi sm. He has said that man attains arguments. This was a very congenial atmosphere spiritual perfection passing through four stages— for the incubation of mystical doctrines, which were complete surrender to the will of God, destruction likely to give a spiritual satisfaction to troubled souls of the individual, acquisition of miraculous power who cared more for the inner light than for external and divine attributes and entrance into Essence rituals, however, ingeniously sought to be justifi ed becoming perfect (Insan-i-Kamil) God mans. He by argumentation. ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA preached that all faiths were thoughts about one The person who played an important role in reality, God and all ways of worship express the same the further development of sufi sm was Bayazid aspects of that reality and in the end all together Bustanil. It was he who gave a defi nite turn to contribute to perfection of the whole. The aim of Tasawwauf by introducing the element of ecstasy every sufi is total absorption in God for which there into the mystic doctrine of the Imminence of God. are three stages. The fi rst stage consists of good He was the fi rst in Islamic mysticism to employ the actions, surrender of will to the commands of God, word fana, the annihilation of the self which later repentance for sins, acquisition of faith, maintenance became the basis of sufi theosophy. It implies that of cleanliness, performance of prayers, pilgrimage human attributes are annihilated through union and fast, giving alms and suppression of passion by with God, a state in which the mystic fi nds eternal ascetic practices, silence and solitude and curbing life (leaga). The school of Bayazid took the name of evil propensities of self such as pride, envy, anger, of Taifurian. narrow-mindedness etc. The second stage is that Husain Ibn Mansur Al Hallaj, developed still of attainment of divine and spiritual knowledge, further the method of Bayazid. He coined the and acquisition of detached view of life. The third mystical formula Anal Haq (I am God). He has stage is the complete union with divinity and the affi rmed the idea of the transcendence of God. It attainment of the unitive state. Every sufi who was the manifestation of love in the Divine Absolute seeks absorption with God always needs a spiritual that determined the multiplicity of his attribute guide (pir or shiekh) who regulates his disciple’s and his name. (murids) conduct and enables him to pass through The natural reaction of the monistic doctrines all the stages leading to the essential unity with of Bayazid and Hallaj was to reinforce orthodox Islam God. The link between a pir and his disciples was by re-establishing the principle of unity on the basis vital part of the sufi system. Every pir nominated a of the mystical experience and thereby, effect a successor to carry on his work (wali). The sufi s were rapprochement between the Shariat and the Tariqat. organised in orders called Silsilahs which were led This position was taken up by Ghazzali, Sheik Abdul by at prominent mystic who lived in a khangah or Qadir Jilani and Sheik Shihbuddne Suhrawardy, who hispice along with his disciples. The sufi orders are not only reconciled divergent tendencies of Islamic broadly divided into two groups—Ba-shara; that is, mysticism in one consolidated unity but also won those which followed the Islamic law and Be-shara, recognition for sufi sm of the sober type in orthodox those who were not bound by it, the later being theology and religious law. They asked the devotees followed more by wandering saints. Both types to practice self discipline which prepares the heart prevailed in India. Success for the intuitive knowledge of God. of We may conclude by quoting Tarachand, His doctrine of unity of Being is known as “sufi sm, indeed, was a religion of intense devotion, Tauhid-i-majud (unity of Being). It was the main love was its passion, poetry, song and dance its basis of the sufi thought before the time of Akbar. worship, and passing away in God its ideal”. Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru | 71 | Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com annexation of the Punjab. It was left to Muhammad the only permanent effects of his invasions was the Ghori to build up a Muslim empire in India on a on India in empire Muslim a up build to Ghori completely destroyed the city of Ghazni, in A.D. 1155. dominions. He was succeeded by Saifuddin, who who Saifuddin, by succeeded was He dominions. was Muizuddin Muhammad bin Sam, popularly popularly Sam, bin Muhammad Muizuddin was Saifuddin Suri, the brother of the deceased, invaded Aluddin Hussain, the younger brother of Saifuddin, account of his premature death. Mahmud of Ghazni Qasim was the fi rst Mulsim invader of India but but India of invader fi the Mulsim was rst Qasim after that, the rulers of Ghur continued to be the the be to continued Ghur of rulers that, the after Bast, Gharjistan and Heart. It is true that towards the and put to death Saifuddin. The result was that that was result The Saifuddin. death to put and but he maintained his hold over other part of his of part other over hold his maintained he but Balkh,lost he reign his of end TurkistanHeart,and Alauddin also conquered Bemain, Turkistan, Jerun, things A.D.other 1030. after were There Mahmud Ghazni.of rulers the vassalsof However, took they A.D.1009 Ghazni,in of Mahmud by defeated was the 10th century but its ruler, Muhammad-bin Suri, in state independent an was Herat.It and Ghazni secure footing. and India in empire Muslim a up set to failed also on India in empire Muslim a out carve to failed he Muhamamd of Ghur. It is true that Muhammad bin Successthe Ghorian The Invasions Ghorian andFactors Behind SULTANATE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DELHI known as Shihabuddin Muhamamd Ghori or or Ghori Muhamamd Shihabuddin as known Ghazni and defeated Bahram. Bahram also retaliated King King Bahram of Ghazni, Malik Qutubuddin Hasan, a which complicated matters. Under the orders of of orders the Under matters. complicated which prince of Ghur, was put to death. The result was that advantage of the falling fortunes of the house of of house the of fortunes falling the of advantage Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com The district of Ghur is situated in hills between The real founder of the Muslim Empire in India Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com THE 13THCENTURY CHAPTER-3 | 72 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success possession of the Punjab, and then only turned turned only then and Punjab, the of possession the Punjab was under Ghaznavids and Multan under he was a very ambitious and enterprising prince. enterprising and ambitious very a was he to conquer the Hindus of India and spread Islam Islam spread and India of Hindus the conquer to the Carmathians. They attacked them both and took Ghazni and put it in the charge of his brother brother his of charge the in it put and Ghazni consequence of political developments in the the in developments the political was of It consequence zeal. religious by impelled not was the and Punjab the of ruler the Malik, Khusrau of security also demanded that he must defeat defeat must he that demanded also security of him ashissuzerain. recovered Ghiyasuddin by succeeded was turn in north-west made the Ghurids turn to India where India to turn Ghurids the made north-west Mahmud.of city the the in territory of Occupation Sultanates Muslim the bind to failed had Religion soon who Mangols the and Khatais Qara the from their for trembling were all and maelstrom this in the Ghaznavids, Ghuzz and Ghurids were involved newly formed Muslim states were locked in mortal in that country. prestige and wealth. Being a Muslim, he would like love of conquest and power. He would like to have military of age an was Multan. He of Karmathians Ghazni.of empire the to belonged which Reasons He considered himself to be the heir to the Punjab, very existence from the threat gathering in the East the Salijuqs, the Salijuqs against the Khwarizmians, Muhammad Ghori. The latter enjoyed practically practically enjoyed latter Ghori. The Muhammad complete independence in Ghazni and also treated combat against one another; the Buwaihids against together. The Ghurids under Alauddin seised Ghazni erupted into Central Asia and swept all of them away. glory and Muhammad Ghori was fi red with the the fi was with red Ghori Muhammad and glory Islamic world. From central Asia to Mesopotamia, the and sacked it. They killed all the Muslims and burned of India by Muhammad Ghori. It is pointed out that Dr.conquest Ghurid the Tarachandthat says Many reasons have been given for the invasion SINCE-1993 ® Downloaded from KnowledgePhilic.com

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THE 13TH CENTURY their attention to their Rajput neighbours whose Khusrau Malik found that Muhammad Ghori was mutual jealousies opened the gates wide in front of determined to oust him from Punjab, he entered them. Neither the Ghurds, nor their successors, the into an alliance with the Khokhars. With their help, Mamluk Sultans, paid much attention to theological Khusrau Malik besieged Sialkot but he was unable principles or legal codes of Islam in extending their to capture the same. In 1186 A.D., Muhammad Ghori dominion into India, or in organising their system once again came to Punjab and besieged Lahore. of administration. Not the propagation of faith, but He had been invited by Raja Chakra Deo of Jammu vaulting ambition, hunger for land, riches and power ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA who was not on good terms with Khusrau Malik. were the motives which actuated them. When Muhammad Ghori failed to defeat Khusrau Multan and Sindh: The first invasion of Malik in a pitched battle, he resorted to a stratagem. Muhammad Ghori was directed against Multan, He persuaded Khusrau Malik to pay him a visit and in A.D. 1175. The heretics were easily defeated and guaranteed him safe conduct. Muhammad Ghori Multan was captured. An orthodox governor was also released the son of Khusrau Malik and when appointed for Multan. From Multan, he marched to the latter came out to meet his son, he was made Uch in upper Sindh. The relations between the ruler a prisoner and later on, put to death. of Bhatti and his wife were strained. Muhammad (1191) Ghori took advantage of them and promised to It is true that Muhammad Ghori had become marry the daughter of that lady if she fi nished her the master of Punjab, Multan and Sindh, but he was husband. The Queen poisoned her husband but far from being the master of Hindustan. There were her daughter was not made the chief lady of the many wealthy and powerful Rajput kingdoms in the harem of Muhammad Ghori. Scholars doubt the heart of India which were ready to check his further genuineness of the story and point out that the advance in case he dared to invade their territories. Bhatti Rajputs did not hold any part of Sindh and The Rajputs were proud of their pedigrees and the ruler of Uch at that time was most probably a jealous of their honour. Fighting was their hobby Muslim. In 1182 A.D., Muhammad Ghori invaded and they could never think of surrender. Prithvi Raj Lower Sindh and compelled its ruler to submit. Chauhan or Rai Pithora, the ruler of Delhi and Ajmer, Anhilwara: Muhammad Ghori also invaded decided to check the advance of Muhammad Ghori. Anhilwara or Patan, capital of Bhima II, the Vaghela He marched against the Ghori chief at the head of a ruler of Gujarat. However, he was defeated by its large army which, according to Firishta, included 2 ruler. He had to retrace his steps. According to Sir lakh horses and 3,000 elephants. He was also helped Wolseley Haig, “The sufferings of the retreat far by his fellow Rajput princes. Jai Chandra, the Rathor exceeded those of the advance and it was but a Raja of Kannauj was the only Rajput prince who kept miserable remnant of the army that reached Ghazni.” aloof from the war as Prithvi Raj had insulted him Habibullah says that Muhammad Ghori was lucky by carrying away his daughter by force. to escape with his beaten army. The armies met at Tarain, a village 14 miles Punjab: Muhammad Ghori realised that it was away from in A.D. 1191. Muhammad Ghori not possible to conquer India through Sindh and followed the tactics of the right, left and center and Multan, and the key to Hindustan lay through Punjab. himself occupied a position in the middle of his

No wonder, he decided to conquer Punjab. In 1179 Success army. The Rajputs attacked both the wings of the of A.D., he attacked and captured Peshawar which was Muslim army, which was scattered in all directions. under the ruler of Punjab. In 1181 A.D., Muhammad Muhammad Ghori attacked Govind Rai, the brother Ghroi proceeded against Khusrau Malik. Instead of of Prithvi Raj, on the mouth with his sword and fi ghting, Khusrau Malik sent to Muhammad Ghori knocked out his teeth. Govind Rai returned the costly presents and his own son as a hostage. In 1185 blow and struck Muhammad Ghori in the arm A.D., he attacked Punjab once again and plundered and gave a severe wound. Stunned by his blow, the countryside. He also captured the fortress of Muhammad Ghori turned back and began to bleed.

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 fall down from his horse. However, a Khilji soldier the Sultan assembled another army and advanced helped Muhammad Ghori and carried him off the to Hindustan, to avenge his defeat. A trustworthy fi eld of battle. The Muslim army dispersed in all person named Muizuddin, one of the principal men directions. It was pursued for 40 miles and after that of the hills of Tolakm, informed me that he was in the chase was given up. Muhammad Ghori went this army, and that its force amounted to 1,20,000 back to Ghazni. The Rajputs besieged Sarhind but horsemen bearing armour. Before the Sultan could were not able to capture it easily. arrive, the fort of Sarhind had capitulated, and the CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA enemy was encamped in the vicinity of Narain Second Battle of Tarain (1192) (Tarain). The Sultan drew up in battle array, leaving When Muhammad Ghori reached Ghazni, he his main body in the rear with the banners, canopies punished Ghazni, he punished all those offi cers and elephants to the number of several divisions. His and soldiers who had run away from the battlefi eld. plan of attack being formed, he advanced quietly. The They were publicly disgraced and paraded in the light unarmoured horsemen were made into four city. It is stated that after the fi rst battle of Tarain in divisions of 10,000 and were directed to advance 1191 A.D., Muhammad Ghori never slumbered in and harass the enemy on all sides, on the right ease nor waked but in sorrow and anxiety.” In 1192 and one the left, in the front and in the rear, with A.D., he marched from Ghazni at the head of a large their arrows. When the enemy collected his forces army consisting of 1,20,000 men. He encamped to attack, they were to support each other, and to once again near Tarain. There was a bloody battle. charge at full speed. By these tactics the infi dels As many as 150 Rajput princes fought on the side were worsted, the Almighty gave us the victory over of Prithvi Raj. To begin with, the Hindu cavalry was them, and they fl ed.” able to check the advance of the Muslims. The The account given by Firishta is in these words: battle continued from morning till sunset. However, “Inspired by their fi rst victory with arrogance and towards the end, Muhammad Ghori with the help pride, they (the rais) sent a haughty letter to the of 12,000 horsemen made a desperate charge and Sultan: ‘The strength and numbers of our army “carried death and destruction throughout the will be soon known to you, and reinforcements Hindu Camp.” The Rajputs were not able to stand are coming to us from all parts of Hindustan. Be the charge and were defeated. According to Firishta, merciful, if not to yourself, at least to the misguided “Like a great building, this prodigious concourse men you have brought hither. If you repent of your of the Rajputs, once shaken, tottered to its fall and venture and go back, we swear by our idols that was lost in its ruins.” Govind Rai was killed in the we will not harass your retreat; otherwise we will battlefi eld. Likewise, Khande Rai who had wounded attack and crush you tomorrow with more than Muhammad Ghori in 1191 A.D., was killed. Prithvi three hundred thousand horsemen, archers beyond Raj got disheartened, got down from his elephant all computation and an army which the fi eld of and tried to escape but was captured near the town imagination is not wide enough to contain. Your of Sirsuti. message is wonderfully affectionate and kind’, There are many versions about the death of Mu’izzuddin replied, ‘but I have not a freehand in the Prithvi Raj. According to Minhaj-us-Siraj, Prithvi Raj matter. It is by my brother’s order that I have come was captured and sent to hell. According to Hassan here and undertaken the hardships of the campaign.

Nizami, Prithivi Raj was taken to Ajmer and later on, Success If you will give me suffi cient time, I will send some was put to death as he was found to be guilty of of messengers to inform him of your overpowering treason. The view of Chand Bardai is that Prithvi Raj strength and obtain his permission to conclude was taken to Ghazni and there put to death. The view peace on the terms that Sirhand, Multan and Sindh that he was taken to Ajmer is preferred as certain belong to me and the rest of Hindustan remains coins of Prithvi Raj with the Sanskrit superscription under your sway. “Hammira” have been found. “The Rajput leaders thought that the humility Minhaj-us-Siraj has given the following of the reply was due to the weakness of the Muslim

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THE 13TH CENTURY night in preparing for the battle; and when in the the originator. Mahmud’s brilliant campaigns had morning, the Rajputs came out of their entrenched shown the way, and the Ghaznavide governors of positions to satisfy the call of nature and wash their Punjab, although serving a fast-declining empire, hands and faces, he fell upon them with his lines yet maintained pressure on the Hindu states of the drawn in order. The Hindus were taken aback by Gangetic valley.” the unexpected attack, but somehow or other, they Prof. K.A. Nizami says, “Tarain was a major hurriedly took up their arms and came to the fi eld. disaster for the Rajputs. Rajput political prestige, in CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA The Sultan knew the fearless courage of the Hindu general, and the Chauhana ascendancy, in particular, forces and had divided his army into four divisions, suffered a serious setback. The whole Chauhana which came forward to fi ght the enemy by turns. kingdom now lay at the feet of the invader. As Tarain When the Hindu elephants and horses attacked was a concerted action on the part of a very large Mu’izzuddin’s army, it fl ed away; but when the enemy, number of Rajput princes, its repercussions were also deceived by the trick, followed in pursuit, it turned felt on a very extensive scale and demoralisation back and with the blows of its axes relieved the became widespread.” bodies of the enemy of the weight of their heads. Thus, the battle raged from forenoon to afternoon, There was a general demoralisation in the when Mu’izzuddin put on his helmet and armour, country and there was none among the Rajputs and charged the enemy at the head of twelve who could bring under his banner all his fellow thousand men with drawn swords and lances. The princes to stop the further advance of the Muslims blood of brave warriors was mingled with the Earth, in India. The result was that the Muslims were able and in the twinkling of an eye the Hindu lines began to capture Samana, Kuhram and Hansi without to break. At the same time, Kharmil and the other much diffi culty. Ajmer was captured and plundered. Amirs attacked the Rajputs on all sides and drove Thousands of people were put to the sword. The them away from the fi eld.” Sultan also “destroyed the pillars and foundations The second battle of Tarain is a landmark of idol temples and built in their stead mosques and colleges and the percepts of Islam and the customs in the history of India. It ensured the ultimate of the law were divulged and established.” A son success of Muhammad Ghroi against the Indian of Prithvi Raj was put in charge of Ajmer and he states. According to V.A. Smith, “The second battle promised to pay tribute. Leaving Qutbuddin Aibak, in of Tarain, in 1192, may be regarded as the decisive charge of his Indian possessions, Muhammad Ghori contest which ensured the ultimate success of the went back to Ghazni. In a short time, Qutbuddin Mohammadan attack of Hindustan. All the numerous conquered Merrut, Kol and Delhi and made Delhi subsequent attacks were merely consequences of the seat of his government. the overwhelming defeat of the Hindu league on the historic plain to the north to Delhi.” Kannauj Dr. Habibullah Says, “Muizzuddin’s victory It is true that when Prithvi Raj was defeated in on the plains of Tarain was not, as is generally 1192, Jai Chandra of Kannauj felt happy but he did supposed, an isolated personal triumph, nor was it not know that he would meet a similar fate before an accident. It was, on the one hand, the execution long. Muhammad Ghori realised the signifi cance of a deliberate plan by a resolute conqueror and, of Kannauj in India. Its ruler was considered to on the other the consummation of a process which Success be the greatest king of India, having the largest of extended over the whole of the 12th century. His territory. Such a ruler could not be allowed to remain was only the most successful of the many attempts independent. No doubt, Muhammad Ghori marched made by the Turks from the northwest to otabin a against Kannauj in 1194 A.D., and the Rathor ruler foothold in Hindustan all of which may therefore be fell. “When the two armies met, there was a great regarded as preliminaries to Tarain. The Shansabani carnage: the infi dels sustained by their number conqueror thus perhaps, unwillingly, brought to a and the Muslims by their courage; but in the end successful end a century of reconnoitering activity, infi dels fl ed and the faithful were victorious. The

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 spared, except women and children, and the carnage were made to come to terms as the water supply of the men went on until the Earth was weary.” In of the fort was cut-off. Thus, Kalinjar, Mahoba and the battle of Chandwara, Jai Chandra was struck Khajuraho were occupied. in the eye by a fatal arrow and he fell down from Conquest of Bihar the elephant. The Rajputs were demoralised and they ran away from the battlefi eld. Muhammad While Qutbuddin Aibak was busy, one of his Ghori proceeded to the fortress of the Asni where commanders named Ikhtiyaruddin Muhammad bin Jai Chandra had stored his treasure. Asni was ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Bakhtiyar Khliji was planning the conquest of Bihar captured and the treasure was plundered. From and Bengal. The commander was a curious specimen Asni, Muhammad Ghori proceeded toward Banaras. of the genus homo with his arms reaching up to the About 1,000 temples were destroyed in Banaras and calves of his legs while standing erect. With these mosques were raised on their sites. Muhammad long arms, he reached the easternmost parts of Ghori carried away treasure to Ghazni upon 14,000 Northern India. In 1197 A.D., he organised an attack camels. According to Prof. S.R. Sharma, “The fall of Jai against Bihar with 200 horsemen. Odantapuri, the Chandra at Chandwar made Muhammad the master capital of Bihar, was looted and plundered. Raja of the political as well as the religious capitals of Indruman was coward and without giving a fi ght, Hindustan, Kannauj and Banaras.” he ran away. The Buddhist monasteries in Bihar The descendants of Jai Chandra continued were destroyed. Thousands of monks were put to to rule over a fraction of their kingdom which the sword. Muhammad Ghori was not able to occupy. Even Minhaj tells us that Ikhtiyaruddin attacked Kannauj was recovered by the Gahadwaras a few Bihar suddenly and captured the fortress. “The great years after its conquest. number of inhabitants of that place were Brahmans, and all of them had shaved heads. They were all In 1195-96, Muhammad Ghori invaded India slain. There was a large stock of books there. When and defeated Jadon Bhatti Rajputs. He also advanced these books came under the observation of the to Bihar and occupied a portion of it. Musalmans, they summoned a number of Hindus For the next few years, Muhammad Ghori was who might give them information regarding the busy fi ghting the Turks in Central Asia. In his absence, purport of those books; but all the (literate) Hindus the affairs of India were managed by Qutbuddin had been killed. On becoming acquainted (with Aibak. The latter consolidated the Muslim position the contents of those books), it was found that the in Ajmer. He also waged war against Raja Bhim Deva whole of that fortress and city was a college, and in of Anhilwara who had defeated even Muhammad Hindivi tongue, they call a college vihar.” Ghori. Kanwar Pal, the general of Bhim Deva, was Conquest of Bengal defeated and killed. Huge booty fell into the hands of the Muslims. Ikhtiyaruddin was so much emboldened by his success in Bihar that he planned the conquest Bundelkhand of Bengal which was ruled by Lakshmansena of the In 1197-98 A.D., Aibak conquered Badaun Sena dynasty. It is true that the ruler was not an old from a Rashtrakuta Rajput. He reoccupied Banaras man but he was absolutely lethargic and negligent which had been lost after its fi rst conquest. He also Success of his duties. Although the invaders were in Bihar, of reoccupied Chandwara and Kannauj. He overran a he did nothing to protect his territory. No wonder, part of Malwa. In 1202-3 A.D., Aibaq invaded Kalinjar Ikhtiyaruddin took advantage of this state of affairs which was the military capital of Paramardi Deva, in Bengal. Sometime in 1204-5 A.D., he started at the Chandela ruler of Bundelkhand. The Chandelas the head of his army and suddenly appeared at fought with courage and bravery. The fort of Kalinjar Nadia-which was one of the two capitals of Bengal was besieged. The ruler was willing to make peace and the residence of its kings. It is stated that only but he died before he could do so. The resistance was 18 horsemen had accompanied him to Nadia and

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THE 13TH CENTURY thought that he was a merchant who had brought fl ights have been the lot of even great men and horses for sale. In this manner, he reached the gate admittedly heroic peoples. Rajputs recklessness has of the palace of the Raja. He drew his sword and an element of romance in it but of little practical commenced the attack. The Raja was at his dinner. wisdom. It is impossible to reject the story altogether. All of a sudden, a cry was raised at the gate of his To dismiss it on the ground, as Mr. Banerji did, the palace and in the city. Before the Raja could ascertain Hindu accounts never speak of Nadia or Navadwip what had occurred, Ikhtiyaruddin rushed into the as a Sena capital or that ‘Raj Lakhamania’ cannot be palace and put a number of men to the sword. ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA identical with Lakshmanasena who, in Mr. Banerji’s The Raja fl ed bare-footed by the back door of view had long been dead, is to base positive history the palace and his whole tresure and all his wives, on negative argument. For Bakhtiyar’s occupation maid-servants, attendants and women fell into the of a portion of the Sena kingdom following his raid hands of the invader. When his main army arrived, on Nadia is an undisputed fact. the whole city was brought under subjection. It is true that one cannot claim a literal Ikhtiyaruddin moved towards North and established accuracy for Minhaj’s account, but the results of himself at Lakhnauti. Lakshman Sena took shelter recent research certainly do not strengthen Mr. in Eastern Bengal, where he continued to rule for Banerji arguments. There is, on the other hand, sometime. No attempt was made by Ikhtiyaruddin to little improbability in the story, for Bengal from all conquer the whole of Bengal. (According to Stanley accounts presented not many elements of strength. Lane-Poole, “Compared with Mahmud, the name of A Brahmin-ridden, disintegrated society, with a king Muhammad Ghori has remained almost obscure. He whose youthful valour and military energy had was no patron of letters, and no poets or historians given way to a supine addiction to religion and vied with one another to praise his munifi cence poetry, a top-heavy, hollow administration, and with and power. Yet his conquests in Hindustan were vassals fi nding strength to declare independence, wider and far more permanent than Mahmud’s, Lakshmanasena’s kingdom was anything but a force a large part of those conquests were of course that could put up sustained frontal resistance. The partial, and there were still revolts to be crushed Turushka had become a bogey and everywhere and chiefs to be subdued: India was not to be inspired a paralysing fear. subjugated in generation. But the conquest was The superstitious ‘prophecy’ about the ‘long real and permanent, and though Muhammad was armed Turushka’ eventually destroying the Sena no Indian sovereign, but still king of Gahzni with kingdom is perhaps an overstatement; the king’s eyes turned towards Persia and the Oxus, he left a refusal to fl y with his frightened courtiers from the viceroy in Hindustan who began the famous Slave threatened zone shows that rational courage had dynasty, the fi rst of the many Muslim kings that not entirely taken leave of him. But the apprehension have ruled India.) of an impending catastrophe was undoubtedly felt: According to Dr. Habibullah, “The ease with for, epigraphic evidence shows that the king in his which the king was put to fl ight and the city occupied, 25th year (1203 A.D.) performed a great sacrifi ce must have surprised even Bakhtiyar himself. The to propitiate the Gods for help in averting it. Every story of the 18 horsemen defeating a great king fresh advance of the Turk only deepened this fear

has, at any rate, evoked skeptical comments from Success and destroyed self-confi dence. The easy success of a number of Hindu scholars. Minhaj’s veracity of Bakhtiyar’s noon-day attack, thus, needs no other has been questioned and arguments have been explanation. Boldly led surprise attacks can paralyse advanced to reduce the account to sheer myth. even more courageous and well-prepared forces. It There is, however, little need to feel apologetic for is worthy of note that the city of Nadia was occupied the supposed cowardice of the Sena king; even were only after the main force had arrived.” he really so, to consider his conduct as typical of the Ikhtiyaruddin began to dream of carrying his Bengali people would be historically incorrect. Haty, arms beyond the Himalayas. About the middle of and what ungenerous critics would call, shameful Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru the year 1205, he set out with an army of 10,000 | 77 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 horses on his new adventure. He entered into a blocked the strategic road between the Punjab treaty with the Raja of Kamrup who agreed not to and Ghazni. As Aibak failed to handle the situation, molest him and to assist him, at least with advice. Muhammad Ghori found it necessary to come On the way, there was a river which was spanned by to India in person. At the close of 1205 A.D., the a stone bridge. Leaving a force to hold the bridge, combined forces of Muhammad Ghori and Aibak Ikhtiyaruddin set out for Tibet. It is not certain in infl icted a crushing defeat on the Khokhars, between what direction he marched or what part of Tibet was the Jhelum and the Chenab. A large number of CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA his objective. After 15 days of marching, he reached Khokhars were slaughtered and a still larger number a strong fortress standing in the open country which was captured, and enslaved. The number of slaves was well cultivated and thickly populated. was so large that fi ve Khokhar slaves were sold for The inhabitants joined the garrison of the a Dinar in the camp. fortress in opposing the invaders and though About the fate of the retreating army, Minhaj Ikhtiyaruddin held his ground throughout the writes, “When they retreated, not a blade of grass day, his losses were very heavy and ultimately he or a stick of fi rewood was to be found throughout decided to retreat. During his retreat, he found that the whole route. The inhabitants had burnt it all, and the natives had destroyed or obstructed the roads those who lived in the defi les and passes had moved and burnt all vegetation. There was neither fodder off from the line of route. During these fi fteen days, nor fuel and the army was forced to live on the fl esh the cattle and the horses did get into a sir of food or of its horses. The bridge had been destroyed and a blade of grass. The soldiers had to kill their horses no boats were available. The Raja of Kamrup also and eat them till they came out from the mountains attacked the retreating army and drove it into the into the country of Kamrup and reached the head river. Ikhtiyaruddin managed to reach Deokot with of that bridge. They found two arches of the bridge about hundred horsemen. According to Sir Wolseley destroyed. The reason was that enmity had arisen Haig, That was the greatest disaster which had yet between the two amirs (who were left to guard the befallen the Muslim arms in India. Armies had been bridge) and, in their discord, they had neglected defeated but Ikhtiyaruddin’s force had been all but to watch the bridge and protect the road, and had annihilated and it would have been well for him to gone off. The Hindus of the Kamrup country came have perished with it, for he could not show his face and destroyed the bridge.” in the streets of Lakhnauti without encountering the Muhammad Ghori reached Lahore in February, gibes and reproaches of the wives and families of A.D. 1206 and made arrangements for going back those whom he had led to their death.” to Ghazni in order to carry on his struggle against the Turks. Unfortunately, when he was on his way The disaster broke the nerves of Ikhtiyaruddin back to Ghazni, he was assassinated on the banks and he fell seriously ill. On hearing this, Ali Mardan, of the river Indus on 15th March, 1206 by some Shia one of his Armirs, came to Deokot. Ikhtiyaruddin rebels and Hindu Khokhars. The body of the Sultan was confi ned to bed and nobody had seen him for was carried to Ghazni and buried in his capital. the past three days. Ali Mardan reached his bed, According to Dr. Habibullah, with the death drew the sheet from his face and thrust a dagger of Muhammad Ghori died his empire across the into his breast. Success Hindu Kush. Within a few years, Mahmood, his of While this was what was happening in India, nephew and successor at Ghor, was compelled to Muhammad Ghori was routed by the Turks at acknowledge the suzerainty of Khwarizm Shah. After Andhkhud, in 1204 A.D., “a defeat which dealt a fatal his death, the Shansabani Kingdom was practically blow at his military reputation in India.” Rumours absorbed within the suzerainty of Khwarizm Shah. even spread in India that Muhammad Ghori was The dissolution of Ghor was complete when in 1215 killed. The result was that the Khokhars revolted A.D., Yalduz, Muhammad Ghori’s viceroy, was driven under their leader, Rai Sal, and defeated the Deputy out and Ghazni was attached to the appanage of

Governor of Multan. They plundered Lahore and Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Allauddin’s crown prince. | 78 |

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THE 13TH CENTURY Estimate his Central Asian empire, it is true, could have had It cannot be denied that Muhammad Ghori only an ephemeral existence. But as in the case of was not so great a general as Mahmud of Ghazni. Babar, his Indian conquest survived. If he failed to Unlike Mahmud, he suffered a number of defeats at fi nd a dynasty, he yet trained up a band of men who the hands of Indian rulers. He did not possess the were to prove more loyal to his ideals and better grandeur of Mahmud. However, he was superior fi tted to maintain his empire. In choice of men he displayed a singular talent, for to slaves like Aibak, to him as a constructive statesman. Mahmud kept ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA himself busy in conquering and collecting riches Yalduz and Tughril he owed most of his success. but Muhammad Ghori was able to build up an His almost annual campaigns from the Jaxartes empire which lasted for centuries. According to Dr. to the Jumna display a military talent of no mean Ishwari Prasad, “Wealth, not territory, the extirpation order. His military preoccupations probably left of idolatry and not conquest, were the objects him little leisure for aesthetic recreations, but he of his (Mahmud’s) raids; and when these were was not indifferent to learning and scholarship. The accomplished, he cared nothing for the myriad celebrated philosopher and savant, Fakhruddin Razi people of India.” However, Muhammad Ghori made and the famous classical poet Nizami Uruzi adorned up his mind from the very beginning to build up the Ghoride court and have paid deserving tributes an empire in India and succeeded in planting the to the mental qualities of their friend and patron.” banner of the Crescent permanently on the Indian About Muhammad Ghori, Prof. K.A. Nizami soil. Muhammad Ghori was not so fanatical as says that his contribution to the establishment of Mahmud but he was certainly more political than Turkish rule in India cannot be over emphasised. his great predecessor. He decided to take advantage Only a military leader of great vision and tact could organize military campaigns over an area stretching of the rotten political condition of India and build from the Oxus to the Jamuna and only a careful, up a Muslim empire in India. cautious and bold planning could hold this structure Muhammad Ghori was a shrewd diplomat in tact. The conquest of northern India was not an who could deal with every type of friend or foe. He easy walk-over. It was stoutly resisted by the Rajput saw the weakness of his enemies and did all that he governing classes. Muhammad Ghori met all the could to exploit them to his own benefi t. It is true challenges of the situation with perseverance and that he was cruel at times but it cannot be denied courage. Prof. Nizami particularly puts emphasis on that he was also kind and generous. He was not an two features of Muhammad Ghori’s character: his idealist and no wonder his approach to political dogged tenacity of purpose and his grim political matters was practical, well calculated and realistic. realism. He was defeated at Anhilwara and at Tarain, but no defeat could dampen his spirits. According to Sir W.V. Hunter, “He (Muhammad Ghori) was no religious knight-errant of Islam like A general of smaller stature and inferior Mahmud of Ghazni but a practical conqueror. The mettle would have succumbed to these defeats, objects of his distant expeditions were not temples but Muhammad Ghori refused to take any reversal as fi nal. He reorganised his forces and came again but provinces.” determined to achieve the objective he had set

Dr. Habibullah says: “There could be no two Success before himself. He analysed the causes of his defeats of opinion as to the place Muizzuddin should occupy in dispassionately and changed his policies as times history. Unlike Mahmud of Ghazni, he was a practical and circumstances demanded. When thrust into statesman; of the rotten political structure of India the country from Rajputana proved abortive, he he took the fullest advantage. As in the founder of did not hesitate to change his plan. He did not the Mughal empire, his sovereign quality lay in the plunge into political uncertainties, but proceeded steadfast determination with which he pursued his cautiously and carefully consolidating his power objective and in his refusal to accept a defeat as fi nal. and taking all factors into consideration. At a time

Against his far more gifted rival, the Khwarism Shah, Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru when he had to deal with many hostile powers | 79 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 nearer home, he never ignored the problems of his religion. The same view was shared by Muhammad Indian possessions. His contribution to the cultural Ghori. Political sagacity and not religious fanaticism development of Ghur was not negligible. In fact, it and fervour guided their steps, Ibn-i-Asir tells us was he and his brother, Ghiyasuddin, who brought that even Anhilwara was restored to the Hindu about a transformation in the cultural pattern of rules. The Ghurid soldiers were not followed by Ghur. He provided facilities to Scholars like Maulana any vindictive measures inspired by religious zeal Fakhruddin Razi, to spread religious education in or fanaticism. They handled every situation in the CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA those backward areas and helped in the emergence light of experience and entered into a series of of Ghur as a center of culture and learning. He also compromises without any religious partiality or made his contribution in the sphere of architectural prejudice. After conquering Ajmer, Muhammad traditions. Ghori did not take over the administration, but gave “Of the two tides of Mohammedan invasion the same to the son of Prithviraj. When Delhi was that surged into India, Mahmud’s had left little conquered, Khanday Rai’s successor was allowed trace. It had been but a series of triumphant raids, to rule over the territory. When the Chauhans gave and when its violence was spent scarcely enough trouble to the son of Prithiviraj, Aibak decided on strength remained to hold a single province. That direct annexation but compensated the prince by province however, had been held, not without a placing him in charge of Ranthambhor. struggle, and in the Punjab Muhammad Ghori found the base, the necessary leverage, whence to Ghorian Invasion—Factors responsible for bear upon a wider territory than his precursor. He Success rose from even smaller beginnings than Mahmud, Muizzuddin Muhammad Bin Sam, the governor but his followers possessed the same hardihood of Ghazni, laid the foundation of Delhi Sultunate in and power of endurance as the earlier invaders North India. The reasons for the advent of Turks in from the same mountain valleys, and they carried India can be sought in the fl uid political conditions their arms further and left surer footprints. The that obtained in central Asia at that time. The dynasty of Ghor relapsed into the insignifi cance of Ghurids bid for power in central Asia was seriously a highland chiefdom after its great Sultan’s death; undermined by the rising power of the Khwariznis but the dominion it had conquered in India was empire. Khorasan, which was the bout of contention not lost to Islam. It was consolidated under other between the two, was soon conquered by Khwarzni rulers, and from the days of Muhammad Ghori to the Shah. This left no option for the Ghurid but to look catastrophe of the Indian mutiny there was always for expansion towards India. a Mohammadan king upon the throne of Delhi.” Moreover, possession of Punjab which was Motives of Ghurid Campaigns noted for its fertility could provide the sinews of war Very often religious motives are read in the against the Khwarijni rulers. The unstable political campaigns of the Ghurids. However, the view of condition of India during the period only convinced Prof. K.A. Nizami is that although Ghrid soldiers were Muizzuddin of the expediency of his move. Besides, Musalmans, they were not the representatives of the Ghurids did not want to have an enemy in the

Islam. While eligious sentiments may have motivated Success rear while fi ghting against the Khwarazini rulers. their actions, they were largely inspired by political of Thus, Central Asian politics exercised a termendous objectives. The Ghurid employed the same tactics in infl uences on Muhammad military designs in the India which they had applied in Persia and Central east. This is attested by Ata Malik Juwayni’s account Aasi. They fought the Hindus and Muslims alike. of Muhammad’s last Indian campaign: ‘He undertook Most probably, the Ghurid armies were made up his Indian expedition, so that the might fully equip of mercenaries. The view of Poet Saadi was that the his army; for his activities in Khorrsan during the Lashkari or professional soldier fought for the wages last few years had cost him almost everything to

he got and he did not fi ght for the king, country or Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru had. When he reached India, one victory that God | 80 |

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THE 13TH CENTURY granted him was suffi cient to repair his fi nance and were ruled by individual rulers. There set right the affairs of the army. were mutual jealousies and dissensions Ghurid campaign are sometimes attributed to among the Rajput Chiefs. It is true that religious motives. But, a scrutiny of available sources the Rajputs were good warriors but there shows that Islam was not the guiding factor. Ghurid was too much of a clannish spirit among armies were composed of mercenaries of variegated them. faiths who fought for material rewards than for (b) The Rajput soldiers owed their allegiance CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA religion. They had fought the Hindus and Muslims to their petty chief and were prepared to alike. Once a ruler submitted, he was allowed to fi ght against other Rajput soldiers under rules over his territories (e.g. administration of Ajmer another Rajput Chief. It was in this way entrusted to Prithviraj’s son) unless for some other that they frittered away their energy. reasons, it was necessary to annex his kingdom in (c) There was no national consciousness part or whole. Hindu offi cers and soldiers were used among them. The various Rajput princes by Mahmud as well as Muhammad. Aibak posted could not and did not think in terms of Ranas for administrative posts in outlying areas of India as a whole. They were not prepared his domain. If, on occasion they raised the battle cry to sink their differences in the higher of Islam, it was used an expedient to rally forces and interests of the country and put up a to justify their plunder of Indian cities and temples. united front against the Muslim invaders. But on the whole, Ghurids were not motivated by (d) The result was that they were defeated any sense of vindication inspired by religious zeal one by one and all their bravery was of or fanaticism. no avail. Causes of Turkish success against Rajputs 2. The military organisation of the Rajputs was Considering the fact that the Rajputs were defective and could not succeed against the great warriors, it seems a little strange that they were Muslims. The Rajput armies were ill-organised defeated by the Muslims. Habibullah admits that in and ill-equipped. individal fi ghting, the Rajput surpassed the Turks. (a) The trouble with the Hindus was that The view of Elphinstone, Lane-Poole and V. A. Smith they were satisfi ed with what they had. was that the success of the Muslims was due to the They did not try to keep themselves in fact that they came from cold climate and were non touch with the latest developments in vegetarians. That view is no longer accepted. military organisation and methods of The soldierly qualities of the Hindus are fi ghting. The result was that they were admitted even by their enemies and consequently defeated by the Muslims who were that could not be a factor responsible for their failure. ahead of them in these matters. It is also not true that non-vegetarians are better (b) Moreover, the Hindus put too much fi ghters than the vegetarians. Moreover, there were a reliance on elephants. These “mountain- large number of Hindus who were non-vegetarians like elephants” could not stand against at the time when the Hindus and Muslims fought the mobile Turkish cavalry. against one another. The real causes must be found Success (c) Once the elephants were frightened, somewhere else. of they trampled their own men under their 1. A very important cause of Muslim success and feet and thus proved themselves to be Hindu failure was the lack of political unity a greater than an asset. in the country. There was no one paramount (d) The Rajputs fought mainly with their power in the country at that time which could swords while the Muslims were good fi ght against the Muslims. archers. The Muslims archers from their (a) India at that time was a congeries of horses were more than a match for the

states. Various parts of the country Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Rajputs who fought with their swords. | 81 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 (e) Prof. K. A. Nizami rightly points out that (c) They were always ready to resort mobility was the key-note of Turkish to shock-tactics to dishearten and military organisation at that time. It was demoralize their enemies. With lightning the age of the horse. A well-equipped speed, they fell upon the people and cavalry with tremendous mobility was destroyed them with fi re and sword. They the great need of the time. did this so often that an impression was (f) Indian military strategy gave greater created that it was impossible to face the CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA importance to weight than to mobility. Muslims successfully. The Rajputs believed in crushing rather 4. Habibullah points out that one great defect than moving rapidly and striking. When of the Rajput military system was that they the Indian armies headed by elephants staked everything on the issue of a single came into the battle-fi eld, they were battle. They did not make any distinction bound to be defeated by swift and easy- between a battle and a war. moving cavalry of the Muslims. (a) Lloyd George used to say that while (g) Sir Jadunath Sarkar also points out that others won battles, he won the war. the element of mobility was totally Unfortunately, the Rajputs could not absent from the Indian armies. To quote think in terms of a defeat. If it was a him, “The arms and horses of these trans- question of defending a fort, they were border invaders gave them indisputable prepared to ruin themselves while military superiority over the Indians. defending it. Their provisions also were carried by fast (b) If they failed to defend it, they died trotting camels which required no fodder fi ghting to a man and their women burnt for themselves but fed on the roots and themselves to death. The result was that leaves of the way-side, while the Banjara after one defeat, nothing was left. pack-oxen of the Hindu commissariat were slow and burdensome.” (c) It has rightly been said that the Rajputs were notorious for turning a single 3. The Rajputs looked upon a battle as a military defeat in a catastrophe. They tournament in which they tried to show skill, should have known that in a war it is bravery and chivalry. That was not the case sometimes politic to retreat and attack with their enemies. the enemy when the other party is weak. (a) Turks did not fi nd themselves fettered by 5. Another defect in the Rajput military system any rules of the game. They believed that was that they did not take the offensive all was fair in war. They were prepared to adopt any tactics which could bring against their enemies. them victory. They believed that end (a) To quote Habibullah, “Rarely did the justifi es the means and they did not care Hindu princes take the offensive, but for the consequences of their actions. they bestirred themselves only when the enemy appeared before the strong- (b) They were prepared to defi le a tank or a Success river from which their enemies got their of hold.” Obviously, this is not the way of water-supply. They were prepared to winning victory. divert the course of a channel to stop the (b) A policy of defense alone does not help. water-supply to the enemy and thereby A defensive policy has to be coupled bring about their surrender. They were with an offensive policy. As that was prepared to destroy the whole of the not done by the Rajputs, their people neighbouring territory so that the enemy suffered terribly on account of the

may be starved to submission. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Muslim invasions. | 82 |

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THE 13TH CENTURY 6. Dr. Iswari Prasad maintains that the wars 7. Another cause was the failure on the part between the Rajputs and the Muslims were “a of the Hindus to realise the implications of struggle between two different social systems, the invasions of the Muslims. Their view was the one old and decadent and the other full that the Turks were like the Sakas, Kushanas of youthful vigor and enterprise.” and the Hunas. They believed that the Turks (a) The Hindus were divided into many would be contented with extending their castes. These castes created pride and control over the Punjab alone and not carry prejudices. They also created inequality ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA their power into the very heart of India. in society. The result was that all the - It was this misunderstanding or wrong Hindus could not pool their resources conclusion which was responsible for against the foreigners. their not taking the Muslim invasions (b) Moreover, out of the four castes the work seriously. They ought to have realised the of fi ghting was left to only one caste. The gravity of the situation and marshalled people of the three other castes thought all their resources to meet the enemy. As that they had nothing to do with the they did not do so, their failure could be defense of the country and they seemed anticipated. to be indifferent towards the same. 8. Another cause of the failure of the Hinuds (c) The result was that about three-fourths of was their general attitude towards others and the people of India did not fi ght against their own lives. the foreigners. Obviously, the rest of the (a) Alberuni tells us that “the Indians believe one-fourth of the population could not that there is no country but theirs, no be expected to fi ght against the enemy nation like theirs, no king like theirs, successfully. no religion liek theirs, no science like (d) Islam is a great brotherhood and this theirs.... They are by nature niggardly in equality among the Muslims was a great communicating what they know and asset in their fi ght against the Hindus. they take the greatest possible care to Equality among Muslims brought unity withhold it from men of another caste, among them and they fought shoulder from among their own people, still more to shoulder against their enemies. of course from any foreigner.” (e) Prof. K. A. Nizami also holds a similar (b) This wrong estimate of themselves view. According to him, the real causes blinded the Hindus and they assumed of the defeat of the Indians lay in their a false sense of superiority which social system and the invidious caste ultimately proved their ruin. distinctions which rendered the whole (c) Alberuni also tells us that “they (the military organisation rickety and weak. Hindus) are in a state of confusion, (f) The caste taboos and discriminations devoid in logical order and in the last killed all sense of unity. Even religion instance always mixed up with silly was the monopoly of a particular section notions of the crowd. I can only compare

and a majority of the Indians were not Success their mathematical and astronomical allowed to see the inside of a high-caste of knowledge to a mixture of pearls and Indian temple. sour dates, or of pearls and dung, or of (g) For the bulk of the people of India, there costly crystals and common pebbles. was hardly anything which could evoke 9. Another cause of Muslim success was their patriotic responses in them when face slave system. Lane-Poole observes: “While to face with the Ghurid invaders. They a brilliant father’s son is apt to be a failure, watched with indifference the fate of the slaves of a real leader of men have often

the Indian governing classes. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru proved the equals of their master.” | 83 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 (a) The Muslim rulers had a large number Economic, Social and Cultural Consequences of slaves and they were given high The Turkish conquest of India had its impact positions on the basis of their merit. in various fi elds. It paved the way for the liquidation (b) The result was that these slaves helped of the multi-state system in India. The political ideal their masters to build up an empire in of the Turkish Sultan was a centralised political this country. It is these slaves who were organisation controlled by a monarch with unlimited powers and there was no place for feudalism in responsible for conquering various parts ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA of this country while their masters were it. The institution of Iqtas was employed for the busy otherwise. purpose of breaking the feudal traditions of the various areas and for linking up the various parts (c) Examples of such slaves were Qutbuddin of the empire of one center. The Turkish Sultans Aibak, Iltutmish and Balban. gave India a Capital in the very heart of Northern 10. Dr. Tarachand points out that an interval of India. They also gave her a skeleton of an all India 175 years separated the sack of Somnath administration by bringing the chief cities and the by Mahmud and the battle of Tarain which great roads under the control of the Government sealed the fate of Hindu India, but the doom of Delhi. was self-infl icted. As a result of the centralised monarchy in (a) There were warnings of the impending Northern India, there was a marked change in the crisis and the Indians had enough time political horizon. The political outlook became in which they could have set their house broader and the areas of isolation began to shrink. Sir Jadunath Sarkar says: “The intimate contact in order. between India and the outer Asiatic world, which (b) However, the rulers did not bother had been established in the early Buddhist age, was and they continued the merry game lost, when the new Hindu society was reorganised of toppling one another showing utter and set in rigidity like a concrete structure about the unconcern about the happenings in the Eighth century A.D., with the result that India again Punjab and beyond. became self-centred and isolated from the moving (c) Their lack of intelligence was abysmal. On world beyond her natural barriers. This touch with the eve of the Muhammadan conquest, the rest of Asia and the nearest parts of Africa was the Hindu principalities were divided, restored by the Muslim conquest at the end of the engaged in never-ending feuds and 12th century.” suicidal wars among themselves. Another effect of the Turkish conquest of (d) In Western India, the Chalukyas, the Northern India was what is described by Prof. Mohd. Habib as the “urban revolution”. The old “caste Paramars and Chauhans fought with one cities” of the Rajput period were thrown open to all another and also with their neighbours types of people. The Turkish Government refused to to the East and to the South. recognize caste as the basis of social demarcation (e) In Central India, the Gohadvadas, or as the principle of civic life. The working classes,

Chandellas, Kalachuris with some others Success labourers, artisans and the non-caste people of the thrown in, competed for supremacy. In of unprivileged classes joined hands with the new eastern India, Palas and Senas of Bihar Government in building new cities. As a matter of and Bengal were constantly under fi re fact, the main strength of the early Turkish Sultans lay from Gahadvadas of Kanauj and of in these cities which placed the entire surplus of their Gangas of Orissa. The result was that working classes at the disposal of the government. when the Ghurid hammer fell, they were The Turkish conquest also had its effect in the struck down one after another like nine- military fi eld. There was a change in the character

pins. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru and composition of the Indian armies and the | 84 |

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THE 13TH CENTURY methods of their recruitment and maintenance. conquest many dialects and languages were used Fighting was not to be the monopoly of any one for administrative purposes. The Turks introduced caste or group. Recruitment was thrown open to all Persian at the higher level of administration properly trained soldiers. throughout their territories in India. This brought The soldiers in future came from all the sources- about uniformity in the language of administration. irrespective of their caste, creed or colour. The feudal To quote , but the Persian speech levies gave place to strong standing armies, centrally (Gufuar) uniform in Hindustan from the banks of CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA recruited, centrally paid and centrally administered. the river Sind to the shores of the sea. Such a great The foot soldiers in the Indian armies were replaced language is our medium of expression….. and this by the mounted fi ghting men (Sawaran-i-muqatala). Persian of ours is the original Persian. More emphasis was put on mobility and striking The Indian dialects different at every hundred force of the army, and not its heaviness of crushing Karohs but the is the same over strength. It is these armies which were able to check an area of our thousand Farsangs…….. Here is the the Mongolian invasions. Persian language in which pronunciation of words Trade received a new impetus. The uniformity is in complete agreement with their orthography.” of the legal system, the tariff regulations and the The Turkish conquest gave a rude shock to currency widened the activities of merchants and the caste system and the idea of physical pollution facilitated their movement from one place to another. among the people of India. The result was that those The Turkish conquest had also its effect people of India who suffered under the caste system, on the language of administration. Before this became the supporters of the new rulers.

Foundation of Delhi Sultanate Mamluks or Slave Khaljis Tuqhlaq's Sayyids Dynasty (1290-1320) (1320-1412) (1412-1451) (1206-1290) Qutubuddin Aibak Jalaluddin Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (1321–1325) Khizr Khan (1206-1210) Khalji Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325–1351) (1414–1421) Iltutmish (1210-1236) (1290-96) Mahmud Ibn Muhammad (1351) Mubarak Shah Ruknuddin Firoz (1236) Alauddin Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388) (1421–1434) Khalji Raziya Sultana Ghiyasuddin Tughluq II Muhammad (1296-1316) (1236-40) (1388–1389) Shah Mubarak Shah Muizuddin Bahram Abu Bakr Shah (1389–1390) (1434–1445) (1316-1320) (1240-42) Nasir ud din Muhammad Shah III Alam Shah (1390–1393) Alauddin Masud (1445–1451) (1242-46) Alauddin Sikandar Shah I (1393) Success Nasiruddin Mahmud Mahmud of Nasir ud din (1393–1394) (1246-66) Nusrat Shah (1394–1399) Ghiyasuddin Balban Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah (1399– (1266-1286) 1413) Muizuddin Kaiqabad (1286-1290) Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru | 85 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 The Slave Dynasty: The period constitutes already been deputed as the viceroy of Ghori and the formative and the most challenging period. overall commander of the army in India. The title In the Sultanate, it was marked of Sultan was conferred upon him, though he was by a prolonged multi-cornered confl ict within the technically still a slave. Aibak’s assumption of power Ghorian ruling class as well as against the renewed in Delhi severed links with Central Asia which was Rajput resistance and foreign invasion. formative for the sultanate. The formal establishment Ghori’s death, in 1206 A.D., resulted in tussle for of the Delhi Sultanate, as an entity in its own rights, is supremacy among his three important generals— ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA traced back to this event. Subsequent development Yalduz (Ghazni), Qubacha (Uch) and Aibak; who had made this a reality. Success of Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru | 86 |

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THE 13TH CENTURY Qutubuddin Aibak (a) He decided to keep himself free from the 1. Qutbuddin ascended the throne of Delhi in policies of Central Asia. He had to move A.D. 1206 and became the fi rst Turkish Sultan with caution. of Delhi. But, the throne of Delhi was not a bed (b) He fi rst strengthened his position in of roses for him. Delhi and Lahore. He tried to persuade 2. He had to face many challenges from in and some Turkish nobles to accept his outside the country. He could not depend

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA subordination. on the loyalty of all his Turkish offi cers who (c) He gave his sister in marriage to Qabacha were jealous of him. The Rajput’s, on the other and his daughter to Iltutmish and hand though vanquished in north India were secured their support. eagerly waiting for a possible opportunity to strike. (d) Yeldoz who was his father-in-law did not accept his claim over Delhi. 3. Moreover, he had to face strongest opposition from Tajuddin Yeldoz and Nasiruddin Qubacha, 7. In the meanwhile an interesting situation the two more contenders for the throne of arose which went in favour of Qutbuddin. Delhi. 8. Yeldoz who was the ruler of Ghazni, was (a) Yeldoz was the ruler of Ghazni and pressurised by Khwarizm Shah to leave the Qubacha was of Uch and both had throne of Ghazni. Yeldoz had no way out. He matrimonial relations with Qutbuddin. left Ghazni and proceeded towards Punjab. (b) Yeldoz was his father-in-law and Qubacha - Qutbuddin faced him and forced him to was his brother-in-law as he had married return back. Qutbuddin even occupied one sister of Qutbuddin. Ghazni but was forced to leave it after 4. Besides, there were two more contenders also forty days when Yeldoz reached back for the throne of Delhi. They were nobles like there. But he did not allow Yeldoz to Bahauddin Tughril Khan and Bakhtiyar Khalji occupy any Indian territories further. but to the good fortune of Qutbuddin they 9. Qutbuddin had to face some internal problems were dead by then. as well. Ali Mardan Khan, the ruler of Bengal 5. According to historians like Professor K.A. and Bihar was dethroned and imprisoned Nizami, this was due to the weak position by some Khalji nobles and they had offered of Qutbuddin over the throne of Delhi as the throne to Muhammad Sheran who had Muhammad of Ghur did not decide anything promised to rule Bengal independently. about his succession in India before his death; therefore each of his governors and (a) However, Ali Mardan escaped from lieutenants was left free to decide his own prison, reached Delhi and requested course of action. Qutbuddin to interfere in the affairs of (a) This may be a fact but as the struggle for Bengal. supremacy was the order of the time, the (b) Qutbuddin accepted his prayer and question of legal sanction behind the deputed Qaiwaz Rumi Khan, a noble to

throne of Delhi has nothing to do with Success settle the matter. Rumi Khan used both that. of force and diplomacy to win over the (b) Besides, there was another great danger Khalji nobles of Bengal. for him from outside. Khwarizm Shah (c) He convinced them to accept Ali Mardan Alauddin Muhammad, the ruler of persia as the governor of Bengal under the had desired to capture Ghazni and Delhi. Suzerainty of Delhi. Thus, finally, Ali 6. In the face of these diffi culties, Qutbuddin Mardan became the governor of Bengal stood with determination. After all he himself and agreed to pay annual tribute to

was a gifted soldier and a great military leader. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Qutbuddin. | 87 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 10. However Qutbuddin could not pursue the His death saw ore sharpened factionalism and policy of extension of his kingdom. intrigue, among the Turks. It surfaced boldly during (a) He remained busy in defending his the brief interregum of Razia whose accession to independent position. The affairs in the power was challenged by a faction of the Turkish north-west and Bengal in the east were mobility. The most prominent group to decide his primary concerns. the course of high politics during these years was the Chahalgani (the 40 slave offi cers of Iltutmish).

(b) That is why mostly he remained at Lahore ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA instead of Delhi. But he could not live Between 1235-1265, political development revolved long. While playing polo, he fell from his around a confl ict between the crown and the nobility, horse and shortly died in 1210 A.D. determined to retain its privileged position with a balance often increasingly tilted in favours of the ILTUTMISH latter. The very survival of the sultanate was under Aibak as succeeded by his son-in-law, Iltutmish, question, political instability was exacerated by the who had to contend with Aibak’s sons. He checked recalcitrance of smaller Rajput chiefs. Moreover the the principle of heredity in the very outset. From now onslaughts of Mongols also pressed on the frontiers. onwards, force was a determinant of accession and The accession of Balban, in 1265, provided the not heredity. Illtutmish must be regarded as the real Sultanate with an iron willed ruler. He addressed consolidator of Turkish conquests in North India. himself to two major objectives: to raise the prestige Large portions of territory conquered by the Turks of crown through elaborate court ceremonials and had slipped out of control and Rajput chieftains inculcation of Sassanian traditions that distanced had withheld tribute and repudiated allegiance. the ruler from ordinary folks, converting him in to Ilutmish reign was marked by a concerted drive to a symbol of awe. reestablish Sultanate authority on areas that had In Consolidating Turkish power, rebellions were been lost. Yalduz was defeated in A.D. 1225 and in put down with determination and administrative A.D. 1227. Iltutmish wrested Lahore from Qubacha. procedures were streamlined. Within three years of this event, Mongols Balban’s incompetent successors were reached upto the bank of Indus. Henceforth, the overthrown by Jalaluddin Khalji—a non Turk. mongols remained a constant factor among the Balban’s death had resurfaced the same tussle concerns of Delhi Sultans. Though the Mongol between the crown and nobility which threatened presence had upset Ilutmish plan of consolidation the sultanate but Jalaluddin Khalji resurrected its on the northwest it also created conditions for the fortunes. Rise of Khaljis to power brought an end to destruction of Qubacha who held Uech. As a result, Turkish monopoly of high offi cer. Jalluddin’s reign Iltutmish was able to seize Bhatinda, Khuram and was a further step towards consolidation as he Sarsuti. About 1228, he humbled Qubacha and reversed some of the harsh aspects of Balban’s rule. seised Multan and Uch. Unifi ed control over North- He was the fi rst sultan “to assert that the state should West now became possible for the Delhi Sultanate. In be based on the willing support of the governed”. Rajputana, Turks were able to reclaim Ranthambhor, The tasks and travails of there above Mandor, Jalor, Bayana etc. After A.D. 1225, Iltutmish mentioned sultans placed the sultanate on a fi rm turned towards the east. Apart from sporadic military Success

of ground which became a basic for further expansion successes, however, Lakhanauti and Bihar continued under Alauddin Khalji. to evade the Sultanate. “To him the sultanate owed the fi rst outline of its administrative system. He Iltutmish (1211-1235) as the Consolidator laid the foundation of an absolutist monarchy that of the Delhi-Sultanate was to serve later as the instrument of a military Iltutmish, a “slave of a slave” is regarded imperialism under the Khaljis. Aibak outlined the by several historians as the real founder and Delhi Sultanate and its sovereign status; Iltutmish consolidator of the slave Dynasty and the Delhi

was unquestionably its fi rst king.” Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Sultanate. According to them, Aibak was the ruler for | 88 |

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THE 13TH CENTURY four years only. There was so much anarchy after his Important diffi culties facing Iltutmish are death that the Sultanate of Delhi seemed slipping mentioned here in brief: and a powerful ruler was needed to control the 1. Iltutmish had no hereditary claim to the situation and Iltutmish rose equal to the occasion. throne. When we peruse the history we fi nd that 2. Iltutmish was slave of a slave (Aibak) and Mohammad- bin-Qasim was the fi rst Muslim invader according to Muslim law no slave could ever who came to India but he conquered only Sindh CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA occupy the throne. and Multan. In the words of Lane-poole “it was a mere episode in the history of India”. Mahmud 3. There were several equally powerful nobles Ghaznavi was the second great Muslim invader but who would not tolerate the rise of an equal his seventeen successful expeditions were primarily to the position of a Sultan. meant for plunder. His invasions did not lead to the 4. Nasiruddin Qubachah, the governor of Sindh establishment of any Muslim Kingdom in India. and Multan and Taj-ud-din Yalduz, the ruler of For about 150 years there was no attempt to Ghazni refused to recognise Iltutmish as the found any Muslim empire in India. Mohammad Ghori rightful successor to the throne of Delhi. conquered the bulk of Hindustan but most of his 5. Some of the Muslim generals asserted their time was spent in Ghazni-out of India. He himself independence taking advantage of the did not rule over India but left to his viceroy Aibak. confusion. Aibak extended his kingdom and formed an 6. Rajput rulers of Jalaun, Kalinjar, Ranthambhore independent Muslim state in India. Since his rule and Gwalior declared their independence. was very short-lived, he could not consolidate the Sultanate. But the credit of founding the Sultanate 7. The Mongol invasion posed a great threat to must go to him. Of course, Iltutmish strengthened the Sultan. the foundation and saved the infant Muslim empire Steps by Iltutmish from collapsing. Iltutmish exhibited remarkable energy and On account of Iltutmish’s achievements in patience in solving the diffi culties. Some of his bringing about political consolidation out of turmoil, achievements were as under: Dr. R.P. Tripathi has observed, “Qutubuddin cannot 1. He quelled the nobles who opposed him in be regarded ever as sovereign ruler of Muslim India becoming the Sultan. He defeated Aram Shah, because no coins of his name are available and his the son of Qutubuddin who had declared name is conspicuous by its absence in the list of himself as the Sultan. kings prepared by Ibn Batuta and in that prepared by Firoz Shah Tughlaq for Khutba.” He has further 2. He defeated Yalduz, made him prisoner and observed, “The history of Muslim sovereignty in India executed him. begins properly starting with Iltutmish.” 3. Qubachah was defeated and he lost his life In the words of Dr. A.L. Srivastva, “Iltutmish while crossing the river Indus. was a brave but cautious soldier. He was also a 4. Iltutmish suppressed the revolt in Bengal. successful general. He laid the foundation of a 5. Iltutmish conquered the Rajput states of Success military monarchy that was to serve later as the of Gwalior, Malwa, Ujjain and Ranthambore. instrument of a military imperialism under the 6. Iltutmish got recognition as the Muslim Sultan Khaljis”. of India by the Khalifa of Baghdad, Iltutmish, Diffi culties of Iltutmish thereafter assumed the title of ‘‘Amir-ul- With a view to appreciate the role of Iltutmish, it Mommin or ‘Commander of the Faithfuls’ and is very necessary to know the diffi cult circumstances had the name of Khalifa inscribed on his coins. under which he acceded to the throne. The newly As a result of recognition by Khalifa, Iltutmish’s

Muslim empire was threatened with disintegration. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru power and status were enhanced. | 89 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 According to Prof. S.R. Sharma, “It is for this and scuttland the pretension of the Turkish nobility, reason that Iltutmish has been considered as established government institutions on a firm the real founder of the Muslim Kingdom of basis and laid grounds for further expansion of Delhi, though it is too much an exaggeration the sultanate under the Khaljis. to call him the greatest of all slave kings.” At his accession, Balban was confronted with 7. Iltutmish with great diplomatic skill prevented many problems. The most pressing of these was the Mongols from invading India. He very the ubiquitous struggle for supremacy between CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA politely put off the king of Khwarizm who the crown and nobility. The latter group comprising sought refuge in India from the Mongols. mainly of the Turkish group of ‘Chahalgani’ always 8. One of the momentous measures of Iltutmish strove to make the Sultans a puppet in their hands. was that he changed his capital from Lahore So, Balban constantly sought to increase the power to Delhi, and it for the fi rst time became the and prestige of the monarchy, because he was capital of Hindustan. convinced that, that was the only way to face both 9. With the help of Fakhuddin Ismani, an internal and external danger. In this endeavour, he experienced Wazir of Baghdad, Iltutmish developed a new theory of kingship to assert his organised his administrative set up and supremacy (i.e. of the crown) vis-à-vis the mobility. provided a benign and sound administration to This new theory was also essential to assume royalty the hitherto, disorganised and dismembered and to dismantle the notions of equality inherent empire. in the ‘Bandagan’ system which continued from the days of Muizzuddin. 10. According to Thomas, “Iltutmish instituted the veritable commencement of the silver The main features of his theory of kingship are coinage of the Delhi Sultanate.” found in his advice to his sons. They were mostly drawn from Sassanian traditions which regarded 11. Iltutmish created a ‘Corps of Forty’ slave who monarchy as a divine institution. Balban was God’s were very loyal to him and kept a watch on representative on Earth and hence his actions could the activities of nobles. not be reviewed either by the nobles or by the From the above account it is clear that people. To show his noble pedigree, he claimed Iltutmish was undoubtedly a successful decent from the legendary Iranian king Afrasiyab ruler. His greatness lay not only in saving and followed the court practice of the Sassanians. the infant Muslim empire in India but also in Contrary to Iltutmish he sat on the throne amidst organising the scattered conquered territories a magnifi cent court surrounded by men of nobel of Ghori and Aibak into a well-organised and lineage. To emphasize that the nobles were not his well-administered empire. Besides being a equals, he insisted on the ceremony of ‘sijda and conqueror, he was a good administrator. He paibos’. These measures alongside a host of other provided a systematic administrative set-up. outer paraphernalia created a sense of awe, fear and By dint of his dauntless bravery and wisdom he respect among the nobility and the common people transformed a weak and vulnerable kingdom into a alike. This exaltation of the monarchy established stable empire in India. He freed the Delhi Sultanate the principle that sultan and the nobles were not from the claim of suzerainty by the rulers of Ghazni. Success equal. In this respect, he was a trendsetter in his

On account of these features, Iltutmish is often called of theory of kingship as all along it was thought that the real founder of the Muslim empire in India. the sultan was one among the equals or at best fi rst Balban among the equals. Balban was one of the main architects of The second problem was restoring law and Delhi Sultanate, part of its form of government and orders in the country, particularly in the core areas institution. He introduced a semblance of order in around Delhi and the doab. This area was infested the sultanate after a long period. Of instability and with robber that hindered communication and trade

squabbles, he raised the prestige of the monarchy Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru with the eastern areas. Many Rajput Jamindars had | 90 |

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THE 13TH CENTURY put up forts and defi ed the government. (Mewatis in Who was the greatest of the early sultans? particular). To deal with these elements, he adopted a Balban or Iltutmish? Votaries of both advance policy of ‘blood and iron’. Robbers were put to death. their arguments and counter arguments. To the In the area around Badayun, Rajput strongholds credit of Balban goes: were destroyed and colonies of Afghan soldiers 1. Sultanate enjoyed order and stability in a were settled to crush the recalcitrant Zamindars. measure not known before. The next problem was the one relating to the CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA 2. Prestige of sultan raised and destroyed the reestablishing of the authority of the state. Rajput forty. Zamindars and the Mongols threatened the stability 3. Strengthened many government institutions: of the sultanate. Thus, Balban realised that the army army, iqta, provincial government etc. alone could form the chief prop of the government. To that end, he reorganised the military department 4. Created ideal conditions for expansion of the (dewan-i-arj) and pensioned off those soldiers who sultanate under Alauddin. were no longer fi t for service. He increased salary of To his discredit the soldiers and stressed upon proper training; kept 1. Not so great solider as Iltutmish. It took him the army in good trim by making it march over long 6 years to crush the rebellion of one Turkish distances on the pretext of hunting expeditions. slave offi cer. Finding that the iqta system had developed many 2. Mongols defeated Delhi forces on many faults, he ordered an inquiry into the iqta system occasions. of the doab. Since many of the iqtadars had either 3. Exclusion of non Turks (Indian Muslims) from died or become infi rm, they were unfi t for military positions of authority Barami, Quotes him service, hence Balban thought of resuming those saying “Whenever I see a base born ignoble iqtas. But in the face of strong opposition, he had man, my eyes burn and I react in anger for my to abandon his move. sword.” He took steps to establish a centralised 4. His policy created disturbances after his death empire, replete with a large standing army and resulting in the end of the Turkish rule and spies. Provincial governors were required to send ushering in the Khalji era. their reports periodically and a system of audit was devised to check their accounts. Wazir was stripped Credits of Iltutmish of his powers and the offi ce of the naib-i-mamlakat 1. Made Delhi as the paramount power amidst was allowed to lapse. He also instituted a system the contesting of sovereignty by Yaldug and of dispensing impartial justice and not even the Qubacha. Laid the real formulation of Delhi highest of the land were immune from punishment, Sultanate and was its fi rst king. if they transgressed his authority. 2. Created a committed cadre of slaves which Balban, to a great extent, was successful in was instrumental in the foundation and solving these pressing problems and is rightly consolidation of the sultanate (Shamsi regarded as one of the main architects of the bandagan). 3. Laid the foundation of many institutions and sultanate. By augmenting the power of monarchy, Success he strengthened the sultanate and its institutions. of administration forms. But his success was not comprehensive. He could 4. Consolidated the sultanate and crushed many not defend Northern India against Mongol inroads. rebellions. Finally by excluding non-turks from positions of 5. Put up a strong line of defence against power and by trying to base the government Mongols and extended unifi ed control over on a very narrow group, he, unwillingly, created the north west. disaffection among many people. This led to fresh A modern historian assesses his achievements

disturbances after his death. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru in the following words. | 91 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 “Aibak outlined the Delhi Sultanate and its (a) The sultan of Delhi sought investiture sovereign status: Iltutmish was unquestionably its from Caliph and claimed themselves as fi rst king”. deputy of caliph. The name of caliph was Impact on the Indian Society inscribed on coins. 1. Resulted in the growth of the Muslim society, (b) The khutba was read in the name of upper class of muslim society was formed by Caliph also the holy robe sent by caliph was put on by sultan while sitting on the Turks Persians, Afghans with a sprinkling of ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Arabs. Growth of a Muslim aristocracy. throne. 2. Intermixture of different races leading to the (c) The supporters of theocratic character growth of a homogeneous Muslim society. also emphasize that Islam was dominant Indian Muslims as well as Mongols mixed religion and propagated by sultan by with the new Turkish/Persian aristocracy. using authority of state. 3. Percolation of Islamic mystic faiths in India i.e. (d) The evidences of breaking temples Sufi s whose unassuming piety made them very by rulers and imposition of Jaziya and popular even among non Muslims. Created forceful conversions show theocratic grounds for a fruitful cultural intercourse elements. between the two communities. (e) The Ulemas enjoyed great political 4. In manners and customs of upper class Muslims, we fi nd a raped de-Turkinisation. infl uence in Delhi sultanate. The sultan They adopted Persian as well as Indian followed their advice. The supporters mannerism. Caste prejudices tended to fi nd of theocratic state also emphasize on new applications among the converts from Shariat being the law of Delhi Sultanate. Hinduism. 5. The closer examination of nature of relation 5. Bulk of the Indigenous population were between caliph and Delhi Sultanate reveals ‘Zimmis’ who were largely unaffected and that it was just a formal ceremonial relation. enjoyed socio cultural and religious freedom. (a) Its political signifi cance was negligible. Was Delhi Sultanate a Theocratic State? None of the sultans of Delhi got on the 1. The character of Delhi sultanate was throne because of recognition from interpreted by different historians differently. Caliph and none lost crown because of Some scholars try to portrait the sultanate as not recognition from caliph. a theocracy. (b) No Delhi sultan sought prior permission 2. Theocracy refers to state in which the head before issuing any order. The sultan of of religion is also head of state. The political Delhi was an independent sovereign and regional power was exercised by single entity. The sultan ruled on the basis of person institution. In theocracy the king is his strength. The recognition of caliph guided by religious law as interpreted by was not the decisive factor. priestly class. The king cannot exercise his judgement independently. 6. The examination of status of Islam under Delhi

Success sultanate does not support the theocratic 3. A theocratic state exists for religious cause. of character of state. Islam was the religion of The political authority is dedicated to religious cause. Spread of religion is the most important sultan and ruling class but it was not imposed duty of king. Also the religious class enjoys on the entire population by sultans of Delhi. political status. The status of king is below them. (a) In fact, no sultan ever attempted it. 4. The sultanate was considered as theocratic Iltutmish was suggested by Ulemas state because the Caliph was the real head to convert India in Islam but he fl atly of state and sultan used to recognize his rejected suggestion stating conditions

supremacy. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru of India are different from Central Asia. | 92 |

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THE 13TH CENTURY (b) The examples of forceful conversions are governors, who had some administrative also very few. The destruction of temples responsibilities also. was not associated with promotion of (b) On the other hand, the holders of Islam. They were carried out to either the small Iqtas were the small troops meet the need of mosque or to shatter holders who had no administrative the morale of people so that they remain responsibilities. subjected to authority of Sultan.

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA 2. Iqta system was one of the most important (c) Jaziya was also not the tool for religion features of Turko-afgan political system conversion because majority of witnessed during period of Delhi Sultunate. population was free from Jaziya e.g. - It was originally an Arabian practice. women, unemployed, beggars and Turks adopted it and it came to india disables were free from Jaziya. with them. For the fi rst time Iqtas were 7. Islam was religion of state but no restrictions distributed in Punjab by Mohd. Ghuri and were placed on other religions whatsoever. gradually the practice was extended to other territories. 8. The political infl uence of Ulemas was indirectly proportional to strength of Sultan. Only in 3. The Iqta system was reorganised properly by reign of weak sultans, Ulemas did infl uenced Iltutmish for the fi rst time. He defi ned duties the state. and responsibilities of Iqtedar for the fi rst time. 9. Islamic law was followed by Sultan only in - Under the reorganised system Iqtedars were responsible for the maintenance general. It wasn’t rigidly imposed by anybody of fi xed number of troops, looking after in the entire history of Delhi Sultanate. the administration of area under control, - The sultans of Delhi issued secular orders collection of revenue and depositing i.e. Zawabit on situations demanding it. Fawazil in central treasury. 10. The status of Muslims and Hindu in Delhi 4. Sultan Balban imposed greater central sultanate also does not support the theocratic control over Iqtedars. He appointed an character of it. Hindus were also allowed to live accountant Khwaja with every Iqtedar to normal life. There was no state policy outlined check authentication of records maintained expressively against Hinduism. by them. - Throughout sultanate period most of - Balban transferred Iqtedar from one Iqta the land was owned by Hindus. Most of to another so that they couldn’t develop the villagers were also Hindus. The state any bond with people. had nothing to do in depriving Hindus 5. Sultan Aluddin Khilji abolished number of their resources. of small Iqtas in doab region to carry out Thus the sultanate could not be considered expansion of Khalisa land. He increased the as theocratic state, at most it was an Islamic state revenue demands from Iqtedars. in formal sense. (a) A new department i.e. diwan-i-

Success mushtkahraj was created for collection of Iqta System of arrears of revenue with Iqtedars. Mohd. 1. Literally, Iqta means land or land revenue bin Tughlaq increased the central control assigned to an individual on certain on Iqtedars further. conditions. The holders of these Iqtas were (b) He separated the income and expenditure the trustful agents of the Sultan. of Iqtedars. They were ordered to deposit (a) There were two kinds of Iqtas viz. Large entire revenue in central treasury and Iqtas and Small Iqtas. The holders from there they were paid for salaries

of large Iqta were the provincial Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru and other expenditures. | 93 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 6. During the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq Iqta tended to cause trouble. After the death system was declared hereditary. After the of powerful rulers many Iqtedarsused death of Iqtedar his son or son in law or slave to declare their independence. New or widow was allowed to succeed. sultan had to struggle hard to regain 7. During Lodhi period, the concept of Fawazil the control. was abolished. Iqtedar was allowed to retain (b) Iqtedars always had immense resources the revenue collected from Iqta. This was an both fi nancial and military. They were CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA expression of Afgan kingship in Lodhi period always in position to defy the orders of in which sultan was considered as fi rst among weak ruler. the equals. (c) When Iqta system got hereditary under - Smaller Iqta came to be known as Firoz shah Tughlaq the centrifugal force Pargana and bigger as Sarkar. got dominant and it contributed majorly to decline of Tughlaq dynasty. 8. Although the Iqta system was an important (d) Under Lodi’s, Iqta system became cause feature of Sultanate and helped its of further trouble as the practice of continuation for centuries but the system depositing Fawazil was abolished. Some was not without limitations. of the Lodhi Iqtedars conspired with (a) Iqta system functions perfectly under Babur to gain power and ended up in strong sultan but a weak ruler on throne destroying Delhi Sultanate. Success of Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru | 94 |

Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com of the privileged. The Khilji revolt is essentially a essentially is revolt Khilji privileged.The the of traditions of rights and duties of command and and command of duties and rights of traditions established a dangerous precedent that continued the so-called Slave Dynasty. This event has been been has event Dynasty. This Slave so-called the obedience would have properly crystallised as in in as crystallised properly have would obedience Revolution was that it gave a heavy blow to the the to blow heavy a gave it that was Revolution of militarism would have been minimised, and new round the throne of Delhi and was likely to bear bear to likely was and Delhi of throne the round rovolt of the Indian Muslims against the Turkish Turkish the against Muslims Indian the of rovolt an era of ceaseless conquests, of unique experiment In the veins of the Khiljis, did not fl royal not the did ow Khiljis, the of veins the In growing sentiment of loyalty that was gathering gathering was that loyalty of sentiment growing Khilji Revolution threw into shade the civil side of the hegemony, of those who looked to Delhi,against to looked who hegemony,those of blood. They belonged to the proletariate and their activity. literary incomparable of statecraft,and in Sultanate.” oftheDelhi to sapthevitality world.the Unfortunately,of countries other some good results. If the Khilji had not nipped in the bud dynasty.of overthrow the powerafter to came He Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji(1290-1296) THE KHILJIREVOLUTION the traditions of dignity and loyalty and had allowed of a commoner’s government over that of the the of that over government commoner’s a of and Ghaur from inspiration sought who those the to death-blow a dealt power to accession Khilji the of significonsequences most cant the of “One that opinions the of one is Dr.Tripathi described by Dr. R.P. Tripathi as the Khilji Revolution. pseudo-belief that sovereignty was a monopoly monopoly a was sovereignty that pseudo-belief Ghazna. The revolution resulted in the supersession heralded the advent of a new dynasty: it ushered in them to grow up and reach full stature, the element government, and accentuating the military aspects fraught with far-reached consequences. It is not only Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com Jalaluddin Khilji was Jalaluddin the Khilji founder of the Khilji Dr. K.S. Lal says: “The Khilji Revolution was was Revolution Khilji says: “The Lal Dr.K.S. a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt THE 14THCENTURY CHAPTER-4 | 95 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success Master of Ceremonies. Alauddin and Almas Beg Beg Almas and Alauddin Ceremonies. of Master prepared to use his sword even to punish rebels, punish to even sword his use to prepared but after becoming king, he decided to follow a follow to decided he king, becoming after but had won many battles and was known to be the the be to known was and battles many won had blood and iron alone could tell. His mild policy policy mild His tell. could alone iron and blood their own.” otherwise,or born toinferior stuff a of weremade a many marrow their to shocked blueblood’sand attributed to hisoldageand cowardice. were same the and followers his by resented was that Firuz was too kind to be a king in an age when thieves or thugs. No wonder, Professor S.R. Sharma gains.territorial or not political forwas Muslim He were alsorewarded. or appointedAmir-i-Hajib was Chap Ahmad Malik in the officers they held during the previous reign. confiDelhi.Sultan Theof nobles Turkishthe rmed Chhajju was allowed to retain the governorship of Sultan entered Delhi only when he felt that he had for a year atbefore Kilokhri to he could Delhi. shift Jalaluddin.overthrow of to people like Thewould Balban,Chhajju, Malik like they aliveand werestill to be low-born Afghans. Some of the relatives of of relatives the of Afghans. Some low-born be to Kaiqubad, a few miles away from Delhi. The new . The from away miles few a Kaiqubad, Delhi were also not happy over his accession to the policy of peace. He refused to shed the blood of any Kilokhri was a new city which had been built by built been had which city new a was Kilokhri Khilji was not universally accepted. The leading leading The accepted. universally not was Khilji Kara. Malik Fakhruddin was confirmed as the Kotwal most experienced and powerful Turkish nobleman, Turkish Amirs hated the Khiljis who were considered calls him “Clemency King Firuz”. He further observes won over the people by his acts of generosity. Malik highbrowed Turk to whom other Musalmans, India throne and consequently, Jalaluddin had to remain The assumption of royal power by Jalaluddin It It is true that before becoming king, Jalaluddin Downloaded from KnowledgePhilic.com

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Revolt of Malik Chhajju He threw his sword before them and challenged any During the second year of his reign, Jalaluddin one of them to have the courage to use the same had to face the revolt of Malik Chhajju. The original against him. That had the desired effect. After a stern name of Chhajju was Kshlu Khan. He was a nephew of warning, the sultan pardoned the Amirs. Balban and would like to put himself on the throne, Siddi Maula if possible. He opposed Jalaluddin before he became However, there was one departure from his king but after his accession, he submitted and was CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA policy of leniency in the case of Siddi Maula. The given the Jagir of Kara. In spite of this, Chhajju entered Maula was a disciple of Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj- into an alliance with Hatim, Governor of Avadh, and raised the standard of revolt. At the head of his i-Shakar of Pak-Pattan. The Maula had built a very followers, Chhajju marched towards Delhi. Arkali big Khankah. He fed thousands of poor people Khan, son of Jalaluddin, was sent against Chhajju, daily. The big nobles of the kingdom also went to Chhajju was defeated and he and his followers were the Maula for religious instructions. The allegation captured and brought before the Sultan. Instead was that a plot had been formed by a number of of punishing them, the Sultan pardoned them and Amirs to murder the Sultan and put Siddi Maula fed them from the royal kitchen. Chhajju was sent on the throne. The plot was unearthed, and Siddi to Multan and arrangements were made for his Maula and his principal followers were arrested. comforts. The Sultan also praised the loyalty of the While arguing with Siddi Maula, Jalaluddin lost his followers of Chhajju to their master. The young temper and had him put to death by an elephant. Khiljis, led by Ahmad Chap, protested against this A Muslim fanatic who was opposed to Siddi Maula, policy and warned the Sultan of the consequences slashed the Maula several times with a razor and of such a weak policy. However, the Sultan did not stabbed him with a packing needle. The Sultan pay any heed. Kara was given to Alauddin, his own who had pardoned rebels, traitors and thieves was son-in-law. responsible for the death of a man of peace whose fault had yet to be established. It is said that at the Thugs and Thieves time of the death of the saint, there was a huge storm A similar policy was followed by Jalaluddin and the people attributed it to the great injustice while dealing with thieves and robbers. It is pointed done to the Darvaish. out that thefts and robberies had become common on account of the general confusion prevailing in Ranthambor the country. Once upon a time, a number of thieves As regards his foreign policy, he led his fi rst were arrested and brought before the Sultan. Instead expedition against Ranthambor in 1290. The ruler of punishing them, he gave them a lecture on the offered stiff resistance. The result was that the Sultan evils of stealing. gave up the campaign and came back to Delhi. The On another occasion, thousands of thugs and plea put forward by the Sultan was that “he did not murderers, who had made the lives of the people value the fort so much as the heir of one Mussalman.” of Delhi intolerable, were captured. Instead of Ahmad Chap tried to impress upon the Sultan the punishing them, the Sultan sent them to Bengal in dangers of such a policy but that had absolutely boats down the Ganges and there, they were set free. no effect on him. Success The Amirs of Alauddin’s Exploits Some Amirs were so disgusted with the mild Another expedition was undertaken against policy of the Sultan that they began to discuss Mandawar which was captured in 1292. In the same openly plans to overthrow him. In one of the social year, Alauddin invaded Malwa and captured the gatherings, plans were drawn to depose and murder town of Bhilsa. On his return, Alauddin was made Jalaluddin and put Tajuddin Kuchi or Ahmad Chap the Governor of Avadh in addition to that of Kara. on the throne. However, the Sultan came to know of In 1294, Alauddin defeated Chandra Deva, the ruler

those plans and rebuked the Amirs for their conduct. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru of Devgiri. He brought from there a lot of wealth. | 96 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY The Mongols of his advisers, Jalaluddin decided to go to Kara to India was attacked by the Mongols during meet his son-in-law there. The Sultan left Delhi for the reign of Jalaluddin. Abdullah, grandson of Kara. Alauddin crossed the Ganges to Manikpur. Halaku, attacked India in 1292. In spite of his old While keeping his army in readiness, he sent his age, Jalaluddin went in person to oppose them brother, , to persuade the Sultan and and was successful in defeating them. However, persuaded him not to allow his army to cross the the Sultan allowed some of the Mongols to settle eastern bank of the river Ganges as Alauddin was CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA in India. The descendants of those Mongols came still afraid of the Sultan and might either commit to be known as New Mussalmans. suicide or take refuge by fl ight. The Sultan acted accordingly in spite of the protests of his followers. Devagiri Jalaluddin went to meet his son-in-law with a few Alauddin was the nephew and son-in-law of unarmed attendants. Jalaluddin embraced Alauddin Jalaluddin. He was a very ambitious man. He had tried to escape crying “ Alauddin, wretch! What heard of the wealth of the Deccan and decided to have you done?” It was then that another follower have the same. He started for the Deccan at the head of Alauddin cut the head of the Sultan from his of 18,000 horseman. While proceeding towards the body. The other followers of the Sultan were also Deccan, he gave out that he was dissatisfi ed with his put to death. The head of Jalaluddin was put on a uncle and was going to the South to have service spear and paraded through the provinces of Kara, under some Hindu ruler. The result was that no Manikpur and Avadh. It was in this way that “one resistance was offered to him on the way. However, of the basest murders in history” was perpetrated. when he entered the boundaries of Devagiri, Raja According to Dr. A.C. Banerjee, “So far as the Ram Chandra decided to give battle to Alauddin case of the Muslim rulers of India is concerned, Khilji but he was defeated. At that time, a large military force proved to be a more potent source number of soldiers of Devagiri had gone to the of sovereignty than the doctrines of the Ulama. South to fi ght against a fellow Hindu Raja. It was Theoretical speculations had very little infl uence on due to this reason that the ruler of Devagiri was the rough Turkish soldiers who made themselves defeated and he was made to pay a heavy tribute. master of India. They conquered the country by force, When the son of Ram Chandra came back from the they maintained their authority by force and they South with his troops, he refused to pay tribute as lost their position when they failed to command promised and decided to fi ght. It is true that from adequate force. All their followers-soldiers, poets and sometime the Hindu armies had the upper hand Ulama alike—understood the situation thoroughly but ultimately they were defeated. Alauddin came well, and never cared or dared to investigate the legal back to Kara after getting a lot of riches. claims of their de facto master. When Alauddin Khilji Murder of Jalaluddin treacherously murdered his uncle and occupied the throne to which he had not a shadow of claim either It is contended that when Alauddin had gone by divine or by human law, not only the ‘unthinking to Devagiri, the advisers of the Sultan tried to impress upon him that Alauddin was a very ambitious person rabbel’, but the best minds of the day—the great and had his eye on the throne and timely action poet, Amir Khusrau, for instance—bowed down should be taken against him. The only reply of Success before the realities of the situation. And while we of Jalaluddin was that he loved Alauddin as his son shed our tears for the old Sultan who was so basely and was prepared to do anything for him. Ulugh struck by one whom he loved so much it is necessary Khan, brother of Alauddin, tried to impress upon to remember that he himself had assassinated his the Sultan that Alauddin was anxious to present master to seize the throne.” to the Sultan the wealth he had got from Devagiri As regards as estimate of Jalaluddin, he was a but he was afraid of coming to Delhi as he had successful general before becoming king but gave up undertaken the expedition to Devagiri without the the policy of aggression after becoming the Sultan.

consent of the Sultan. Disregarding the warnings Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru He followed a policy of peace and reconciliation | 97 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 towards all. He was very modest. It is stated that he of sharing this wealth with Sultan Jalaluddin and did not ride in the courtyard of the palace of Balban through cleverness was able to bring about his and also refused to sit upon it on the ground that murder. On 19 July, 1296, Alauddin was proclaimed he used to stand before it as a servant. The Mongols Sultan in his camp. Barani rightly points out that were successfully repulsed by the Sultan. However, Alauddin also “did not escape retributions of the the Sultan was intolerant towards the Hindus. He blood of his patron. Fate at length placed a betrayer destroyed and desecrated their temples and broke in his path () by whom his family was their images. He was responsible for the death of ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA destroyed…. and the retribution which befell upon Siddi Maula. it never had a parallel even in any infi del land.” Dr. K.S. Lal gives his estimate of Jalaluddin in these words: “Failure as a king, Firuz was a perfect gentleman and one of the most pious Musalmans of his times. Fortune as well as merit had raised him to the highest pinnacle of greatness, still his elevation had not made him proud. God-fearing and indulgent, affectionate to his family and kind to all, he behaved with his nobles not as a king but as a friend. Jalal’s span of kingship was short but he ruled over his subjects as a father in a family. He declared himself incapable of tyranny. If his simplicity and his kindness were ridiculed by the wordly people, his age and benevolence were revered by all.” ALAUDDIN KHILJI (1296-1316) Conquests, Agrarian and Economic Measures Accession Alauddin Khilji was the nephew of Jalaluddin Firuz. As Alauddin was fatherless, he was brought up by Jalaluddin with affection and care, and also made his son-in-law. When Jalaluddin became the Sultan, he gave Alauddin the fi ef of Kara in the Rival on Throne district of . It was here that Alauddin The murder of Jalaluddin did not put Alauddin became ambitious. Barani tells us that “carefully on the throne of Delhi. As soon as Malika Jahan suggestions of the Kara rebels made a lodgement learnt about the murder of her husband, she put her in his brain and from the very fi rst year of his younger son Qadir Khan Rukumuddin (Ibrahim) on occupation of that territory, he began to follow up the throne and called for her elder son Arkali Khan his design of proceeding to some distant quarter and from Multan. Without wasting any time, Alauddin amassing money.” Due to the intrigues of Malika- Success marched towards Delhi from Kara. On his way to of Jahan, his mother-in-law and his wife which made Delhi, he scattered small gold and silver coins among him unhappy, Alauddin decided to make himself the people. The distribution of the gold brought independent of Delhi. In 1292, he successfully by Alauddin from the South won for him a large invaded Malwa and captured the town of Bhilsa. number of followers. He was also able to win over He was also given the fi ef of Avadh. Alauddin also the bulk of the army by fair or foul means. When invaded Devagiri and defeated its ruler. He came Ibrahim found that resistance was impossible, he back to Kara with a lot of booty in gold, silver, silk fl ed towards Multan with his mother and Ahmad

pearls and precious stones. He had no intention Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Chap. Alauddin entered Delhi and occupied the | 98 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY palace of Balban. On 3rd October, 1296 A.D., he was his command. The Mongols had come to India. This proclaimed the Sultan of Delhi. time not to plunder but to conquer the territory. It is true that Alauddin was on the throne Consequently, they did not plunder the people of Delhi but he knew that his position was still on the way to Delhi and after reaching the capital, insecure. No wonder, he sent a large army under they besieged the same. The situation was so grave his brother Ulugh Khan to capture his rivals. Ulgh that Alauddin consulted his friend Ala-ud-Malik, Khan captured Multan and blinded Ibrahim, Arkali the Kotwal, regarding the course of action to be Khan and Ahmed Chap. Malika Jahan, widow of ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA adopted. The Kotwal advised Alauddin not to fi ght Jalaluddin, was imprisoned. against the Mongols but to come to terms with them. However, Alauddin rejected his advice and attacked Destruction of Jalali Nobles the Mongols. The advance guard of the army was Alauddin also had to deal with the Jalali nobles led by Zafar Khan who defeated the Mongols and who were not loyal to him. Nusrat Khan was deputed pursued them relentlessly. However, Zafar Khan to take strong measures against them. Their Jagirs was surrounded by the Mongols and killed in the were confi scated. Those nobles who had been won battlefi eld. This did not improve matters and after over by Alauddin with the help of money were also sometime, the Mongols lost heart and retreated. punished. The contention of Alauddin was that The terror created by Zafar Khan in the minds of the those nobles who had not been faithful to his uncle Mongols was so great that whenever their horses and could be bought with gold by him, could also did not drink water, the Mongol soldiers urged them betray him if an opportunity arose. The result was “by asking whether they had seen Zafar Khan that that some of those nobles were blinded, some were they feared to slake their thirst.” Alauddin did not thrown into prison and some were put to death. mind the death of Zafar Khan, as he considered him Their Jagirs were incorporated in the Khalsa land. to be dangerous to his own position. The wealth confi scated from them was put in the The fourth Mongol invasion took place, in 1303, state treasury. It is estimated that Nusrat Khan added when Alauddin was busy with the siege of Chittor. A about a crore to the royal treasury. Mongol army 12,000 strong under Targhi, its leader, Mongol Invasions reached Delhi by forced marches. The movement Alauddin had to face more than a dozen of the Mongols were so quick that the governors Mongol invasions. These invasions started from the were not able to send their contingents to Delhi. end of A.D. 1296 and continued up to A.D. 1308. The Alauddin was forced to take shelter in the fort of Mongols threatened not only the Punjab, Multan and Siri which was besieged by the Mongols for two Sindh but even Delhi and the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. months. During this interval, the Mongols plundered not only the surrounding territory but also Delhi The fi rst Mongol invasion took place at the itself. Minor skirmishes were fought on two or three end of A.D. 1296. Zafar Khan was dispatched against occasions but neither party was able to gain any them. He defeated the Mongols near Jullundur and decisive advantage. The patience of Targhi, who had a large number of them were killed. come prepared only for a victory, was exhausted The second invasions took place in A.D. 1297. and he retired after a stay of a couple of months, The Mongols had become so bold that they were as he found the lines of Alauddin entrenchment able to capture the fort of Siri near Delhi. However, Success impenetrable. The retreat of the Mongols seemed of Zafar Khan who was responsible for the defence of to be miraculous. To quote Barani, “This occasion on the north-western frontier, defeated the Mongols which the army of Islam had received no injury from and recaptured the fort of Siri. The Mongol leaders the Mongol force and the city of Delhi had escaped along with 1,700 followers was captured and unharmed, appeared one of the miracles of the brought to Delhi. age to all intelligent persons; for the Mongols had The third Mongol invasion took place, in 1299 arrived in great force early in the season and had A.D., under their leader Qutlugh Khwaja. The Mongol blocked the roads against the entry of reinforcement

leader had an army of more than two lakh under Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru or supplies and the royal army was suffering under | 99 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 the want of proper equipment, while they (the The last Mongol invasion took place in 1307- Mongols) were in the most flourishing and hearty 8 under their leader Iqbalmand. It is true that he condition.” Although Barani attributes the retreat crossed the Indus but he could not make any of the Mongols to the supplications of the poor headway after that. He was defeated along with and the prayers of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, his followers and also killed. A large number of yet the real reason of the Mongol retreat lies in Mongols were made prisoners and sent to Delhi something else. According to Dr. K.S. Lal, it lies in where they were all put to death. The Mongols did the prompt action of Alauddin who would not ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA not dare to attack India after 1308. Alauddin was yield to the enemy on any ground whatsoever able to reign in peace. and who undertook such defensive measures as Alauddin followed the frontier policy of even to baffle the Mongol veteran. It also lies in Balban. He strengthened the defences of the frontier. the fact that on account of their pre-occupation in The most capable and trust offi cers were put in Central Asia, the Mongols could permit themselves charge of that area. Ghazi Malik was appointed to stay in Hindustan for long. Hence, if they could the Governor of Punjab, in 1305 and he was able not overcome the armies of Hindustan within a to check the Mongol invasions. All important short time, they would surely and suddenly return forts on the route of the Mongols were repaired. to their homeland in Central Asia. New workshops to manufacture improved types The seriousness of the Mongolian invasions of weapons were set up. Powerful armies were forced Alauddin to take effective measures. Not stationed at Dipalpur Samana and Multan. The only the old forts in the Punjab, Multan and Sindh Mongols who had embraced Islam and settle in India were repaired, new ones were also built. Those forts were massacred. Even their wives and children were were garrisoned with troops. An additional army brutally murdered. However, these harsh measures was created for the purpose of guarding the frontier frightened the Mongols to such an extent that they and a special governor known as the Warden of gave up the idea of conquering India. the Marches was appointed to protect the frontier. The Mongol Policy of Alauddin was very However, in spite of these measures, a Mongol army successful. Alauddin had to keep a large standing under the leadership of Ali Beg and Tartaq invaded army ready to meet the danger from the Mongols. the Punjab and appeared in the neighbourhood However, when as a result of the successful frontier of Amroha. The Mongols plundered and burnt the policy, the danger from the Mongols disappeared, territory on the way. Ghazni Malik and Malik Kafar the same army was utilised in the conquest of were sent against them. They overtook the Mongols Southern India. Khilji militarism was also due to the when they were going back with their plunder. The fact that Alauddin had to maintain a large army to Mongols were defeated and their leaders were check the Mongol invasions. Most of the economic made prisoners. The top-most Mongol leaders were measures of Alauddin were adopted to meet the trampled to death by elephants. The other prisoners expenses of the huge army, which had to be set up were also put to death and their heads put in the to meet the Mongol danger. walls of the fort of Siri. About the measure of success achieved by Alauddin against the Mongols, Dr. K.S. Lal observes The Mongols appeared once again in 1306. Success that the Mongal menace which had made his They crossed the Indus near Multan and proceeded of predecessors tremble on their throne was put to an towards the Himalays. Ghazni Malik who had been end by him. His reformative measures, his huge army appointed the Governor of the Punjab in 1305, and above all his generalship relieved the Empire intercepted the Mongols and a large number of of a menace that was continually haunting the them were killed 50,000 Mongols were made rulers and people of India. Not only did the Mongols prisoners including Kubak, their leader. They were cease their aggression against India but according put to death and their children and wives were to Barani and Ferishta, Ghazni Tughlug who was

sold as slaves. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru appointed at Deopalpur with a strong force “every | 100 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY year led expeditions to Kabul, Ghazni, Quandhar and Another factor which helped was the policy Garmsir, plundered and ravaged those regions and of offensive followed by Alauddin Khilji. As a true levied tribute from their inhabitants. The Mongols military strategist, Alauddin came to the conclusion had not the courage to come and defend their own that the best way to deal with the Mongols was to frontiers against him.” strike at their own bases. In pursuance of this policy, Dr. K.S. Lal attributes the defeat of the Mongols he sent his armies across the mountain passes to to many causes. He points out that the idea of a attack the Mongols’ bases at Kabul, Ghazni and CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA world conquest, which had been the driving Quandhar. This strategy paralysed the Mongols. force of the Mongol Empire, was lost in the wars Dr. K.S. Lal points out that the main cause of the among the various descendants of Chingiz Khan. Mongol was that they had to fi ght against Alauddin The Mongols who invaded India were sent by the who himself was a war-lord. Alauddin considered it Khans of Transoxiana. They had rebelled against the his duty to defend his Empire against the Mongols Great Khans of China and were mostly busy with and this he did with all the resources at his command. their internal problems in Central Asia. Dava Khan He carried out various reforms, he raised a huge army fought some 40 battles in Central Asia and hence, and through studied determination, repulsed the was not left with enough of energy and time which Mongol inroads until they stopped altogether. he could devote to the conquest of India. Prof. Habib Dreams of Alauddin is also of the view that it was the discord among the Alauddin achieved great success during the Mongols and their own internecine warfare which fi rst three years of his reign. Sons were born to him. saved the kingdom of Delhi. Victories were won by his generals and a lot of Dr. Lal also points out that the number of wealth was brought by them. He had no enemy or Mongols who invaded India has been unduly rival to fear. According to Ziauddin Barani, “All this exaggerated. The Mongols who attacked India prosperity intoxicated him. Vast desires and great included among them women, children and old aims far beyond him formed their germs in his men. This may have added to their total number brain and he entertained fancies which had never but that could not added to their military strength. occurred to any king before him. In his exaltation, The Mongols were also joined by adventures ignorance and folly, he quite lost his head, forming from the Afghans and the Khokhars with the sole the most impossible schemes and cherishing the object of plunder. They were neither interested in most extravagant desires. He was bad-tempered, the conquest of India nor in helping the Mongols obstinate, hard-hearted, but the world smiled upon to defeat the Sultan. Such an army could not be him, fortune befriended him and his schemes were generally successful, so he only became the expected succeed. Moreover, the qualities of the more reckless and arrogant.” The Sultan began to early Mongols disappeared with the passage of cherish the dream of founding a new religion and time and as they no longer possessed the qualities conquering the world like Alexander the Great. of patience and endurance. Alauddin was able to Alauddin began to dream like this: “God Almighty exhaust their patience on the occasion of the two gave the blessed prophet four friends, through sieges of Delhi in 1300 and 1303. The Mongols had whose energy and power the law and religion were also lost their former agility and mobility and no Success established and through this establishment of law of wonder they were defeated by Alauddin. Another and religion, the name of the Prophet will endure cause of their failure was that Dava Khan died in to the Day of Judgement. God has given me also 1306 and there was disorder in Transoxiana after four friends, Ulugh Khan, Zafar Khan, Nusrat Khan his death. Within a period of 2/3 years, three Khans, and Alap Khan who through my prosperity have Kuyuk, Kubak and Taliku ascended the throne. Things attained to the princely power and dignity. If I am were so unsettled that Kubak was forced to abdicate. so inclined, I can, with the help of these four friends, Although he was reinstated in 1321, he was not able establish a new religion and creed; and my sword

to reorganize the Mongols and send them to India. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru and the swords of my friends will bring all men to | 101 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 adopt it. Through this religion, my name and those attacked and wounded by his nephew, Akat Khan, of my friends will remain among men to the last in correct with some New Muslims. However, Akat day, like names of the Prophet and his friends. I have Khan was captured and put to death along with his wealth and elephants and forces beyond all the associates. As regards the capture of Ranthambor, calculations. My wish is to place Delhi in charge of Alauddin resorted to treachery. He seduced Ram a vicegerent and then, I will go out myself into the Mal, the Prime Minister of Hamir Deva. It was with world, like Alexander, in pursuit of conquest, and the help given by Ram Mal that the besiegers were subdue the whole habitable world.” ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA able to climb up the walls of the fortress and take Alauddin consulted Malik Ala-ul-Mulk, possession of it in July, 1301. uncle of Ziauddinj Barani, and the latter gave the Hamir Deva and the New Muslims who had following advice: “Religion and law spring from taken shelter with him, were put to death. Amir heavenly revelation; they are never established Khusro tells us that “one night the Rai lit a fi re at by the plans and designs of men. From the days the top of the hill, and threw his women and family of Adam till now, they have been the mission of into the fl ames and rushed toward the enemy with Prophets and Apostles, as rule and government a few devoted adherents, they sacrifi ced their lives have been the duty of kings. The prophetic offi ce in despair.” The author of Hammir Mahakavya gives has never appertained to kings, and never will so a different account of the death of Hamir Deva. It long as the world lasts, though some prophets have is stated there that the defeat of Hamir Deva was discharged the functions of royalty. My advice is that due to the defection of his two generals, Ratipal your Majesty should never talk about these matters. and Krishnapal. Hamir Deva was severely wounded Your Majesty knows what rivers of blood Chingiz and when he felt that his end was near, he cut off Khan made to fl ow in the Muhammadan cities, but his head with his own sword instead of submitting he never was able to establish the Mughal religion or to the Muslims. Ram Mal was also not spared by institutions among Muhammadans. Many Mughals Alauddin. It was felt that if he could be faithless to have turned Mussalmans but no Mussalman has his master, nothing could be expected of him in ever become a Mughal.” The Sultan agreed to accept future. No wonder, he was also put to death by the the advice of Malik Ala-ul-Mulk and took the task order of Alauddin. of conquering the whole of India. CONQUEST AND TERRITORIAL EXPANSION Although Ranthambor had been conquered by Qutbuddin and Iltutmish, it had become Gujarat (1299 A.D.) independent. At the time of Alauddin, it was being After the fi rst Mongol invasion, Alauddin sent ruled by Hamir Deva, a Rajput chief. Two reasons Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan to conquer Gujarat in have been given for the invasion of Ranthambor. 1299. Although it had been occasionally conquered, The fi rst reason was that Hamir Deva had given it had remained unsubdued. At that time, it was shelter to some New Muslims and this offended being ruled by Rai Karan Deva II, a Bagela Rajput Alauddin. He would like to punish Hamir Deva for Prince. The Delhi army besieged Anhilwara and his audacity. Another reason was that Alauddin captured it. Kamala Devi, the beautiful queen of considered it as his pious duty to recover a fortress Karan Deva II, fell into the hands of the invaders and that had once formed a part of the Sultanate of Success she was taken away to Delhi, where she was made of Delhi. In 1299, he sent an expedition under Ulugh the favourite queen by Alauddin. However, Karan Khan and Nusrat Khan. They reduced Jhain and Deva and his daughter, Deval Devi, took refuge with encamped before Ranthambor. However, they were king Ram Chandra Deva of Devagiri. The Delhi army beaten by the Rajputs. Nusrat Khan was killed by a plundered the rich ports of Gujarat and took away a stone discharged from a catapult, Jhain was also large amount of booty and a eunuch named Kafar. recovered by the Rajputs. When Alauddin heard of This Kafur ultimately rose to be the most infl uential this, he personally proceeded against Ranthambor. person in the state. He became virtually the mater

When he was on his way to Ranthambor, he was Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru for sometime before and after the death of Alauddin. | 102 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY There was some trouble with regard to the division greater and he made Ratan Singh a prisoner. A of the spoils and the new Mussalmans revolted message was sent to Padmani that her husband but they were ruthlessly put down and practically would be released if she agreed to come into the exterminated. harem of Alauddin. Padmani sent the reply that she was coming with her attendants. 700 litters said to Mewar (1303 A.D.) be carrying her attendants, but actually carrying The next expedition was sent by Alauddin brave Rajput warriors, entered the camp of Alauddin against Mewar, the land of the brave Guhila ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA and rescured Rana Ratan Singh. Thus, Alauddin was Rajputs. This expedition was the outcome of the outwitted. Althought Gora and Badal resisted the ambitions of Alauddin for territorial expansion. invaders at the outer gate of the fort of Chittor, they There is a tradition that the immediate cause of could not stand against the Delhi Army for long the expedition against Mewar was the desire and thus, Chittor was captured but before its fall, of Alauddin to marry Padmani, the wife of Rana Padmani burnt herself and refused to fall into the Ratan Singh of Chittor. The siege lasted for about hands of the Muslims. 5 months and all attempts to capture it failed. The About the story of Padmani, Gauri Shankar brave Rajputs put up such a stiff resistance that even Ojha observes: “Col. Tod has written this story on their enemy admired their bravery. However, when the authority of Bhatts of Mewar, and the Bhats further resistance became impossible, the Rajputs performed “that horrible rite, the Jauhar where have taken it from Padmavat such being the cases. the females are immolated to preserve them from Tod’s statement lacks conviction. If there is any basic pollution or captivity. The funeral pyre was lighted fact (lit. root; jad) behind the statement of Tarikhi- within the ’great subterranean retreat’, in chambers Ferishta. Tod and Padmavat, it is this that Alauddin impervious to the light of the day, and the defenders captured Chittor after a siege of six months, that of Chittor beheld in procession the queens, their its ruler Ratan Singh was killed in this fi ght with own wives and daughters, to the number of several Lakshman Singh, and that his queen Padmani died thousands…. They were conveyed to the cavern, and in the fi re of Jauhar with several other ladies.” Again, the opening closed upon them, leaving them to fi nd “……..In the absence of history people accepted security from dishonour in the devouring element.” Padmavat as history. But in truth, it is only a story in The fort of Chittor was captured by Alauddin on 26 verse, like a modern historical novel, the structure August, 1303. The government of Chittor was put in of which rests upon these historical facts that Ratan the hands of Khizr khan, the eldest son of Alauddin. Sen was the ruler of Chittor, Padmani was his queen, Chittor was also named as Khrizrabad, after the and Alauddin was the Sultan of Delhi, who wrested name of Khizr Khan. On account of the pressure of the fort of Chittor from Ratan Sen (Ratan Sing) by Rajputs, Khirzr Khan was forced to leave Chittor in fi ghting……” However, Dr. K.R. Qanungo points 1311, when this happened. Chittor under given by out in “Studies in Rajput History” that Ojha is not Alauddin to Maldeva, the chief of Jalor. Chittor was clear on the point that Ratan Singh or Ratan Sen again recovered by the Rajputs under Hamir or his was killed in this fi ght not with Lakshman Singh son and it once again became the capital of Mewar. but before Alauddin wrested the fort of Chittor not from Ratan Sen but from Lakshman Singh. “Padmani Story of Padmani was his (Ratan Sen’s) queen” has not been proved by A reference may be made to the story of Success Ojha to be a historical fact and in spite of that Ojha of Padmani. It is stated when the siege of Chittor was speaks in the indicative mood about the so-called going on and a critical situation arose, Alauddin Padmani palace and Padmani tank of Chittor. Dr. offered to go away capturing Chittor if he was shown Qanungo rejects the story of Padmani as completely the face of Padmani through a mirror. Rana Patan unhistorical. However, Dr. A.L. Srivastava points out Singh accepted this suggestion and arrangements that those writers who regard the story of Padmani were made to show Padmani in the mirror. After as unhistorical base their arguments on a superfi cial seeing Padmani through a mirror, the determination study of the writings of Amir Khusro. Amir Khusro

of Alauddin to have Padmani became all the more Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru does make a reference of the story of Padmani | 103 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 when he compares Alauddin with Solomon. He altogether. The Mewar tradition which accepts the refers to his Seba as being in the fort of Chittor. Amir story is a very old one, handed down from generation Khusro described himself as Hud-Hud which was the to generation and if Padmani’s episode was a mere bird which brought the news of Bilquis, the queen literary concoction, it should not have gained so of Seba, to Solomon. It is true that Malik Khusro wide a currency in Rajputana. However, the answer has omitted many things which might have been of Dr. K.S. Lal is that tradition is not a very authentic disliked by his master Alauddin such as the murder of source of history and it is not easy to say how old Jalaluddin by Alauddin but it is too much to believe ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA the Mewar tradition is, and whether it is older than that the whole story of Padmani was concocted by the Padmavat of Jaisi. The bardic chronicles were Jayasi. It cannot be denied that Jayasi derived the written long after the completion of the Padmavat main story of his Padmavat from Khazain-ul-Futuh and even Ferishta’s Tarikh, and it cannot be said with of Amir Khusro. The details of romance of Jayasi’s certainty whether the bards based their accounts Padmavat may be imaginary but the main plot is of Padmani or oral tradition or on the Padmavat most probably based on historical truth. Had there itself. It is probable that Jaisi may have struck at the been no truth in the story, the Rajput bards would plot of Padmavat from the terrible battle of Chittor never have included it in their traditional songs, just as Charles Dickens struck at the plot of ‘A Tale particularly when the whole story is a slur on the of Two Cities’ from the extraordinary times of the honor of the Rajputs. French Revolution. Regarding the wide currency it The view of Dr. K.S. Lal is that the stories gained in Rajputana, the answer is that once such of Ferishta, Hajiuddabir and other later Persian stories are in the air they are repeated everywhere historians and the bards of Rajputana, except in with added incidents and suggestions. certain monor variations, closely resemble one The romantic story of Padmani got so another and seem to have been drawn upon the much currency in India but not only Ferishta and Padmavat of Jaisi. However, it is doubtful whether Hajiuddabir but even Manucci related it incidents even Jaisi, while writing the Padmavat, ever meant in connection with Akbar’s invasion of Chittor to write about the life story of a princess of Chittor. and says that Padmani was the queen of Raja At the end of his epic, Jaisi says: “In this epic, Jaimal who was rescued from royal imprisonment Chittor stands for the body, the raja for the mind, through the stratagem of litters. Against these Singhaldvip (Ceylon) for the heart, Padmani for confused and varied accounts in the testimony of wisdom and Sultan Alauddin for lust (Maya). The wise the contemporary historians, poets and travellers, can understand what is meant by this love story.” who never alluded to Padmani affair at all. All these From this remark of Jaisi, Dr. K.S. Lal has come to the historians and chroniclers cannot be accused of conclusion that Jaisi was writing an allegory and not deliberately entering into a conspiracy of silence on narrating a true historical event. It may be that the the Chittor episode. Amir Khusru who accompanied selection of this particular theme have been inspired the Sultan to Chittor has very fearlessly and even by the tragic Jauhar of Chittor in Jaisi’s own times exaggeratingly given the details relating to the siege. when Bahadur Shah of Gujarat invaded Chittor in How can it be said that such an incident as that of the year 1534. Once Jaisi had written the romantic Padmani, if it really happened, escaped mention story, the Mohammadan historians of India who from his pen? The story of Padmani is to be found not infrequently copied verbatim from the Persina Success in Jaisi’s Padmavat, in traditional lore, and in those of histories also, adopted this story in extenso. The chronicles the accounts of which have borrowed it Padmavat was completed 224 years after the death from the Padmavat and the traditions. Tradition is no of Alauddin and 237 years after the eventful siege doubt a source of history but it is surely the weakest of Chittor, and not a single historian or chronicler, one and until it is corroborated by contemporary Persian or Rajasthani, ever wrote about Padmani evidence—literary, historical, epigraphical and before the Padmavat of Jaisi. numismatical—it cannot be accepted as true history. Dr. K.S. Lal points out that there is one fact In the case of Padmani, the antiquity of the tradition

which causes some hesitation in rejecting the story Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru which furnishes the story is not known, while the | 104 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY story itself is a long and for so long a time. To say was cut-off from the plains and provisions could not that where so much is alleged, something must be reach it. Sanitary conditions inside the forts were not true is not the historian’s habit. satisfactory. That was particularly so during a siege when forts became over-crowded and epidemics Malwa (1305 A.D.) often took a heavy toll of life. In 1305, Alauddin sent an army to Malwa under Another cause of their failure was that they Ain-ul-Mulk Multani. Rai Mhalak Deva of Malwa continued to follow the age-old traditions of warfare. and his Pradhan, Koka, opposed the army but they ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA They did not bother about the new techniques defeated and slain in November or December, of fi ghting evolved in other parts of the world. 1305. The victory helped the Muslims to occupy The Sultans possessed engines of war like Arrada, Ujjain, Mandu, and Chanderi. Ain-ul-Mulk was Gargach, etc. (i.e., stone-throwing machines). They appointed the Governor of Malwa. also knew the art of constructing pashibs for Jalor escalading the fort walls. The Rajputs fought with Raja Kanera Deva of Jalor also submitted and elephants in open engagements. They thought acknowledged the suzerainty of Alauddin. In spite it below their dignity to resort to ambuscade, of this submission, Kanera Deva boasted that he camoufl age and feigning retreats in which the Turks was prepared to meet Alauddin in the battlefi eld at were experts. any time. When this fact was brought to the notice Another cause of their defeat was that their of Gul-i-Bihisht, a female servant of his palace Jalor resources were limited. Their country was hilly and was besieged and when Kanera Deva was about to barren. Crops and water were scarce. They could not surrender, she died. Her son was defeated and killed fi ght successfully against the Sultans of Delhi who by the Rajputs. When fresh troops came from Delhi, had at their command the resources of the Punjab Kanera Deva was defeated and he and his relations and Avadh which were the most fertile regions of the were put to death and Jalor was annexed. country and thus, could depend upon an unlimited supply of provisions and reinforcements. In 1308, Alauddin himself left with a large army to attack Sevana in Rajputana. Its ruler, Sital Deva, Conquest of the Deccan put up a stiff resistance but was defeated, captured By the end of 1305, practically, the whole of and killed. His kingdom was placed under the charge Northern India fell into the hands of Alauddin and of Malik Kamaluddin Gurg. he could very easily afford to direct his attention Causes of Rajput Failure towards the conquest of the Deccan. There must have been both political and economic motives behind Almost all the important states of Rajputana the campaigns of Alauddin and his lieutenants in the submitted before Alauddin. The question has been Souh. The wealth of the Deccan was too tempting to asked as so what were the causes which were an enterprising adventurer. His ambition to establish responsible for the defeat of the Rajputs and many his control over the South which had so far not reasons have given. The Rajputs were disunited been conquered by the Muslims, must have led politically. It is true that every Rajput kingdom put Alauddin to think of conquering Southern India. The up stiff resistance, but singly none of them was a political condition in the South was also favourable match for the Sultan of Delhi. Their disunity helped Success to Alauddin. There were four kingdoms in that reign of the Sultan. Reference be made in this Sevana was at that time. The fi rst was the Yadava kingdom of imminent, the ruler of Jalor, a neighbour, kept aloof. Devagiri under Rama Chandra Deva (1271-1309). The result was that after the conquest of Sevana, Telingana, with its capital at Warangal, was under Jalor was also conquered. Pratap Rudra Deva I of the Kakatiya dynasty. The Another cause of the defeat of the Rajputs was Hoysala kingdom with its capital at Dwarsamudra their reliance on their forts. These forts were usually was under Vira Ballala III (1292-1342). The Pandya constructed on the top of some hillocks as a measure kingdom of Mudura was being ruled at that time

of defence. However, once a fort was besieged, it Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru by Maravarman Kulasekhara (1268-1311). There | 105 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 were some minor rulers like Manma Siddha ruling these terms and not press the Rai too hard.” The in the Nelore district, Bhanu-Deva ruling in Orissa, Delhi army marched via Devagiri and was given all Ravi-Verman ruling from Kollam and Bank-Deva- assistance by Rama Chandra Deva. Pratap Rudra Alupendra rulig from Manglore. The Hindu rulers Deva, the ruler of Telingana, put up stiff resistance. of the South were quarrelling among themselves The fort of Warangal was besieged. When the and consequently they were not in a position to put situation became critical, Pratap Rudra Deva sued up a united front. No wonder, they were disposed for peace in March, 1310. The Raja gave Kafur 100 of one by one. ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA elephants, 7,000 horses and large quantities of jewels and coined money. He also agreed to send tribute Conquest of Devagiri (1307 A.D.) to Delhi every year. Amir Khusro tells us that Malik In March 1307, Alauddin sent an expedition Kafur came back to Delhi with an immense booty under Malik Kafur against Ram Chandra Deva of carried “on a thousand camels groaning under the Devagiri. The latter had not sent the tribute for the weight of treasure.” last three years and also given refuge to Rai Karan Dwarsamudra (1311 A.D.) Deva, the fugitive ruler of Gujarat. Malik Kafur was also asked to bring with him Deval Devi, daughter The next expedition was against Vira Ballala III, of Kamal Devi, who had escaped at the time of the the Hoysala ruler. The latter was taken by surprise conquest of Gujarat. It is stated that Karan Deva II and defeated. His capital, Dwarsamudra, was had made arrangements to marry Deval Devi to a captured. Malik Kafur plundered the rich temples Prince named Shankar, who was the eldest son of of the town and got a lot of gold, silver, jewels and Ram Chandra Deva of Devagiri. When she was being pearls. He sent to Delhi all the captured property escorted towards Devagiri, she fell into the hands and also the Hoysala Prince. The prince came back of , Governor of Gujarat, who was going to of Dwarsamudra in May, 1313 but the Hoysalas join Malik Kafur in his expedition against Devagiri. became the vassals of Delhi. Deval Devi was sent to Delhi and was married to Pandya Kingdom (1311 A.D.) Khize Khan, the eldest son of Alauddin. Malik Kafur From Dwarsamudra, Kafur marched against marched through Malwa and advanced to Devagiri. the Pandya kingdom. At that time, there was going He destroyed the whole country and captured a lot on a dispute for succession of the throne between of booty. Ram Chandra was forced to sue for peace. two brothers, Sundara Pandya and Vira Pandya; He was sent to Delhi where he was treated kindly Sundara Pandya was defeated by Vira Pandya. The by Alauddin. He was sent back to his kingdom after former went to Delhi and asked for the help of six months. Ram Chandra Deva continued to rule Alauddin. That was exactly the thing that Alauddin Devagiri as a vassal of Alauddin. would like to have. To wonder, Malik Kafur reached Telingana (1310 A.D.) Madura which was abandoned by Vira Pandya. Malik As regards Telingana, an attempt had been Kafur plundered Madura and destroyed its temples. made, in 1303, to capture Warangal but that had He then reached Rameshwaram on the island of failed. Another attempt was made, in 1307, by Pamban. At Rameshwaram, he destroyed the great Alauddin to bring Telingana under his control. temple and built a mosque and named it after his Alauddin had no desire to annex Telingana and his Success master, Alauddin. He came back to Delhi, in 1311, with of only object seems to have been to get the wealth of rich spoils “which included 312 elephants, 20,000 that kingdom and also force its ruler to acknowledge horses, 2,750 pounds of gold, equal in value to ten his authority. Alauddin is said to have given the crores of Tankas and chests of jewels. No such booty following instructions to Malik Kafur, who was the had ever before been brought to Delhi.” The result in charge of the expedition: “If the Rai consented of this expedition was that the Pandya kingdom to surrender his treasure and jewels, elephants and became a dependency of the Delhi Sultanate and horses, and also to send treasure and elephants in continued to be so till the early part of reign of

the following year, Malik Naib Kafur was to accept Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Muhammad Tughlak. | 106 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY Devagiri mostly vegetarians and very orthodox people. They The last Deccan campaign of Malik Kafur was were more particular about their regular baths and against Shankar Deva, who withheld the tribute untouchability than about fi ghting. It is obvious that promised by his father and tried to regain his such people could not fi ght against the armies from independence. Malik Kafur marched against Devagiri the North. No wonder, the armies of Alauddin were and infl icted a crushing defeat on Shankar Deva. The successful in the South. latter was killed. Most of the towns of his kingdom As regards the Deccan policy of Alauddin, it is CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA were captured and looted. It was in this way that the to be noted that like Samudra Gupta, Alauddin did whole of Southern India was made to acknowledge not intend to annex the territories of the rulers of the sway of Alauddin. Southern India. His main object was to get as much of wealth as possible so that he could pay for the Causes of Alauddin’s Success in the Deccan expenses of a huge army which he was maintaining. The success of Alauddin in the Deccan can According to Dr. Aiyangar, Alauddin regarded the be attributed to many causes. The kingdoms of Deccan as milch-cow for the gold that he required the South were constantly fi ghting against one to stablise his position in the North. Alauddin sent another and hence, could not present a united Malik Kafur four times to the South not to conquer it front to the armies of the North. When Alauddin but to get its gold, silver, pearls, jewels and elephants. attacked Devagiri in 1296, Singhana Deva had gone Alauddin also had no religious motive in his wars towards the Hoysala frontiers with his forces. When against the Southern states. There were no wholesale Malik Kafur marched against the Hoysala country, conversions. its ruler Ballala Deva was absent in farther South trying to snatch a portion of the Pandya territory. Even the rulers of the Deccan states were not Sundara Pandya and Vira Pandya were the deadly forced to change their religion. It is true that temples enemies of each other. were demolished by Kafur in his Deccan campaigns but that was done more for economic than for any The rulers of the Southern states also helped religious purpose. It is true that some mosques the invaders against one another. Ram Chandra were built but there does not seem to have been helped Malik Kafur in the conquest of Telingana. any religious motive behind them. Their object Vira Ballala escorted the imperial army farther South was merely to commemorate his brilliant victories. in Malabar. Sundara Pandya asked Malik Kafur to help him against his step-brother, Vira Pandya. The The successful Deccan campaigns, must have consequences of such a policy were obvious and no strengthened the position of Alauddin in the North. wonder the Southern states were defeated. No ruler or governor could dare to defy Alauddin. The wealth of the South must have improved the Another cause of the success of the armies of fi nancial position of Alauddin and helped him in Alauddin was their effi ciency. The mobility of their his administration of the country. It is pointed out cavalry was staggering. It is pointed out that the that the expeditions of Malik Kafur which were distance between Delhi and Devagiri was almost accompanied by the sack of cities, slaughter of annihilated on account of the speed of the horses. the people and plunder of temples, must have Before the Southern states could fi nd time to get made an immense impression on the people of ready for meeting the invasion, they were attacked the South. They could not resist him and hence all of a sudden and defeated. Success

of submitted before him but they harboured a feeling The soldiers from the North combined in of discontentment in their hearts and that ultimately themselves the zeal for religion and greed for found expression in the Vijaynagar Empire. plunder. They were superior to the Southern soldiers in discipline, strategy and tactics. Referring to the Death (1316 A.D.) soldiers of south India, Marco Polo says: “The people The twenty years’ rule of Alauddin came to an of the country go to the battle all naked, with only end with his death on 2nd January, 1316. The Sultan a lance and a shield and are the most wretched was not keeping good health. “His ill-health made

soldiers.” Marco Polo also points out that they were Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru him more suspicious and irritable than ever, and like | 107 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 most people who distrust the bulk of mankind, he is said to have told the Qazi: “Although I have not was the dupe of one artful individual.” So great was studied the Science or the Book, I am a Mussalman the infl uence of Malik Kafur on Alauddin that the of a Mussalman stock.” The inscriptions on the latter imprisoned Khizr Khan, his eldest son and his monuments of Alauddin also show that Alauddin mother on a charge of conspiracy. Shihab-ud-Umar had faith in Islam. was nominated successor so that Malik Kafur, acting Alauddin revived the theory of kingship as regent, could exercise all the powers. Rebellions of Balban. He believed in the majesty of the king CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA broke out on all sides. Harapala, the successor of who was the representative of God on each. His Shankar Deva in Devagiri, was the fi rst to declare his conviction was that God had given more wisdom independence and drive out the Muslim garrisons to the king than to any other individual and his will from his territory. Rana Hamir of Chittor turned out should be the law of the country. He also believed the Muslims from Rajasthan. Gujarat also followed that kingship knows no kinship. All people were to suit. According to Elphinstone, “The paroxysms be either his servants or his subjects and he was not of rage produce by a succession of these tidings to be infl uenced by anybody in the administration of increased the king’s suffering and soon brought the country. Both the nobles and the Ulema were to him to the brink of the grave. His end is said to have be kept at distance. He inspired awe among all. He been accelerated by poison, administered by Kafur.” would like to rule over the country according to his It is rightly pointed out that Alauddin was own lights. He did not consider it necessary to get a great administrative genius. No Muslim ruler the sanction of the Khalifa to add his authority and before the Mughals had shown so much of interest no wonder, he did not apply for an investiture from in organising the affairs of the state. He made a the Khalifa. However, he styled himself as Yamin-ul- large number of reforms in various spheres of Khilafat Nasiri Amir-ul-Mumanin. administrations some of which were really original. Alauddin’s Militarism Conception of Kingship Alauddin established a militaristic regime. He In his conception of sovereignty, Alauddin based his kingship on military power and force. He departed from his predecessors. He had the courage did not claim sovereignty on the basis of heredity to say that he was not prepared to be dictated by or election by the nobles or the sanction of the the Ulema. Qazi Mughisuddin of Biyana used to Khalifa. He knew full well that he had usurped visit the court very often and he was an advocate power by force and the same could be maintained of the supremacy of the church. However, Alauddin only by force. He subordinated the Muslim Church told him his views about kingship in these words: by force. He overawed the nobility with his huge “To prevent rebellion, in which thousands perish, I army. He did not allow the nobles to keep their issue such orders as I conceive to be for the good armies. As a matter of fact, he owned everything to of the state and the benefi t of the people. Men are his effi cient army. It is not possible to refer to the heedless, disrespectful and disobey my commands; exact fi gures of the army of Alauddin. Ferishta tells I am then compelled to be severe to bring them us that Alauddin maintained 4,75,000 horsemen. into obedience. I do not know whether this is lawful He paid decent salaries to the soldiers. Muratab or unlawful; whatever I think to be for the good or an ordinary horseman was paid 234 Tankas a of the state or suitable for the emergency, that I Success year. The Sawar was paid 156 Tankas. A Do-aspah of declare; and as for what may happened to me on the was paid 78 Tankas a year. Payments were made to Day of Judgement that I know not.” However, this the soldiers regularly and their activities were also does not mean that he disregarded Islam. Outside supervised. Alauddin introduced two system of Dagh India, he was known as a great defender of Islam. or the branding of horses and Huliah system or the In the case of India, there is a difference of opinion. preparation of the descriptive rolls. Dewan-i-Arz Barani and his followers emphasised the disregard was the head of the military establishment and was of religion by Alauddin but Amir Khusru considered required to enforce the rules stringently. The result

Alauddin as a supporter of Islam. Alauddin himself Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru of these changes was that the Sultan could not be | 108 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY deceived by clever nobles with regard to the identity revenue offi cer demands silver from them they of the horses and the soldiers. Spies were kept in should without question and with all humility, and every limit of the army and they were required to respect, tender gold. If the Muhassil chooses to spit submit daily reports to the Sultan regarding the into the mouth of a Hindu, the latter must open his conduct of the military offi cers. mouth without hesitation. The meaning of doing such a thing is that the Hindu by acting in this way Land Revenue shows his meekness and humility and obedience Alauddin made many reforms in the fi eld ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA and respect. The glorifi cation of Islam is a duty, and of land revenue. It was ordered that all land was contempt of the religion is vain. God himself has to be measured and then, the share of the state commanded their subjection, in as much as the was to be fi xed. The post of a special offi cer, called Hindus are the deadliest foes of the Prophet. The Mustakhraj, was created and he was given the duty Prophet has said that they should either embrace of collecting unrealised balance of land revenue Islam or they should be slain or enslaved, and their from the peasants. In order to check bribery and property should be confi scated to the state. No corruption among the revenue offi cials, their salaries one except the great doctor, Abu Hanifa, allows were increased. On certain occasions, the papers of the imposition of the Jizya upon the Hindus, while the Patwaris were personally scrutinised. Alauddin other schools are of opinion that there is no other did not force the peasants to pay land revenue in alternative for them but death or Islam.” clash. As a matter of fact, he preferred to get the Alauddin adopted many measures by which same in kind. the Hindus were reduced to poverty and misery. Zia-Barani has criticised Alauddin for heavy Ziauddin Barani tells us that the Chaudhries, Khuts taxes. The latter charged half the produce as land and Muqaddams were not able to ride on horseback, revenue while the demand of the state used to be to fi nd weapons, to get fi ne clothes or to indulge 25% or 33% before Alauddin. That was probably in battel. Their wives were forced to work as maid- due to the fact that Alauddin was in need of a servants in the houses of the Muslim neighbours. larger amount of money for the maintenance of According to Prof. S.R. Sharma, the choice offered by his army. At the same time, it is not be forgotten that Alauddin to the Hindus was to be hewers of wood Alauddin took steps to safeguard the peasants from and drawers of water, the helots of the Empire. No the demands of the corrupt revenue offi cials and wonder, Alauddin boasted that “at my command, the latter were punished severely even the petty they are ready to creep into holes like mice.” offences. It is pointed out that for misappropriation of one single ital, the revenue collectors were According to Sir Wolseley Haig, “Hindus tortured. throughout the kingdom were reduced to one dead level of poverty and misery, or, if there were one class The condition of the revenue offi cials became more to pitied than another, it as that which had very bad in the time of Alauddin. We are told that formerly enjoyed the most esteem, the hereditary wives of the Khats and Muqaddams went and served assessors and collectors of the revenue.” for hire in the houses of Mussalmans. “Men looked upon revenue offi cers as something worse than However, Dr. R.P. Tripathi contends that fever. Clerkship was a great crime and no man would the measures adopted against the Hindus by Success Alauddin were not due to religious causes but to give his daughter to a clerk.” of political and economic causes. The Muqaddams Alauddin’s Relation with Non-Muslims or village headmen, Khuts or farmers of revenue Alauddin was very cruel towards the Hindus. and Chaudhries or venue collectors were mainly He adopted all kinds or measures to crush them in Hindus and before the time of Alauddin, they had every possible manner. The Qazi of Bayana explained enjoyed many privileges. They dressed themselves the policy of the state towards the Hindus and daintily. They rode on fi ne horses. They oppressed Alauddin followed the same. According to the Qazi, the cultivators. All that Alauddin did was that he

the Hindus “are called Khiraj-guzars and when the Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru merely withdrew all the concessions which formerly | 109 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 the revenue offi cials enjoyed even in the reigns of the sending of any report for more than 24 hours. the Muslim rulers. This did not prove that “ Alauddin The spy system of Alauddin was so very effi cient specially aimed at crippling the Hindus as such.” that they “often in their zeal to win royal favour carried the silly gossip of the bazaar to the ears of Measures against Nobility the Emperor.” Alauddin believed in the establishment of The third Ordinance prohibited the use of wine. a strong government at the center. That was not In order to set an example, Alauddin himself brought possible if certain elements in the country continued ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA all the jars and casks of wine from his palace and got to revolt. It is true that Alauddin had successfully them emptied at the Badaun Gate. So much of wine crushed the rebellions of Akat Khan, the revolt of was emptied that mud and mire were produced the sons of the sister of the Sultan, Amir Umar and as in the rainy season. The prohibition scheme was Mangu Khan, in Badaun and Avadh, the conspiracy of not a success. People began to distil wine in private Haji Maula and the plots of the New Mussalmans, but houses. Smuggling became common. The result was all this made Alauddin analyse the causes of those that certain concessions were made by the Sultan. rebellions. His conclusion was that those rebellions The prohibition was restricted merely to its public were due to the ineffi ciently of the spy system, the use and convivial gatherings. Nobles were allowed general practice of using wine, social intercourse to drink individually in their houses. among nobles and intermarriages between them and the excess of wealth in the hands of a few The fourth Ordinance issued by Alauddin persons “which engenders evil and strife, and brings laid down that nobles should not have social forth pride and disloyalty.” gatherings and they should into intermarry without his permission. No dinners and parties could be In order to avoid the evils mentioned above, given by the nobles without the prior sanction Alauddin mentioned four important Ordinances. of the Sultan. Gambling even for recreation was The fi rst Ordinances aimed at the confi scation of prohibited. Dr. Ishwari Prasad rightly points out the religious endowments and free grants of land. that “the amenities of social life disappeared and Ziauddin Barani tells us that “the Sultan ordered that life became an intolerable burden.” wherever there was a village held by proprietary right (milk) in free gift (in’am), or as a religious Economic Reforms endowment (wakf), it should, by one stroke of the Alauddin carried out a large number of pen, be brought under the exchequer. The people reforms in the economic fi eld. Certain regulations were pressed and amerced, and money was exacted were issued with the objects of fi xing prices of from them on every kind of pretext. Many were left food products, cloth and all kinds of piece goods without any money, till at length it came to pass and maid-servants, concubines, male and female that excepting Maliks and Amirs, offi cials, Multans, slaves, milch cattle, beasts of burden, horses and (i.e. large traders from Multan) and banders, no one various articles of general merchandise including possessed even a trifl e in cash. So rigorous was the such articles as bread, vegetables, reori, Yakhni, confi scation that, beyond a few thousand tankas, all needles, etc. Other regulations were concerned the pensions, grants in land, and endowments in the with the ways and means of enforcing the prices country were appropriated. The people were also fi xed. It was the duty of the government to ensure absorbed in obtaining the means of living that the Success supplies by means of command. The hoarding of of name of rebellion was never mentioned.” produce of the Doab and the neighbouring country By the second Ordinance, Alauddin reorganised up to a distance of hundred Kots was prohibited. the spy system. An army of informers was created Merchants were commandeered to transport grains and their duty was to spy on all that happened from villages to Delhi. Grain was to be stored in in the Empire and submit reports to the Sultan. government granaries. A machinery was devised Spies were required to work in the army. Spies were to coerce the people to obey the regulations. The appointed in the markets. Spies were appointed government was to see that the fi xed price level

in the Provinces. Spies were required not to delay Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru was not distributed even in times of families which | 110 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY were frequent near. Delhi was so regulated that maintenance. He was given a Barid and other offi cers neither the farmers were able to retain any surplus to help him in his work. Malik Maqubul, a servant of nor secretly sell at a higher price to the merchants Ulugh Khan, was appointed Shahna. His duty was to and grain dealers. Written agreements were taken supervise the market and also compel the merchants from the Governor (Nawab) and other government and caravans to collect grain from the villages. The offi cials that no one within their jurisdiction would maintenance of the offi cial price scale must have be allowed to hoard and regrate corn. If any case been a diffi cult task. A huge offi cial machinery was of regrating was detected, the offi cers were to be ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA required for the purpose. Prices at the source of held liable for it and punished. commodities had to be kept down at a suffi ciently Shahnas (Superintendents) and Karkunan low level to meet the demands of the government. (Agents) were required to be guarantees that Caravans and merchants had to be kept under they would cause the grain from the farmers to be control so that they might bring regularly goods delivered to the Caravans of merchants on the fi elds to Delhi without regranting any portion elsewhere. at the fi xed rates. The collectors, overseers and other Cheating on the part of sellers and corruption by revenue offi cers were required to realize revenues in government offi cials had to be checked. Alauddin the Doab with so much of strictness that the farmers ordered that daily reports of the current prices of were to be compelled to sell the corn left with them the market should be sent to him by the Shahana, at the cheaper rates to the corn-carriers. These steps Barid and the informers of the courts independently were intended to secure the regular fl ow of grains of each other and if those reports did not tally, the to markets of Delhi through the caravans at the guilty offi cer was to be punished. Ziauddin Barani fi xed rates. Merchants and caravans were ordered tells us that although harsh punishments were to carry grain from the villages to the Doab to Delhi. given to the shopkeepers, they did not hesitate to Merchants and caravans from far and near were cheat and give short measures to the purchasers. commandeered and were required to render service Alauddin used to make enquiries about the rates ten to the state under pain of terrible punishment and to twenty times a day, in spite of that cheating did humiliation. These merchants were required to shift not stop. Alauddin adopted the method of sending with all their belongings and settle near Dehi on occasionally to the market a few slave boys to buy the banks of the river Jamuna, in order to be within articles of food and if those were found to be less easy reach of the Shahna or Superintendent of the than the correct weight, a quantity of fl esh equal to Market. As regards the storing of grains in governing the defi ciency was cut from the cheeks or haunches granaries set up for the purpose in all parts of Delhi, of the seller and he was also kicked out of his shop those were fi lled chiefl y with grain collected by way by Shanna-i-Mandi. of revenue from the Khalsa villages of the Doab and Alauddin issued certain regulations under those attached to the New City (Shahr-i-Nau). In which a new government market named Sarai-Adi addition to Delhi, granaries were set up at Jhain and was established, under the Badaun Gate. Merchants its villages. The corn collected at Jhain and its villages of Delhi and other provinces were required to be could not be sold in the countryside and has to be registered. Loans were advanced to the Multani transported to Delhi by the caravans. It is possible merchants and they were given charge of the Sarai- that Jhain was at that time a big grain market. The Adi market. Passes were issued to those rich persons storage was meant for emergencies and for times of Success who wanted to buy costly goods. All merchants were of scarcity and famine. On those occasions, the supply required to hand over their entire stocks into Sarai of corn to the people of Delhi was rationed at a Adi on pain of severe punishment for concealing maximum of half a Man per family per day. Special anything. The Diwan-i-Riyasat as ordered to register consideration was required to be shown to the poor the names of merchants, whether they were Hindus and if the Shahna did not do so, he was punished. or Muslims. These merchants were required to bring Shahna or Superintendent or Inspector of all the commodities to the city and sell them at the Market was appointed. He was given a contingent control rates. They must have suffered a lot unless

of cavalry and infantry and a suitable Jagir for his Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru the government compensated them for the same. | 111 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 The brokers and horse-dealers, who used to earn a country became chaotic. Dr. Saran is of the opinion lot, were ruined. that the system set up by Alauddin was thoroughly Alauddin appointed Yaqub as Diwan-i-Riyasat. irrational, ill-conceived and artifi cial being in fl agrant Under him, a Shahna-i-Mandi was appointed with violation of all economic laws, intended primarily a huge staff of subordinates. Only those persons for the benefi t of the government and resulting in were appointed who were not only honest and incalculable misery, poverty and humiliation to the trustworthy, but also harsh and cruel. The Shahna- people who happened to fall directly or indirectly i-Mandi was supplied with a schedule of control ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA under it. The king, the army the government servants rates and was required to keep an eye on all sales and other salaried people gained from price control in the market. If there was any defi ciency in weight, as they were merely consumers. Merchants and the seller was lashed mercilessly and ill-treated in businessmen, being both consumers and sellers, got every possible way. relief as they were able to get their requirements Ziauddin Barani attributed the success of the at cheaper rates. The agriculturists were the most measures adopted by Alauddin to various factors hard hit as they had very little to buy other articles. and those were the strict enforcement of the rules of They could not take advantage of the amenities the market, vigorous collection of the taxes, scarcity provided at Delhi. of metallic currency among the people and the Dr. K.S. Lal express his view in these words: zeal of the offi cers who acted honestly out of fear “ Alauddin’s passion for incessant conquest and of the Sultan. constant invasions of the Mongol free-booters There is a difference of opinion amongst from the north-west had rendered maintenance scholars regarding the object of the economic of a large army unavoidable. Besides the army, the reforms carried out by Alauddin. There are some expenses on a large staff of State offi cials on civil who contend that Alauddin felt that it was the duty and military administration and on slaves involved of the state to look after the economic welfare of heavy liabilities on the royal exchequer. The wealth the people. Like Napoleon, Alauddin was of the accumulated in the time of Sultan Jalaluddin, the view that the supreme talisman of statesmanship treasurers secured from the raid on Devagiri in 1296 lay in cheap bread. While Alauddin robbed the and the yearly tributes collected from the various rich, he compensated the poor. He increased the provinces and dependencies of the Empire proved salaries of the low-paid offi cials and by fi xing the insuffi cient to meet the fi nancial burden. Even the prices of the necessities of life low, he added to raising of the revenue to fi fty percent of the produce, their happiness. Lane-Poole calls Alauddin a great the levying of different kinds of ceases, and the political economist. conversion of the drinking vessels of gold and silver However, this view is not accepted by Dr. P. into coins failed to meet the requirements of the Saran. His view is that the problem of maintaining State. It was calculated that if the King recruited a a huge army with the limited resources of the large number of troops even on a moderate salary, kingdom as the sole motive which prompted the the entire treasure of the State would be exhausted control of prices of all the necessaries of life, so as within fi ve or six years. Alauddin, therefore, decided to make them cheap enough for the soldiers to to cut down the salaries of soldiers; but to prevent maintain themselves on the low salaries which their falling a victim to economic distress, he also were paid to them. The amelioration of the Success decided to reduce the prices of commodities of of condition of the poor was not even in the remotest daily use. It was simple arithmetical calculation and imagination of Alauddin. Dr. Saran also points out simple economic principle; since he had decided that Alauddin’s system was confi ned to Delhi and to reduce and fi x the salary of soldiers, he also its neighbourhood. The rest of his dominion had decided to reduce and fi x the prices of things of directly nothing to do with it although the districts common use. With this end in view, he promulgated immediately surrounding Delhi must have been various regulations which brought down the cost infl uenced by the regulations. The economic life of living. These measures, which may be termed as

and the business conditions of the surrounding Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru his Economic Reforms or his Market Control, form a | 112 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY conspicuous feature of his administration.” Delhi where the standing army was concentrated, According to Sri Ram Sharma, the system of and the regulations extended to a region suffi ciently Alauddin “must have come to an end, much before large to ensure the isolation of the Delhi market.” Dr. his own and came. It failed because it could not B.J. Saxena points out that this argument overlooked perpetuate itself. It failed, as it was bound to fail, the fact that low prices in Delhi alone could not help because it was not founded on anything except the army which was drawn from the whole of the fear. It failed to gain any loyal supporters.” country, the needs of the families of the soldiers CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA and horsemen could not be overlooked. They had About the economic measures of Alauddin, claims to at least half, if not more of the wages of Dr. K.S. Lal points out that neither agriculture nor their bread-winners and as they lived in all parts trade and commerce could flourish under the of the empire, the mere reduction of prices in Dehi circumstances created by them, and that also was could hardly bring any relief to them or help the not the aim of Alauddin. The one object he had in state in reducing the salaries of the horsemen. The his mind was to maintain a large army which was basic fact was that Alauddin did not want and suffi cient to repel the Mongol invasion and also to desired an isolated Delhi market. He was keen that subdue the independent Chiefs of India. It is true the commodities of the Serai Adl should not go out that the benefi ts of the market regulations were of it, but in case this was done he had no means of enjoyed both by the civil and military population preventing anything from being taken from Delhi of Delhi but the agriculturists of the Doab and the to provinces. If the Multani merchants were to bring tracts in the vicinity of Delhi had to pay heavily for commodities from distant provinces, they had to the benefi ts of the people of Delhi. The tradesmen export North Indian products to distant regions. also did not gain much as they had to work under Ferishta is right in saying that the regulations were compulsion. Like other Emperors Alauddin was not meant for the greater part of the dominions of bothered about all those considerations. To him, Alauddin. If enforced in Delhi alone, they would be his military necessity was paramount. He wanted a meaningless. strong army to defeat his enemies and he succeeded remarkably well in that endeavour. The view of Dr. B.J. Saxena is that the economic regulations of Alauddin were the greatest Dr. K.S. Lal rightly observed that the market administrative achievements of the Sultanate regulations of Alauddin died with him. His successor period. He quotes the following observations of was more fond of concubines than of conquests. Ferishta written in the reign of Jahangir: “To the end Moreover, a very large army was not required as of Alauddin’s reign these prices remained steady the Mongol storm had subsided. There was no need and there was no change in them owing to the of controlling prices for recruiting a large army lack of rain or other causes that bring famine. It was on a small salary. Market control was a temporary unique and remarkable achievement. Nothing like measure, resorted to in a state of exigency and this had been accomplished before and no one can when the emergency was over, the regulations were say whether it will be possible again.” allowed to fall into discuss. In his account of economic reforms of Allauddin Estimate of Alauddin Khilji, Barani has given too much importance to According to Prof. S.R. Sharma, “ Alauddin Khilji the city of Delhi. He has overlooked the provincial Success was the fi rst Muslim Emperor of India. During the of capitals, the Qasbas (towns) and even rural areas, reign, for the fi rst time, the Crescent dominated there was no reason why Allauddin should have over the whole country from the Himalay’s to Cape plundered the Doab for the sake of the citizens of Comorin and from sea to sea. He was also the fi rst Delhi only and incurred an endless and prolonged Muslim ruler of India to make bold experiments headache. The view of Moreland is that Delhi was in administration. Balban had done little beyond isolated from the rest of the country. To quote consolidating his kingdom and maintain order Moreland, “No attempt was made to keep down therein. What little of government there was, under

prices throughout the country; effort was limited to Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru the greatest of the slave Sultans, was of a primitive | 113 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 character. Suppression of rebellion, eradication of wonderful blitzkrieg in Devagiri and the subsequent robbery, and defence of the realm against foreign events which led to his accession. As a ruler, he invaders were the primary tasks which absorbed was vigorous and effi cient; and as a reformer, bold all energies of Balban. Alauddin no doubt reaped and original. He held a very exalted conception all the benefi ts of this most essential spade-work. of kingship; the absolute state was the ideal for But he was also an innovator. However crude his which he worked—a state untrammeled by the autocracy, and whatever fate his dynasty might have authority of the Ulama and unhampered by the immediately suffered, his administrative system ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA infl uence of a powerful nobility. He understood the supplied the foundation of which all later Muslim value of and prepared the ground for the separation rulers in India built”. of the State from the Church. He was not more “Though he might be wrong-headed and bigoted than his age. Himself almost illiterate, he had disdainful of the law, Alauddin was a man of sense nothing but contempt for learning and scholarship, and determination, who knew his own mind, saw though during his reign Delhi became ‘the rival of the necessities of the situation, met them by his Cairo and the equal of Constantinople’ because of own methods and carried out those methods with the throng of great men of whom the poet Amir persistence.” Ferishta tells us that so long as Alauddin Khusro and Hasan were the most famous. Alauddin was active, he “executed justice with such rigour that was the fi rst Muslim imperialist and the fi rst great robbery and theft, formerly so common, were not Muslim administration in India really begins with heard of in the land. The traveller slept secure on the him. Alauddin, Sher Shah and Akbar—each marks highway, and the merchant carried his commodities a distinctive step in the evolution of Indo-Muslim in safety from the sea of Bengal to the mountains history.” of Kabu and from Telingana to Kashmir.” The view Dr. K.S. Lal rightly points out that although of Elphinstone was that the rule of Alauddin was Alauddin ascended the throne at the age of 30, glorious and he was a successful monarch who he reached the apogee of power at 45 through exhibited a just exercise of his power. However, unrivalled skill, studied tact and phenomenal energy. Dr. V.A. Smith does not agree with Elphinstone. His contention is that “facts do not warrant the From nothingness, he rose to be one of the greatest assertion that he exhibited a just exercise of his rulers of Medieval India. With the help of a strong powers and that his reign was glorious.” In reality and disciplined army, he pulled down the native he was a particularly savage tyrant with very little princes and stamped out sedition from the land. By a regard for justice and his reign, though marked by systematic tariff policy, he controlled the fl uctuating the conquest of Gujarat and many successful raids market and with an efficient administrative like the storming of the two great fortresses, was machinery effectively governed the country for exceedingly disgraceful in many respects. two decades. It is true that there were certain defects “It is diffi cult to analyze or pass a verdict on in his administrative system. His Government was Alauddin’s character. As a king, he was a ruthless one man’s rule and such a Government is by its very tyrant, and as a man, treacherous and ungrateful. nature uncertain. His rule was based on force and But with all these defects in his character, what not on the will of the people. carried him through was his resourcefulness, energy He was only feared and obeyed but not and capacity for work to which was added his Success loved or respected. He neglected the economic of unbounded courage tempered with calculation prosperity of the state and just to benefi t his military and a penetrating commonsense. He was a man of population, he killed every incentive to trade and inordinate ambition, but also possessed bold and commerce. Under his regulations, the traders had original ideas to which he would give practical shape neither freedom of movements nor hope of profi t. with his genius for organisation and leadership. He fl eeced the peasantry. His spy system made A vigorous commander, he knew how to carry the life of the people a hell. The oppression of the his army through strenuous campaigns. A master nobility left the Government in a paralytic condition

of diplomacy and fi nesses, he revealed it in his Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru after his death. However, in the view of Dr. K.S. Lal, all | 114 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY these accusations do not seem to hold water when a tion. The New Muslims intrigued against the Sul- careful and critical analysis of his solid achievements tan. Over-centralisation, repression and espionage is made. Alauddin had achieved much. He was able undermined the authority of the Sultan. Alauddin to turn a small kingdom of Delhi into an Empire raised low-born persons to the position of honor comprising almost the whole of India. He was the and eminence and that was resented by the nobles. fi rst ruler whose political hegemony extended over Towards the end, the Sultan also became violent the Deccan peninsula. He dealt a death-blow to the and whimsical. However, the greatest mistake of Mongol aggrandizement which threatened the very ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Alauddin was that he allowed Malik Kafur to be- existence of Muslim rule in India. come all-powerful. That ultimately proved suicidal He curbed the power of the Hindu Rajas in not only to Alauddin himself but also to the Empire the far-off South. His work at least had permanent founded by him. results, even if his conquests were not permanent. Alauddin was a great patron of learning. Amir Most of his administrative reforms served as models Khusro was patronised by him. He was the greatest for later monarchs. Barani refers to the achievements literary fi gure of that time. To begin with, Khusro of Alauddin in these words: “The fi rst special feature lived in the court of Prince Muhammad, the son of of Alauddin;s times is the cheapness of the neces- Blab. When Prince Muhammad died, he wrote an saries of life and fi xed rates of grains in seasons of eulogy on Muhammad. Later on, Amir Khusro wrote plenty and scarcity; the second is the unbroken chain Tarikh-i-Alai or Khazain-ul-Futuh. In this book, he of victories which the king and his commanders gave an account of the conquests of Alauddin. He obtained, and it appeared as if victory preceded a wrote another book called Ashiqa-which contains military enterprise; the third is the crushing of the the love story of Deval Devi and Khizr Khan. Amir Mongols; the fourth is that a large force remained clam and contented on a small salary; the fi fth is Khusro continued to enjoy royal patronage even that contumacious landholders were suppressed; after the death of Alauddin. In this “Nuh-Spihr or Nine the sixth is that roads and highways became safe, Skies,” he gave the story of Sultan Mubarak Shah. He and those who used to rob were made to guard also lived in the court of Ghiasuddin Tughluq and them; seventh, that the traders were compelled wrote Tughluqnama in which he gave the story of to be honest; eighth is the abundance of strong Ghiasuddin Tughluq. Khusro wrote a lot in Hindi and buildings; ninth that the Hindus were compelled he is considered to be a great Hindi writer. Khusro is into obedience and Muslims true, abstemious and also known as Tuti-i-Hi’d or Parrot of India. He was just; and the tenth is the congregation of artists and an excellent singer. learned men such as had not been found to exist Ziauddin Barani tells us that in addition to Amir in any other reign.” Khusro, 46 scholars were patronised by Alauddin. Alauddin was a great military leader. He carried Amir Hassan was one of them. He is known as the the militaristic ideal of Balban to its logical conclu- Sadi of India. Amir Arsalan Kohi and Kabiruddin were sion. He showed great vigour as an administrator. great historians of this period and were patronised He can claim the credit of governing the country by Alauddin. Shaikh Nizamuddin, Shaikh Ruknud- independently of the authority and guidance of the din and Qazi Mughisuddin were great masters of Ulema. However, Dr. Ishwari Prasad rightly points out philosophy and theology of those times and were that the foundation of the political system set up Success of all patronised by Alauddin. by Alauddin were unsound. His policy created a lot of discontentment among the various sections of Alauddin was fond of architecture. Many forts society. The Hindu Rajas, who were derived of their were built by his orders and the most important independence, merely waited for the opportunity of them was Alai Fort or Koshak-i-Siri. The walls of to throw off the yoke of the Delhi Sultanate. The this fort were made of stones, brick and lime. There nobles were sick of the restrictions imposed upon were seven gates in it. According to Amir Khusro, them. The merchants resented the control of the “All the mosques which lay in ruins, were built a new

market. The Hindus complained of their humilia- Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru by a profuse scattering of silver.” In 1311, Alauddin | 115 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 began to extend the Qutab Minar. He also started He possessed an unusual originality of mind. He the construction of a new Minar in the courtyard of was never satisfi ed with stereotyped solutions of the mosque of twice the size of the old Kutb Minar. problems. He hated traditional and conventional The construction of the new Minar could not be approach in all matters. He stood for the political completed by him. In 1311, Alauddin caused a large and administrative unity of India. He wanted to gate to be built for this mosque of red sand-stone liquidate the barriers which separated the North and marble, with smaller gated on four sides of the from the South. He believed in making the whole CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA larger gate. Alauddin built the “Palace of a Thousand of India as one political and administrative unit. pillars” called Hazar Situn. His Deccan experiment led to the rapid cultural The Jama Masjid was also constructed by him. transformation of the South. Scholars, mystics, The construction of the Shamsi Tank was also due to merchants, poets, administrators and armies moved him. Ziauddin Barani tells us that Alauddin employed from Daulatabad to Multan and from Bengal to 70,000 men in public works alone. Those men could Gujarat. When Muhammad Tughluq ascended the build a palace in two or three days. throne of Delhi, the Central Asian scene was in a state of constant fl ux. MUHAMMAD TUGHLUG There was vaccum in the political life of Central Ghiyasuddin Tughlug was succeeded by Asia and Muhammad Tughluq tried to fi ll that his prince, Juna Khan, who took up the title of vaccum. He initiated what may be called “an era of Muhammad Tughlug. We are fortunate in having a higher imperialism”. To quote Barani, “On account lot of authentic material about his reign. of the high ambition, which was ingrained in the peerless personality of Sultan Muhammad, if the Early Life whole fourth of the inhabited globe (rubi maskun) Prince Juna Khan was the eldest son of was brought under the control of his slaves, and the Ghiyasuddin Tughluq. He was brought up as a soldier entire world from east to west, and from north to and he distinguished himself in the same. He was south, became the tax-payer to his exchequer, and a precocious child. He was appointed the Master the people of the world became subservient to his of the Horse of Khusro Shah. However, Juna Khan orders, and the currency in his name circulated in started an agitation against Khusro Shah, his patron. the whole of the inhabited world (rubi maskun); He helped his father in overthrowing Khusro Shah. yet if some one said that some land in some island When his father became the Emperor in 1320, Prince or a piece of territory equal to the size of a room Juna Khan was appointed the heir-apparent and was in some country had not been brought under his also given the title of Ulugh Khan. He undertook control, his river-like heart and his world-conquering two expeditions to Warangal in 1322 and 1323, spirit would not have found peace till that island and although he failed in the fi rst, he succeeded in or that little room-space had been brought under the second. He seated himself on the throne soon subjection to him. after the death of his father in 1325. For 40 days, he Owing to the high ambitions, exalted remained at Tughluqabad after which he marched aspiration, great love of honour and extraordinary to the city of Delhi and put himself in the Red Palace Success sense of prestige that was rooted in his mind, he of Balban. Gold and silver coins were distributed of desired to stalk in the world like Kaimurs and Faridun, among the people at the time of coronation. and to behave towards the people like Jamshed and Kaikhusrau. In fact, he would not have been Political and Religious Concepts of the Sultan content merely with the status of Alexander (of The political and religious ideas of Muhammad Macedonia) but tried to attain to the position of Tughluq deserved careful considerations because Solomon so that ruling both over men and jins, many of his attitudes were conditioned by them he could combine prophehood (nubuwat) with

and had a bearing on his projects and policy. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru sultanate, and counting the king of every country | 116 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY as his slave, issue his commands form his capital both as a prophet and a sultan.” Muhammad Tughluq believed in close diplomatic, cultural and economic contact with the outside world. His political vision extended far beyond India and embraced countries up to

Egypt, on the one hand, and China and Khurasan, ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA on the other. A new phase started in the history of India’s diplomatic relations with the outside world during the reign of Muhammad Tughluq. Missions came from China, Iran, Iraq, Syria, etc., to the Delhi court. Muhammad Tughluq was a very careful student of religion and philosophy. His rationalism in matters of religion was interpreted by men like Barani as denial of religion. He was very particular about the performance of prayers and other religious rites enjoined by Islam. At the same time, he was tolerant of other religious and participated in their religious, ceremonies and festivals. He was, perhaps, the first Sultan of Delhi about whom there is evidence that he took part in the Hindu festival of Holi. Many Jogis moved about in his territory with their Muslim followers and the Sultan did not object to it. The Sultan is reported Muhammad bin Tughluq and his Major to have visited the Satrunjaya temples at Palatina Projects and the idol houses of Girnar. He is reported to We can discuss the events of the reign of have issued a Farman for the construction of a new Muhammad Tughluq under two heads: his domestic rest house for monks. Writers like Islami accused policy and foreign policy. the Sultan of heresy. The Sultan was not against As regards the domestic policy, Muhammad mysticism as such but he did not approve of the Tughluq began to look into the details of mystic attitude of isolation from the state and administration from the very beginning of his reign. wanted the Sufis to make their talents available He fi rst ordered the compilation of a register of to the state. He was anxious to absorb as many the revenue and expenditure of the provides of mystic families in his administration as possible. his kingdom. The Governors of the provinces were The Sultan believed that all the officers must required to send to Delhi a relevant records and be open to talent. He appointed low-born persons other materials required for that purpose. The result Success to the highest offices in the administration. He of was that summaries of income and expenditure believed that the foundations of the empire could came to Delhi from the various parts of the empire be strengthened only by giving it a broad base. and the system worked smoothly. With that object in view, he appointed Hindus Taxation in the Doab to some of the highest offices in the state. He The Sultan made an ill-advised financial patronised Hindu Scholars and poets. We are told experiment in the Doab between the Ganges that there were as many as 1,000 poets of Arabic, and the Jamuna. He not only increased the rate

Persian and Hindi at his court. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru of taxation but also revived and created some | 117 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 additional Abwabs or Cesses. There are discrepancies cultivation by giving direct help to the peasants. A and vagueness in the accounts of the contemporary large tract of land measuring 60 miles square, was and later Muslim writers with regard to the actual chosen for that purpose. Land was cultivated and amount of assessment. Barani says that taxes were different crops were grown in rotation. In two years, increased 10 or 20 times more. Elliot has translated the Government spent more than 70 lakhs. Land was it as 10% or 5%. It is stated in Tarikh-i-Mubarak given to those who were in need of it. Unfortunately, Shahi that the increase was twenty-fold and to this the experiment proved to be a failure. The land were added Ghari or house tax and the Charahi ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA chosen for experiment was not fertile. The period or pasture tax. According to Badauni, taxes were of three years was too small to give any concrete doubled. In these circumstances, it is not possible results. The money was not properly spent and a to determine accurately the actual amount of large part of it was merely wasted. additional assessment. Some modern writers have Transfer of Capital to Daulatabad (1327 A.D.) suggested that the additional tax was not more than 50%. It is also contended that the object of the Sultan A very important experiment was made in levying these additional taxes on the people of by the Sultan in shifting his capital from Delhi to the Doab was not punitive as suggested by Badauni Daulatabad. Barani points out that Daulatabad had and Sir Wolseley Haig, but to “increase his military a central situation and was nearly equidistant (700 resources and to organize the administration on miles) from Delhi, Gujarat, Lakhnauti, Telingana and an effi cient basis.” Whatever the truth, it cannot be other important places. The new capital had its denied that the measure entailed great hardships strategic value. It was safe from Mongolian invasions on the people of the Doab. Barani tells us that “the which constantly threatened Delhi. The Sultan also backs of the rayats were broker. Those who were did his best to make Daulatabad a suitable place rich became rebels; the lands were ruined and for his offi cers and the people. All facilities were cultivation was arrested. Grain became dear, the provided for those who were required to migrate rains were defi cient and so famine became general. to Daulatabad. A broad road was constructed for It lasted for years and thousands upon thousands their convenience. Shady trees were planted on of people perished.” Dr. Ishwari Prasad points out both sides of the road. A regular postal service was that “unfortunately, this measure was carried out at established between Delhi and Daulatabad. a time when a severe famine was prevailing in the However, when the people of Delhi hesitated to Doab, and the distress of the people was greatly shift to Daulatabad, the Sultan got annoyed and he aggravated by its disastrous effects. But this does ordered all people of Delhi to proceed to Daulatabad not exonerate the Sultan altogether from blame; for with their belongings. Ibn Batuta says that a blind his offi cials continued to levy taxes at the enhanced man was dragged from Delhi to Daulatabad and a rate with the utmost vigour, and made no allowance bed-ridden cripple was projected there by a ballista. for famine.” The relief measures of the Sultan such Regarding the transfer of capital to Daulatabad, as the giving of loans to the agriculturists, sinking Barani observes: “Without consultation or weighting of wells and “bringing the uncultivated lands under the pros and cons, he brought ruin on Delhi which the plough by means of direct state management for 170 to 180 years had grown in prosperity and and fi nancial support”, came too late. The peasantry rivaled Baghdad and Cairo. The city with its Sarais left their homes and shifted to other places. The Success and suburbs and villages spread over tour or fi ve of Sultan was very much annoyed and he adopted leagues all was destroyed (i.e. deserted). Not a cat or very harsh measures to bring back the peasants to a dog was left. Troops of the inhabitants with their their original homes. However, all this had a very families were forced to move broken-hearted; many adverse effect so far as the future of the Tughluq perished and those who reached Deogiri, unable to dynasty was concerned. endure their exile, pined to death. All round Deogiri, The Sultan created a new Department of an infi del land, spread graveyards of Muslims. The Agriculture called Diwan-i-Kothi. The main objective Sultan was bounteous to the emigrants both on

of this Department was to bring more land under Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru the journey and arrival; but they were tender and | 118 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY could not suffer exile. They laid down their heads in seen. Moreover, the statement of Barani that it was that heathen land, and of the multitudes, few lived a calamity for the selected few and not the masses, to return to their native home.” is borne out by documentary and circumstantial The Sultan realised the folly of his experiment evidence. Two Sanskrit inscriptions, dated 1327 and ordered a return march of the people. The and 1328 A.D., confi rm this view and establish the result was that those few who had survived from prosperity of the Hindus of Delhi and its vicinity journey to Daulatabad also died on their return at that time. One of them “records the foundation CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA journey. The net result of this experiment was that of a well by a Brahman of the name of Srindhara Delhi lost its former prosperity and grandeur. It at the village of Nadayana, the modern Naraina, is true that the Sultan “brought learned men and near Delhi.” The verses of this inscription speak of gentlemen, tradesmen and land-owners into the Muhammad bin Tughluq as “the mighty Saka Lord” city of Delhi from certain towns in his territory and and throw light on the favourable conditions in made them reside there”, but when Ibn Batuta came which the Hindu families of Delhi lived. The second to Delhi in 1334 he found certain parts of Delhi still inscription found at the village of Sarbar, fi ve miles deserted. According to Lane-Poole, “Daulatabad was inscriptions, read with Barani’s remarks about the a monument of misdirected energy”. According to Dr. “misery of the related people”, lead to the inference Ishwari Prasad, it is doubtful if the transfer of capital that Sultan Muhammad’s orders for migration to Daulatabad would have helped the Sultan to keep applied to the leading Mussalman families only. a fi rm hold upon the different parts of the empire. This is also supported by Barani’s references to The Sultan did not see that Daulatabad was situated heavy casualties in these words. “And on all sides at a long distance from the northern frontiers of the of the old infi del land of Deogiri, there sprang up empire and those required to be constantly watched. graveyards of the Mussalmans.” He disregarded the warning that the Hindu revolts The view is also supported by the stray and the Mongol invasions might imperil his empire references made by the editors and compilers of at any time. If such a contingency had arisen, the the Malfuzat of the Sufi saints. Their study reveals Sultan would have failed to meet the same. the incontestable fact that the Sultan wanted only the Musslaman nobles, the Ulema and the Mashaikh Dr. Syed Moinul Haq refers to the various to go to Deogir because his scheme was to have a statements of Barani and points out that the large population of his co-religinoists in the Deccan Sultan had ordered the emigrations of the upper and thus eliminate the possibility of the success classes only who were comprised of the Ulema, the of frequent rebellions of the Hindus. That could Mashaikh countries, commanders of the army and be achieved through migration and conversion, the civilians of rank. It is beyond doubt that Delhi was and those appear to be the motives of the Sultan not evacuated in entirely. The frequent references in sending the distinguished Ulema, the leading of Barani and other writers to the destruction of Mashaikh and other infl uential Muslim families Delhi simply mean the loss of its prosperity which, to Deogir and raising that city to the status of a according to them, was mainly due to the presence capital. He knew that his stay there, for some time of those distinguished families. at least, was as essential as that of the Shaikhs and When Barani says that not even a dog or Ulema. His scheme of planting a strong colony of cat was left in the city and its suburbs, he merely Success the Mussalmans at Deogir and making it the center of emphasised the point that emigration was on of his political activities as well as the missionary a large scale and affl uences and prosperity had work of the Ulema is clearly referred to by the disappeared to a great extent. If his phrases were to author of the Seirul Aulia who was a contemporary be understood literally, he would be guilty of making of the Sultan and whose family had migrated to contradictory statements. There was no meaning in Delhi. In his chapter on Sultan’s interview with the Sultan bringing the nobles and Ulemas from Maulana Fakhruddin-Zarradi, Amir Khurd says: “At provincial towns if Delhi had been converted into the time when Sultan Mohammad Tughluq had

a wilderness where neither a cat nor a dog could be Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru sent the people of Delhi to Deogir and wanted to | 119 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 conquer Khorasan and Turkistan and overthrow gave out that he wanted to set up his capital at the descendants of Changiz Khan, he convened a Daulatabad because it was situated in the center meeting of all the Sadrs and leading persons of Delhi of his dominions. It was not a case of mere transfer and its suburbs who had assembled in the city, under of the capital as is proved by his anxiety not to let a huge tent. He had ordered the setting up of a dias Dehi fall into obscurity. His efforts to brig Ulema so that he might stand on it and address them in and Shaikhs provincial towns and made them settle order to induce them to be ready for Jahad.” Amir down in that city gave a clue to his true intentions Khurd also says that both his father and Maulana ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA in spite of the offi cial version which Barani seems to Fakhruddin were sent to Deogir. have stated. Barani complains that the Sultan did no Maulana Fakhruddin wanted to go to Mecca. consult his adviser on this question, but consultation He consulted his friend Qazi, Kamaluddin of Deogir. could result in the leaking out of the true purpose of The latter warned him that it would be impolitic the scheme and might have hampered its success. to go there without the permission of the Sultan Dr. Haq points out that for two decades, the because the Sultan was anxious to populate Deccan Kingdoms had been under the suzerainty of Deogir and enhance its glory and reputation by Delhi, but their submission did not go beyond their the presence of the Ulema, the Mashaikh and the sending presents and tributes occasionally. They Sadrs. Besides these, other Shaikhs are also stated to could throw off their allegiance with the appearance have migrated to the Deccan. Shaikh Burhanuddin, a of the slightest symptom of weakness in the Khalifa of Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia and the famous Central Government. Alauddin Khilji had remained poet Amir Hassan can be mentioned as examples. contented with these unsatisfactory arrangements Makhdoom-i-Jahan, the mother of the Sultan, also because his hands were full with the problems of the migrated to Deogir. North. Muhammad Tughluq fond himself in a better The greatest misconception in regard to the position and, therefore, decided to bring the Deccan scheme has arisen from the error in interpreting in within the orbit of his direct rule. For that, he required too literal a sense the phrase “Destruction of Delhi” a tolerably large population of Mussalmans upon which Barani and other contemporaries seem to whose support he could rely at any diffi cult time. have used only as a metaphor in order to impress He was fully conscious of the fact that in crushing upon their readers the magnitude of calamity. the supremacy of the Hindu States in the Deccan, Ibn Batuta who visited Delhi six years after the he would have to face tremendous opposition and emigration testifi es to the greatness and prosperity nothing would be more foolish than to rely upon of Delhi. He tells us that Delhi was the biggest town sheer force for the permanent subjugation of those of the East, had beautiful massive buildings, was territories. By making Daulatabad the center of a surrounded by a wall, the like of which could not vast Musslman colony in the South, Muhammad be found anywhere in the world and covered an Tughluq was trying to achieve what can be called extensive area which was all populated. It consisted in modern phraseology “a peaceful penetration.” of four different towns, viz., Old Delhi of the Hindus, Dr. Haq concludes thus: “Sultan Muhammad’s Siri of Alauddin, Tughluqabad and . project of the so-called transference of the capital The view of Dr. Haq is that the population of Delhi was in reality a novel experiment in the administrative was not evacuated in entirety and the Sultan never history of India, and was a peculiar invention of his intended to make Deogir its substitute. What he Success ingenious mind. It has been generally held that of seems to have in his mind was to make Deogir it was a disastrous failure, but we cannot ignore a stronghold of his power by converting it into the fact that the foundation and maintenance of a large colony of the Mussalamns. It would have independent Mussalman Kingdom in the Deccan been unwise on his part to have openly proclaimed would not have been possible if he had not planted that he could not depend upon the people of the a strong Muslim colony there.” Similar views have Deccan and wanted a large Muslim population to been expressed by Prof. Mohd. Habib and Prof. K.A. support his Government. Hence he tried to justify Nizami. Prof. Mohd. Habib says that the Mongol

his scheme by seemingly harmless arguments and Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru invasions of Central Asia and Persia had driven a | 120 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY large number of refugees to India who settled in the Tughluq did was that he made Daulatabad the country for good. At the same time, the Chishti and second administrative city of the Empire. Al-Qalqa- Subrawardi mystic orders carried on an extensive shandi says that the Empire of Delhi had two religious propaganda in every village and town of capitals: Delhi and Devagiri or Qubbatul Islam. In Hindustan and their efforts brought a considerable two separate coins, Delhi is described as Takhtgah- minority of poor Indians within the fold of Islam. This i-Delhi and Daulatabad as Takhtgah-i-Daulatabad. minority of gardeners, cooks, barbers, etc., converted Prof. Nizami says that when all contemporary and to Islam gave to the Empire of Delhi the strength ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA modern interpretations are take into consideration, it needed. it appears that the Deccan experiment was basically The view of Muhammad Tughluq was that dictated by political exigencies. In an Empire in something like the above had to be done in the which simultaneous insurrections were operating in Deccan to strengthen the Muslim position in that areas so far-off as Maabar and Bengal, there was no area. Hence was the necessity of deporting a large other alternative to deal with the situation except number of Muslims to the Deccan. Muhammad in the manner attempted by Muhammad Tughluq. Tughluq made up his mind to accomplish the Prof. K.A. Nizami further states that the task. The population of Delhi was a fi ne social impression of mass exodus given by contemporary and economic unit for a southern capital and he historians is not correct. In fact, only the upper would like to take it there. That alone was not classes consisting of nobles, Ulamas, Shaikhs and considered enough and it was necessary to set up the elite of the city were shifted to Daulatabad. in the Deccan centers of Muslim social and religious The general Hindu public was not affected by this culture. Hence was the necessity to transport a large project. The elite of Delhi constituted a fi ne social number of mystics for the purpose of preaching and and economic unit for a Southern Capital and the propaganda. That explains why a large number of Sultan forced it alone to change its habitat and settle mystics were forced to migrate to Daulbad at the in a new region and amidst new surroundings. The time of the transfer of the capital. exodus took place during the hot summer months and that considerably added to the miseries of the The view of Prof. Nizami is that it was in all people. Isami says, “The people had to tread over the probability during or immediately after his campaign soil which the burning sun had made hot like iron.” against Bahauddin Gurshasp in the Deccan that Prof. K.A. Nizami refers to the immediate Muhammad Tughluq realised the urgent need of and remote effects of the Deccan experiment of having a strong administrative center in the south Muhammad Tughluq. According to him, its immediate to cope effectively and instantaneously with all effect was widespread resentment against the situations that arose in that region. His councilors Sultan who forfeited the confi dence of the people. suggested Ujjain for that purpose but his decision The bitterness created by their sufferings continued was in favour of Devagiri. To the beauties of Devagiri their hearts for decades. As regards its remote effects, and its claim to a pride of cities in the world, his the Deccan experiment of Muhammad Tughluq was attention had been drawn by the poet Amir Khusrau. a remarkable success. The boundaries which had Muhammad Tughluq embarked upon his Deccan separated the North from the South broke down. project after considerable thought and attention. It It is true that the extension of administrative power was neither a haphazard plunge in administrative Success of the Delhi Sultanate into the Deccan failed, but of experimentation nor an eccentric craze for novelty, so far as the extension of the cultural institutions but a well-thought-out solution of a problem by one was concerned, it was successful. Barani tells us that who of all the Sultans of Delhi had the most intimate “on all the four sides of Daulatabad there appeared experience of the diffi culties in the administrative graveyards of Mussalmans.” The view of Prof. Nizami control and the military operations in the South. is that these graveyards connected the hearts of the Prof. K.A. Nizami points out that the general people of the North with the soil of the South and impression that Muhammad Tughluq transferred his the rise of Bahamani Kingdom was made possible

capital to Daulatabad is not correct. What Muhammad Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru by this infl ux of population. | 121 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 The Currency Experiment (1329-30 A.D.) of money to maintain the great army of conquest Edward Thomas has described Muhammad numbering 3,70,000. The second cause was the Tughluq as “a prince of moneyers”. He points out defi ciency in the treasury caused by the lavish gifts that one of the earliest acts of his reign was to made by the Sultan. Another probable cause can be remodel the coinage, to re-adjust its divisions to the relative scarcity of silver in the market. According the altered values of the precious metals and to to Dr. Ishwari Prasad, the Sultan who was a man of original cast of mind, well-versed in the arts and

originate new and more exact representatives ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA of the subordinate circulation.” A new gold coin sciences of the age. The Sultan might have felt a weighing 200 grains and called Dinar, by Ibn Batuta, powerful impulse for the experiment in a scientifi c spirit. The royal exhortations which accompanied the was issued by Muhammad Tughluq. He revived the introduction of the currency and the subsequent Adali coin containing 140 grains of silver in place of behaviour of the Sultan effectively rebut the charge the old gold and silver coins weighing 174 grains. of eccentricity which had been brought against him This change was probably due to a “fall in the relative by modern writers. value of gold to silver, the imperial treasury having been replenished by large quantities of the former Many reasons have been given for the failure of metal as a result of the campaigns of the Deccan.” this monetary experiment of Muhammad Tughluq. It is pointed out that this carefully organised measure In A.D. 1329, the Sultan issued a token currency failed because it was in advance of the time and the in copper coins. There were already examples of people could not realize its real importance. To the such a currency in China and Persia. Kublai Khan, people at large in those days, brass was brass and the Mongol Emperor of China, had introduced a copper was copper, however urgent the needs of the paper currency in China towards the close of the state might be. Another cause of the failure of the 13th century. Gai Khatu, the ruler of Persia, made a experiment was that the Sultan could not make the similar experiment in A.D. 1294. With these examples issue of the copper coins a monopoly of the State. before him, Muhammad Tughlug issued a decree To quote Edward Thomas, “There was no special proclaiming that in all transactions, copper tokens machinery to mark the difference of the fabric of the should be accepted as legal tender like gold and royal mint and the handiwork of a moderately skilled silver coins. According to Barani, “This edict turned artisan. Unlike the precautions taken to prevent the the house of every Hindu into a mint and the Indians imitation of the Chinese paper notes, there was of the provinces coined lakhs and crores of copper positively no check upon the authenticity of the coins, with which they paid their tribute and bought copper tokens and no limits to the power of the horses and arms and fi ne things of all sorts. production by the masses at large.” The contention The Rais the village headmen and land-owners of Elphinstone was that the failure of the token grew rich on these copper coins but the state was currency was due to the insolvency of the king and impoverished. In no long time, distant countries the instability of his government. This contention would only accept the copper Tanka as metal, and has been found to be groundless as the Sultan in places where reverence for the edict prevailed the successfully withdrew all coins by paying gold and gold Tanka rose to be worth a 100 copper Tankas. silver coins for the copper tokens. Had the Sultan Every goldsmith struck copper coins in his workshop been insolvent, he would not have been able to give and the treasury was crammed with them. They fell Success gold and silver coins in exchange. Brown attributed of so low that they were no more valuable than pebbles this currency muddle to the shortage in the supply or potsherds. Trade being disrupted, the Sultan of the silver in the world during the 14th century. repealed his edict and in great wrath proclaimed There was a similar scarcity of coins in England in the that all the copper coins should be redeemed in gold reign of Edward III about the year A.D. 1335 Similar or silver at the treasury. Thousands brought them for diffi culties were experienced in other countries. exchange and their heaps rose up in Tughluqabad Prof. Mohd. Habin gives a different and more like mountains.” Barani tells us that the experiment plausible explanation in these words: “The mind had

was due to two causes. The fi rst cause was the need Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru a special type of bronze alloy for the coins, which | 122 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY could be easily distinguished on the touchstone; of circulation. The payment of land revenue was but the secret of the proportion of the metals in made in the spurious token currency. The Khuts, the bronze coins could not be discovered by the Muqaddams and Chaudhris weapons and war goldsmiths. When people took gold and silver coins materials with the spurious token currency. Foreign in those days, they had the coins weighted (to make merchants stopped bringing their wares to India allowance for clippings) and also tested on the and imports received a serious set-back. touchstone for purity of metal. The Sultan expected About the token currency, Sir Wolseley Haig CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA the public to follow the same practice in regard to says that Mohd. Tughluq understood the principles his token coins. But in this matter the public failed of a managed currency and he did not believe, as him. Consequently, many forged coins got mixed is suggested by some historians ignorant of those with the treasury coins; and as the forged coins principles, that his command could raise the value became current and the government was unable of the baser to that of the precious metal. Success to prevent his, more and more forged. A bronze coin might have been possible if the measure had been would be at least worth its weight in bronze—i.e., effi ciently supervised but unfortunately, no steps about 50 bronze coins would be normally equal to were taken to prevent fraud and hence it failed. one silver Tanka. But forging the bronze coins was an offence. So a forged bronze coin may meet any Liberal Administration fate, for a new element—fear of punishment—also Muhammad Tughluq was a learned man and entered into the determination of its value. In the he refused to accept the dictates of the Ulemas in all distant provinces, it circulated at one-half of its matters. The four legal taxes were Khiraj, Zakat, Jazya offi cial value in terms of the silver Tanka; in the and Khamsa but Muhammad Tughluq levied many capital people would be afraid of being found in taxes in addition to them. Muhammad Tughluq was possession of forged bronze coins; they would throw not a religious bigot and consequently he showed them away or keep them in order to melt them into greater respect for the sentiments of the Hindus bronze vessels later on. than was done by his predecessor or his successor. The whole operation got beyond the control He tried to stop the practice of Sati. Independent of the government. Too many forged coins got into Rajput rulers he felt undisturbed and this was not circulation and the failure of the experiment caused liked by the clerical party. He deprived the clerical a havoc in the market. It was not possible to punish party of its monopoly of the administration of justice. those in actual possession of the forged bronze He made himself the highest court of appeal and coins, because they were innocent. In fact, strange whenever he differed from the Muftis. He over ruled to say, nobody was punished……. It was understood them and acted according to his own view. Judicial from the very beginning that the treasury would powers were given to some of the distinguished redeem every bronze coin brought to the treasury offi cers of the state although they were not Qazis or the bronze coins they had. The treasury redeemed Muftis. Mubaraq Khan, the brother of Muhammad the borne coins it had issued as a matter of treasury Tughluq, sat along with the Qazi in the Diwan-i- conscience; it rejected the false coins but did not Khana to help him in disposing of cases. Some of punish their owners because they were ‘bonafi de’ the members of the clerical party were severely possessors. Heaps of these rejected bronze coins, punished by the Sultan as they were found guilty of which were probably melted later on, could by Success rebellion, open sedition or embezzlement of funds. seen at Tughlugabad. But forged bronze coins not of The clerical party could not be expected to be like a brought to the treasury continued to circulated at ruler who was prepared to punish even the Shaikhs their metallic value, specially in the provinces, and and Saiyyads who were considered to be sacred by have survived to our days.” the Muslim rulers. In addition to the forging of token coins, The envoy was received with the highest the people started hoarding silver and made all honours. The Sultan, all the great offi cers of the their purchases in token currency. The result was state, the Sayyids, holy and learned men, and all who

that a considerable quantity of silver was kept out Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru could pretend to any importance, went out of Delhi | 123 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 to meet the envoy. The Sultan walked barefooted as he did not take into consideration the problem of the envoy approached and kissed his feet several transport. The diffi culties of geography were also times. Triuphal arches were erected in the city and ignored. It was completely forgotten that it was not alms were lavishly distributed. The utterances of an easy task to send such a huge army through the the envoy were recorded and repeated as though passes of the Himalayas or the Hindukush and also they had been inspired. To quote Barani, “Without to provide for their food and other necessaries in the Caliph’s command, the king scarcely ventured to such a distant land. Moreover, the Muslim soldiers drink a draught of water.” In spite of this, Muhammad ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA of India would not have been a match for the hardy Tughluq did not regain the loyalty and confi dence hordes of Central Asia. Muhammad Tughluq could of his people. He remained as unpopular as ever. not have depended upon the help of the Sultan of Egypt and Tarmashirin Khan. They had their own Foreign Policy interests to serve than to help Muhammad Tughluq. The Delhi Sultanate was not free from external It has rightly been said that the scheme was impolitic dangers during the reign of Muhammad Tughluq. in the highest degree from every point of view and In 1328-29, Tarmashirin Khan, the Chaghatai chief of no wonder, the same was abandoned. Ziaud-Bin Transoxiana, invaded India. He ravaged the country Barani observes: “The covered countries were not from Multan and Lahore to the outskirts of Delhi. acquired. And his treasure which is the true source It appears that the change of capital from Delhi to of political power, was expended.” Daulatabad and the neglect of the defence of the The fort of Nagarkot was situated on a hill in North-Western frontier by Muhammad Tughluq, the Kangra district of the Punjab. It had defi ed every encouraged the Mongols to attack the country. There Turkish army from the time of Mahmud Ghazni. is a difference of opinion among writers regarding It had not been conquered during the reign of the outcome of the invasion. Yahiya-bin-Ahmad and Alauddin Khilji. In 1337, Muhammad Tughluq led an Badauni tell us that Muhammad Tughluq defeated expedition against Nagarkot. The Hindu Raja offered the Mongols and drove them out of the country. resistance but was forced to submit. However, the However, Ferishta says that Muhammad Tughluq fort was restored to him. bribed the invaders and they retired. The gold and Following the lead of Ferishta, many writers jewels given by the Sultan to the invaders have been of Indian history have wrongly maintained that described “as the price of the kingdom.” Whatever Muhammad Tughluq sent an expedition against the truth, “the invasion was no more than a raid, China. However, it is clearly stated by Ziauddin Barani and Tarmashirin disappeared as suddenly as he and Ibn Batuta that Muhammad Tughluq intended to had come.” capture the mountain of Karajal which lies between the territories of Hind (India) and those of China. Ibn Muhammad Tughluq had visions of universal Batuta tells us that the Karajal mountain was situated conquest. He decided to conquer Khurasan and Iraq at a distance of 10 stages from Delhi. It appears that and mobilised a huge army for the purpose. He was the expedition was directed against some refractory encouraged to do so by the Khurasani nobles who tribes in the Kumaon-Garhwal region with the object had taken shelter in his court. They had also their of bringing them under the Delhi Sultanate. A huge own axe to grind. Zia-ud-Bin Barani tells us that as army was sent, in 1337-38 for the purpose. The fi rst many as 3,70,000 men were enrolled in the Diwan- attack was a success. But when the rainy season set- i-Arx or the offi ce of muster master. They were paid Success of in, the invaders suffered terribly. The entire baggage for full one year by the state. It cannot be denied of the army was plundered by the mountaineers. that there was instability in Khurasan on account According to Ziauddin Barani only 10 horsemen of the unpopular rule of Abu Said and Muhammad came back to tell the story of the disaster. However, Tughluq could certainly take advantage of the same. Ibn Batuta gives the number as 3. In spite of this However, it cannot be ignored that the position of failure, the object of the expedition was achieved. Muhammad Tughluq was not very stable in India The hillmen realised the folly of defi ance and came itself and consequently, it was foolish on his part to terms with the Sultan by agreeing to pay him

even to think of conquering foreign lands. Moreover, Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru tribute. | 124 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY Bengal had never been loyal to the Delhi Ferishta, “Belal Deo and Krishna Naik both combined Sultanate. Fakuruddin the armour-bearer of ‘Bahram their forces and delivered Mabar and Dwarsamudra Khan, Governor of Eastern Bengal killed his master from Muslim control. On all sides the fl ames of and usurped his territory in 1336-37. Qadr Khan, war and rebellion were kindled and of the distant Governor of Lakhnauti, marched against him, but provinces nothing remained in the possession of was himself killed. Fakhruddin took advantage of the Sultan except Gujarat and Deogiri.” the diffi culties of Muhammad Tughluq and declared CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Qutlugh Khan was the Governor of Daulatabad. himself an independent ruler of Bengal. He also A lot of public revenue was embezzled by his got coins struck in his own name. As there was subordinates and therefore, Muhammad Tughluq no interference from Delhi, Fakhruddin was able decided to send Ain-ul-Mulk Multani to Daulatabad. to consolidate his position and Bengal became That could not be done on account of the revolt prosperous under his rule. The prices of foodstuffs of Ain-ul-Mulk. In spite of this, Qutlugh Khan and other necessaries of life were so low that people was called back from Daulatabad. However, the from Persia called Bengal a “hell crammed with situation did not improve. According to Ferishta, good things.” “The people disgusted at the removal of Qutlugh Ain-ul-Mulk Multani was the Governor of Oudh. Khan and the want of capacity displayed by the He was a loyal offi cer, a great soldier and a man of new administration, rebelled in all quarter and letters. He was responsible for the suppression of the country was devastated and depopulated in the revolt of Nizam Main of Kara. When there was consequence.” famine in Oudh, he sent 70 to 80 lakhs of Tankas Aziz Khummar had been appointed the worth of grain. In spite of these services, he was Governor of Malwa and Dhar by Muhammad ordered to go to Daulatabad, in 1340-41, to put down Tughluq. His attitude toward the nobles was the disturbances there. Ain-ul-Mulk considered it as objectionable and consequently they revolted. The a diplomatic transportation to weaken his position Governor caught hold of 80 such nobles and got and prestige in Oudh. He requested the Sultan not them beheaded in front of his palace with a view to to send him to the Deccan but as the latter persisted, terrorise others. This was too much and there was he revolted. However, he was defeated and taken a trouble everywhere. Aziz Khummar was captured prisoner. He was dismissed from his poet and was and put to “an ignominious death.” made to put up with great humiliations. As the Sultan was convinced that Ain-ul-Mulk was a half- The Sultan could not tolerate the defi ance of hearted rebel, his life was spared and he was made his authority and consequently marched into Gujarat the keeper of the royal gardens at Delhi. at the head on an army and destroyed and that fell into his hands. At that time of a rebellion in Deogiri Taking advantage of the instability in the and Muhammad Tughluq marched towards Deogiri. empire, brigandage grew to threatening proportions Deogiri and Muhammad Tughluq marched towards in Sind. Muhammad Tughluq led an expedition Deogiri. There the Afghans, Turks and Hindus had against them in person. The ruffi ans were scattered. made common cause against the Sultan but the Their leaders were captured and forced to embrace Success latter was able to recover Daulatabad from the Islam. of rebels. While in Daulatabad, Muhammad Tughluq Harihar, an enterprising Hindu leader, heard of another revolt in Gujarat. The leader of founded the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar in the revolt was Taghi, a common shoe-maker and 1336. He also gave help to Krishna Naik, son of slave of a Muslim nobleman. He was able to bring Prataparudra Kakatiya, when the latter revolted under his command all the discontented elements. against Muhammad Tughluq, in 1343-44. Warangal He successfully occupied and plundered placed was captured by Ballala II and its Muslim governor, like Nehruwala, Cambay and Broach. However,

Imad-ul-Mulk, ran away to Daulatabad. According to Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Muhammad Tughluq was successful in driving out | 125 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Taghi from Gujarat and the latter took refuge in Sing. According to Dr. Ishwari Prasad, “Among the Things were brought to normal in Gujarat. Amirs who crowded his camp, he looked about for When Muhammad Tughluq was in Gujarat, the support to buttress up his tottering power, but they were all mediocrities without any plan or policy foreing Amirs made a vigorous effort to recover their and could render him but little assistance. What position and besieged the fort of Deogiri. All the seriously hampered him was the lack of capable attempts of the imperialists to re-capture it failed. governors and offi cers to carry into effect his plans.

Imad-ul-Mulk was defeated by Hasan Gangu and ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA The ineffi ciency of the men on the spot emphasised the rebels occupied Daulatabad. Ismail Mulk whom the importance of the personal factor to such an the rebels had chosen as their king “voluntarily extent that the Sultan’s presence became necessary and gladly” resigned in favour of Hasan Gangu. to restore order in the disturbed areas. The local Hasan took up the title of Alauddin Bahman Shah, in administrations, paralysed by persistent opposition August, 1347, and founded the Bahmani Kingdom. and mismanagement, could make no stand against Taghi had taken refuge in Sind and Muhammad the rebels whose power was daily increasing. Neither at Deavgiri nor in Gujarat, the local administration Tughluq decided to proceed against him. However, displayed any vigour to check the forces of disorder on the way, the Sultan fell ill at Gondal and was and the Sultan alone had to bear the brunt of the obliged to halt for some time. After partial recovery, opposition. The imperial army, too, does not seem he proceeded towards grave and he died on 20 to have shown any remarkable effi ciency; probably March 1351. Badauni observes: “And so the king the unusual severities of the Sultan had exhausted was freed from his people and they from their king.” its patience and chilled its enthusiasm.” Success of Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru | 126 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY Character and Estimate of Muhammad was that “he ignored the canon of law” as expounded Tughluq by the Qazi and other Muslim divines and did what There is a lot of controversy regarding the he considered to be just and proper. character and achievements of Muhammad Tughlug. According to Ibn Batuta, “Nothwithstanding Elphinstone was of the view that Muhammad all his , his sense of equity and justice, and Tughuq was affected by some degree of insanity his extraordinary liberality and kindness to the poor that we have described, he had immense daring and writers like Havell. Edward Thomas and Smith ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA have followed him. Gardiner Brown had ignored (sic) to shed blood. His gate was hardly free from altogether the dark aspect of the life of Muhammad the corpse of a man who had been executed. And Tughluq and has absolved him of the Tughluq I used to see frequently a number of people killed and has absolved him of the charges of madness, at the gate of the royal palace and the corpses blood-thirstiness and of being a visionary. Ziauddin abandoned there. One day as I arrived there, my Barani and Ibn Batuta have opposite views about horse was started, and as I looked round I saw on the personality, virtues and faults of Muhamamd the Earth some white thing. ‘What is it?’ said I. One Tughluq. The controversy is as fresh as ever. of my comrades replied, ‘It is the torso of a man who Muhammad Tughluq was one of the most has been cut into three pieces.’ learned and accomplished scholars of his time and no “The Sultan used to punish all wrongs whether wonder he has been praised by his contemporaries. big or small and he would spare neither the men of He had a keen intellect and a wonderful memory. learning (Ahl-ul’ilm) and probity (Salah), nor those He knew logic, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy of high descent (Sharat). Every day, hundreds of and physical sciences. He was a perfect master of people in chains with their hands fastened to the composition and style. He was a brilliant calligraphist. neck and their feet tightened were brought into He had a very good knowledge of Persian poetry and the council hall. took pleasure in quoting verses from Persian poetry “Those who were to be killed were killed and in his letters. He knew medicine and was skilful in those who were to be tortured were tortured and dialectics. He was an expert in the use of smiles those who were to be beaten were beaten…………. and metaphors. Ziauddin Barani describes him as May God save us from the calamity.” a learned scholar, a veritable wonder of creation Muhammad Tughluq had a lot of imagination whose abilities would have taken by surprise even but he lacked practical judgement and Aristotle and Asaf. He was generous. He gave lot of commonsense. He was hasty and hot tempered. gifts to all those who crowded his gate at all times. He could not tolerate any opposition from any His habits were simple. quarter and was ready to punish all those who He was free from the prevailing vices of the dared to defy him or differ from him. According age. Ibn Batuta describes him “as the most humble to Ziauddin Barani. “Whatever he conceived, he of men and one who is most inclined towards doing considered good, but in enforcing his schemes, he what is right and just.” Barani, Yahiya-bin-Ahmed lost territories, disgusted his people and emptied his Sarhindi, Badauni, Nizamuddin Ahmed and Ferishta treasury. Embarrassment followed embarrassment have wrongly stated that Muhammad Tughluq was and confusion became worse confounded. The ill- not a religious person and he was responsible for Success feeling of the people gave rise to out-breaks and of the slaughter of the pious and the learned persons. revolts. The rules for enforcing the royal schemes Ibn Batuta positively asserts that “He (Muhammad grew daily more oppressive. The tribute of most of Tughluq) follows the principles of religion with the distant countries and provinces was lost and devoutness and performs the prayers himself and many of the soldiers and servants were scattered punishes those who neglect them.” Ibn Batuta is and left in remote lands. Defi ciency appeared in the supported by two other contemporary writers, treasury. The mind of the Sultan lost its balance. In namely, Shihabuddin Ahmed and Badr-i-Chach. It the extreme weakness and harshness of his temper,

appears that the only fault of Muhammad Tughluq Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru he abandoned himself to severity. When he found | 127 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 that his orders did not work so well as he wished, he due to the fact that he had no sense of proportion became yet more embittered against his people.” and also because such was the custom prevailing Muhammad Tughluq declared to Barani: “My in Europe and Asia at that time. kingdom is diseased and no treatment cures it. The The charge of blood-thirstiness was leveled physician cures the headache and fever follows; against the Sultan by the members of the clerical he strives to allay the fever and something else party. Barani has condemned the rationalism of the supervenes. So in my kingdom, disorders have Sultan. In very strong language, he condemns his CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA broken out; if I suppress them in one place, they philosophical speculations. There is nothing to show appear in another; if I allay them in one district, that the Sultan took pleasure in the destruction of another becomes disturbed.” Again, “I visit them with human species and organised man-hunts. According chastisement upon the suspicion or presumption of to Dr. Ishwari Prasad, "The truth is that the Sultan their rebellious and treacherous designs and I punish combined a headstring temper with advanced ideals the most trifl ing act of contumacy with death. This of administrative reforms, and when his people I will do until I die or until the people act honestly failed to respond to his wishes, his wrath became terrible. His impatience was the result of popular and give up rebellion and contumacy. I have no such apathy, just as popular apathy was the outcome of Wazir as will make the rules to obviate my shedding his starting innovations.” blood. I punish the people because they have all at once become my enemies and opponents. I have According to Dr. R.C. Majumdar, “No ruler in dispensed great wealth among them, but they have medieval India has evoked so much discussion not become friendly and loyal.” Again, “My remedy concerning his policy and character as Muhammad for rebels is the sword. I employ punishment and Tughluq. Muslim chroniclers, without exception, described him as a blood-thirsty tyrant and severely use the sword o that a cure may be effected by condemn his various measures. It has also been held suffering. The more the people resist, the more I by many modern historians that he was a blood- infl ict chastisement.” thirsty tyrant almost verging on insanity, whose Muhammad Tughluq has been described as policy ruined the Sultanate of Delhi. In recent times, “a mixture of opposites.” If he had his virtues, he however, some reputed historians have challenged had his faults also. While he was kind, generous and this almost universal belief of both scholars and humble, he was also most cruel. While he gave gifts laymen add sought to exonerate his character. The to all those who came to him, he was responsible for truth, as usual, perhaps lied midway between the the deaths of many. The temperament of the Sultan two extremes, and Muhammad Tughluq’s character was such that nobody was sure as to what he would was probably a mixture of opposites. get. It was possible that he might get something It must be admitted that he had many good in charity. It was equally possible that he might be qualities of head and heart, while his cruelties were hanged. He did not bother about the sentiments of shocking and horrid, and he showed a capricious the people. He had no balance or patience. He had temper and a sad lack of judgement and common no sense of proportion and no wonder, he failed. sense on many occasions. We may, therefore, begin Muhammad Tughluq has been described by a general description of both the good and bad as an amasing compound of contradictions. Dr. qualities of Muhammad Tughluq. Again, “It would

Ishwari Prasad points out that the charges of blood- Success appear from what had been said above although of thirstiness and madness are mostly unfounded. the current view about Muhammad Tughluq was No contemporary writer has stated anything from not true to the whole extent, the attempts of some which it can be concluded that Muhammad Tughluq recent historians to exonerate him from all blemishes was mad. It is possible that Elphinstone and other have not proved successful. He was not a monster or European writers were misled by the statement of a lunatic, as has been suggested by some, but there is Ibn Batuta that some dead bodies were always found no doubt that he was a mixture of opposites, for his I front of the palace of the Sultan. If he infl icted the many good qualities of head and heart seem to be

penalty of death even for petty offences, that was Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru quite incompatible with certain traits of vices in his | 128 |

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Mishra's a of successrt

THE 14TH CENTURY character, such as revolting cruelty, frivolous caprice, in an age of rhetoric, a philosopher, trained in logic and an inordinate belief in his own view of things. and Greek metaphysics, with whom scholars feared He might have had good ideas but he had not the to argue, a mathematician and a lover of science. The capacity to execute them. This was best exemplifi ed contemporary writers extol his skill in composition in his ambitious projects like change of capitals, and his exquisite calligraphy, and his beautiful issue of token currency and foreign expeditions, coinage bears witness to his critical taste in the art and the appointments of new classes of offi cials. of engrossing the Arabic character, which he read All these indicate a want of judgement which is ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA and understood though he could not speak the undoubtedly a great defect in the character of a language fl uently. ruler, and it is diffi cult to avoid the conclusion that “In short, he was complete in all that high his character and policy largely contributed to the culture could give in that age and country, and he decline of the Delhi Empire.” added to the fi nish of his training, a natural genius According to Gardiner Brown, that he was for original conception, a marvelous memory, and mad is a view of which contemporaries give no hint; an indomitable will. His idea of a central capital, and that he was a visionary, his many-sided, practical his plan of a nominal token currency, like most of his and vigorous character forbids us to believe. To schemes, were good; but he made no allowance for call him a despot may be true, but no other form the native dislike of innovations: he hurried his novel of government was conceivable in the Middle measures without patience for the slow adoption Ages: to use the term as though it were the name of the people, and when they grew discontented of a vice or a disease is to ignore the fact that a and rebelled he punished them without truth. To despotic prince who is accessible to new ideas him, what seemed good must be done at once, or who embarks on measures of reform can do and when it proved impossible or unsuccessful, much to advance the prosperity of his people in his disappointment reached the verge of frenzy, an age when education is but little advanced and and he wreaked his wrath indiscriminately upon conservatism deeply rooted. Such a ruler, however, the unhappy offenders who could not keep pace has in his own time series of diffi culties to face: the with his imagination. Hence with the best intention, inevitable disturbance of vested interests, the innate excellent ideas, but no balance or patience, or preference for established custom, raise up for him sense of proportion Muhammad Tughlug was a numerous enemies: offi cials, carrying out unpopular transcendent failure. His reign was one long series reforms shelter themselves beneath the plea of the of revolts savagely repressed; his subjects, whom he master’s orders: should unmerited disaster befall his wished to benefi t and one whom he lavished his schemes, should corrupt or incompetent offi cials treasure, grew to loathe him; all his schemes came to pervert their ends, it is he—because he is a despot— nothing and when after twenty-six years he died of who must bear the balem if he has been a warrior a fever on the banks of the Indus, he left a shattered an death fi nds him when engaged on some small empire and an impoverished and rebellious people.” campaign—like Muhammad Bin Tughluq the walls “The delineation of character so complex and of Thatta—the judgement of Heaven is cited to contradictory as that of Muhammad Tughlug is no confi rm the popular verdict, and literature records. easy task. He was one of the most extraordinary “Muhammad Tughluq was the most striking monarchs who ever sat upon a throne. To the fi gure in medieval India. He was a man with ideas far Success most lavish generosity, he united revolting and of beyond his age. Alauddin had brought a vigorous indiscriminate cruelty; to scrupulous observance but uncultivated mind to bear upon the problems of the ritual and ceremonial prescribed by the of government; Muhammad Tughluq was even Islamic law in utter disregard of that law in all public more daring in his plans, but they were the ideals of affairs; to a debasing and superstitious veneration a man of trained intellect and tutored imagination. for all whose descent or whose piety commanded He was perfect in the humanities of his day, keen respect a ferocity which when roused respected student of Persian poetry—the Latin of Indian neither the blood of the prophet nor personal

education—a master of style, supremely eloquent Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru sanctity. Some of his administrative and most of | 129 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 his military measures give evidence of abilities of the offi ce of prophet as well. His ambition was to the highest order, others are the act of a mad man. make all the kings of the Earth, his slaves, and Barani His protégé Ziyauddin Barani, the historian, whom would liken his pride to that of Pharaoh and Nimrod. he admitted to a considerable degree of intimacy Who claimed divinity as well as royalty, but that his and whom he often designed to consult, attributes scrupulous personal observance of the law and fi rm many of the atrocities which he commanded or adherence to the faith of Islam cleared him of the sanctioned to the evil infl uence of twelve wicked suspicion of blasphemy and infi delity. He would counsellors, stigmatised as ‘miserable’, ‘accursed’, ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA compare him with Bayazid of Bustam and Hussain, or ‘most accursed’, whose delight was to shed the son of Mansure-ul-Hallaj, who, in the ecstasy of blood of Muslims, but Muhammad Tughlug was no their devotion, believed themselves to have been weakling and was never a tool in the hands of his absorbed into the godhead, but that his barbarous counsellors. If his advisers were vile and blood-thirsty cruelty deprived him of any claim to sanctity.” men, it was he that chose them, and if he followed The view of Prof. K.A. Nizami is that Muhammad evil counsel he did so because they commended Tughlug was one of the most striking personalities of themselves to him. In like manner, Barani attributed medieval India. His intellectual attainments elicited his disregard of the Islamic law in administrative and praise from friends and foes alike. His personal life punitive measures to his early association with Sad, was absolute chaste and free from the vices from the heretical logician, Ubaid, the infi del poet, land which the other medieval rulers suffered. He had Alauddin, the philosopher, but this is mere special knowledge of literature, history, philosophy, poetry, pleading. His association with these free thinkers mathematics, medicine, astronomy, rhetoric, etc. never diminished his faith in Islam, his careful regard He possessed a prodigious memory. He knew the in other respects for its laws, of his veneration for Quran and a part of Hidaya by heart. He possessed its traditions. sharp intelligence. He was an expert in the use of It was not the fault of logicians, poets, or metaphors and similes. He was essentially a man of philosophers that the scandalised the orthodox action who never allowed his intellectual pursuits by deliberately preferring human reason to divine to affect his administrative responsibilities. He revelation as a guide in mundane matters, and by possessed a well-built body and had the gait and openly avowing his preference. His private judgment bearing of a soldier. He looked smart in whatever misled him, but this was due to his temperament. dress he put on. He possessed a dauntless spirit His peculiar vice as a judge and administrator was fi eld. Probably no other Sultan of Delhi undertook so his inordinate pride, which deprived him of the many campaigns in person and dealt with so many power of discriminating between offence. All his rebellious as he did. In spite of all these, he remains commandments were sacred and the slightest unrivalled in the history of the Delhi Sultanate on deviation from an impracticable regulation and account of his administrative measures and cultural the most fl agrant act of defi ance and rebellion were contacts with the outside world. He started a new era alike punished by a cruel death. The policy acted and of cultural contacts with Asian and African countries. reacted with cumulative effect on the monarch and People from Khurasan, Iraq, Sistan, Herat, Egypt, its people. Disgusted by their sovereign’s barbarity, Trans-Oxiania, Tangiers, etc., visited his court and they grew ever more refractory. His wide dominions he got fi rst hand information about the literary were seldom free from rebellion during his reign, and Success and cultural developments in those countries. His at his death the whole kingdom was in a ferment. of political vision was broad and dynamic. He possessed “Barani, notwithstanding his gratitude and a dogged tenacity of purpose. his fears, is surprisingly frank. So overweening, he In spite of these achievements, he failed in his says, was the king’s pride that he could not endure attempt to established in all India administration. to hear of a corner of the Earth, hardly even of a He had inherited a vast empire from his father and corner of heaven, which was not subject to his sway. he made it vaster still by his own exertions. It was a He would be at once a Solomon an Alexander; nor very diffi cult task to maintain effective control over

did mere kingship content him, for he aspired to Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru his vast empire. He applied his organising capacity | 130 |

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Mishra's a of successrt

THE 14TH CENTURY and resourcefulness to part of his extensive empire However, when he became very unpopular, under his personal control. However, after 10 years he changed his attitude towards the Khalifa and the experiment failed. The experiment could not requested the Khalifa of Egypt to confi rm him as succeed on account of the conditions of transport the Sultan of Delhi. He substituted the name of the and communications in those days. Khalifa on his coins in place of his own name. All Prof. K.A. Nizami says that while attempting royal orders were issued in the name of the Khalifa. a correct estimate of Muhammad Tughlug, there In 1344, Muhammad Tughluq received Haji Said things must be kept in mind. In the fi rst place, so ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Sarasari, the envoy sent by the Khalifa of Egypt. Sultan of Delhi had to face so many and so well- organised rebellions as Muhammad Tughlug. The FIRUZ TUGHLUG fact that made them survive proves that he must Muhammad Tughlug was succeeded by Firuz have had a corps of very loyal offi cers. Secondly, Tughlug. The latter was born in 1309 and died in Muhammad Tughlug is one of the few rulers of Delhi 1388. He was the son of Rajab, who was the younger Sultanate on whose life no attempt was made to kill brother of Ghiyasuddin Tughlug. His mother was him. There must have been thousands and thousands a Bhatti Rajput girl, who agreed to marry Rajab of persons in India who had deep personal reasons to save the kingdom of her father Ram Mal, Chief for having their revenge on him. It is not reported of Abohar, from destruction of the hands of the that the Sultan took any but the traditional measure Muslims. When Firuz grew up, he was trained in the of his predecessors for his personal protection. He art of administration and warfare but he did not was too much of a soldier to be afraid of the dagger distinguish in either of them. Muhammad Tughlug of an assassin or a palace revolt. had great love for Firuz and consequently, him with Different assessments have been made of the administration of the country. Muhammad Tughlug. He has been called a “mass of inconsistencies”, “a wonder of creation”, “a freak Succession of nature”, “a nightmare”, and “a mad man”. However, When Muhammad Tughlug died, on 20 March, foreign scholars like Shihabuddin-ul-Umari, Al- 1351, there was complete confusion and disorder Qalqashandi, Ibn-i-Hajar Aswalani and Salahuddin in the camp which was plundered by the rebels Safadi have unqualifi ed praise for the Sultan, but of Sind and Mongol mercenaries had been hired on account of his learning, generosity and cordial by Muhammad Tughlug to fi ght against Taghi. treatment of foreign scholars. Ibn-i-Battuta praises The Sindhis and the Mongols would have devided the generosity of the Sultan, but condemns his the fate of all. It was at that time that Firuz was executions. Isami says that the Sultan was a second approached to ascend the throne. He hesitated but Yezid, a tyrant and a heretic who deserved all when the nobles, Shaikhs and Ulema put pressure on condemnation. He justifi es all rebellions against him, he agreed to become the Sultan. It was under him. To Barani, Muhammad Tughlug appeared these circumstances that Firuz was coronated in a as “a mixture of opposites”. However, Prof. Nizami camp near Thatta on 23 March, 1351. says that it was not the Sultan who was “a mass of inconsistencies”, or “a mixture of opposites”, Barani Firuz had to meet another diffi culty. Khawaja- himself was miserably-torn personality. He projected i-Jahan, Deputy of the late Sultan, proclaimed at his own psychological states in his assessment of Delhi a boy as the son heir of Muhammad Tughlug the Sultan. Love and hatred alternated with the Success and also put him on the throne. The situation was of fl uctuations in the moods of Barani. serious and consequently, Firuz consulted the Muhammad Tughluq believed that he was the nobles and Muslim jurists. The nobles contended shadow of God. Some of the inscriptions on his coins that Muhammad Tughlug had no son. The jurists read as “Sovereignty is not conferred upon every maintained that the candidate of Khwaja-i-Jahan man, but is placed on the elect.” “He who obeys the was disqualifi ed on the ground that he was a minor Sultan truly obeys God.” “The Sultan is the shadow and not fi t to be seated to the throne at a time when of God” and “God is the supporter of the Sultan.” He the situation was serious. It was also contended

dropped all references to the Khalifa. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru that there was no inherited right of succession | 131 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 to throne under the Muslim law. Circumstances Revenue Policy demanded that there should be a powerful ruler on When Firuz Tughlug came to the throne, there the throne of Delhi. When Khawaja-i-Jehan found his was complete chaos in revenue administration. position weak, he surrendered. Firuz pardoned him He not only cancelled all the Taqavi loans which in consideration of his past services and allowed him had advanced in the reign of Muhammad Tughlug to retire to Samana. However, he was beheaded on but also ordered that the peasant should not be the way by a follower of Sher Khan, the Commandant

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA harassed by the offi cers of the state. He increased the of Samana. salaries of the offi cers of the revenue administration. Domestic Policy Khawaja Hisamuddin was entrusted with the We can discuss the reign of Firuz Tughlug task of preparing a rough estimate of the public under two heads. domestic policy and foreign policy. revenues of the kingdom. The Khawaja took 6 years As regard the domestic policy, the immediate task in completing his work. He not only toured the of the new Sultan was to win over the people to his provinces but also examined the revenue records. own side. This he did by remitting all the debts due He ultimately fi red the revenue of the Khalsa land to the state from the subjects and by abstaining in the kingdom at six crores and eighty-fi ve lakhs from any endeavour to recover the treasure which of Tankas. It is to be noted that the estimate was had been frittered away by Khawaja-i-Jahan in his not based on the actual measurements of the land. efforts to establish his nominee on the throne. For However, it was based on local information and was the fi rst year of his reign Firuz was fully employed a good working hypothesis. in restoring peace and order in the kingdom. The The Sultan abolished 24 vexatious and unjust new Sultan set before himself the idea of looking cesses which had been levied during the previous after the welfare of the people and he did all that reigns. The share of the state as land revenue was he possibly could to add to their material prosperity lessened. He abolished the custom of imposing and comforts in life. He introduced a large number benevolences on the Governors at the time of their of reforms in various fi elds and thereby won the appointment and also the annual money paid by goodwill of the people in spite of his incompetence them. These amounts were actually charged by in the military fi eld. the Governors from the people. The new system of The author of Futuhat-i-Firuz Shahi observes: taxation was according to the Quran. Four kinds of “In the reigns of former kings, the blood of many taxes sanctioned by the Quran were imposed and Mussalmans had been shed, and many varieties of those were Kharaj, Zakat, Jizya and Khams. Kharaj torture employed. Amputation of hands and feet, was the land tax which was equal to 1/10th of the ears and noses, tearing out the eyes, pouring molten produce of the land. Zakat was 2½% tax on property lead into the throat, crushing the bones of the hands realised from the Muslims and spent on certain and feet with mallets, burning the body with fi re, specifi c religious purposes only. Jizya or poll-tax driving iron nails into the hands, feets and bosom, was levied on the non-Muslims and other heretics. cutting the sinews, sawing men asunder; these and However, the scope of Jizya was extended by may similar tortures were practiced. The great and Firuz by charging the same from the Brahmans also merciful God made me, his servant, hope and seek who had formerly been exempted from the tax. It for his mercy by devoting myself to prevent the Success is stated when Jizya was levied on the Brahmans, of unlawful killing of Mussalmans, and the infl iction the latter surrounded the palace and protested of any kind of torture upon them or upon any men. against the invasion of their ancient privilege. They “Though the mercy which God has shown to threatened to burn themselves alive and call upon me these severities and terrors have been exchanged the Sultan the wrath of God. The reply of the Sultan for tenderness, kindness and mercy. Fear and respect was that they could burn themselves as soon as have thus taken fi rmer hold of the hearts of men, and they pleased and the sooner, the better. The result there has been no need of executions, scourging, was that instead of burning themselves, they sat

tortures or terrors.” Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru without food at the gate of his palace. The Sultan | 132 |

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Mishra's a of successrt

THE 14TH CENTURY did not yield and ultimately it was arranged that the Critics point out certain defects in the revenue tax lviable from the Brahmans should be levied from policy of Firuz. It is contended that the Sultan made the lower castes of the Hindus in addition of the tax a mistake in extending the system of farming of to which they were personally liable. Khams was taxes. Alauddin Khilji and Muhammad Tughluq one-fi fth of the booty captured during war. Alauddin stood for direct management by the state and and Muhammad Tughlug used to get four-fi fths of avoided as far as possible, the system of giving the the booty and left only one-fi fth to the army. Firuz right of collecting revenue to the highest bidders. followed the Islamic law, according to which the ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA The system adopted by Firuz brought less money state was entitled to take only one-fi fth and four- to the government and more harassment of the fi fth had to be left to the soldiers. In consultation people. Another defect in the system of Firuz was with the canonist, the Sultan levied an irrigation tax the introduction of the Jagir system which had at the rate of 10% of the produce of the fi elds. The been stopped by Alauddin. Shams-i-Siraj Afi f has merchants were not required to pay the irregular described the system in these words: “The soldiers and oppressive octroi duties which obstructed the of the army received grants of land (Jagir) enough free circulation of commodities from one part of the to support them in comfort and the irregulars country to another. The collectors of revenue were received payment form the government treasury. warned that they would be severely dealt with in Those soldiers who did not receive their pay in this case they charged more than the prescribe dues manner were, according to their necessity, supplied from the people. with assignments upon the revenues. The result of the reforms of Firuz was that he When these assignments of the soldiers arrived was able to put a lot of money into his coffers. His in the fi efs, the holders used to get about half the increased revenues were due to the cultivation total amount from the holders of the fi efs. It was the of superior crops, water tax and revenue from practice of certain persons in those days to buy up gardens. The gardens yielded an annual income of these assignments, which was an accommodation 1,80,000 Tankas. The revenue policy of the Sultan to both parties. They used to get one-third of the also added to the general prosperity of the people. value for them in the city and receive one half in Shams-i-Siraj Afi f says: to the general prosperity the districts. The purchasers of these assignments of the people. Shams-i-Siraj Afi f tells us that “Their carried on a traffi c in them, and gaining a good profi t, (people) homes were replete with grain, property, many of them got rich and made their fortune.” horses and furniture; everyone had plenty of gold Another defect was the extension of the scope and silver, no woman was without her ornaments and rigours of the collection of Jizya. The Sultan and house without good beds and Divans. Wealth considered the Brahmans as “the citadel of infi delity” abounded and comforts were general. The state and was not prepared to exempt them. did not suffer from fi nancial bankruptcy during this Irrigation reign. The revenues of the Doab amounted to eight lakhs of Tankas and those of the territories of Delhi In order to encourage agriculture, the Sultan to six crores and eighty-fi ve lakhs of Tankas.” Again, paid a lot of attention to irrigation. “By the blessings of God and favourable seasons, Shams-i-Siraj Afi f tells us that two canals were abundance of the necessaries of life prevailed, not excavated under the orders of the Sultan. One of only in the capital, but throughout his dominions. Success them was excavated from the Sutlej and the other of Grain was so cheap that in that city of Delhi wheat from the Jamuna. However, Yahija refers to four was 8 Jitals a maund and grain and barley 4 Jitals. canals which were excavated in the reign of Firuz A camp follower could give his horse a feed of 10 Tughlug. The fi rst canal was from the Sutlej to the Sirs (20 lbs) of corn for one Jital. Fabrics of all kinds Ghaghar. It was 96 miles long. The second canal were cheap, and goods, both white and coloured was 150 miles long and it carried the waters of the were of moderate price. Orders were given for the Jamuna to the city of Hissar. The third canal started reduction of price of sweetmeats in accord with the from the neighbourhood of Mandvi and Sirmour

general fall of prices.” Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Hills connected it with Jhansi. From Jhansi, it was | 133 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 taken to Arasani where the foundation of the fort of mosques and colleges and monasteries that the Hissar Firuza was laid. The fourth canal fl owed from learned and the devout and the holy, might worship the Ghaghar by the fort of Sirsati up to the village God in these edifi ces and aid the kind builder with of Hirani-Kher. The remains of some of these canals their prayers.” can be seen even today. Skillful engineers were According to Dr. V.A. Smith, “Asiatic kings, as a appointed to superintend the canals and to make rule, show no interest in buildings erected by their their report about the same. 150 wells were dug predecessors which usually are allowed to decay CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA during his reign for irrigation purposes and also their uncared for. Firuz Shah was peculiar in devoting use by travellers. As a result of the irrigation facilities much attention to the repair and rebuilding of the provided by the Sultan, as many as 52 colonies structures of former kings and ancient nobles giving sprang up in the Doab alone. Superior crops such the restoration of those buildings the priority over as wheat, surgarcane, etc., were cultivated. Fruits his own constructions.” The two pillars of Ashoka were also grown in large quantities. were brought to Delhi from Meerut and Topra (in Public Works the Ambala district). The pillar from Topra was re- The master passion of Firuz was to build. Sir erected at Delhi, near the palace and great mosque Wolseley Haig rightly points out that the passion for at Firuzabad. The pillar from Meerut was set up on building of Firuz equaled, if it did not surpass, that a mound near the Qush-i-Shikar or hunting palace of the Roman Emperor, Augustus. The important near the Bara Hindu Rao Hospital, at Delhi. town of Firuzabad (the present Kotla Firuz Shah in Judicial Reforms Delhi), Fatehabad, Hissar, Jaunpur and Firuzpur (near Badaun) were founded by him. During his Bengal When Firuz came to the throne the penal law campaigns, he renamed Ikdala as Azadpur and of the country was a savage one. To quote the Sultan Pandua as Firuzabad. The Sultan built 4 mosques himself, “In the reigns of the former kings, many tombs, 10 baths, 10 monumental pillars and hundred varieties of tortures were employed. Amputation bridges. He constructed 150 wells for the use of of hands and feet, ears and noses; tearing out the travellers. He dug 5 canals for irrigation. He laid pouring molten lead into the throat, crushing the out 1,200 gardens in the neighbourhood of Delhi. bones of the hands and feet with mallets, burning The Sultan established, at Delhi, a hospital the body with fi re, driving iron nails into the hands, described variously as Dar-ul-Shifa, Bimaristan feet and bosom, cutting the sinews, sawing men and Shifakhana. Very competent physicians were asunder; these and many similar tortures were appointed to look after the patients. Its Darukhana practiced. The great and merciful God made me or dispensary contained numerous medicines and His Servant hope and seek for His mercy by devoting preparations which were supplied free. Orders were myself to prevent the unlawful killing of Mussalmans given to the staff of the hospital to be very polite and the infl icting of any king for torture upon them to the people. The revenues of certain villages were or upon any man.” The result of the reforms of Firuz appropriated for the maintenance of this hospital. was that the judicial system became more humane Four hospitals of this type were also set up in other than before. Not only the practice of torture was towns. abolished as a means of ascertaining truth, very

The Chief architect of the state was Malik Success mild punishments were imposed in criminals. In of Ghazi Shahana, who was assisted in his work by some cases, culprits got no punishment at all. The Abdul Haq. The plan of every building along with penal reforms applied not only to the Muslims but its estimates was required to be submitted to the to all the sections of the population. Dr. V.A. Smith Diwani-i-Wizarat before money was sanctioned praises Firuz Tughlug in these words: “One reform, for its construction. About his building activities, the abolition of mutilation and torture, deserves the Sultan himself observes thus: “Among the gifts unqualifi ed commendation and the orders must which God bestowed upon me, His humble servant, have been acted on to a considerable extent during

was desire to erect public buildings. So I built many Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru his lifetime.” | 134 |

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Mishra's a of successrt

THE 14TH CENTURY Another reform introduced by Firuz was that written during his reign. There autobiography of if a traveller died on the road, the feudal chefs and the Sultan is known as Fatuhat-i-Firuz Shahi. When Muqaddams were required to call the Qazis and the Sultan conquered Nagarkot, a large number of other Muslims and get the body of he deceased Sanskrit books fell into his hands. 300 of these books examined. A report was required to be drawn were translated into Peninsular,a by Aazzuddin certifying under the seal of the Qazi that no would Khali Khani, under the title of Dalail-i-Firuz Shahi. was to be found on the body. It was only then that A large number of colleges and monasteries were the deceased was to be buried. ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA established where men devoted themselves to A new department of Diwan-i-Khairat was set prayers and meditation. A mosque was attached to up to make provisions for the marriages of poor girls. each college for worship. Two well-known professors Anyone who had a daughter of marriageable age were attached to these colleges. One of them was and lacked the required money for her wedding, Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi. He lectured on theology could apply to the Diwan-i-Khairat. The offi ces of and Islamic jurisprudence. The other was a preacher this department made enquiries about the fi nancial from Samarkand. position of the applicant and fi xed the amount Patronage of Slavery of money that was to be paid to him. Poor men and widows came to the capital from all parts of Shams-i-Siraj Afi f tells us that “Sultan was the country to get the names of their daughters diligent in procuring slaves and he carried his case registered in the Diwan-i-Khairat. so far as to command his great fi ef-holders and offi cers to capture slaves whenever they were at war The Sultan also set-up another Department and to pick out and send the best for the service of known as Diwan-i-Istihqaq. This department gave the court. Those chiefs who brought many slaves fi nancial help to the deserving people. 36 lakhs of received the highest favour. About 12,000 slaves Tankas were annually set apart for this purpose. The became artisans of various kinds. Forty thousands view of Afi f is that about 4,200 men received help were in readiness to attend as guards in the Sultan’s from this department. To provide relief to those who equipage or at the palace. Altogether, in the city and had been the victims of recklessness of fi tfulness of in the various fi elds, there were 1,80,000 slaves for Muhammad Tughluq, the Sultan made liberal grants. whose maintenance and comfort the Sultan took The Sultan also set up an employment bureau. special care. The institution took root in the very This was concerned chiefl y with those who desired centre of the land and the Sultan looked upon its clerical and administrative employment. It was due regulation as one of his incumbent duties.” The the duty of the Kotwal of Delhi to seek those who Sultan set up a separate treasury, a separate Jao- were without employment and to produce them Shunguri, and deputy Jao-Shunguri and a separate in the court. The Sultan personally made inquires Diwan. into their circumstances and qualifi cations. After We are told that as many as 1,80,000 slaves consulting their inclination, they were provided poured into the capital. They were given training with employment. No effort was made to fi nd out in different vocations; some of them became whether there was any demand for their services artisans and craftsman: Some joined the army and or not as the whole thing was done on a charitable became warriors; some were employed in the Royal basis. It must have helped many a young idler. Success Karkhanas; a few of them mounted guard at the Learning of Royal Palace. There were some who occupied such The Sultan was interested in the promotion odd jobs as ewer bearers, curtain bearers, weapon of learning. He patronised the Shaikhs and learned bearers, keepers of medicines and libraries and some men and gave them a hearty reception in his Palace held the charge of elephants, precious birds and of Grapes. He gave pensions and gratuities to the hunting panthers. Some of them were appointed learned. The Sultan was fond of history. Ziauddin Amir and Maliks. Barani and Shams-i-Shiraj Afi f wrote their works Some of the slaves had fi xed salaries from 10

under his patronage. Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi was also Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru to 100 Tankas per head. There were other who were | 135 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 remunerated through assignments and grants of overheard a trooper complaining to a comrade villages. These slaves amassed wealth for themselves the hardship of being compelled to submit his horse and their kinsfolk. It is stated that a slave named for inspection. The Sultan enquired of the trooper Bashir Sultani was appointed as Muqti of Rapri but about his hardship and he was told that he could he paid no state dues for several years. When the not expect his horse to be passed unless he paid the matter was reported to the Sultan, he observed inspector at least one gold Tanka. The Sultan gave thus: “What difference does it makes whether it is him the coin to be paid to the inspector instead of my property or the property of Bashir?” ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA taking action against the inspector. Thus, in a way, These slaves became undistinguishable from the sultan became a party to the general corruption the military aristocracy of the Turks. They carried that was prevailing in the administration. the germs of corruption into the higher classes of Coins society. All the Departments of the Government The Sultan did not issue absolutely new were affected by this vice. The slaves were neither varieties of coins. The coins in circulation in his attached to the person of the Sultan nor to his reign were already there in the time of Muhammad dynasty. It is well-known that these very slaves cut- Tughlug. Shams-i-Siraj Afi f attributes the introduction off ruthlessly the heads of the children of the Sultan of Shahghani or six Jital piece of Firuz but Ibn Batuta and displayed their dead bodies in public. also refers to such a coin. However, it cannot be Army denied that Firuz introduced two coins described as Adha (half Jital) silver, and Bikh (quarter Jital). The army was on a feudal basis. The regular These coins were mixed copper and silver, and soldiers of the army received grants of land which were intended to facilitate the transactions of the were suffi cient for their comfortable living. The common people but there was a lot of fraud and irregular soldiers (Ghriwajh) were paid direct from corruption in the working of the mint. It is stated the royal treasury. There were soldiers who were that the two informers reported that six Jital pieces supplied with transferable assignments on the were a grain short of standard purity. Khan-i-Jahan revenue. The assignments were purchased in the Maqubul, the minister, sent for Kajar Shah, the mint- capital by middlemen at one-third of their value and master and directed him to fi nd out a method by were sold to the soldiers in the districts as one-half. which the Sultan could be satisfi ed about the purity Thus, certain persons gained at the expense of the of the coin. Kajar Shah arranged that the coins soldiers. The army of the Sultan consisted of 80,000 should be melted before the metal was tested. He or 90,000 cavalry which could be increased by the also approached the goldsmiths whose duty was retainers sent by the nobles. The army could not to conduct the experiment in the presence of the be effi cient. The Sultan passed a new regulation king and request them to put secretly into crucible that if a soldier became incapable of service in the suffi cient silver to bring the molten metal to the fi eld on account of his old age, his son or son-in-law standard of purity. They pointed out the diffi culty or his slave could be sent in his place. Obviously, of doing so but promised to do the needful if silver the recognition of the hereditary claim in military was placed of charcoal use for heating the crucible service was highly objectionable. The retainers and goldsmiths succeeded in conveying it into the supplied by the nobles could not be relied upon vessel without being observed. When the metal was by the Sultan as they looked to their masters and not Success of tested, it was found to be of the standard purity. to the Sultan for their recruitment, promotion and Kajar Shah was carried through the city on one of discipline. Old and ineffi cient soldiers were allowed the royal elephants to proclaim his honesty and the to approach the Sultan and he intervened on their two informers were banished. behalf unmindful of its effects on the effi ciency of the army. The inspectors who inspected soldiers and Court horses were corrupt and in spite of his knowledge, The Sultan maintained a magnifi cent and the Sultan would not dismiss them on account luxurious court, which was particularly decorated

of his tender heart. We are told that the Sultan Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru on the occasions of Id and Shabrat. There was 36 | 136 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY royal establishments and each had a separate and Salibpur near Delhi and in the town of Gohana staff of offi cers of its own. The expenses of these in the Punjab, were demolished. establishments must have been considerable. It was reported to the Sultan that a certain Religious Policy Brahman was inviting Muslims to worship idols. The Sultan referred his a case to the Ulema, Mashaikh While Firuz has been praised for other reforms, and Muftis. All of them demanded the conversion he has been criticised for his religious policy. He of the Brahman to Islam. In case he refused to do was a staunch Sunni Muslim and was prepared to ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA so, he was to be burnt alive. The Brahman was given help all those who belonged to his faith. He gave the option, but he was stuck to his principles, he the Ulemas a high place in society and government. was burnt to death. It is their decisions that bound the Sultan. He did nothing without consulting them. He arranged for The Sultan imposed Jizya on the Brahmans, the marriages of the daughters of poor Muslims. He who had been taxed before. He called a meeting set-up schools and colleges, and maintained them of the Ulema and Mashaikh, and addressed them at the state expense. However, he was intolerant in these words, “The Brahmans are the very keys of towards the Hindus temples and even the Muslim the chamber of idolatry and infi dels are dependent dissenters. He pulled down the Hindu’s temples and on them. They ought therefore, to be taxed fi rst. The “killed the leaders of infi delity who seduced other Ulema and Mashaikh also agreed that they should into error.” He built mosques in place of the temples. be taxed.” While referring to the Hindus who had assembled The Brahmans naturally protested against the for worship in the new temple at Kohana, the Sultan action of the Sultan, and threatened to die and burn wrote thus: “The people were seised and brought themselves alive before his palace. It is stated that before me. I ordered that the perverse conduct of the Sultan was so much impressed by the sincerity the leaders of this wickedness should be publicly of the Brahmans that he reduced the amount of proclaimed and that they could be put to death Jizya to be realised by them. before the gate of the palace. I also ordered that the The Sultan offered all kinds of temptations infi del books, the idols and the vessels use in their to induce people to embrace Islam. To quote the worship which had been taken with them, should Sultan, “I encouraged my infi del subjects to embrace all be publicly burnt. The others were restricted by the religion of the Prophet and I proclaimed that threats and punishments, as warning to all men that every one who repeated the creed and became a no Zimmi could follow such wicked practices in a Mussalman should be exempted from the Jizya, Mussalman country.” a poll tax. Information of this came to the ears of Two Sayyids were put to death in Katehar. the people at large and great numbers of Hindus When Firuz heard of it, he personally went to presented themselves and were admitted to the Katchar and ordered a general massacre of the honour of Islam”. The Hindus who became Muslims people. Thousands of innocent persons were put were not required to pay Jizya. They were also offered to death and 23,000 persons were made prisoners temptations of Jagirs, rewards in cash, titles, honour and converted into slaves. During the next fi ve and state employment in case they became Muslims. years, the Sultan visited Katehar every year and The Sultan was intolerant towards the Shias and repeated the story. The cruelty was so great that the Success other Non-Sunni Mussalman who were considered of spirits of the murdered Sayyids themselves arose to to be heretics by the orthodox Sunnis. About the intercede. That shows the ferocity of the Sultan to Shias, the Sultan observes thus: “I must seised them punish those who had the audacity of lying their all and I convinced them of their errors. On the hands on a Sayyid. most zealous in infl icted capital punishment and During the expedition against Jajnagar, the the rest, I visited with censure and threats of public Sultan caused the idol at Jagannath to be uprooted punishment. Their book I burnt in public and, by the and treated with every mark of indignity. The new grace of god, the infl uence of this sect (Shias) was

idol temples built in villages of Maluha, Tughliqpur Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru entirely suppressed.” The Mulhid and the Abahtiyan | 137 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 were imprisoned and banished and their religious courts of law and when those were proved, their practices were stopped. The Mehdwis were punished property was restored to them. and their leader Ruknuddin was convicted disciples. A plot was formed, in 1358, against the life of The Sultan tells us that the people tore Ruknuddin Firuz. His cousin Khudavadzada and her husband to pieces and broke his bones into fragments. A arranged that the king should be assassinated by similar treatment was given to Sufi s. armed men on the occasion of the visit of the Sultan It is pointed out that “Firuz iconoclasm is some to their house. However, the plot was frustrated by CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA what incongruous interest in the historical and her son, Davar malik,who was not in sympathy with cultural past of India. A visit to a library in Kangra the stepfather. He indicated the Sultan by signs that led him to order the translation from Sanskrit his life was in danger and thus, caused him to leave into Persian and Arabic of various manuscripts before the arrangements for his assassination were on the subjects of Hinduism. He saw the pillars of complete. On returning to his palace, the Sultan Asoka at Meerut and Topra, and was so fascinated ordered troops to surround the house and the men by them that he had them transported to Delhi, who would have murdered the Sultan were arrested. diffi cult as this was, and one of them was placed in Instead of hanging Khudavandzada, she was merely a commanding position of the roof of his citadel. He imprisioned and her wealth was confi scated. Her was curious to know what the inscription said, but husband was also banished. no one could read it, the script have changed since Foreign Policy the time of Asoka. He was associated with religious ritual. If objects of infi del worship had indeed been Firuz Tughlug was a pious and merciful ruler. so abhorrent to Firuz, he would have had the pillars He did not possess the courage which was required destroyed: instead, they were placed in positions of of a king of the 14th century. He did not possess the prominence.” qualities which could help him to bring under his control all those parts of the Delhi empire which The Sultan had great regard for the Khalifa of had become independent during the reign of Egypt. He styled himself as the deputy of the Khalifa. Muhammad Tughlug. The Sultan had a horror of During the fi rst six years of his reign, the Sultan war and his heart would begin to sing at the sight of received twice a patent of rulership and robes of bloodshed. According to Thomas, “His generalship in honour from the Khalifa. He associated the name of two campaigns to Bengal and his eventual reduction the Khalifa on his coins, along with his own name. of the Thatta, seems to have been of the lowest order; The name of the Khalifa was read in the Khutaba, and the way he allowed himself to be deluded into along with that of the Sultan. the deserts of Cutch or the defi les of Jajnagar, seems A reference may be made to some minor to savour of positives fatuity.” No attempt was made aspects of the domestic policy of the Sultan. The by the Sultan to bring the Deccan under his control. Sultan wanted to make atonement for the sins When his offi cers asked him to send an expedition of Muhammad Tughlug. He ordered the heirs of to Daultabad, the Sultan “looked distressed and his those who had been executed during the reign eyes were suffused with tears and approving their of Muhammad Tughlug and those who had been arguments, he said that he was resolved never more deprived of a limb, nose, eye, hand or foot to be to make war upon men of the Muhammadan faith.” satisfied with gifts and reconciled to the late Success of There was no Mongal invasion during his erring. king. They were required to give declarations in Yahiya tells us that the “frontiers of the kingdom writing, duly attested by certifi cates. Those written were secured by placing them under great armies parsons were put in a chest placed near the tomb and the well-wishers of the Emperor.” of Muhammad Tughlug so that is might help him on the Day of Judgement. All those who had Bengal been deprived of their villages, land and ancient Haji Ilyas was the independent ruler of Bengal. patrimonies during former reigns, were restored He took up to title of Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah. He

to their rights. Their claims were fully examined in Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru made himself the master of Eastern and Western | 138 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY Bengal. He also attached Tirhut with a view to one has to agree with the statement of Thomas annexation. In spite of his disinclination for war, that “the invasion only resulted in the confession Firuz Tughlug felt that action must be taken against of weakness.” Shamsuddin. In November, 1353, the Sultan marched Firuz made another attempt to conquer from Delhi at the heat of 70,000 horses. When Iliyas Bengal after a few years. Zafar Khan, son-in-law of heard of the advance of the Sultan, he retreated into Fakhruddin Mobarak Shah of Eastern Bengal, ran the fort of Ikadala which was situated at a distance away from Sunargaon to Delhi and complained CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA of 10 or 12 miles from Pandua. While pursuing the to Firuz Tughlug of the high-handedness of the retreating enemy, the Sultan issued a proclamation Bengal ruler. The death of Haji Iliyas also encouraged to the people of Bengal which has been described by Firuz to organize an expedition against Bengal. Dr. Ishwari Prasad as “one of the most extraordinary Firuz Tughlug set aside all the previous treaties documents in the history of the Sultanate of Delhi and assured of friendship and marched in 1339, and throws much light upon the mild policy of against Sikander Shah, the son and successor of Haji Firuz.” After promising concessions to the people, the Iliyas. The army of the Sultan consisted of 70,000 proclamation reads thus: “whereas it has come to our horses, about 500 elephants and a considerable auspicious ear that Iliyas Haji has been committing infantry. On the way, the Sultan halted for 6 months oppression and high handedness upon the people at Jafarabad on the river Gomti and founded in its of the territory of Lakhnauti and Tirhut, shedding neighbourhood the city of Jaunpur in the memory of unnecessary blood, even shedding the blood of Muhammad Tughlug, who was also known as prince women, although it is a well established position in Juna Khan. When the rainy season was over, the every creed and doctrine that no women, even if she Sultan continued his advance towards Bengal. Like be a Kafi r, should be slain. And whereas the said Iliyas his father, Sikandar Shah retreated into the fortress Haji has been levying illegal cesses not sanctioned of Ikdala which was besieged by the Delhi troops. by the law of Islam, and thus putting the people into The fort was defended bravely and when the rains trouble there being no security of life and property, came and the territory was fl ooded, the Sultan came no safety for honour and chastity….. And whereas to terms with Sikandar Shah which were favourable he has exceeded the limit and publicity rebelled to the Bengal ruler. The result was that the second against our authority, therefore we have approached Bengal expedition failed in its objective. It merely invincible army for the purpose of opening this proved the weakness of the Sultan. existence, withered by the hot pestilential winds of tyranny and oppression, might fl ourish and fructify Jajnagar by the limpid water of our bounty.” While coming back to Delhi from Bengal, the Haji Iliyas was defeated by the Delhi troops but Sultan decided to conquer Jajnagar (modern Orissa). the Sultan did not take full advantage of his hard- It is diffi cult to state the real motive of the Sultan earned victory and went back to Delhi in September, in waging war against Jajnagar. The Sultan wanted 1354 without annexing Bengal. There are numbers to capture Puri which is famous for the temple of views regarding the action of the Sultan. One view Jagannath. The ruler of Jajnagar ran away on the is that the Sultan decided to retire on account of approach if Sultan and took shelter Talingana. The the cries of the women in the besieged fort. To Sultan destroyed the Hindu temples. Their idols were quote Shams-i-Siraj Afi f, “To storm the fort, put more Success thrown into the sea and some of them were sent to of musalmans to the swords and expose honourable Delhi to be trodden under foot by the faithful. After women to ignominy, would be a crime of which that, the ruler of Jajnagar was called back and his he could not answer on the Day of Judgement territories were restored to him on the condition that and which would leave no difference between him he would send every year a number of elephants and the Mughlas.” Another view is that the Sultan to the Sultan. retreated because he was afraid of the disasters From Jajnagar, the Sultan went to Chhota that might come on account of the beginning of Nagpur. On the route to Nagpur, the Sultan lost his

the rainy season. Whatever the cause of the retreat, Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru way and for several months nothing was known | 139 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 about his whereabouts. A large number of soldiers The Sultan made a mistake in organising his army died in those jungles. on a feudal basis. He should not have revived the Jagir system which had been abolished by Alauddin Nagarkot Khilji. The granting of big Jagirs was bound to create It is true that the fort of Nagarkot had been trouble and ultimately was partly responsible for conquered in 1337 by Muhammad Tughlug but it the disintegration of the Tughluq Empire. had become independent once again towards the The Sultan also made a mistake in creating end of his reign. Firuz Tughlug decided to conquer it ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA a large number of slaves. These slaves interfered once again. The fort was besieged for 6 months and with the administration of the country and were ultimately its ruler submitted. The Sultan entered the partly responsible for the fall of the Tughluq Empire. Jawalamukhi temple. Its idols were broken and their The religious policy of the Sultan was also partly pieces were mixed with fl esh and blood of the cow. responsible for the downfall of the Tughluq dynasty. Some of the idols were sent as trophies to Medina. It The Hindus and Non-Suni Muslims became the is to be noted that from the temple of Jawalanmukhi, enemies of the Tughluq dynasty. The Sultan made a large number of Sanskrit books fell into the hands a mistake in making the Ulemas the masters of of the Sultan and some of them were translated into the show. According to Dr. R.P. Tripathi, “The irony Persian under the title of Dalail-Firuz Shahi. of history refl ects itself in the unfortunate fact Character and Estimate of Firuz that the very qualities that had contributed to the Contemporary Indian writers are unanimous popularity of Firuz were also largely responsible for in praising Firuz Tughluq. Their view is that since the the weaknesses of the Sultan of Delhi.” time of Nasiruddin Mahmud, no king had been “so According to S.R. Sharma, “Firuz was neither an just and kind, so courteous and God-fearing, or such Ashoka nor an Akbar, both of whom have been noted a builder” as Firuz was. The latter was adored by the for their religious toleration. Firuz was a fanatic like people. He reformed abuses. He checked extortion. Aurangzeb, though unlike him a wine-bibber. But in He increased irrigation. He was a father to his people. spite of this, he had more of constructive wisdom in He took care of the needy and unemployed. He him than his dilettante predecessor possessed. Lack refused to dismiss the aged offi cials and allowed of martial vigour and the unwisdom of feudalising their sons to act for them. He helped the marriages the kingdom are the only to her charges that have of the poor Muslims. He provided state hospitals for been leveled against him.” all classes. He was a devout Muslim. He kept fasts and An attempt has been made to compare Firuz said public prayer. When an old man, he went on a with J Alauddin Khilji. However, it is pointed out pilgrimage to the shrine of Salar Masud at Bahraich that it is better to compare Firuz with Nasiruddin and humbly got himself shaved as an act of piety. He Muhammad than with any other ruler. Like never did anything without consulting the Koran. Nasiruddin, he was too much inclined towards He even selected a Governor in accordance with religion and like him, again he found his Balban a lucky omen in the sacred book. He was always in Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul. Both sovereigns were of worried about the welfare of his subjects. The people a mild and forbearing disposition although Firuz enjoyed prosperity during his reign. was amore capable administrator. According to Sir However, there are certain aspects of his life Success Wolseley Haig, “Both were weak rulers, but Firuz was of which take away from his greatness. He was not a far less weak and vacillating than Mahmud and both general and consequently, he did not make any effort were benevolent, but the benevolent of Firuz was to reconquer the territories which had been lost in more active than that of Mahmud. Firuz possessed the Deccan during the reign of his predecessor. He far more ability than Mahmud, and his weakness was not strict in administration. Many examples consisted largely in an indolent man’s distaste for of his misplaced generosity can be quoted. It has the details of business and in unwillingness to cause already been pointed out how he gave a Tanka to a pain. His benevolence was indiscriminate, for he

trooper, so that the latter could bribe his inspector. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru showed as much indulgence to the corrupt offi cial | 140 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY as to the indigent husbandman and his passion a large extent to the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate, for constructing works of public utility was due and accelerated the process of the decline that had probably as much to vanity as to benevolence.” already set in during his predecessor’s reign.” Henry Elliot has tried to compare Firuz with According to Sir Wolseley Haig, “The reign Akbar. However, Dr. Ishwari Prasad points out that the of Firuz closes the most brilliant epoch of Muslim comparison is unnecessary and unjust. According to rule in India before the reign of Akbar.” In spite him, “Firuz had not even a hundredth part of genius

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA of his defects of character, Firuz succeeded in of that great-hearted and broad-minded monarch improving the administration and in alleviating who preached from the high platform of public the lot and winning the affection of his subjects. interest of gospel of peace, goodwill and toleration Military capacity and diligence in matters of detail towards all sects and creeds. The reforms of Firuz are qualities indispensable to an oriented despot, lacked permanence, they failed to strengthen the and was fair to recognize the independence of Muslim polity and to gain the confi dence of the that country, and his rashness twice imperiled the Hindus whose feelings were embittered by his existence of his army. His easy tolerance of abuses religious intolerance. Altogether, they produced a would have completely destroyed the effi ciency of reaction which proved fatal to the interests of the that mainstay of absolute power, had it not been dynasty of which he was by no means an unworthy counteracted by the vigilance and energy of his representative.” offi cers, who were carefully selected and entirely Dr. R.C. Majumdar says: “Although the reign trusted by him. His judgement of character was, of Firuz was marked by mildness and benefi cent indeed, the principal counterpoise to his impatience activities, in striking contrast to that of his of the disagreeable details of government, and predecessor, it also undermines, to a large extent, the personal popularity which he enjoyed as the the foundation of the Sultanate. The active interest kindly and genial successor of a capricious tyrant and infl uence of the ‘Ulema’ and Mushaikhs in affairs secure fi delity of his trusted offi cers, but his extensive of State which Firuz permitted, partly as policy and delegation of authority to them undermined the partly as an article of faith, was a retrograde step. power of the crown. His connivance at the ineffi ciency of public servants, No policy, however, well devised could have misplaced leniency in dealing with civil and military sustained this power under the feeble rule of offi cials and undue favours shown to the nobility his successors and the terrible blow dealt at the weakened the entire administrative machinery. His kingdom within ten years of his death, but his system aversion to war against the Muslims, even when it of decentralisation would have embarrassed the was imperative—in striking contrast to the brutal ablest successors, and undoubtedly accelerated severity with which he treated the Hindus of Katehar, the downfall of his dynasty.” and particularly his unwillingness (on the specious ground of saving Muslim women from disgrace) Decline of the Delhi Sultanate or inability to carry the fi ghts to a fi nish, destroyed Disintegration of Delhi Sultanate constitutes the stability of the empire. The organisation of the a watershed in the socio-political history of India. slaves, though promoted by humane consideration, It brought an end to an era of centralised Turkish was no doubt partly due also to a desire to create a Success rule and the rise of regional kingdoms. These of personal bodyguard on which the Sultan could trust regional kingdoms were the progenitors of many for his own safety. But as could be easily foreseen it socio-cultural elements that formed the bedrock developed into something like a Praetorian Guard of Akbar’s policies. Causes of the disintegration and proved to be a great disturbing factor in the may be sought in the very nature of the Sultanate State. On the whole, in spite of peace, prosperity and ruling structure and its institution, which over a contentment that prevailed during the long reign period of time became anachronistic and moribund, of Firuz Shah, no one can possibly doubt that his creating fi ssiparous tendencies. Prominent among

policy and administrative measures contributed to Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru them being the absence of any well defi ned law of | 141 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 succession, confl ict between the crown and nobility, of the corporate group, he was fully aware of the crisis in revenue administration, rebellions and the recalcitrant predilection of the forty. Hence, has Mongol menace. eased out the “tallest poppies” among them. On No clear well defined law of succession the other hand, he built up a committed cadre of developed in the Sultanate. It was checked at the nobles (Ghiyasi/Balbani slaves/nobles). Removal of outset by Iltutmish. The only arbiter was force – ‘the many members of the forty deprived the empires longest the sword, the greater the claim’. As a result, of the services of many veterans and the void could intrigues and factionalism became operative as soon ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA not be fi lled by the ‘Ghiyasi’ nobles. as a king died, to usurp power. It created diversions This situation inevitably led to the fall of the among the already heterogeneous nobility creating Ilbarite rule, paving the way for the Khiljis. Reign great political instability. The situation became of the Alauddin saw a broadening of the social precarious when weak rulers assumed power. This basis of the nobility wherein offi ces were open situation continued upto the rule of Firuz Tughlug. to talent and loyalty to the exclusion of race and Accession of the Lodhis created a new problem, creed. Besides, he controlled them through various for they had a peculiar kind of sovereignty. They measures. Enhancement of revenue demand to 50% were prepared to accept Sultan’s authority but this and territorial expansion placated the nobles and acceptance was hedged in by their emphasis on invited fresh talent. But this situation was short- partitioning the empire among various classes and lived and his death brought out once again the maintaining tribal militia, which in the long run dissensions and conspiracies of the nobles, leading greatly hampered the military effi ciency of the to the elimination of Khiljis as rulers. Muhammad bin central government. Tughluq also tried to muzzle the voice of the nobility Political history of the Sultanate testifi ed that but in vain. Even the Khurasanis, whom he used to consolidation and decline of the sultanate were call ‘Aizzah’ (dear once), betrayed him. Problems largely the result of constructive and destructive created by the nobility can be gauged from the activities of the nobles (umara). Nobles always tried fact that 22 rebellions took place during his reign. to maximize their demands in terms of the economic The crisis set in motion after Muhammad bin and political gains. Under the Ilbarite rule, confl icts Tughluq’s death seems to have gone out of hand. usually revolved around three issues: succession, Under these circumstances, Firuz shah could not be organisation of the nobility and division of economic expected to be stern with the nobles. They were given and political power among them and the Sultans. many concessions. They succeeded in making their Aibak’s authority was challenged by Yalduz and iqtas hereditary. Army became ineffi cient because Qubacha. Iltutmish organised the nobles into a the practice of dagh introduced by Allauddin was corporate body called “Turkan-i-Chehalgani” owing almost given up. These practices through pleased personal loyalty to him. This privileged position the nobles, undermined the stability of the empire. of the forty was envied by other groups. The forty It was not possible, henceforth of this descendants were themselves not free from internal bickerings. to roll back the tide. The situation under Lodhis They united at least on one principle: to plug the and the Sayyids was not comfortable. Sikandar entry of non turks to high offi ces. On the other Lodi made the last attempt to arrest the looming hand, the fi fty tried to retain its political infl uence catastrophe. But dissensions among the Afghans over the Sultan who would not alienate this group. Success and their unlimited individual ambitions hastened of But at the same time, would not surrender his the fi nal demise, actually its murder with Babur the autonomy. Thus, a delicate balance was attained executioner. which soon broke down after his death. Thus, Iltutmish introduced a sound system of Raziya’s accession to power was challenged by revence assignments (iqta) through which the nobles as she tried to organize non Turkish groups vast bureaucracy was maintained. Firuz Tughlug’s (Abyssinians and Indians) as counterweight to the reign however, saw, deterioration in its working. forty. During Balban’s region (1266-87) infl uence of During his reign, revenue assignments tended to

the forty was minimised. Himself being a member Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru be hereditary and permanent. “If a person died”, says | 142 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY Afi f, his offi ces would go permanently to his son; if Responsibility of Muhammad bin Tughlug he had no son, than to his son-in-law; if he had no & Firuz Shah Tughlug son-in-law, then to his slave”. Sikandar Lodhi stopped Accusation have been leveled on both of to reclaim the balance (fawazil). The tendency of the bringing about the downfall. Reign of Muhammad principal assignees to sub-assign their territories bin Tughlug, a steady deterioration in the functioning also increased greatly during his reign. These factors of the various institutions of the sultanate particularly had deep implications. It meant not only loss of

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA adverse developments in the composition of the revenue resources to the state exchequer but by nobility, in the fi eld of revenue administration, making assignment hereditary. Sultan allowed the security of fronticus, relus with the Ulema etc. His assignees to develop strong local roots which led reign while marking the zenith of the sultanate, also to large scale corruption and turbulence. saw the beginning of its disintegration, a paradox The above factors made rebellions ubiquitous. which refl ected in his conduct also. But as long as the center was powerful, these Muhammad bin Tughlug extended the rebellions were successfully crushed. Signs of frontiers of the empire to its far extent limit. physical disintegration were witnessed for the Managing such a vast and unwidely domain entailed fi rst time during Muhammad bin Tughlug’s region that the basic structures of administration delies the in 1347 with the establishment of the Bahmani goods. But, as was the lot of the nobility, this support kingdom. But the sultanate remained intact at least was not forthcoming. The pillars of the governance nearly for 50 years when fi nally the Timurid invasion started to crumble under its own weight. This was (1378) exposed its weakness. It provided ample compounded by problems on other fronts also. A opportunity for the nobles to assume independent large expansive empire and the incapacity of the airs. Jaunpur, Gujarat and some regions in Rajasthan central government to manage led to numerous declared their independence. Bengal was already a rebellions which sounded the death knell of the semi-independent kingdom since the days of Bughra sultanate. Khan. Sultanate politically shrink to the radius of 200 miles around Delhi. It had deep implications. Loss New elements were added in the nobility during of fertile areas of Bengal, Malva, Gujarat curtailed his reign—Indian converts and foreigners. As such the greatly the vast revenue resources of that state, nobility comprising of divergent sections could not affecting the military potential. The situation became develop cohesion and loyalty. Moreover, according so critical under the Sayyids and Lodhis that even high offi ces to men irrespective of their birth and for regular revenue extraction, sultans, had to send creed sowed seeds of discontentment among the yearly campaigns. All this shows that the control old families of nobles. This widely portrayed in the of the sultans during the 15th century, remained remarks of Barani. This coupled with the large empire nominal and only minimum efforts would have created favourable grounds for rebellion. suffi ced to overthrow it. Problems crept up in revenue administration Mongol menace though produced occasional also. Though the revenue demand was the same as shocks but was not of a magnitude to have damaged demanded under Alauddin’s reign, but the state the economy or the state apparatus. Starting from share was now fi xed arbitrarily and not on the basis the days of Iltutmish it continued upto the period of actual produce. Prices were also fi xed artifi cially Success for converting the produce into money. This put

of Muhammad bin Tughlug with intervals, Balban, of Alauddin and Muhammad bin Tughlug resisted a great burden on the peasantry which was soon them successfully and undertook many measure to visited by a severe famines. The problem of over check the menace (one of Alauddin’s motive force assessment had earlier led to peasant rebellions for his economic regulations was to requisition a during his reign. His agricultural experiments and large army to curb the Mongols). Though Mongol grant of loans failed due to dishonest offi cials and on slaughter’s dissipated a large amount of men and faulty implementation. This apart from putting a materials, but it does not seen that these invasions strain on the exchequer, also drove peasants into

enfeebled the sultanate in any substantial manner. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru desperation. | 143 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Muhammad bin Tughlug’s infamous of villages. This meant that a soldier either head to experiments and their dismal failures added to more go to the villages to collect his salary and absent problems. Though these measures were intended to himself from services or to give the assignment to rectify the defects of the empire, they soon turned some middleman who would give him 1/2 and 1/3 into new problems. His expeditions to Khurasan and of its value. Then, the soldier did not benefi t in the Qarachil was a disaster for army, transfer of capital long run. The entire military administration became to Daulatabad disaffected many nobles and ulema; lax and soldiers were allowed to pass useless horses token currency was not accepted by the traders ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA at the muster by bribing the clerks. or the common men. These failures affected the Firuz tried to win over the theologians by prestige of the sovereign and also meant a wastage proclaiming that he was a true Muslim king and of money. that the state under him was a truly Islamic state. Finally, his liberal disposition and secular In this pursuit, he tried to ban practices which conduct of state affairs was a source of troubles the Ulema considered un-Islamic–persecution for the Ulemas his haughty and rash temperament of Muslim sects branded heretical by the Ulema, and confl ict with Sufi s who were very infl uential Jizyah was imposed as a separate tax Bahamanas strengthened rebellions tendencies. not exempted, erasing of beautiful wall paintings in However, his role in the disintegration cannot his palace. These narrow steps were detrimental to be singular and over-emphasised. He left the the composite culture which had been taking roots. frontiers of the directly administered areas of Delhi In the process of placating the Ulema, he alienated Sultanate, exactly where they had been at the death a sizeable section of people. of Aluddin. Ibn Batuta could not see any harmful Besides, he was not an able military effect of his failed experiments. He gave good commander. His campaign of Bengal, Gujarat and account of himself against the Mongols going for Jhatta exemplifi ed that he was not an imperialist of the fi rst time on the offensive. He quelled rebellion the stature of Allauddin or Muhammad bin Tughluq. in far fl ung areas of the empire successfully. Even Even the humanitarian measures he undertook were when he was away from the capital for long periods, basically designed to help Muslims of good families administration of Delhi, Punjab and other parts of who had fallen into bad times. the empire continued to function normally. Firuz like his predecessors had built up a The foregoing account now shifts the blame committed cadre of slaves – ‘Firuzi’ (slave) which to his successor – Firuz Shah Tughlug faced with the son became a separate interest group apart from problem of the imminent collapse of the Sultanate the nobility. Though this body served the sultan adopted a policy of appeasement towards the loyally; after his death, it brought to surface the nobility army and theologians and of asserting his authority over only such areas which could be same problems which cropped up impermeably easily administered from the center. But his solutions throughout the political history of the sultanate. proved to be his undoing as they led to further Firuzi slave intervened in the claims of succession by problems making the decline almost and reality. the descendants of Firuz, thus denying any possibility of putting a cohesive front during times of turmoil. Firuz made the offi cers of the nobles and their iqtas hereditary and permanent. He also abolished Success Local rajas and Zamindars took advantage of this of the practice of torturing nobles even if they stood situation and assumed independent airs. Successors accused of embezzlement. This had harmful of Firuz could neither control the ambitious nobles implications. It reduced the chances of competent nor the intransigent rajas. Reforms of Firuz was at men being recruited into the services outside a the bedrock of such a weakness. It had made the narrow circle and made the Sultan dependent on nobility too strong and the army too ineffi cient. a narrow oligarchy. He extended the principle of Governors of provinces became independent and hereditary to the army as well. Old soldiers were not the sultan of Delhi was confi ned virtually to a small

paid in cash but by assignments on the land revenue Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru area surrounding Delhi. | 144 |

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THE 14TH CENTURY Notwithstanding these failures of Firuz, ended in failure but caused a reaction under Firuz the entries guilt of having fomented the decline Shah Tughlug. However, the rule of these regional cannot rest solely on his shoulders. Despite his kingdoms, evinced a keen interest in promoting military failures, the Sultanate continued to be this reapproachment. In the process, they prepared as large as it was during the early years of the the ground for the bold experiments in ‘Sulh-i-Kul’ reign of Alauddin. There were no major rebellions under Akbar. unlike under Muhammad bin Tughlug; he did not

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Foreign Contacts: Ibn Battuta let theologians dictate his state policy; undertook many humanitarian measures despite his Islamic India had commercial and cultural contacts pretensions he took steps to have Hindu religious both with West and South East Asia, Chin, Madagascar works translated from Sanskrit into Persian; and countries in Africa. Arab traders became much undertook large building activity (public works, more active after the establishment of the Abhasid canals, cities) which improved the economic status empire. Several Indian embassies visited Baghdad. of the empire; repealed vexatious taxes and waived These contacts continued to exist in the years that off loans. followed as seen from the visit of Ibn Battuta. The responsibility for the disintegration of Abu Abdullah Muhammad, known more Delhi Sultanate cannot be ascribed to any one commonly by his family name as Battuta was born ruler. We have been seen that there were some at Tangier (Morocco, North Africa), in 1304 A.D., and persistent problems during medieval times, such is said to have died at Fez, at the age of seventy-four. as the relation between the crown and nobility, He left his home in A.D. 1325 and passing through confl ict with local rulers and Zamindars, pull of various countries in Africa and West Asia crossed regional and geographical factors etc. Individual the Indus in A.D. 1333. He undertook travels as far rulers tried to cope with these problems but more as Indonesia and China. Out of a total of more than of them was in and position to effect fundamental 1,23,000 km, he covered more than 22,400 km in changes in society to offset these perennial factors. the course of his travels through India. Maldives Disintegration of the political fabric was the just and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). He stayed in India for about beneath the surface and any weakness in the central 14 years (1333-47) of which about 8 years were administration set off a chain of events leading to spent in Delhi (1334-42). During the period of political disintegration. Firuz was able to contain his stay in Delhi, he was appointed the Qazi by the chain reactions which had set in due to over Muhammad Tughluq and assigned the offi ce of extension of empire under Muhammad bin Tughlug. hospice administrator (1334 A.D.). In the beginning, He instituted a series of reforms aimed in appeasing he enjoyed high favours of the Sultan. Later he the nobles and the army but which, however, incurred the Sultan’s displeasure. For sometime, he weakened the central machinery of administration. was imprisoned. After sometime, he was set free Impact and restored to royal favour and was offered offi ce. Politically, it brought Turkish rule to an end This time, he politely declined the offer. He was then and paved the way for the rise of the Afghan power. asked to conduct a royal embassy to China. This he More importantly, it brought to an end the period had agreed to do in A.D. 1341. Ship-wreck drove him of centralised rule in North India and led to the rise Success to Maldives and thence visited Ceylon and Madura. of regional kingdoms that were to dominate north of If he reached China, his stay there past have been Indian polity for the next century and a half. short. He returned to Malabar and from there took In the social sphere, these regional kingdoms ship, reaching home in 1349 A.D. saw deep interest in the social and cultural life Ibn Battuta completed his Rihla (Journal) in of their subjects. The Turkish rulers were more 1355 and produced it at the court of the Sultan of engrossed in tasks of political expansion and Morocco. The Rihala contains abundant information consolidation. The attempt for promoting religious not only on the momentous events of the period but

tolerance under Muhammad bin Tughlug not only Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru also on the judicially political and military institutions | 145 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 and social and economic conditions of India. It also and personal predilections of an Indian historian throws interesting light on a variety of topics such for a contemporary ruler, his assessment appears as the postal system and roads, traffi c and secret to be unquestioned and accurate. It is interesting intelligence men and ideas of the age, agricultural to note that his picture of Muhammad is in perfect products, court ceremonies, trade and shipping, harmony with that depicted by Barani. music, etc. As a contemporary account of a widely However, it is to be noted that, Ibn Battuta’s travelled man of wisdom, the Rihla occupies very account of the sultans of Delhi from Aibak to important place among the sources of the reign of ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Muhammad bin Tughluq was based on the Muhammad Tughluq. His account enables us to form information he got from his Indian acquaintances. a fair estimate of the character and achievements Ibn Battuta has thrown some light on the Sultanate of Muhammad. Being a foreigner, free from the of Madura. On the whole, the Rihla is a valuable diffi culties and embarrassments of a court-chronicler supplement to the indigenous accounts. Success of Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru | 146 |

Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com the rule for hidding dealings in specifi in classes dealings ed hidding for rule the Sudras with diminishing ranks and status. The duties of the Brahmana, as it ensured for him supreme bliss, dependence of the Sudra upon a Brahmana. It is is It Brahmana. a upon Sudra the of dependence length in the Smritis. The Brahmanas were expected devote themselves to their compulsory and optional tendency to relax them. Sudra must not practice the of the Brahmans and Kshatriyas are described at described are Kshatriyas and Brahmans the of Agamas as was permitted by his guru. As regards guru.As his by permitted was as Agamas explain the sacred texts. He could only listen to the he could Puranas.Nor the or Vedasthe study not must exercises.religious He ordinary the or Vedic default ofservice. occupation.his merely him for secured it duty,as upbycould taken alsobe them. crafts and trade of distress.Profession of times in sunset,and to sunrise from right active remain to and occupations of these castes, these particularly castes—the primary fourinto divided was society SOCIETY duties as well as other blameless occupations. They attitudes. Certain works reflect the complete complete the reflect works different Certain have attitudes. we Sudras, the of and occupations duties the regards As people. the protect the and Vaisyas the Kshatriyas, the Brahmanas, views of our authorities vary from comparative comparative from vary authorities our of views of commodities by a Sudra engaged in trade in in trade in engaged Sudra a by commodities of said that the highest duty of a Sudra was the service religious disabilities though there was a growing a was there though disabilities religious On the other hand, the authorities tend to relax relax to tend authorities the hand, other the On the social disabilities suffered by the Sudras, the the Sudras, the by suffered disabilities social the recitations of the puranas and study as much of the the Kshatriya and the Vaisya formed his subordinate along with his distinctive occupation. His service to were entitled to pursue agriculture through others Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com The Kshatriyas were to wield weapons to to weapons wield to were Kshatriyas The Caste system under the Sultanate: The Sudras continued to suffer from the older a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt IN THE13THAND14THCENTURIES SOCIETY, CULTURE ANDECONOMY The Hindu CHAPTER-5 | 147 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success distress. By contrast, another authority prescribes authority contrast, another distress. By axity to extreme rigidity. The prohibition relating relating prohibition rigidity.The extreme to axity other castes. The food of condemned Sudras like like Sudras condemned of food castes.The other Brahmanas were permitted to take the food of of food the take to permitted were Brahmanas provided for punishment for the same offence offence same the for punishment for which provided law penal the of clauses discriminatory the good Sudras could be taken for the purpose purpose the for taken be could Sudras good the a Sudras' food, but living in the same house with with house same the in living food, but Sudras' a food in normal times and cooked food in times of times in food cooked and times normal in food coins,gaining of etc.,lands otherwise.not but The their mother. of caste the to them degraded have others some issues of anuloma marriages to their father’s caste, this in law Smriti the in clauses discriminatory the and aSudra onanascending scale. the Chandalas was completely prohibited. from food procure to unable were and journey of eating only avoidnot should Brahmana a that say food,toSudras' on a ateundertake. goes must He in respect of mortal sins and a descending scale scale descending a and sins mortal of respect in of penances to the minor sins committed by the the by committed sins minor the to penances of committed by a Brahmana, a Kshatriya, a Vaisya Vaisya a Kshatriya, a Brahmana, a by committed Brahmans, the Kshatriyas, the Vaisyas and the Sudras. certain specifi ed classes of Sudras and uncooked uncooked and Sudras specifi of certain classes ed instructions from a learned Sudra. The Kshatriyas Kshatriyas Sudra.The learned a from instructions as agricultural labourers, and receiving religious religious receiving and labourers, agricultural as of Sudras’ food when they were tried by the toils the by tried were they when Sudras’food of food of the condemned Sudras, and that food of of food that Sudras, and condemned the of food to the taking of food offered by the Sudras, one one Sudras, the by offered food of taking the to and the Vaisyas were permitted to eat certain kinds authority says that prohibition refers only to the the to only refers prohibition that says authority penances of different grades which a Brahmana, who Sudras sitting in the same cart with Sudras engaged of mixed castes. Some authorities have elevated the regard. An ascending scale of penances was applied Besides Besides the four castes, there were a number penances,regards toAsrefer authorities our The authorities hint at the disuse of the old old the of disuse the at hint authorities The Downloaded from KnowledgePhilic.com

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 There were despised castes such as the after making a contract to serve and obey. We shall Chandalas. The Chandalas were to be kept at a confi ne ourselves only to comments on rules relating distance. People touching them had to undertake to the emancipation of slaves. According to some purifi catory bath. A Brahmana was required to do commentators, slaves born in the household, slaves different penances for conversing or sleeping on purchased, slaves acquired and slaves inherited the same bed or going in company with a Chandala, could be released by the master’s favour. According for drawing water from a well where from a pond to some other classes except those who had owned by a Chandala, for drinking water from a ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA fallen-off from the monastic order could also be well wherefrom water was drawn in a Chandala’s released by the master’s favour. According to some, vessel, for unwittingly eating a Chandala’s food, for certain specifi ed classes of slaves would get their living for sometime in the same house with him, for emancipation simply by saving their master from association with a Chandala on a journey to a fi eld imminent danger. A female slave begetting a son or garden or another village and in the event of a through her master would get her freedom along Chandalas’ entry into the house even once. with that son provided her master had no other Slavery: Slavery was fairly common during the son. In Vijayanagar empire, slavery was a recognised period of the Delhi Sultanate. There were different institution. types of slaves. Slaves born in the household, slaves purchased, slaves acquired, slaves inherited. The SUFI MOVEMENT most usual way of acquiring a slave was capture The Sufi order was divided into two: Ba-Shara in war. The Turks practised this on a large scale (those who followed the Islamic law) a Be-Shara in their wars. Many were generally bought. They (those who were not abided by Sharia). Both types were bought for domestic service, for company, prevailed in India. The Sufi s were also organised into or for their special skills. There were slave markets 12 Silsilahs or order. The Chisti order and Suharwadi engaged in selling slaves. Some were imported order was important Silsilahs in India though other from Africa, mainly Abyssinia. Ibn Batutah refers order also existed. to the acquisition of slave-girls in lots and their The advent of Sufi s in India dates back to the distribution as gifts and presents. Muhammad Arab conquest of Sindh. These Sufi saints established Tughluq made free gifts of their, to his relations their hermitage all over. and nobility and sent as presents one hundred male slaves and one hundred slave songstresses and The Sufi movement was a socio-religious dancers from among Indian infi dels to the Chinese movement of fourteenth to sixteenth century. The emperor. The slaves maintained by the sultan were exponents of this movement were unorthodox called Bandagan-i-khas. Alauddin had 50,000 slaves; Muslim saints who had a deep study of vedantic Puruz Shah had 2,00,000. These slaves were treated philosophy and Buddhism of India. They had gone very well by their masters, as they formed a useful through various religious text of India and had come source of service and pecuniary gain. The sultans in contact with great sages and seers of India. They usually manumitted their slaves after some time. could see the Indian religion from very near and Some of the slaves rose to eminence on account of realised its inner values. Accordingly they developed their merit and service. The Muslims took delight in Islamic Philosophy which at last gave birth to the enslaving Hindu women unmask from the highest Success Sufi Movement. of to entertain the Muslim court and the nobility with The Sufi movement therefore was the result music and dance. of the Hindu infl uence on Islam. This movement According to Nizamuddin, Muslims and Sayyid infl uenced both the Muslims and Hindus and thus, women were taken by the Rajputs and turned into provided a common platform for the two.Though slaves. All these show that a sort of communal spirit the Sufi s were devout Muslims, yet they differed from prevailed in this regard. the orthodox Muslims. While the former believed in The Smriti authorities of the period reiterate inner purity, the latter believed in external conduct.

the clauses of law called non-rendition of service Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru The union of the human soul with God through love | 148 |

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SOCIETY, CULTURE AND ECONOMY IN THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES and devotion was the essence of the teachings of of Bhakti cult) showed path and suggested the Sufi Saints. The method of their realising God means to their followers, called Murids for the was the renunciation of the World and Worldly attainment of that eternal bliss called Marifat pleasures. They lived a secluded life. or Wasl (Union). They were called Sufi s as they wore garments The orthodox Muslims were opposed to the of Wool (suf) as their budge of poverty. Thus the doctrine of Wahadut-Ul-Wajud and Marifat. name ‘Sufi’ is derived from the word Suf. They According to them God as the Absolute Power CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA consider love to be the only means of reaching was individual and unrivalled in his eternal God. Historian Tara Chand says, “Sufi sm indeed was existence, and that the relation between God a religion of intense devotion, love was its passion; and man was one of creator and created or poetry, song and dance, its worship and passing master and the slave where the Sufi s held that away in God its ideal”. God was an invisible Absolute Reality and an The Sufis did not attach importance to Eternal Beauty which they named as (Jamal). namaz, hajj and celibacy. That is why they were The universe was not a mere illusion. It was the misunderstood by orthodox muslims. They regarded visible or outward manifestation of God. This Singing and dancing as methods of inducing a state was named (Hisn). They argued that desire to of ecstasy which brought one nearer to realisation be loved was an essential attribute of eternal of God. There were some leading Sufi saints like beauty. Hence their emphasis on love. Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti, Fariuddin Ganj-i-Shakar, 5. The Sufi s practiced austerities like fasting, Nizamuddin Auliya etc. penance and holding breath which are often Main Teachings traced to Buddhist and Hindu Yogic practice. They felt that purity of heart was far greater 1. The Hermitage or Khanqah was set up by than rituals and ceremonials. each saints. Just like the Bhakti saints, the Sufi s also differed from each other in many 6. Like the Bhakti saints, most of the Sufis respect as regards their method of teaching renounced the materialistic pursuit of the which explain a number of silsilahs. world, it was called Tark-i-Dunya. It is a fact that a man when gets involved with materialistic 2. Like the Bhakti saints, Sufi s also developed pursuit, is drifted from spiritual objectives. their own line of thought or philosophical speculation in visualising the absolute Reality So, many denounced the world lived in or the supreme creator and the relationship outskirts and did not accept favour however between creator and this creation. many accepted government grants etc. 3. The monistic philosophy of Sufi sm was based 7. Some maintained celibacy while many lived on the theory of Wahadat-Ul-Wajud or “unity as an ordinary householder. of Being”, according to which the creator (Haq) PROMINENT SUFI SAINTS IN INDIA or the created (Khalq) were identical. The period of 12-15th century is considered This theory was inconformity with the Vedanta as the period of penetration of Sufi thoughts in philosophy of absolute monotheism all to India. The two Sufi order which took deep roots in

which the creator and the created, or god and Success

of India were Chisti and Suhrawardi. The Suhrawardi the soul constituted one Absolute Reality. order was confi ned to Sindh, Multan and Punjab. 4. Sufi s emphasised the direct communication The Chisti organised themselves in North India and with God and Soul which could be attained in also in other parts of India. this mortal life through intense love and total surrender and dedication to the supernatural Chisti power. Founded by Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti, who The Sufi saints in their capacity as PIR (the came to India around 1192. Living for a short while

teachers or spiritual guide like the gurus Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru in Lahore and Delhi he made Ajmer his seat. | 149 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Features of Chisti Silsilah Infl uence of Islam on Indian Culture— 1. Chisti believed in Wahadat-ul-wajud. Muslim Mystic Movements 2. Laid emphasis on service to mankind. Tasawwuf or Islamic mysticism or Sufism 3. Adopted such Hindu practices as Shaving of aims at establishment of direct communion with Head of new entrant, bowl for collecting food, god and man through personal experience of offering water to visitor etc. mystery which lies within Islam. It was a natural development within Islam based on the spirit of 4. Adopted musical recitations called SAMA to ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Quranic piety. Mystics accepted sharia but did not create mood of nearness to God. always confi ne themselves to it and adopted non 5. After death of Chirag-Delhi in 15th century conformist attitudes which was detestable to the Chisti in Delhi declined and extended message orthodox ulema. to Southern and Eastern India. Features 6. Led simple austere life and conversed with people dialect in the Hindawai of Hindi. 1. It came to stress the importance of the sufi path or ‘tariqa’ as a method of establishing Suharawardi direct communion with the divine reality 1. Entered at the same time as Chisti confi ned ‘haqiqat’. to Multan and Punjab. 2. The sufi path could be traversed only under 2. Founded by Shahibuddin Suhrawardi. the strict supervision of a spiritual director 3. They had big Jagirs and kept close contact (shaikh/murshid/pir). with the state. 3. The ‘murid’ progressed through stages Firdausi by practicing self mortification to attain concentration zikar. 1. Established by Badruddin of Samarqand. 4. They organised impassioned musical recital 2. Most important center was Bihar under ‘sama’ creating an environment of ecstasy. Surfuddin Maneri. This was detestable to the ulema. Shattari—by Abdullah Sattar 5. Sufi s were organised into various orders or Three important religious movement ‘silsilahs’ founded by a leading fi gure. developed in India during 15th-16th century. 6. Khanqah was the center of activities of a Sufi The Shattari order, the Mahadwi Movement and order. Raushaniya sect. Growth in North India Qadiri Al Hujwiri was the earliest Sufi of eminence to Niyamatullah Qadiri and Makhudum Gilani have settled in India. Sufi orders were introduced in were to founders. India only after the establishment of Delhi Sultanate Naqshbandi in the beginning of the 13th century. India not only provided a favourable pasture ground for these ideas Founded by Khwaja Baki Billah in 1603 during but many of them also made India their home. Fluing later years of Akbar. Success from the Mongol depradations of 13th century, they of Impact established Khanqahs in many parts of the country Thought surrounded by controversy Sufi sm by the middle of the 14th century. The entire country played a great role in the cultural Synthesis and from Multan to Bengal and from Punjab to Deogir Hindu-Muslim co-existence. had been embraced under their activity. Sufi sm in India stemmed from the original Sufi thought 1. Conversion through peaceful means. and practice of Iran and Central Asia. However, its 2. Education in Khanqah, intellectual discourse. subsequent development was infl uenced more

3. Rapid Indianisation of Islam. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru by the Indian environment than by the non-Indian | 150 |

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SOCIETY, CULTURE AND ECONOMY IN THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES variants of Sufi sm. They followed their own course Sufis migrated to Deccan, established of growth, stagnation and revival. These were themselves in Gulbarga and Bijapur. In the former, determined largely by indigenous circumstances, the Sufi s developed close relations with the court though outside developments and their infl uences and accepted state patronage, thus effecting a cannot be altogether discounted. change in earlier Sufi Chisti attitude towards the state. Bahmani rulers on their part, purchased Suhrawardis the political loyalty of these Sufi s and granted A major order introduced in India by Shaik ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA land to them. Gesudaraz received land grant of Bahavddin Jakariya of Multan. He sided with Iltutmish four villages from Firuz Shah Bahmani. He was in his tussle with Qubacha and thus, became the an orthodox Sufi who tried to placate the ulema. ‘shaikul Islam’. He dabbled in state affairs and built But the transformation of his descendants into a up a large fortunes (contrary to Chistis). Punjab, landed elite and their indifference towards Chisti Sind and Bengal became three important centres teachings led to the decline of living Chisti tradition of Suhrawardi activity. Scholars are of the opinion in Gulbarga. However, Sufi sm of Chisti order began that Suhrawardis converted non-Muslims and in to thrive again in the Deccan from the end of the this task they were helped by their affl uence and 15th century, under the auspices of Bijapur. The connections with the ruling class. In this connection, Shahpur Hillock Sufi s maintained distances from the a sharp distinction is drawn between them and the court and the ulema and drew its inspiration from Chistis which did not aim at conversion. local infl uences. They were much close in attitude Chistis to early Chisti saints of Delhi, but different to the Gulbarga tradition. The most influential order in India was introduced by Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti. Growth of Jaunpur, Western UP were other centres of Chistis in India took place in two phases; fi rst phase Chisti orders during later 15th early 16th century. ended with the death of Naseruddin Chirag (1356): An important order of Sufi sm developed in Kashmir second phase is marked by its initial decline during during the period. the later part of the 14th century. Followed by its The Rishi order revival and dispersal in other parts of the country It was an indigenous order established by during 15/16th century. Shaik Nuruddin Wali which prospered in the rural First phase: A succession of great Sufi saints environment of Kashmir and infl uenced by the followed Moinuddin. Prominent among them were religious life of people during 15th/16th century. Bakhityar Kaki, Hamiduddin Nagori, Baba Farid, Its popularity was two fold: due to its drawing Nizamuddin Auliya and Naseruddin Chirag-I Delhi. inspiration from the popular Shavite Bhakti tradition The last saint discontinued some of those practices of Kashmir (thus rooted in the socio-cultural milieu of early Chistis which could clash with Islamic of the region) and its philanthropic works—planting orthodoxy and in turn, persuaded the ulema to trees, digging wells etc. soften their attitude towards the Chisti practices of ‘Sama’. However, during the later Jughirs and Sayyid Causes of Chisti Popularity periods Delhi as a center of the Chisti order declined. Different Sufi orders observed distinct rituals

Some scholars ascribe it to reactionary policies of Success and customs of their own and differed in their Muhammaad bin Tughluq. But he was not opposed of attitude to state and society of all the orders, the to Sufi sm per se. Sufi activities in many Khanqahs Chisti emerged as the most popular and it was also were restored after his death when Firuz Tughluq widespread. Chisti rituals attitudes and practices showered gifts on them. However, Delhi was not left made it an essentially Indian Silsilah. Following are of any commanding Sufi fi gure after Nasiruddin’s the cause of its popularity: death. This marks the dispersal of Khanqahs to more 1. Many practices of early Chistis bone close stable provincial kingdoms. This marks the second resemblance to the attributes of some of

phase. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru the already existing non conformist religious | 151 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 orders in India such as the nathpanthi yogis— state favours and involvement in court affairs. It life of austerity and asceticism, spiritual was due to these limitations that the later transition musical recital etc. within the Chisti silsilah to the acceptance of state 2. Chistis adopted an attitude of religious patronage was a smooth process. tolerance towards non-Muslim population Despite attempts made by Al-Ghazzali towards and adjusted themselves to the needs of a reconciliation between Sufi s and the Ulema, the predominantly Non-Muslim environment. latter disapproved of the Sufi s. Attitude of mutual They made use of popular imagery and ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA distrust continued throughout the Sultanate period, idiom to convey their ideals to their Indian though orthodox Sufi orders as Suhrawardi and followers and adopted many of their customs the Qadiri pandered to the Ulema. The latter were and rituals. Many Chisti saints made Hindawi particularly hostile to early Chistis—their practice the vehicle for spreading their teachings. of “sama” and their quest for religious synthesis. 3. Egalitarian atmosphere of Chisti Khanqaha However, Chisti saints as Nasiruddin and Gesudaraz attracted a large number of people from lower gave an orthodox orientation to the Sufi order to sections of Indian society. Caste distinctions mitigate the hostility of the ulema. They adopted of classical brahmical order were meaningless doctrinal attitude akin to the ulema once they in the Chisti Khanqaha. Nor did they accept accepted state patronage. this two fold rural division of people by the Sufis have been generally considered as Turkish elite into high and low born. propagator of Islam, represented in medieval evas 4. Inspired leadership of early Chisti masters, as active missionaries, in hagiographical literature aloofness from the court and reluctance to as Champion of Islam who waged a jihad against accept state patronage, rejection of orthodoxy Non-Muslims. There were certain active evangelists and extremist attitude of ulema largely among Suhrawardi Silsilah. However, large number contributed to their popularity. of Non-Muslims, especially from the lower orders 5. Miracle stories and their being transformed were attracted to the Sufi s and later to their Durgahs. into loving legends after their death in the There, they gradually came under the infl uence form of popularity of Dargah Shrines went of Islamic precepts which eventually led to their a long way in its popularity. The dargah of Islamicisation (Jat peasantry in Punjab-shrine of Baba Farid at Ajuddhan was identifi ed with Farid; Sufi d in East Bengal—through religion brought the saint (living) long after he had died. many virgin lands under the plough; Richard Eaton). Social Role of the Sufi s, their Attitude towards Later, the descendants of those converted claimed State, Ulema, Conversions, Society, Economy, that their ancestors were converted to Islam by one or another Sufi , to establish their long association etc. with the dargah of the Sufi and their long standing With the exception of the early Chisti Sufi s and in Islam. Chistis of Shahpur Hillocki, the Sufi s belonging to most of the Silsilah, including the later Chistis, were As referred earlier, Sufi did not question involved in the affairs of the state and accepted state the existing social structure and did not see any endowments. While the Sufi s belonging to other alternative to it. They never came out openly against groups served the state machinery by becoming an the class structures but created a harmonious Success atmosphere where all and sundry congregated. integral part of it, the early Chistis helped the state of by creating a milieu in which people belonging They also had some role to play in the economic to different classes and religious persuasions structure. Some of them undertook the cultivation could live in harmony (Baba Farid dargah Shrine— of waste lands, especially in East Bengal as brought Rechard Eaton). Sufi s never questioned the existing out by recent research. This has highlighted the political systems and the class structure. At most fact that Islam was not a ‘religion of the sword but they requested state offi cials to show leniency in of the plough’. They undertook and taught wet collecting revenue from peasants. On the other hand, rice cultivation to the aborigines bringing them

they did not forbid their followers from seeking Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru into the mainstream of society. The ‘futuh’ system | 152 |

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SOCIETY, CULTURE AND ECONOMY IN THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES also led to circulation of economic assets in the person who revived it, there is no doubt that he Khanqah. Khanqahs and dargah shrines also led to was the one who made Lingayatism popular in urbanisation. Festivals and congregations as ‘URS’ Karnataka. According to tradition, he was born at and demands of the Khanqahs gave impetus to Bagevadi (Bijapur district). His father was Madiraja trade, commerce and production of local handicrafts. and his mother was Malaprabha. Here, he seems to Lingayats have received a divine call to work for the revival of Virasaivism. His appointment as Prime Minister The term Lingayats is applied to those Saivas ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA of Bijjala (1158-68) and the marriage of his sister who wear, on their person, the Ishta-linga, the with Bijjala helped him to fulfi l his mission. In this object of Lingayat worship. They are also called task, he was helped by Channahasava, the son of Virasaivas, the stalwarts or heroic saivas. They formed another sister of his. The priests of the faith, known an important religious sect in the 12th century in as Jangamas were used as instruments to spread Karnataka, particularly the Mysore territory, casting their faith. the Jainas from the prominent place they held in that country. The Lingayats did not concern themselves with the worship of Siva in public temples. The Lingayats Lingayatism or Virasaivism traces its origin to dispense with the rite of offering oblations of fi re. the fi ve great religious teachers Renuka, Damka, Ghantakarus, Dherukarns and Visvakarma. According Instead of the Brahama-Gayatri, they make use of to tradition, these fi ve teachers were the earthly the Siva-Gayatri. Some of the peculiarities of the sect menifestation of the fi ve aspects of Fara-Siva, viz. are in the nature of reforms. The diksha ceremony Sadyots, Vamadeva, Aghora, Tatpurusha and Isana. which takes the place of Upanayana is performed in These fi ve teachers are said to have incarnated in the the case of girls also. The women, too, have to wear Kaliyuga as Revanasiddha, Marulasiddha, Ekarama, linga, like men. The widows are allowed to marry. Pnaditaradhya and Visvaradhya and expounded Women are not considered to be polluted during afresh the ancient system of Lingayat. These are their monthly periods. The encouragement the described on the Panchacharyas. The Svayambhuwa Lingayats give to the social practices disapproved Agama gives an account of their incarnation. They by the Brahmanas brought upon them the wrath of are said to have set up fi ve mathas in different parts the Brahmans. But their literal attitudes won them of India—Kedara, Ujjayini, Srisailam, Rambhapuri support of the lower sections of the society. and Benares and entrusted with them the task of The Virasaiva philosophy is called spreading Lingayatism. Saktivisishtadvaita, which means the non-duality Lingayata or Virsaivism is generally described of God as qualifi ed by Saki (Power). When expanded, as a phase to the Agamanta from the fact that the it connotes that there is no duality between the soul Saiva Agamas form the basic authority of this and the Lord, each qualifi ed by Sakti. God and soul form of Saivism as of other forms. But the Agamas are in an inseparable union through the inalienable themselves are regarded as texts expounding Vedic power called Sakti. The Virassiva philosophy is a religion. Reverence is paid by the Virsaivas to the doctrine of bhedabedha (difference-cum-non- sixty-three Tamil nayanmars also. The writings are difference). The soul is identical with Siva in the accepted as divinely inspired. Success sense that it proceeds from Siva, partakes of his These saints are referred to as the Puratanas of essence, and fi nds ultimate rest in Him. It is also in contract to later medival saintswho are spoken distinct from Siva in the sense that though sharing of as Nutannpuratanas. As many as 770 of these in His essence, it does not possess the attributes of mutanap ratanas are enumerated. Among them omniscience, omnipotence, etc. The fi nal goal of the are Basava and his chief disciples. soul is conceived in the Virasaiva system of aikya or Basava, an apostate Jaina, is, however, the unity with Para Siva. The fi nal state of experience is greatest name in the history of Vira, Saivism whether technically called Linganga-Samarasya i.e., identity

he was the founder of Virasativism or merely a Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru in essence between Linga (Siva) and (soul). | 153 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 BHAKTI MOVEMENT Sri Vaishnavas The Bhakti movement was another glorious We have seen earlier that Ramanuja had religious movement in the history of India. It was built up a philosophy which reconciled devotion purely based on devotion to God and nothing else. to a personal god (bhakti) with the philosophy of Devotion means Bhakti through which one can Vedanta and took steps to spread the doctrine of realize God. The chief exponents of this cult were bhakti among Hindus and other outcastes. After Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Ramananda, Vallabhacharya, his death, the Sri Vaishnavas were divided into two CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Kabir, Nanak and Sri Chaityana. They preached schools. Vedakalai (the schools of northern learning) the doctrine of love and devotion to realize God. and Tenkalai (The school of southern learning). Both Therefore the movement came to be known as agreed as to the necessity of Prapatti or Saranagati Bhakti Movement. (self surrender into God). The concept of Bhakti or devotion to God was But they differed in their interpretation of not new to Indians. It is very much present in the prapatti. The Vadagalai held that the devotee Vedas, but it was not emphasised during the early had to exert himself to win the grace of God, period. Much later during the Gupta period, when while the Tenkalai held that God’s grace by itself the worship of Lord Vishnu developed, many holy conferred salvation on the soul that entered the books including the Ramayan and the Mahabharata path of surrender. The position of the fi rst school were composed depicting the love and mystical is commonly summed up in the phrase Markata union of the individual with God. The Ramayana kisoranyaya, the rule that the young monkey clings and the Mahabharata, though written earlier were to its mother with an effort. The position of the other re-written during the Gupta times. Therefore Bhakti school is called Marjarakisoranyaya, the rule of the was accepted, along with Jnana and Karma, as kitten which is carried by its mother in her mouth. one of the recognised roads to salvation. But this There are other differences between the two schools. way (Marga) was not popularised till the end of The Tenkalai have decided preference for Tamil as fourteenth century in India. against Sanskrit. However, the development of Bhakti started in south India between the seventh and the twelfth Generally, the Tenkalai sect is more liberal than century. During this period the Shaiva Nayanars the Vadakalai. It provides for the teaching of the and the Vaishnavite disregarded the austerities eight-syllabled formula om namo Narayanaya to preached by the Jains and the Buddhists and all classes of people, while the Vadakalai sect omits preached personal devotion to God as a means the syllable om from the formula when taught to of Salvation. They also disregarded the rigidities of non-Brahmanas. The Tenkalai sect favours equal the caste system and unnecessary rites and rituals treatment of all castes. Varadacharya or Nadadur of Hindu religion. Ammal was the leader of the Sri Vaishnavas for They carried their message of love and the fi rst three quarters of the thirteenth century. personal devotion to God to various parts of south Vedantadesika (1269-1370 A.D.) is the most India by using the local languages. Although there important of the northern school of Sri Vaishnavas were many points of contact between south and belonging to this period. The southern school took north India, the transmission of the ideas of Bhakti upon Pillai Lokacharya, as its founder.

Saints from south to north India was a slow and Success Nimbarka was the founder of the school of long drawn-out process. of Vaishnavism, supporting the cult of Bhakti It was mainly due to the fact that Shaiva against the doctrine of Maya. He is said to be a Nayanars and the Vaishnavite alvars preached in Telugu Brahmana residing at a village of Nimba, the Local Languages. And use of Sanskrit language which has been identifi ed with Nimbapuri in the was still less. However the ideas of Bhakti were Bellary district. His father was a Bhagavata by name carried to the north by scholars as well as by saints. Jagannatha. The doctrines of the Nimbarka school Among these mention may be made of Namadeva, of Vaishnavism resemble in some respects those of

Ramananda, Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Vallabhacharya etc. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Ramanuja’s school. But Nimbarka preached bhakti | 154 |

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SOCIETY, CULTURE AND ECONOMY IN THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES in its original sense of love and gave exclusive Dnyandeve Dnanoba (1271-96). Jnaneswara wrote a prominence to the conception of Krishna attended long commentary in Marathi on the Bhagavad Gita, by the cowherdesses headed by Radha. For him, called Bhavarthadipika and more commonly as the Radha is not merely the favourite mistress of Krishna Jnaneswari, the fountain head of Maharashtrian but his eternal consort who lives with him forever in bhakti. More than a commentary Jnaneswari the Goloka, the highest heaven. Nimbarkan school constitutes a religious sermon in the form of a song has not accepted Ramanuja’s theory about the composed in a rhythmic prose which should be Supreme soul being a composite personality and ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA chanted. Though initiated in the Natha sect, which developing into the animate and the inanimate explains his learning towards monism, his bhakti world. Instead, it regards the Supreme soul, the was due to his connection with the Varkari sect, individual soul and the world as identical and at a sect that has an important place in the history the same time distinct from one another. They are of Maharashtrian devotionalism. The main cult of identical in the sense that the individual soul and the Varkari-Panth is the twice-a-year pilgrimage the inanimate soul are dependent on God and have to Pandharpur. Vittobha of Pandharpur is the God no independent existence. Nimbarka’s theory is thus of this Panth. The Varkari Panth differed from most monistic and pluralistic. His views are expressed other sects in several ways. Its members cut across in a commentary on the Brahma-sutras called the whole caste structure and their most important Vedantaparijatasaurabha and in Siddhantartna or aid to religion was the society of saints by which term Dasa loka. was meant their brothers and sisters in the faith, and the saints who had died but had left their immortal Madhva’s School songs behind. The name Jnaneswara is associated Bhakti is the centre of the religion taught by with the spread of this intensely devotional cult. Madhva, born in a Brahmana family at Kalyanapura Another great name connected with the in the Udipi talum of South Kanara district, some Bhagavata school in Maharashtra is Namadeva 64 km west of Sringeri. Madhva became a sanyasi (1270-1350). He was a tailor by caste who had while he was still quite young. Like Ramanuja, he taken to wandering before becoming a saint. But had his early training in the system of Sankara. But he was a gifted poet. He authored several simple before his training was over, he broke away from and passionate lyrics or kirtanas as ‘fl owers’ to the the system and evolved a system of his own based Lord of Pandharpur and took a vow that he and his chiefl y on the Bhagavatapurana. He claimed to be associates would compose a hundred crore abhangs. the incarnation of Vayu. He taught that the universe One of his pungent but well meaning statements is governed by god as two persons—Vishnu and was, “Hindu is blind and so is Mussalman, the Hindu Lakshmi and that the souls in the world are eternally worships in temple and Muslim in the mosque. But distinct from him. The relation between God and the Namadeva offers his worship to Him, who needs individual souls is like that between the master and neither temple nor mosque.” His personal attendant the servant. By serving and worshipping God, the was Janabai, a Sudra woman. She too was well- individual souls become like God in most respects. versed in the art of composing abhangs. She spend The centre of his religion is bhakti to Lord Krishna her life in the service of Namadeva and also of Lord as taught in the Bhagavata. Radha has no place in Vitthala. Her dedication is seen in her poems. Her it. All avatars are revered. Siva is also worshipped.

Success abhangs are known for their simplicity, depth of Maharashtra of feeling and all-absorbing devotion. The development of Vaishnavism based on Namadeva’s fame spread far and wide and in his the Bhagavata led to the rise of a number of poet- own days he had the great privilege of being quoted saints, towards the close of the 13th century. The in the Granthsaheb of Guru Nanak. Namadeva’s tours popular songs of these poet-saints stirred the life of to propagate the cause of Bhagavata dharma and Maharashtra as those of the nayanmars and alvars his melodious kirtanas were responsible, for the had stirred the Tamil country, centuries before. The creation of a school of poetry in Maharashtra and

earliest of them was Jnaneswara popularly called Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru the poet saint, Tukaram, belonged to this school. | 155 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Namadeva lived to a ripe old age of 80 and (b) He also wrote some Hindi verses. Amir his remains were buried at the great door of the Khusrau’s Khazain-ul-Futuh speaks about Pandharpur temple—a great honour indeed. Alauddin’s conquests. CULTURE (c) His famous work Tughlaq Nama deals with the rise of Ghyiasuddin Tughlaq. Impact of Hindu Society on Muslim Social- 4. Sanskrit and Persian functioned as link life CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA languages in the Delhi Sultanate. Zia Nakshabi 1. Religious sphere: infl uences of Yogic thoughts was the fi rst to translate Sanskrit stories into and rituals on Sufi sm. Bhakti also inspired Persian. Sufi sm-Kashmir, many Sufi s preached and 5. The book Tuti Nama or Book of the Parrot wrote in Hindawi. became popular and translated into Turkish 2. Muslim society became Indianised in its social and later into many European languages. sphere. Dresses, accourments, purdah system 6. The famous Rajatarangini written by Kalhana entered Muslim social life. Indian cotton belonged to the period of Zain-ul-Abidin, became the favourite of the Muslim gentry. the ruler of Kashmir. Many Sanskrit works 3. Habits—betel chewing, Khusro’s reference on medicine and music were translated into (being chewed in diwan-i-arz)—culinary Persian. practices, etc. 7. In Arabic, Alberuni’s Kitab-ul-Hind is the 4. Festivals: Shab-i-Barat, urs bearing resemblance most famous work. Regional languages also to many Hindu festivals. developed during this period. 8. Chand Baradi was the famous Hindi poet of LITERATURE this period. 1. The Delhi Sultans patronised learning and 9. Bengali literature had also developed and literature. Many of them had great love for Nusrat Shah patronised the translation of Arabic and Persian literature. Mahabaratha into Bengali. - Learned men came from Persia and 10. The Bhakthi cult led to development of Persian language got encouragement Gujarati and Marathi languages. from the rulers. Besides theology and poetry, the writing of history was also 11. The Vijayanagar Empire patronised Telugu encouraged. Some of the Sultans had and . their own court historians. 12. Some historians have described the period 2. The most famous historians of this period of the Sultanate as barren from literary point were Hasan Nizami, Minhaj-us-Siraj, Ziauddin of view. But, the majority of historians do not Barani, and Shams-Siraj Afi f. Barani’s Tarikh-i- accept this view. Firoz Shahi contains the history of Tughlaq - They say that a medium success was dynasty. achieved in the fi eld of literature during - Minhaj-us-Siraj wrote Tabaqat-i-Nasari, a this period. Literature was produced not only in Persian and Sanskrit but also in general history of Muslim dynasties up Success to 1260. of other regional languages. 3. Amir Khusrau (1252-1325) was the famous 13. The Sultans of Delhi and rulers of provincial Persian writer of this period. He wrote a dynasties provided shelter to different number of poems. scholars who produced historical, religious (a) He experimented with several poetical and literature in other fi elds of knowledge forms and created a new style of Persian as well. poetry called Sabaq- i-Hind or the Indian 14. The same way, books in the form of drama,

style. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru poetry, prose etc. were written. | 156 |

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SOCIETY, CULTURE AND ECONOMY IN THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES 15. Therefore, it cannot be accepted that there (c) He wrote a number of prose books also, was no literary progress during this period. most famous of them being the Khazain- (a) But, while the Persian literature suffered ul-Fatuh, Tughluq-nama, and the Tarikh- from religious bias, the Sanskrit literature i-Alai. Badruddin Muhammad was the suffered from originality. most famous poet of Persian at the court of Muhammad Tughluq. (b) The only notable achievement, thus, was 6. Historian Isami was also Khusrau’s the beginning of literatures of regional ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA languages in which saints of Bhakti contemporary writer. movement also participated. 7. Sultan Firuz Tughluq wrote his autobiography and provided patronage to historians Persian Literature Ziyauddin Barani and Shams-i-Siraj Afi f. 1. The Sultans of Delhi were interested in the 8. Sultan Sikandar Lodi wrote many verses and progress of Persian literature. provided patronage to different scholars. 2. Al-Beruni, who visited India in the company Rafiuddin Shirazi, Shaikh Abdulla, Shaikh of Mahmud of Ghazni was a great scholar. He Azizulla and Shaikh Jamaluddin received was well-versed in Persian and also studied patronage from Lodi Sultans. Sanskrit. - A large number of scholars fl ourished at - He gave a vivid account of India which the courts of provincial rulers as well. provides us valuable information 9. Sayyid Muin-ul-Haq was famous in Sindh, regarding affairs of India in the eleventh Ibrahim Farukhi flourished in Bihar and century. Fazlullah Zain-ul-Abidin was a scholar of 3. Most Sultans of Delhi provided patronage to Gujarat. scholars of Persian at their court which helped - The Bahmani ruler Tajuddin Firoz Shah in the growth of Persian literature. was a scholar and so was Mahmud - Khwaja Abu Nasr, poetically surnamed Gawan who worked as a Prime Minister Nasiri, Abu Bakar Bin Muhammad in that kingdom. Ruhani, Tajuddin Dabir and Nuruddin 10. Among historians of the period of the Muhammad Awfi were famous scholars Sultanate, Al-Beruni, Hasan Nizami who wrote at the court of Sultan Iltutmish. Taj-ul-Maasir, Minhajuddin Siraz, the author of 4. Many Muslim scholars from Persia and Central Tabqat-i-Nasiri, Ziauddin Barani who wrote Asia fl ed away from there because of the Tarikh-i-Firozshahi and the Fatwah-i-Jahandari, Mongols and found shelter at the courts of Shams-i-Siraj Afi f, the author of another Tarikh- Sultan Balban and Alauddin Khilji. i-Firozshahi, Yahya-bin-Ahmad, the author of - Each of them participated in the Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi and Khawaji Abu Malik enrichment of Persian literature and Isami who wrote Futuh-us-Salatin have been therefore, Delhi became one great centre regarded as the most famous ones. of its learning. 11. Translation of certain Sanskrit books was also Success done in Persian language during this period. 5. Prince Muhammad, eldest son of Sultan Balban of was a patron of scholars of his times, that is, Hindi, Urdu and Other Regional Languages Amir Khusrav and Amir Hasan Dihalvi. 1. The one novelty of this period in literary fi eld (a) Amir Khusrav made use of Hindi words was the beginning of literature in different in his poems which was a novelty. regional languages of India. (b) He has been regarded as the greatest 2. The khari-boli and Braj-bhasa mostly spoken Persian poet of his age and is said to have in western Uttar Pradesh provided the base

written more than four lakhs of couplets. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru for the growth of . | 157 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 3. Some of the famous works written in Hindi Thus, this period witnessed the growth of during this period were the literature in different fi elds and different languages of Chand Bardai, the court-poet of Prithviraj and was remarkable at least from two points of view. Chauhan, the Hammir Raso and the Hamir One was that historical texts were prepared during Kavya written by Sarangdhar and the Alha- this period because of the Muslim court-writers Khanda produced by Jagnayaka. which was mostly neglected by the Hindus; and, secondly, it marked the beginning of literatures of

4. Urdu language was fi rst called Hindavi. ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA different regional languages in India. (a) It marked its beginning during this period though could develop only afterwards. Important Sources (b) Amir Khusrav, however, has been 1. Kakhri Mudabbir (1228 A.D.)—Adab ul Harb regarded as a writer of both Hindi and was shipya’at—deals mainly with the arts of Urdu. warfare. 5. Vidyapati Thakur who wrote works in Sanskrit, 2. Nizamul Mulk TTusi—‘Siyasatnama’—detailed account of the institution of slave holds, their Hindi and Maithili encouraged the beginning training etc. during early Turkish Sultans. of Maithili literature towards the end of the fourteenth century. 3. Hasan Nizami—Tajul Masi’—first official account of the Delhi Sultanate, deals with the 6. The saints of Bhakti movement who gave their campaign of Muizuddin, Aibak and Iltutmish. messages in the languages of the people also Covers the period (1191-1229). helped in the growth of different regional 4. Minhaj Siraj—Tabaqat-i-Nasiri—(1259/60)— languages and, thereby, their literatures. begun from Nasiruddin Mohammad. Most 7. This period, thus, witnessed the beginning authentic source for the study of early Turkish of the growth of practically all regional dynasties. Detailed study on campaigns, languages of India like Bengali, Punjabi, sultans, maliks, amirs, ulema etc. Rajasthani, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Kannada, 5. Amir Khusro—account covers 5 sultans— Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, etc. Balban, Jalaluddin Khilji, Alauddin, Mubarak 8. The began to grow during Khilji and Ghiyasuddin Tughlug. First Persian this period. poet who used Hindi words in his writings: (a) Chakradhar, Bhaskar, Bhatt and (a) Miftah ul Futuh: Jalaluddin's military Mukandaraya were the early poets and Exploits writers of Marathi. (b) Qiran-us-Sadain: Bughra Khan’s (b) Afterwards saints of Bhakti-cult did a lot Reindezvous with his son Kaiqubad. towards enrichment of Marathi literature. (c) Dewal Rani Khirz Khan: A masnavi or (c) Saint Janeswar wrote his commentary on Romantic escapes. the Gita called the Janeswari in Prakrit (d) Khazainul Futuh: Alauddins Deccan Marathi. It was most appealing to the campaigns, Mongol invades. masses.

Success (e) Tughlug Nama: Account of Ghyasuddin 9. Eknath who fl ourished nearly 250 years after of Tughlug reign. Janeswar translated the Bhagwat in Marathi 6. Yahya bin Ahmad Serhindi-Tarik-i-Mubarak and wrote Rukmani-Swayamber and the Shahis (1434-35): covers the history from Ghori Bhawarth-Ramayan. His writings were also onwards. The account is valuable for the study very popular. of nobles during the Sayyid period. - But above all, the Abhangas of Saint 7. Isami—Futuh us Salatin—dedicated to Tukaram are most famous in the Marathi Alauddin Behman Shah; covers a period of

literature of this period. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru 350 years (999-1350). Written in versifi ed form; | 158 |

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SOCIETY, CULTURE AND ECONOMY IN THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES highly critical of Muhammad bin Tughlug of Alauddin Khilji but when he became a disciple projects while applauds the achievements of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, he gave up worldly of Alauddin Bahman Shah. ambitions and retired from worldly life. However, 8. Ziauddin Barani: Tarikh I Friozshahi, Fatwa-i- he continued to write poetry. It is estimated that he Jahandari. wrote more than 4 lakhs of couplest. His couplets have been divided into four classes. To the fi rst class, 9. Firuz Shah Tughlug: Futuhat-i-Firuzshahi— belong his youthful effusions. To the second class

insight into thoughts and policies of Firuzshah. ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA belong poems of early middle age and those were 10. Shams Siraj Afi f: Tarikh I Firuzshahi—detailed written when Amir Khusro was giving up childish account of FST’s reign written soon after things and turning his thoughts towards religion. Timurs invasion. High praise for peace and To the third class belong those poems which were prosperity during Firuz Shah Tughlug reign. written when Amir Khusro had attained the dignity 11. Malfujat of a religious teacher. To the fourth class, belong the (a) Amir Hasan Syzi—Fawaid ul Fuad— poems of his old age. Each of the four classes bears conversations of Auliya from 1307-1322, the impression of his views on this world and the throwing valuable light on religion, next. In the second class are to be found poems culture and literature of the period. which were intended to please the Emperor. (b) Hami Qalandar—Khairul Majalis— The historical Masnavis composed by Amir conversations of Nasiruddin Chirag; not Khusro are of the greatest importance for purposes only important for study of mysticism but of history. Qiran-us-Sa’dain or “The conjunctions of also for studying market control policy of the Two Auspicious Stars” was written at the request Alauddin, impact of Mongol invasion etc. of Kaiquabad. It had for its main theme the quarrel and reconciliation between Kaiquabad and Bughra Traveller’s Accounts Khan. As Amir Khusro enjoyed the patronage of both 1. Marco Polo: Venetrain traveller, passed the father and son and was himself an observer of through Indian waters touching eastern and the incident described by him, there is no reason to western coast of India. Valuable account for doubt the authenticity of his statements. understanding commercial activities during Miftah-ul-Futuh, a portion of the Ghurrat-ul- late 13th century and food, dresses and other Kamal or The Key to Success deals with the earlier social aspects of the Indians. successes of Jalaluddin Firuzl Khilji and Deval 2. Ibn Batuta: Rehala-Moorish traveller, Devi. It begins with the conquest of India by the held the post of Qazi of Delhi for 8 years, Muslims and proceeds to give a detailed account under Muhammad-bin-Tughlug—graphic of the victories of Alauddin in peace and war— account of his personal conduct, projects, his successful campaigns against the Mongols, his contemporary, socio-economic conditions. expeditions to the Deccan, his triumph in Gujarat, Also important for geographical details routes. and his regulations which introduced peace and Amir Khusro (1253-1325) prosperity in the country. Apart from its literary A reference may be made to Amir Khusro, values, the Ashiqa is perhaps the most important who died in the same year in which Gahzi Malik Success of Amir Khusro’s works from the historical point of died. He was the greatest of all the poets of India of view. Here, we have a contemporary account of who have written in Persian. He was born, in 1253, the reign of Alauddin Khilji, written by a shrewd at Patial and died at the age of 72. His father was a observer who personally knew all the principal native of Kash in Turkistan but he was driven from actors in the drama. his native land by the Mongols and found shelter in Nuh Sipihr or “the Nine Skies” was written by India. The original name of the poet was YaminUddin Amir Khusro at the request of Mubarak Khilji to Muhammad Hasan although he is commonly known celebrate the glory of his reign. Incidentally, the

as Amir Khusro. The young poet entered the service Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru poet throws much light on the social and religious | 159 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 conditions prevalent in his age. Amir Khusro says intrigues and himself lived in intimate contact with that India is far superior to Khorasan. The Indians some of the principal personages who controlled are very profi cient in all branches of Philosophy the destinies of the country. and learning is widespread among them. While Historiography, Ziyauddin Barani foreign scholars very often come to India for study, the people of India are so advanced that they never Ziauddin Barani (born 1285) wrote his famous feel the need of going to other countries for the work Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi in the time of Firuz Shah purpose of adding to their knowledge. ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Tughluq. He was a native of Barani in the Doab. His ancestors held high offi ces under the Khiljis. Qazi Ala- In Ghurrat-ul-Kamal, Amir Khusro gives us a ud-Mulk, one of his uncles, was the Kotwal of Delhi very interesting discussion on the types and merits in the time of Alauddin Khilji and was very much of poetry in general and incidentally dwells upon trusted by the Emperor. No wonder, the account of the beauty of the language and poetry of India. Barani regarding the reign of Alauddin has original Tarikh-i-Alai or Khazain-ul-Futuh is beyond value as it was based on the information given to doubt, but no modern historian can accept in full Barani by Qazi Ala-ul-Mulk. Barani himself spent his estimate of the character and achievements of seventeen years in the court of Muhammad Tughluq Alauddin. Amir Khusro gives us many interesting and also some years in that of Firuz Tughluq. details and if we can follow the very difficult Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi of Barani was completed language in which the work is written, it will prove in 1359. It is a standard historical work on Medieval to be a veritable mine of information. India. We are told that before writing his work, Barani In his fi ve Diwans, viz., Tuhfat-us-Sighar, Wast- took a vow that he would write nothing but the truth. ul-Tayat, Ghurrat-ul-Kamal, Bakiya-i-Nakiya, and No wonder, his account is trustworthy. Barani praises Nihayat-ul-Kamal, Amir Khusro often refers to Alauddin for his achievements but condemns him incidents in his own career and many of the poems for his cruel punishments. He has showed praises on are in praise of his numerous patrons. Ghiyasuddin Tughluq, the founder of the Tughluq Amir Khusro had great respect for poet Sadi dynasty. He had described in detail the various events of Persia. When the latter visited India, he was very of the reign of Muhammad Tughluq. He had given us much entertained by Amir Khusro and the result details about the taxation in the Doab, transfer of the was that Sadi praised Amir Khusro before Alauddin capital from Delhi to Daulatabad, the introduction Khilji. In one of his verses, Amir Khusro admits the of token currency, the various schemes of conquest infl uence of Sadi in these words: “The volume of my of Muhammad Tughluq etc. he has also given some verse hath the binding of Shiraz.” important information about the reign of Firuz According to Dr. A.C. Banerjee, “There are very Tughluq. However, it is to be noted that at times, few literary men in medieval Indian history who chronology in the account of Barani is defective. can lay claim to the wide personal knowledge of Sometimes, he also brings in his personal prejudices. men and events during a period extending over His account of the sufferings of the people of the half a century which it was the privilege of Amir Doab on account of high taxation by Muhammad Khusro to possess. Though he wisely confi ned his Tughluq is obviously an exaggerated one. activities to the sphere in which his genius shone Barani catches the thread of the narrative with unrivalled brilliance, and never aspired after Success dropped by Minhaj Siraj. He begins with the history of of any direct participation in political affairs, yet his the reign of Balban and ends with the fi rst six years of unique experience must have made him an acute the reigns of Firuz Tughluq. Comparatively speaking, observer of events. This consideration enhances the the reign of the Khiljis is more systematically treated value of his testimony with regard to the history of than that of Tughluqs. In the narrative of the Khiljis, his times, because in dealing with an age from which chronological sequence of the events is maintained little contemporary evidence has survived, the best fairly accurately. Although Barani refers very often material we can hope to seize is the version of an to the sources of his information, he did not take

intelligent observer, who had access to all court Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru full advantage of the works of his contemporaries | 160 |

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SOCIETY, CULTURE AND ECONOMY IN THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES while writing his Tarikh. Had he improved upon the a philosopher-cum-historian and not an accurate drafts of his book after consulting Amir Khusro’s historian always. His memory was prodigious. Miftah-ul-Futuh, Khazain-ul-Futuh and Devalrani It cannot be denied that the work of Barani is and Kabiruddin’s Fatehnamah, he would surely have very valuable. Later historians have dependent upon given more reliable information on Alauddin’s wars Barani for their account of the history of the period in Chittor, Ranthambhor and Malwa than the sketchy covered by him. Nizamuddin Ahmad especially accounts to be found in his Tarikh. He does not refer

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA quotes him very often. At some places, he merely to the episode of Devalrani at all. His account of the copies Barani. At other places, he tries to solve the Deccan campaigns of Malik Kafur is extremely poor. problem left by Barani. Ferishta tries to analyse the Moreover once he starts writing about the Deccan, passage in which Barani described the salaries of the he neglects the North altogether. He furnishes little soldiers fi xed by Alauddin. Hajiuddabir throws fresh information about events in Northern India from, light on some questions not properly explained by 1308 to 1313, particularly about wars in Jalor and Barani such as the age of Alauddin and the causes Sevana. Moreover Barani fi nished his work at the advanced age of 74, when he was in a miserable underlying the constant quarrels between Alauddin condition. His fi nancial diffi culties made him better and the family of J Alauddin. Abdul Haq Dehivi, and disappointed. He was more likely to refer to the the author of Akhbarul Akhyar, depends upon agonies of his soul than to sit down and improve his Barnai completely for the biographical sketches of notes after comparing them with the works of Amir Nizamuddin Auliya and other saints of the period. Khusro and other contemporary writers. In addition to Tarikhi-i-Firuz Shahi, Barani wrote The Sarcasm of Barani is incisive. Occasionally, Fatwa-i-jahandari. This work does not refer to the his sardonic humour helps him to sum up his ideas events of any particular ruler. However, it contains in a few words. His remark that in Alauddin’s days, a the political ideals which must be pursued by the camel could be had for a Dang, shows that articles Muslim rulers in order to earn religious merit and were cheap in the time of Alauddin. The stern the gratitude of the people. attitude of Alauddin towards the revenue offi cials He also wrote Salvat-i-Kabir, Sanai Muhammadi, made them so unpopular that service in the revenue Hasrat-mamah, Inayatnamah, Ma’asir-i-Saadat and department was considered worse than plague. a history of the Bramakides. Nobody gave his daughter in marriage to a revenue Barani “can claim superiority to many a historian clerk. The offi cer of the Superintendent was accepted of the Middle Ages in having made the scope of his by one who had no regard for life. The plight of the book wider and more comprehensive as well as in his agriculturists was so bad that they sold their wives fearlessness in expressing the truth and condemning and children to pay the land revenue. The wives the actions of great men when necessary, and for of the rich Zamindars (Khuts and Muqqaddams) a contemporary writer this is no mean virtue. His worked in the houses of the Mussalmans for wages. style is extremely simple and remarkably free from The bazaar people were the words of all the 72 unnecessary exaggerations and embellishments. classes of people who inhabited the globe. Sometimes he indulges in needless repetitions, Barani had his likes and dislikes. He did not feel but he is not guilty of concealing the drawbacks of interests in the description of battles, tactics used Success great men by artifi cial expressions and phrases or of in a particular engagement and such other points over-drawn metaphors and similes. These virtues of military strategy. Whenever he was forced to give him a most prominent place in the long list of give a description, he became very brief. However, medieval historians of India.” he did pause to praise an act, a character or a motive. When he praised somebody, he praised Technological Changes under the Sultanate him to heaven. When he condemned somebody, he There is almost no material which described wrote with his pen dipped in acid. In spite of this, his the tools employed by the peasant. But the relics

character sketches were excellently done. He was Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru suggests that they might have use of iron. | 161 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 The fi rst important technological progress and brass industry made a mark. Broken pieces of during the period of the Delhi sultanate can be seen vessels were sent to India for repair. Vessels and in the improved device used by the peasants to raise utensils were exported to India. The coinage of the water from canals and wells. The ancient India noria, sultanate testifi es to the metallurgical excellence. the arghatta used to carry a string of pots fi xed close The newcomers brought in paper technology to its run; at a later date it was given the rope chain too. The earliest surviving manuscript in India was enabling it to reach water at some depth. Ultimately written, in Gujarati, in 1225. Balban talks of recycling CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA it was equipped with pin drum gearing, which made of papers. it possible for it to be worked by animal power. We have evidence of the uses of artillery in This was the crucial addition made before the 16th India, in the 14C. AD. It was an important item in the century when Bahar offered the classic description of the complete machine. It was the wood and earthern weaponry of the Delhi Sultanate. Mahmud Begarba pot ancestor of the modern metallic Persian wheel. used this artillery during the naval wars. Cannon This contributed to the extension of irrigation in technology was known. the Indus basin. INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE The people knew the advantages of using It includes architecture that belongs to Turkish, iron ore. They knew the art of making damascened Iranian, Delhi Sultanate, Deccan Sultanate, Mughals steel. The greatest industry was textiles. There and other Muslim rulers which have exhibited an was improvement in cotton technology through influence of local architecture as well. Muslim the introduction of spinning wheel. The earliest architecture was different because it used bricks, reference to it so far traced in India occured in 1350, apart from stones, alongwith lime and mortar. in the writing of the luherrai Isami. The spinning wheel came to India with the Indo-Islamic architecture is divided into four Muslims. The wheel in its simplest form increased following broad categories: the spinners’ effi ciency. The cotton carders bow 1. Pre Mughal or Sultanate or Imperial period reached India on the eve of the Ghoreai conquests. 2. Mughal architecture—mainly at Delhi, Agra, The writings of the Persian poet Asiruddin Akshikati and Lahore refer to it. The bow enhanced the quantity of cotton 3. Deccani Style—mainly architectures of Bijapur, cleaned in comparison with the earlier and simpler Golconda method of beating raw cotton with a stick. The spinning wheel and carding-bow cheapened spun 4. Provincial Style—Apart from the major Islamic yarn. It probably enlarged its production. rulers many provincial styles also gained infl uence. Architecture of Bengal, Mandu, Not much is known about the weaver boom. Bijapur and Jaunpur is regarded as distinct. Treadles are an early medieval addition to the loom—larger quantity of yarn was produced. There Earliest examples are from Turkish rulers was an increase in cloth available per capita. who arrived in 13th century. One major departure from earlier buildings was that Muslims forbade The people knew the art of dyeing. References representation of human forms in their holy places are made in the writings of Hema Chandra about and thus it was replaced by geometrical patterns, cloth printing. In the fi eld of architecture, new Success designs were brought in. There was a remarkable of calligraphy and elaborate stone and plaster work. spurt in brick construction. Lime mortar was used Indo-Islamic architecture also retained many as cementing material. True arch dome and vault features of the Indegenous architecture—for provided new devices for roofi ng. example—Turned Lotus, Kalash on the domes and Indian metallurgy enjoyed worldwide Ornamentation of Indian Art were adopted in the reputation in fashioning sword and coins. The world the construction of Mosques in India. best damascened sword came from India. Soft iron Indo-Islamic style replaced Trabeate style with

alloy was used to make copper and silver. Bronze Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Arcuate style. | 162 |

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SOCIETY, CULTURE AND ECONOMY IN THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES TRABEATE ARCUATE The distinctive features of Indo-Islamic architecture were: Its entrance is lintel Its entrance is shaped in shaped. form of archs. 1. Instead of Shikhara, dome became the central element. Central Dome was most prominent In this, minars were In this, minars were part and it was topped by an inverted lotus not present. present. motif and a metal or stone pinnacle above it. Stone was the In this, brick, lime and

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA 2. The walls in all buildings were extremely primary material limestone mortar was thick and were largely constructed of rubble that was used. predominantly used. masonry, which was easily available. 3. Lofty towers or minarets were another distinctive element which exhibited Persian infl uence. 4. Instead of fl at roofs, arches became an integral part of the architecture. 5. Now, limestone mixed mortar was used as a cementing method. 6. In this phase there was more reliance on local materials. 7. Human images and other images in general are not shown as Islam prohibits portrayal of Allah in image form and instead, decoration took form of Calligraphy using Arabesque method (an ornamental design consisting of Iintel shape intertwined fl owing lines, leaves and fl owers). 8. Geomatrical and symmetrical patterns are used. 9. There is intricate Jali work on the walls which signifi es importance of light in Islam.

Arch shape Success of

Jali work 10. Water channels and ponds are also an integral part for both beautification and utility. Persian and Arab areas are hotter and water

Dome shape Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru is important ingredient of architects. | 163 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 11. A lot of ‘decorative techniques’ were used including Pietra Dura. The technique is used in later architect which involves embedding of colored stones into each other to make an intricate flowery design on walls, floors etc. Other decorative techniques included—use of various motifs of flowers etc., calligraphy, CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA precious stones like Lappis Lazuli, use of intricate jail work, multiple foliated arches etc. Walls were also decorated with cypress, chinar and other trees as also with flower vases. 12. Gardens were important part, and among these Chahar Bagh have special place. 13. Forts and minars were also distinguishing features of Indo-Islamic architecture. Forts of Chittor, Gwalior, Daulatabad, earlier known as Devgiri and Golconda are some of the prime examples. Among minars, two most striking minars of medieval times are the Qutub Minar in Delhi and the Chand Minar at Daulatabad which was built in 15th century. The everyday use of the Qutub Minar minar was for the azaan or call to prayer. 14. Tombs were another important feature. The Its phenomenal height, however, symbolised idea behind the tomb was eternal paradise the might and power of the ruler. as a reward for the true believer on the Day of Judgement. This led to the paradisiacal imagery for tomb construction like gardens and source of water. Tombs of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, Abdur Rahim Khan-i- Khanan, Akbar and Itmaduddaula etc. were built. SULTANATE ARCHITECTURE OR TURKISH ARCHITECTURE 1. It is a sub-part of broader Indo-Islamic or Indo-Sarcenic style.

Success 2. Sarcenic refers to a style of architecture of popular with Muslims in West Asia particularly from the 11th to the 14th century. 3. With the arrival of Turks during the thirteenth century came a new technique of architecture—the architectural styles of Persia, Arabia and Central Asia. 4. In their buildings, the Turks used the arch and

Pietra Dura Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru the dome on a wide scale. The use of the arch | 164 |

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SOCIETY, CULTURE AND ECONOMY IN THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES and the dome had a number of advantages. The dome provided a pleasing skyline. The arch and dome needed strong cement and the Turks used fi ne quality light mortar in their buildings. Thus, new architectural forms and mortar of a superior kind became widespread in north India. CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA 5. The style of decoration used by the Turks, had no human or animal fi gures, since their use was considered un-Islamic. The Turks used scrolls of fl owers and verses of the Quran, which were intertwined in a very artistic manner. The combination of these decorative styles was called Arabesque.

6. They also freely borrowed Hindu motifs such Alai Darwaza as the bell motif and the ‘swastika’. 4. Communal composition: Most of the 7. Before the advent of Turks, Rajput architecture monuments were Islamic which showed the belonged to the trabeate style and had fl at distribution of power in the urban society. roofs, false arches and stone/mud based. Islam doesn’t permit images of birds and – But Turks brought with them the Islamic animals so fl oral designs, geometric designs style vis true arches, domes and used and calligraphy came up. lime mortar and brick based. Turkish 5. In early phase of Turkish architecture, Turkish architecture was technologically superior rulers had not yet established themselves and as it used true arches, domes, lime mortar, they needed to create awe among the ruled. headers and stretchers brick outlay, was Thus Iltutmish created many monuments in massive. Delhi so that the public could be awed. Qutub Sultanate architecture refl ects contemporary Minar was built as a symbol of Turkish victory. socio-politico-economic realities in following 6. Further the monuments of the age can’t be manner: divided exclusively into secular and religious monuments. 1. Focus on Urbanisation: Turks were urban – This is because the rulers needed dwellers. Their monuments are in urban areas monuments which could be used for and promote urbanism. huge public gatherings of the nascent 2. Concentration of wealth: The Turkish rulers Muslim society in India. Thus they were extracted all the agriculture surplus in their often located in the middle of the town hands. This surplus had to be put to use and it and had large open garden in them, happened in the form of grand monuments. pillared verandahs on 3 sides and the

3. Refl ects the distance between the rulers and Success praying site facing west. of the ruled, the despotism of the sultans—Each 7. A mosque’s area is often proportional to the monument refl ects the tastes of the sultan Muslim population living in the area. Thus as because of their scale each sultan tried Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque was expanded by to build according to his likes to expand his Iltutmish and Alauddin. As Indian Muslim glory. Alauddin built Alai Darwaza which was class grew stronger it also got its fair share majestic in scale. This refl ects the despotism in the ruling class in the form of Khaljis. So of the sultan and his ability to extract surplus the expansion of the mosque also symbolised

from the peasants. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru rising power of Indian Muslim class. | 165 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 (b) Other examples include— in Delhi (named so because, the wall of the fort had beheaded heads or sir of Mongols who were enemies of Khilji) which became center of power during the Khilji rule. (c) Another major achievement was Hauz CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Khas. In Urdu language, ‘Hauz’ means ‘water tank’ (or lake) and ‘Khas’ means ‘royal’, giving it the meaning—the ‘Royal tank’. The large water tank or reservoir Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque was fi rst built by Allauddin Khilji. 8. Gradually a shift was made to purely Islamic Turkish architecture. Balban’s tomb had the first True arch. Jamat-i-khana mosque of Alauddin is the fi rst true Islamic monument. Alai Darwaza can be construed to be the fi rst monument which symbolised the end of the initial phase of insecurity and the Indo-Islamic architectural form. Red sandstone, yellow sandstone and marble were widely used in construction 1. Turk Sultans in India were always under danger of attack from Mongol and hence, ruggedness of the architecture was the fi rst requirement for them. Their buildings are even today in Siri fort very good shape. 4. Tughlaq period architecture added new 2. Sultanate period starts from Slave dynasty. dimensions like—thick sloping walls called They started to replace the existing buildings Battar for strength, multi domed roofs, with mosques. tapering minarets. (a) The earliest building of this period is (a) Turkish Architecture was at its zenith QuwwatulIslam Mosque at Delhi was during the Tughlaq period. made from a Jain temple. (b) During Tughluq age, the monuments (b) Qutub Minar is another example and it built were inferior in grandeur and was also built by demolition of a Hindu beauty compared to the Khalji phase. temple. There are beautiful engravings Perhaps they represented a reaction to of calligraphy both in the mosque and the excessive ways of the Khaljis or the economic problems facing the sultan.

on the tower. Success 3. Next came Khilji dynasty. Alauddin Khilji of (c) Another feature of the Tughlaq enlarged the Quwat-ul-Islam mosque and built architecture was the deliberate attempt a gateway to the enclosure of the mosque. This to combine the principles of the arch, and gateway is called the Alahi Darwaja and is one the lintel and beam in their buildings. of the most beautiful architectural designs (d) The Tughlaqs did not generally use the even today and it is only a half tomb and not costly red sandstone, but cheaper and full hemispherical tomb. more easily available gray stone. Thus

(a) They started using red-sandstone. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru there was an outburst of building activity, | 166 |

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SOCIETY, CULTURE AND ECONOMY IN THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES marked by the growth of many styles – Lodis believed in the kingship theory of architecture in different parts of the of being fi rst among the equals. This is country. also refl ected in the architecture as we (e) During the 14th and 15th centuries, the fi nd that the monuments built by many style of architecture evolved in Delhi Amirs were equal in scale and grandeur under the Tughlaqs was carried forward to those built by the sultans.

and modifi ed in the various regional ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA 2. By their time, the octagonal designs, double kingdoms throughout India. domes and headers and stretchers brick (f) Feroz Shah Tuglaq also established new layering styles came up. Char-bagh style also cities like Hisar, Ferozabad etc. Some of came up. the achievements of this period are– (a) The devices of double dome enable the Tughlaqabad fort city–the fi rst fort city. ceiling inside to be placed lower and in (g) The tomb of Mohammad Tughlaq, Firoz better relation to the Interior space it Tughlaq etc. are some other examples. covers. This is done without disturbing the proportions and the effect of (h) Under Ghiyasuddin Tughluq we can see elevation of the exterior. the continuation of the fusion of Indo- Islamic forms. Thus in his mausoleum (b) The method of making double dome was we can see a kalash kept on top of practiced in East Asia for quite sometime the dome. The construction work in before it was imported into India. Tughluqabad may also refl ect the haste and commotion in the face of impending Mongol threat.

Charbagh 3. They didn’t focus much on other architectural buildings and only Tombs were made during this period. Sikandar Lodhi established Agra Ghiyasuddin Tughluq tomb and he also repaired Qutub Minar. Tomb of 5. Lodhis were the last Sultans of Delhi. They Sikandar Lodhi at Lodhi Gardens in Delhi was

belonged to Sultanate period, but they were Success

of fi rst example of double dome architecture and not Turks, but were Afghans, their architecture due to a double dome, the outer appearance falls under both Afghan style and Sultanate of the tomb was much bigger.Some of the style. features of architecture during his times are AFGHAN ARCHITECTURE (a) Base of most of the tombs is octagonal. 1. Lodhis, from Afghanistan, introduced ‘double (b) Each side of the octagon is marked by dome’ method which was later used in Mughal triple arches.

architecture as well. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru (c) Often entrance is marked by the Chatris. | 167 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 DECCANI STYLE 1. In South, Deccan style was initially infl uenced by Tuglaqi style and later it exhibited Persian influence. Later it also exhibited Hindu architecture infl uence also. 2. Under Bahamani Sultanate (which was later

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA disintegrated into fi ve dynasties including Bijapur, Golcunda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar etc.) highest developments took place under Adil Shahi and Qutb Shahi rulers. - The Bahamani sultans borrowed from the styles of Persia, Syria, Turkey and the temples of Southern India. 3. Distinctive features of Bijapur style, that developed in 15th-16th century, were–three Lodhi Garden arched face of building with central arch larger Sher Shah Suri was another Afghan who than the other two and only central arch has a ruled India in early 16th century replacing Mughal gate and other two being only for decoration for a short while. Sher Shah Suri was son of a local purpose. Afghan noble and he was very ambitious. He not only wanted to have large area under him, but also 4. Dome was bulbous and almost spherical in wanted to administer it well. He was infl uenced by shape. Dome of Gol Gumbaz has the largest the revenue and military policies of Alauddin Khilji. dome in the world. Like Khilji, he paid to army regularly to prevent (a) Lower part of dome has lotus petal type dissent and dissatisfaction and interacted with patterns. regularly. In revenue administration also, like Khilji, he (b) At the corners there were numerous introduced a measurement based revenue system smaller doms instead of Chatris. Graceful, so that peasant class is not over-burdened. He also slender, tall minarets. build many roads, planted trees and build sarais. (c) Gol Gumbaj, mausoleum of Adil Shah is He rebuild the highway to Bengal from north India, build by Mauryas, again. Finally, he is also credited fi nest examples of Bijapur Style. Its dome with giving the name to Indian currency the name is said to be largest in world and it is also which it is known today—Rupiah. He would have famous for its whispering galleries. been a great ruler, had he not been killed accidently (d) Bijapur was relatively less affected by in a gun explosion in his face during a siege after wars and attacks and hence, many of a rule of just 5 years. This provided opportunity to monuments are still well preserved. Humayun. His tomb at Sasaram in Bihar is major 5. Qutub Shahi or Golcunda style is another example of architecture during his time. It stands famous style apart from Bahamanis in South. in the middle of an artifi cial lake, which is nearly Success of (a) It is marked by rich stucco (a type of square, is known as the second Taj Mahal of India. plaster) carving. It is predominantly The tomb stands at the centre of the lake on a Persian with Hindu infl uence. square stone plinth with domed kiosks, chhatris at each of its corners. It is connected to the mainland (b) Char Minar of Hyderabad is a unique through a wide stone bridge. The main tomb is built example of their style. It was built to on octagonal plan, topped by a dome, 22-metre commemorate eradication of the plague in span. Shersha also built an elegant mosque in from the city. Golcunda Fort is another

Purana Quila of Delhi. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru example of this style. | 168 |

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SOCIETY, CULTURE AND ECONOMY IN THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES ¡ Among the provincial styles, major developments took place in Gujarat. It reached its peak during time of Mahmud Begaraha. 6. Gujarati Indo-Islamic style is marked by extensive use of pillar and lintel system. Another unique feature is ornamentry

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA carvings on stones. 7. Minarets were elegant, screens were widely used and windows supported on richly carved brackets of elegant designs. Mosque of Rani Rupmati of Ahmedabad is a fi tting tribute to this style which has successfully synthesised The Jama Masjid, Gulbarga Muslims style with indigenous style. 6. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga is quite well 8. Malwa style is marked by absence of minarets. known. The courtyard of this mosque is It uses arches profusely and use of ornametry covered with a large number of domes and is carving is, unlike Gujarati style, is only the only mosque in India which has a covered moderate. European infl uence can also be courtyard. found in form of large windows. Ashrafi Mahal, Jahaj Mahal (Mandu, MP) and Hindola Mahal PROVINCIAL STYLE are some of examples of this style. 1. Introduction of Persian art during Sultanate period and its infusion with the local/provincial traditions produced many beautiful results. For example—Sharqui rulers of Jaunpur produced many beautiful results like Atala Masjid. 2. Ahmed Shah built the city of Ahmedabad with beautiful monuments like Jama Masjid. Malwa rulers built their palaces on the hills of Mandu like Jahaz Mahal. All of them used the stones which were available locally, this also gave their architectures local touch. 3. In Bengal, brick was used as stone is not easily available, Dakhi Darwaza is an example. In Kashmir, central Asian pattern was followed and wood was used in the architecture. Success

4. Bahamani Sultans gave stiff competition of Jahaj mahal, MP to Delhi sultans and had many beautiful 9. Jaunpur style is also marked by absence of buildings in Bidar and Gulbarga etc. even on minars. It mainly fl ourished under Sharqi rulers older traditional styles rather than copying and hence also called as Sharwi style as well. Persian styles. Forts at Daulatabad and 10. Bengal school is characterised by use of bricks Golconda are such examples. Gol Gumbaj is and black marble. No focus on decoration, but an example of infusion of local and Persian on massive building. Adina masjid, Kadam

art. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Rasul mosque are some examples. | 169 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA

Kadam Rasul Masjid PUBLIC BUILDINGS 4. Murals by common people are doted from a Such building far out number royal buildings. 4th century. Hindi poem Chandayan written by Mulla Daud. Majority of these comprised sarais, bridges, irrigation tanks, wells and baoli, dams. Kacherhri, Kotawali, Dak 5. Quaranic calligraphy was a highly revered art Chowki, Hammam and Katra (market places). They in Islamic world (Kufi script). were available for the general public irrespective 6. Manuscript illustration under court patronage of religious affl iations. and also for individual patrons or bourgeois group evidence for latter—Hamzanama, Sarai is the most conspicuous of these public Chandayan—both in Berlin. buildings. Turks brought it to India in 13th century and earliest e.g. is from Balban’s time. Among later Evolution of a Composite Culture ruler, Muhammad bin Tughlug and Firuz Shah It is an axiomatic truth that whenever two Tughlug built a large number of them in Delhi as civilisations, entirely different from each other in also along the major trade routes of the sultanate. almost all respects, come into close and intimate The sarai had a small mosque and a well, besides contact with each other and continue to co-exist the residential quarters. Other important specimen for centuries together, both are bound to have their was bridges Masonry bridges. impact imprinted on each other and produce a Gandhak Ki Baoli built, by Iltutmish, at Mehrauli composite culture. And this had happened in India is one of the step wells. in the medieval period with the coming into contact of Hindu culture with that of the Muslims. The initial Sultanate Painting Hindu reaction to the arrival of Turko-Afghans 1. Generally, obscure due to lack of evidence. must have been strongly adverse. The animosity

2. Book illumination and murals. Quranic Success between the two must have even deepened in of calligraphy. due course. However, their co-existence must necessarily have produced a feeling of oneness 3. Evidence of murals compiled by Simon and a sense of synthesis among the members of Digby (Literary Evidence for Painting in Delhi the two communities. Sultante). Throughout the medieval period, the Muslims (a) Earliest reference is in a qasida in praise took enormous pains to acquaint themselves of Iltutmish (Tabaqat-i-Nasiri). with the religious literature of the Hindus. They

(b) Tarikh-i-Feruz Shahi by Afi f. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru translated important texts into Persian—the Vedas, | 170 |

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SOCIETY, CULTURE AND ECONOMY IN THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES the Upanishads, the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, Shah of Bijapur described him as Jagadguru for his the Dharmasastras, the Puranas, etc. Muslim writers patronage of the Hindus in his state. Similarly, we fi nd wrote on topics relating to Hindu life. For instance, Hindu rulers employing Muslims as their important Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote on Padmini and offi cials both in civil and military administration. The Hindu writers such as Bhanas Mal wrote in the Vijayanagar rulers employed Muslims in their military Persian languages on the literary traditions. Many service from the time of Devaraya II. Rana Sanga had Muslim poets wrote in Hindi and Hindu poets in a contingent of Muslim troops under him in his war Urdu, a language which grew out of the mingling ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA with Babur. Whether these appointments were due of Persian, Arabic and Turkish words and ideas with to political necessity or to any feeling of goodwill, languages and concepts of Sanskritic origin. the fact remains that they facilitated the growth of The assimilation between the two cultures amity between the Hindus and Muslims and thereby led also to the springing up of new styles of art, paved the way for the evolution of a composite architecture, and music in which the basic elements culture. This assimilation between the two cultures remained the old Hindi and the fi nish and outward had progressed so much that when Babur came form became Persian. to India he was compelled to notice their peculiar “Hindustani way”. We may well conclude with the Through long association, the Hindus and words of Sir John Marshall: “Seldom in the history of Muslims began to imbibe each other’s thoughts and mankind has the spectacle been witnessed of two customs. One of the sources of Muslim mysticism civilisations, so vast and so strongly developed, yet so was Indian, Renowned Muslim scholars and saints radically dissimilar as the Muhammadan and Hindu who lived and laboured in India, helped the meeting and mingling together. The very contrasts dissemination of the ideas of Islamic philosophy which existed between them, the wide divergences, and mysticism in India. The spirit of Mutual toleration in their culture and their religion, make the history found expression in the growing veneration of of their impact peculiarly instructive.” the Hindus for Muslim saints, particularly of mystic school. The Muslims, in turn, began to venerate to TRADE AND COMMERCE Hindus for saints. This spirit of mutual toleration Growth of Urban centers required food and culminated in the emergence of the common raw materials for craft production. At the same time, worship of Styapir (the True saint). It is likely that this the growing realisation of revenue in cash led to the feeling of friendship made possible the conversion growth of a steady cash nexus. Both these factors of the Muslims into Hindu fold and recon version were conducive to be development of inland trade. of the Hindus to their original faith. To pay the revenue in cash, the peasantry was forced Several intermarriages between the ruling to sell its surplus produce while merchants had a members of these two communities helped to market in newly emerged towns for agricultural maintain harmony between the two communities. products. This trade resulting from the compulsions These inter communal marriages, though sometimes of land revenue system is known as induced trade. tainted with compulsions as a condition of conquest Inland trade developed at two levels: (a) short contributed a great deal to soften the scrimonious; distance village town trade in bulk commodities differences between the two communities and (b) long distance inter-town trade in high value help the transplantation of the customs of the one Success goods. Village town trade was a natural consequence of to the fold of the other. This spirit of harmony and of the emergence of towns and realisation of cooperation was extended even to the political fi eld. revenue in cash. It was marked by a one way fl ow Besides retaining the existing machinery of local of commodities. While the towns received grain and administration, the Hindu headmen and accountants raw material from the village in the vicinity, they of the villages, the Muslim rulers employed a large did not send their goods in returns to the villages number of Hindus in their services and entrusted as these were largely self suffi cient. Turnover of this with the offi ces of responsibility. It is, therefore, not trade was high in terms of volume but low in terms

surprising that the Muslim subjects of Ibrahim Adil Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru of value. The commodities were food grains, wheat, | 171 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 rice, gram, sugercane and raw material like cotton Coastal trade: It was natural for the coastal for urban manufactures. trade to fl ourish right from Sind to Bengal touching Inter-town trade was mainly in luxury articles Gujarat, Malabar and Coromandal coasts. This and thus was a high value trade. Manufactures that provided an opportunity for exchange of regional were taken from one town to another are reported products along the coast distinct from inland inter- by Barani: distilled wine to Delhi from Kol and regional trade.

Meerut, Muslim from Devagiri and striped cloth ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Overland Trade from Lakhnauti to Delhi. Multan was the major trading center for Long distance inter trade also carried goods overland trade. India was connected to central Asia. coming from other countries from entry point towns Afghanistan and Persia through the Multan Quetta to other urban centers as well as the export goods route, but this route fell into disuse due to Mongol to exit points. Multan was the greatest entrepot for depredations. overland foreign trade and served as a center of re export while Gujarat port towns as Broach and Imports and Exports Kambay were exchange centers for overseas trade. Two principal items of import: horses from Foreign Trade Hormuz, Aden and Persia, previous metal, gold and silver for metallic currency and fashioning luxury Khilji annexation of Gujarat must have enlarged articles. trade relations between the Delhi Sultanate and the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. Hormuz and Basra Gujarat was the major centers from where were the chief ports for the ships passing through the luxury articles from Europe used to enter. the Persian Gulf while the ports of Aden, Mocha Sultanate mainly exported grains and textiles. and Jedda along the Red sea were important for Besides, slave were exported to Central Asia and Gujarat. Through these ports, commodities moved indigo to Persia. to Damascus and Aleppo on the one hand and Commercial Classes Alexandria on the other. From the last two opened Two types of merchants are mentioned in up linkages with Europe merchandise of Gujarat our sources—Karawnis or Nayaks and Multanis. were also carried towards the East though the port The merchants specialising in carrying grains of Malacca. Tom Pires writing in the 16th century were designated by Barani as Karwanis. They were says, “Malacca cannot live without Cambay, nor the reoercussions of Banjaras of the succeeding cambay without Malacca, if they are to be very rich centuries. Long distances trade was in the Lands and very prosperous.” of Multanis. They were also engaged in usury and The main export from Gujarat to Malacca was commerce and gave loans to nobles, who according the coloured cloth of Cambay and in exchange the to Barani, were generally in need of cash. Another Gujarati merchants came back with species. The important commercial class was that of the dallals Broach coin boards containing the coins of the (brokers) who worked as a link between the buyer Delhi Sultans along with the gold and silver coins and the seller and took commissions from both. of Egypt, Syria, Yemen, Persia, Genoa, Armenia and Success Sarrafs were yet another mercantile group whose Venice testifi es to large scale overseas trade. of economic role was no less than the brokers. As Ports of Bengal had trading relation with China, money changers, they were most sought after by Malacca and far east. Textiles, sugar and silk fabrics the merchants, especially the foreign ones who were exported from Bengal. Latter imported salt came to India with their native coins. They also from Hormuz and sea shells from the Maldive islands. issued ‘hundu’s’ or letter of credit, thereby acting Sind was yet another region from where sea borne as bankers. Brokers and sarrafs were indispensable trade was carried on. It imported special cloth and in the new economic dispensation—they were the

dairy products. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru custodians of several basic economic institutions. | 172 |

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SOCIETY, CULTURE AND ECONOMY IN THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES Condition of Artisans and Peasantry Unani system of hygiene and health science became Clear knowledge of the condition of artisans increasingly popular in North India. is very scanty. While mostly they worked at home, New Crafts, Industry and Technology there are also references to their employment on Delhi Sultanate is not fortunate enough to wages. Where materials were expensive and the have an Ain-i-Akbar of Fazl which gives a detailed products were luxury goods, work was done mostly outline of industrial production during the Mughal in Karkhanas by artisans whose services were hired ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA period. As a consequence, only a fragmentary sketch out. Some merchants employed skilled craftsmen can be outlined in this regard. This period was under their supervision. Wages were low. During marked by the importation of many technology Alauddins reign it amounted to 2 to 3 jitals a day. from Islamic lands by the Turks which were faithfully During the reign of Mubarak Khilji prices rose and assimilated within the indigenous tradition, without wages also went up four times. Similarly during the any pejorative disdain. reign of Firuz Tughlug price were very high and In the fi eld of agricultural, technology, plough so were wages. According to the contemporary was fi tted with an iron share as shown in ‘Niptah-ul- chroniclers, there was a 12 fold rise in tailors’ wage. Fuzala’ (Persian lexicon compiled in 1460 in Malwa). According to Ibn Batuta, prices were cheaper in Unlike Europe, India could not develop horse drawn Bengal than in any other country. This must have wheeled plough for the reason that our plough was helped the artisans to lead a comfortable life. Skilled light in weight suited to the soft soil. For sowing, craftsmen lived a life of comfort and case. Since the the method of broadcasting was known. Much tool of production even after the introduction of innovation was seenin the irrigation device. Almost new devices were still simple and mainly of wood all of them oriented towards drawing water from and little of iron, should have remained cheap. The wells. Five techniques were used: rope and bucket, artisan was thus a master of his own tools, though charkhi (pulley), rockbucket pulley contraption, that varied form of labour organisation seem to be working on fi rst class lever principle and the Persian prevalent. Spinning was done mostly by women wheel (Sabiya) the last was an Islamic innovation. at home. As regards crafts, the textiles industry was very Peasantry important. By the introduction of spinning wheel Due to burdensome taxation and vexatious (charka) during the 13th/14th century, production cesses the condition of peasant was not satisfactory. of cotton was revolutionised. It increased the Standard of living was very low. Amir Khusro say that spinners effi ciency six fold in comparison with the “every pearl in the royal crown in but the crystallised one using a hand spindle for the purpose. Another drop of blood fallen from the tearful eyes of the poor improvement was the cotton carder’s bow which peasant.” Alaudding Khilji and Mohammad Tughluq greatly enhanced the quantity of cotton cleaned in reign saw an increase in revenue demand. Their comparison with the older method. Introduction of condition worsened during famines (Jalaluddin Khilji these two devices must have not only lowered the and MBT). But there were some endeavours towards price of spun yarn but also enlarged its production. ameliorating this lot: Allauddins price regulations, We do not know whether these innovation were suppression of interim classes; Muhammad Tughluqs followed by improvements in the weavers’ loom. But Success the possibility that treadles were an early medieval agricultural loans, famine relief agricultural reforms: of Firuz Tughluq irrigation network, writing of loans etc. addition to the loom can not be over ruled. Various coloures derived from vegetables and mineral Indian Medicine sources were used for dyeing. Indigo, madder and Advent of Islam had given rise to a healthy lac were widely used. Silk weaving was another intercourse between Indian and Muslims medical important industry Ma Huan refers to mulberry trees practitioners. In this process of intercourse of ideas, and silk worms. Silk weaving was taken to its fi nest the Siddha and Ayurveda systems became popular level in Gujarat which was the home of the patola

among liberal Muslims. Similarly, the introduction of Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru device. The shawl industry was fi rmly established | 173 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 and Muhammad Tughluq sent Kashmiri shawls as manufactured robes of honour numbering 900,000 presents to the Chinese emperor. Carpet weaving per year. There were 36 Karkhanas during Firuz was encouraged during the period. Tughluq’s reign and Firuz attached greater importan In the building industry, many construction to them and said just as lacs of revenues are collected devices were introduced by the Turks in India. in the provinces, similarly lacs are collected in the There was a great spurt in brick construction due Karkhanas. While some were factories others were to introduction of fi ne quality mortar (lome) as a purchasing houses. Among the manufactures, CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA cementing material. The lime mortar paved the greatest attention was paid to the production of way for the construction of the true arch (mehrab) luxury goods and war materials. and the dome. These provided new devices for Agrarian Structure and Relations roofi ng. As a consequence, building activity saw It is unreasonable to expect that the a great boom with forts, palaces, mosques being establishment of the Delhi Sultanate could have constructed on a large scale. effected any radical changes in the system of The next important industry was paper making. agricultural production, though the coming of It was defi nitely a Turkish importation. During certain new technologies seemed to have helped the period, paper was used for many purposes— irrigation and spread of commercial crops as indigo books, farmans and numerous commercial and and grapes. However, it was the agrarian relations administration document. It was available on a that underwent a signifi cant change. According large scale as much as that the sweetmeat sellers to D.D. Kosambi, these changes did no more than of Delhi delivered sweets to the buyers in paper intensify the elements already present in Indian packets called purya, which is still practiced in ‘Feudalism’ while Mohd. Habib regards these to be India. The practices of writing books on paper was not only radical but as a progressive in nature that accompanied by the craft of book binding which to him these deserved the designation of ‘rural was an innovation in India. revolution’. In military technology, the stirrup was the contribution of the Muslims. So was the horse shoe Agricultural Production (shoeing being monopolised by Muslim artisans). During the 13th and 14th centuries, the land These were important innovation as cavalry was the man ratio was very favourable. Nizami writing the main arm of the Turkish army providing mobility to 14th century says that the peasant was in need the troops and greater striking power. Gunpowder of seed, a pair of oxen, tools and implements and was brought by the immigrant Turks during this not land. Owing to the abundance of land during period. But even by the time of Firuz Tughluq its the period agriculture was extensive. Control over only use was for pyrotechny or fi reworks (atashbazi) land was therefore, not as important as on persons and not for firearms or for propelling canon cultivating them. balls. Shipbuilding was infl uenced by European technology particularly the use of iron nails for One of most remarkable features of age during riveting and the iron anchors. The magnetic compass the period was the large number of crops grown. This was a Muslim contribution. Salt and diamond has perhaps no parallel in other parts of the world mining were very important industries. Salt was except perhaps in South China. Ibn Batuta was struck Success by the multiplicity of crops grown and described in also produced by the natural evaporation of the of saline sea water collected systematically. detail the various crops grown in the two cropping seasons. He suggests that in the region around Delhi Karkhanas double cropping was practiced. Among the food Karkhanas occupied an important place crops, the major ones were wheat, barley, paddy, in industrial production. Sultans paid special millets and pulses. Among the cash crops, sugarcane, attention to its organisation and were generally cotton, oil seeds, seasamum are referred to. One may placed under the charge of a high ranking grandee. perhaps legitimately assume that improved facilities

During Muhammad Tughluq’s reign, Karkhanas Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru of irrigation could have helped extend he area under | 174 |

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SOCIETY, CULTURE AND ECONOMY IN THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES rabi crops as wheat, sugarcane etc. from Ibn Batuta’s varied in size. On one extreme, there were Khuts and account, we get information on fruit growing Muqaddams having holding and enjoying superior in Delhi Sultunate. Special mention comes into rights on ordinary peasant and at the other was the measures of Muhammad Tughluq & Firuz Tughluq village menial holding a petty plot of land (balahar). in encouraging fruit cultivation. However, the Indian In the abundance of land, there was no proprietary peasants did not practices sericulture and no true right of the peasant over the land he tillest. On the silk was produced. Ma Huan, the Chinese navigator contrary, even on his produce there were claims of in 1432, makes the fi rst reference to sericulture in ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA the superior classes. The peasant, though recognised Bengal. Agriculture was generally dependent upon as free born at times was deprived of the freedom natural irrigation, hence the tendency was to grow to leave the land at will or to change the domicile. mostly single, rain-watered kharif crop and coarse Barani say than each village had a patwari to keep grains more. Canal irrigation is mentioned in the accounts. His bahi was scrutinised to discover every contemporary sources and the efforts of some, payment made by the peasant to the revenue Sultans stand out. Ghiyasuddin Tughlug was the offi cials. He was not a government offi cial but a fi rst to dig canals. Cutting of canals in a big way was village offi cial. The village was collectively a tax carried out by Firuz Tughluq who cut two canals paying unit. Barani’s complaint that the ‘burden of from the Yamuna. Canal irrigation greatly helped in the rich falling on the poor’ further indicates that the extension of cultivation in the eastern Punjab. the village community was not an ideal institution Now, there was an emphasis on cultivation on cash but itself a machinery of exploitation. crops hike sugarcane that required more water than The highest stratum of the peasant was other crops. Afi f comments enthusiastically “neither comprised of rural intermediaries called Khuta one village remained desolate nor one cubit of land and Muqaddamas and Chandhuris. From Barani’s uncultivated.” account, it appears that prior to Allauddin’s agrarian Agrarian Relations measures, they held revenue free lands. As a class, the village headmen were prosperous. Barani says On the eve of the Ghurid conquest, the ruling with malicious pleasure that they were cut down class was heavily ruralised like the contemporary to size by Alauddin. However, since these rural feudal aristocracy of West Europe. Minhaj us intermediaries were necessary for the system of land Siraj designates the Chiefs opposing ghorians revenue mobilisation, stern measures against them and early Delhi Sultans as ‘rai and rana’ and their (during AK) were not to last longer. Ghiyasuddin cavalry commanders as ‘rawat’. From the epigraphic introduced moderation. Exemption from grasing evidence from different parts of Northern India, the as well as tax on their own cultivation was granted earlier feudal hierarchy of Raja (rai), Ranaka (rana) again. But they were not allowed to levey any cess and Rauta (rawat) is fairly well established. upon the peasantry. They received further concession In the early phase, the Sultans tended to enter under Firuz and these concessions are interestingly into settlement this subjugated rural aristocracy. enough approvingly described by Barani. Among Kharaj was the tribute imposed on them. It seems the rural intermediaries, the ‘Chaudhuri seems to that even after the replacement of this tribute by have emerged, during the 14th century, as he is not vigorously assessed tax imposed on the peasants mentioned by Minhaj or any other source of 13th under Allaudin, the older rural aristocracy had some Success century. It makes it appearance during Barani’s 14th of role to play in revenue collection. They were held century account. Ibn Batuta calls him the chief of the responsible for collection of revenue, at least till the group of 100 villages (Sadi). Irfan Habib suggests that early years of the 14th century. The administration the Chandhuri was in fact a successor, though much too exercised its right to collect it directly through reduced in authority, of the head of the chaurasi (84 villages Headmen and Chaudharis. villages) of Gurjara Pratihara and Chalukyas. From Peasants: Cultivation was based on individual the time of Firuz, all these intermediaries were given peasant farming. But this peasant economy was not a blanket designation—the Zamindar—which was

egalitarian. Size of land cultivated by them greatly Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru much in vogue during the Mughal period. | 175 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 SYSTEM OF TAXATION cases, a wali and an amir was appointed to the Sultans of Delhi did not completely and same territory. Wali was to called revenue and after immediately eliminate the older systems of taxation. deducting his pay, to send the rest to the treasury. These continued to function but with the super- The amir or commander had nothing to do with imposition of the demands of a new ruling class. revenue realisation and received his own salary, Initially, when the roots of Sultanate were not fi x, it that of his troops in cash, presumably from the local extracted tributes from the conquered areas. But treasury. This infuriated the commanders leading to CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA with the consolidation of authority attempts were political problems for Muhammad Tughluq. made to increase the revenue by collecting taxes Firuz, therefore, decided to make concessions. modeled on those levied in the Islamic land. For He made iqtas hereditary and assigned away lands the purpose of revenue administration, land was in iqtas, reducing the size of the Khalisa. The term divided into 4 categories; Khalisa, iqta, inam and ‘Jama’ (estimates of revenue) was used for the fi rst land held by Hindu chiefs who had come to terms times and no change was made in it during his long with the revenue and taxes were based on summary rule. Fixity of Jania meant that the Muqti would not assessment. Taxes were paid in cash as the mahsul be troubled on account of enhancement (taufi r). went to pay for the soldiers. Alauddin collected tax There was no attempt to restore central in kind is some of the Khalisa. control by Firuz’s successor. Under the Lodhis, the Iqta was a territorial assignment. It combined administration charges and revenue assignments the dual function of revenue collection and were combined together and these were no more distribution without immediately endangering the designated as iqtas but were simply called sarkar unity of the political structures. The Muqti has no and parganas. A system of sub-assignments came claim over the ‘raiya’ other than that of collecting in vogue, particularly under Sikander Lodhi. tax that was assigned to him. Iqta implied in turn Land Grants certain obligations on the part of the muqti to the Sultan—maintenance of troops for sultan. He was a Revenue grants to religious men and tax collector, army pay master and army commander foundations were called milk, or inam. These were all rolled into one. not generally resumed or transferred, but the Sultan had the right to cancel them. Allauddin is said to Iltutmish is reported to have assigned inliev have resumed about all the grants. Ghiyasuddin also of salaries, small iqtas in the Doab to the soldiers of cancelled a large number of them. Firuz reign was a the Sultans army (hashu qalb). Balban made a half departure not only returned all previous grants but hearted attempt at their resumption but without granted fresh ones. But in spite of Firuz’s munifi cien, success. However, Balban introduced the offi ces of total grans made by the Sultan, as recorded by Afi f he ‘khwaja’ posted in each iqta to fi nd out the exact accounted only for about 1/20th of the total Jama. difference between the actual income of the iqta and muqti’s expenditure. Nobles too made grants out of their own iqtas. Grant of land was generally made in uncultivated lands Real intervention in iqta administration came i.e. expansion of cultivation. under Alauddin. Diwan-i-Wazirat perhaps prepared some sort of an estimated revenue incomes from Growth of Urban Centres each iqta. Audit was stringent, punishments severe, Success Urban economy on the eve of Ghurid conquest of transfers frequent and enhancements (taufi r) were was at a low ebb. However, with the establishment often made in the estimated revenue income of the of the Delhi Sultanate, a thriving urban economy iqta on various perexts. developed which is attested by archaeological. Ghiyasuddin introduced some moderation. Numismatic evidences and literary widence. This The enhancements in the estimated revenue income led Muhd. Habib to postulate a theory of urban by wizarat was not to be more than 1/10th or 1/11th revolution. Literary records abound in mention of annually. Attempt at central intervention reached major towns—Delhi, Multan, Anhilwara, Cambay,

is climax during Muhammad Tughluq. In several Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Kara Lakhnauti and Daulatabad. Some of these | 176 |

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SOCIETY, CULTURE AND ECONOMY IN THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES cities were big enough by contemporary standards. The ruling class required articles of luxury— Ibn Batuta visiting Delhi in 1330 describes it as of silk, books, arcuate light architecture and with the enormous extent and population, the largest city in tremendous resources at their command, they the Islamic East inspite of the fact that Muhammad naturally encouraged in migration from Islamic Tughluq had shifted much of its population to culture area. These immigrants were not only Daulatabad. soldiers, but craftsman, artisans, singers, musicians, poets etc. In due course the Indian artisans must

Factors for Urban Expansion ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA have learnt these new crafts which led to the rise The strength of the invader, of course, lay in of many urban centres. combination and not in disposal in an unfamiliar land and thus, in initial stages, it was but natural Urban Manufactures for the members of the ruling class to prefer to Urban craft production received a two fold stay at their headquarters along with their cavalry. impetus with the establishment of the Delhi These iqta headquarters having the concentration Sultanate. of cavalry, its hangers-on. The retinue and household The ruling class remained town centred and of the muqti thus emerged in the early phases as spent the enormous resources it appropriated in “camp cities”. Most of the 13th century towns are described in the contemporary sources as iqta. the form of land revenue mainly in towns, either in Hansi, Kara, Anhilwara etc., these towns had to be burgeoning services of procuring manufactures. fed and provided for. In the beginning, the troops Even the money spent on the service sector had to go for realising kharaj/mal by plundering the partly went to help the urban craft sector through neighbouring villages, but gradually, by the 14th multiplier effect. century as pointed out by Moreland, Cash nexus Introduction of a number of technological developed. Revenue was realised from peasants in devices that came with the Turks. A number of cash who were, thus, forced to sell their produce urban manufacturers were introduced particularly at the side of the fi eld. The merchants catered to silk weaving, carpet making and paper making. A the needs of towns, giving rise to what is called major sector of urban employment was building ‘induced trade’. industry. Success of Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru | 177 |

Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com of Madura, in 1333-34. This was followed by the the by followed was This 1333-34. in Madura, of which delivered the death blow to the tottering tottering the to blow death the delivered which known as the Provincial Kingdoms or dynasties. or Kingdoms Provincial the as known governor of Madurai (Mabar) revolted and founded later, the Tughluq Amiran-i-Sadahs in the Deccan Deccan the in later,Amiran-i-Sadahs Tughluq the long before the decline of the Tughluqs. The status of by Harihara and Bukka, in 1336. Exactly a decade decade a Exactly 1336. in Bukka, and Harihara by the Saiyids and the Tughluqs amidst these kingdoms Gujarat, Bengal, Jaunpur etc. But Orissa, throughout of the Sultanate, was first captured by the Mongols Tughluq empire. The disintegration of the Sultanate foundation of the historic empire of Vijayanagar Vijayanagar of empire historic the of foundation ceuntry of his death, the Sultanate disintegrated disintegrated Sultanate the death, his of ceuntry and finally an independent Muslim dynasty came to the independent kingdoms of Khandesh, Malwa,Khandesh, of kingdoms independent the was like thatwas ofany like otherprovincial kingdom. independent Rajput dynasties were already ruling overrule it. Rajputana),(or Rajasthan In numerous existence. Kashmir, which was outside the purview independent period,its Sultanatemaintained the Sultanate the of dismemberment century, further founded kingdom, theBahmani in1346. Sultanatethe as known kingdom independent an The process of disintegration of the Sultanate was Kaveri.vastthe tothe Indus Tughluq But the from under Bin Muhammad Tughluq, when it extended RISE OFPROVINCIAL DYNASTIES of Delhi was complete. During the next half half next the During complete. was Delhi of a half within and Tughluq Bin Muhammad of century fourteenth early the in witnessed was completed shortly after Timur’s invasion, in 1398,invasion, in Timur’s after shortly completed of Delhi took place leading to the foundation of of foundation the to leading place took Delhi of into a number of independent kingdoms, better better kingdoms, independent of number a into empire started tottering during the latter years years latter the during tottering started empire actually started from south India, when the Tughluq Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com The greatest spread of the Sultanate of Delhi Thus the loss of the South by the Sultanate Sultanate the by South the of loss the Thus Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com THE 15THANDEARLY 16THCENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) CHAPTER-6 | 178 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success to the Delhi Sultans had been nominal from the time century till Akbar’s accession, India was divided divided was India accession, Akbar’s till century states into which the country was divided were were divided was country the which into states Malwa, Malwa against Bahmanis and the latter latter the and Bahmanis against Malwa Malwa, by the development of an impressive coinage coinage impressive an of development the by bin Muhammad successor His failed. measures of Tughluq Ghiyasuddin Sultan independence. at war with one another. Delhi was pitted against pitted another.was one Delhi with war at period was in a state of continuous flux and all the power.centresof numerousinto India, this during but to make peace with him.with peace make to but Ilyas’ marked is reign brother, Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah (1345-58), and the Alauddin’s foster by rule independent one under Bengal);Bengal), (East (South his Satgaon but and intoadministrativethreewith it divisions dividing Delhi attempted to ensure the loyalty of Bengal by complete its to Khilji Bakhtiyar by conquest its of were unsuccessful except for a brief period during Bengal studied.be Delhi Sultan, Firuz Shah Tughluq, had no laternative Tughluq, was unable to assert his authority over authority his assert to unable Tughluq, was background that the provincial kingdom have to have kingdom provincial the that background Jaunpur. Jaunpur against Bengal, Gujarat against against Gujarat Bengal, against Jaunpur. Jaunpur who undauntedly assumed pretentious titles. In In titles. pretentious assumed undauntedly who Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah (1339-49) of , rule over all the conquered and annexed territories system and the number of monuments erected. His himself independent and transferred his capital capital his transferred and independent himself end to these internecine feuds. It is against this this against is It feuds. internecine these to end capitals at Lakhanauti (North Bengal), Sonargaon Bengal), (North Lakhanauti at capitals successor, Sikandar Shah (1358-90), also successfully against Vijayanagar; and there seemed to be no no be to seemed there and Vijayanagar; against Sultan Alauddin Khilji’s reign. In Bengal, submission from Lakhnauti to Pandua. Bengal was finally united North North Bengal, Alauddin Ali Shah (1339-45) declared The efforts of the Delhi Sultans to assert their Thus, from the close of the fourteenth fourteenth the of close the from Thus, SINCE-1993 ® Downloaded from KnowledgePhilic.com

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) defi ed Firuz’s attempts to subdue him. Ghiyasuddin patron of Bengali literature. Himself a learned man, Azam Shah (1390-1410), who followed Sikander, he patronised learning and the . He established diplomatic and cultural relations with won the hearts of his subjects—Hindus and Muslims China and the growth of the port of Chittagong alike. The Hindus honoured him as an incarnation stimulated increase in trade with the Far East. of Krishna, Nripati Tilak (Crown of Kings) and Jagat In 1415 A.D., of Dinajpur Bhushan (Adornment of the Universe). He liberally (Rajashahi), originally a leading noble for the Ilyas conferred high posts upon his Hindu subjects. Shahi rulers, assumed royal power. Subsequently, ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Several celebrated Bengali writers fl ourished during at the request of the outraged Bengali Ulema and his enlightened rule. Sufi s, who repudiated a non-Muslim ruler, Ibrahim Hussain Shah’s son, Nusrat Shah (1519-32 A.D.), Shah Sharqi from the neighbouring Muslim state of who succeeded him, kept the Kingdom intact, but Jaunpur invaded Bengal. Peace was soon concluded, his hold on the trans-Gandak region weakened however, on the intercession of the leading Bengal due to the Mughal invasion. During the reign of Sufi , Nur Qutb-i-Alam, and Ganesha’s twelve-year-old his successors, Bengal had to face the invasion of son, Jadu, was converted to Islam and proclaimed Humayun and later on the kingdom of Bengal lay king as Jalaluddin. After Ibrahim Sharqi had returned at the feet of Sher Shah Suri. The rise of Sher Shah to Jaunpur, Ganesha reappeared in Bengal and ruled Suri ended the of Bengal. in his son’s name, until he died in 1418. Upon his The state’s prosperity under their rule had amased death in 1431, Jalaluddin was succeeded by his son, both Protuguese and Chinese visitors. Barbosa tells Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah (1431-5). The Ilyas Shahi us of luxury and extravagance among the Muslim ruler, Ruknuddin Barabak Shah (1459-74), organised aristocracy in whose hands the country’s wealth was a militia of Ethiopian slaves and recruited Arab a concentrated. In the cities, they lived in brick-built soldiers as his palace guards. One of these, Ismail houses with fl at roofs and fl ights or ornamented Shah, conquered Kamrup for his master. Barbak’s steps. Bathing-tanks were attached to their houses. army also invaded regions as far north as Purnea Their cuisine was sumptuous. Men wore very thin, district, and Bengal control over the Jessore-Khulna long, white garments reaching to their ankles, with districts was strengthened. The Sultan was known cloth girdles under them and silk scarves over them. as a patron of Bengali literature. The Chinese were The principal feature of Hussain Shahi rule in deeply impressed by the wall of Pandua, the well- Bengal was a tendency towards unity among all arranged bazaars, and the imposing royal palace. classes of Hindus and Muslims. A genuine pride in In 1487, the Ilyas Shahi dynasty was overthrown Bengali culture and social values had emerged. The by Sultan Shahzada Barak Shah, the commander of Muslim foreigners adopted Bengali customs, while the Ethiopian guards. Bengal was then ruled by the Hindus learned Persian to secure positions in Ethiopians, until 1494. They were eventually deposed the administration. This is refl ected both in mystical by an Arab, Alauddin Hussain Shah (1494-1519), works and in poetry. The movement towards cultural who had risen to a high position in their service. synthesis, however, had by no means, eliminated all After coming to the throne, Hussain replaced the reactionary and revivalist tendencies. Ethiopian soldiers and administrators with and Muslims. He was an indomitable warrior, Kashmir and his generosity to both Hindus and Muslims was Success Kashmir was attacked even by Muhammad of legendary. Of the later Ilyas Shahi rulers, Alauddin bin Qasim, the conqueror of Sind, but neither he Hussain Shah (1493-1519) is regarded as the greatest nor other Arab invaders succeeded in conquering indepdendent Muslim ruler of Bengal. He gave it. Mahmud of Ghazni’s attempt to capture Kashmri refuge to Sutlan Husain Shah Shargi of Jaunpur and also failed. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, secured North Bihar through a treaty with Sikander however, Muslim families began to move to the Lodi. He is also credited with conquests in Orissa. Kashmir Valley, where they obtained employment During his reign, Chaitanya preached Vaishnavism under its Hindu rulers. One of the settlers was

in Bengal and Orissa. Alauddin Hussain Shah was a Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Shah Mir, who arrived apparently from Swat with | 179 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 his family, in 1313. Seven years later, the Mongol of Muslims, who had been displaced by Timur’s invaders callously slaughtered most of the Kashmiri invasions, migrated from Iran and Transoxiana to population and shook the foundations of Hindu rule. Srinagar. Their presence led the Sultan to Persianise After the invaders had left the valley, Rinchana of the the administration and the life of the Kashmiri Ladakh ruling family, who served to commander-in- Muslims. The process had already begun during chief of Suhadeva, the Hindu ruler of Kashmir, seised his father’s reign with the arrival of Mir Sayyid Ali the throne. Because he was a Tibetan Buddhist, Hamdani and his followers. Sikander’s Prime Minister, Rinchana did not get much cooperation from the ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Suha Bhatta, who had embraced Islam, strove to local Hindu noblemen. The rising wave of Mongol Islamise the country with the effi ciency of a new conversions to Islam in Iran and Transoxiana seems broom. The Kashmiri Brahmins were dismissed from eventually to have prompted him to became a top positions. Important temples, including the Muslim, although Shah Mir played an important famous Sun-temple of Martand, were desecrated part in this decision. and destroyed. For the fi rst time, jeziya was imposed The stories surrounding Rinchana’s conversion on the Hindus. Before his death, however, conscious may be dismissed as stock-in-trade legends of the problems resulting from his persecution of attributed to innumerable conversions. He adopted the Brahmins, the Sultan fi xed with some diffi culty the name Sadruddin. After his death in 1323, Hindu a limit to the advance of the great sea of yavanas rule was reestablished in Kashmir. Nevertheless, (Muslims) and abolished turushkadanda (jeziya). Shah Mir retained his infl uence and became very Sikander’s policy was completely reversed by popular when his followers repulsed a second his successor, Sultan Zainul Abidin (1420-70). He Mongol invasion. He won over the leading Hindu rebuilt some of the temples destroyed by Sikander noblemen to his side; imprisoned the widow of and encouraged by Brahmins who had left Kashmir the Hindu raja, Kota Rani, whom he subsequently to return to their homeland and resume their former married; and became king, in 1339, under the high positions. Islamised Hindus were also permitted title—Shamsuddin. Thus the Shah Mir dynasty of to revert to their ancestral faith. Cremation tax on Kashmir was founded. He changed the Hindu feudal Hindus was abolished, and cow slaughter (which framework to the Turkish system based on assigning was contrary to Hinduism) was prohibited. Even the iqtas which he gave to his loyal commanders, both custom of sati, which Sikander had abolished, was Hindus and Muslims. Shamsuddin fi xed the land tax permitted. Muslims who supported these policies at 17 percent of the gross produce and abolished a were also treated generously by the Sultan, and considerable number of imposts. many eminent Muslim scholars moved to Kashmir from India and other Islamic countries. The wave Sixteen more members of the Shah Mir of Islamisation which had been rising among the dynasty ruled Kashmir between 1342 and 1561. non-Brahmin class did not, however, subside. The One of them, Alauddin (1343-54), transferred his Sultan was a patron of education and learning. He capital from Indrakot to Alauddinpur (Srinagar). founded Muslim schools in Srinagar, staffed them Sultan Shihabuddin (1354-73) loved fi ghting. He with famous scholars and offered grants to students. conquered Pakhli, invaded Gilgit, defeated the He established a department to translate Sanskrit Kashghari Mongols, and penetrated Ladakh and works into Persian and vice versa. The translation then Nagarkot. Regions from Kishtwar to Jammu Success of the Mahabharata and Kalhans’s Rajatarangini were also conquered him. of into Persian was its most outstanding achievement. His successor, Sultan Qutubuddin (1373-89), Jonaraja, who continued the Rajatarangini and conquered Punch. During the reign of his son brought it up to 1458, as also Srivara, who continued Sikander (1389-1413), Timur invaded India, but Jonaraja’s work, enjoyed his patronage. Sikander was able to save Kashmir by diplomatic The Sultan was also interested in developing negotiations with the invaders. Sikander also crafts. It would seem that paper had previously been sent a successful expedition against the ruler of imported into Kashmir from Samarqand, but the

Qhind. During his reign a considerable number Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Sultan sent his own artisans there to learn paper- | 180 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) making and book-binding. Before long, Kashmir Tatar Khan, and Zafar was restored to the throne. became an important center for both these crafts. In 1407 Muzaffar declared his independence as Under the Sultan’s personal guidance, powder for Muzaffar Shah. He died in 1411 and was succeeded fi reworks was also manufactured in Kashmir. Crafts by Shihabuddin Ahmad Shah (1411-42), the son of such as stone polishing, stone cutting, bottle making, the dead Tatar Khan. window cutting, and gold beating developed in Ahmad Shah’s rule of thirty-one years was Kashmir because of Sultan Zainul Abidin’s patronage. a period of relentless warfare but also saw the CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA The Sultan also fostered the development consolidation of the Gujarat Sultanate. In 1416, of agriculture; a number of new canals and tanks he crushed a rebellious confederacy of Rajputs, were dug, and dams were constructed. The Sultan reinforced by Hushang’s army, in the northwest. Two appreciated the necessity of a strong army and stable years later Ahmad invaded Malwa, bringing home government, and forced regions such as Ladakh and to Hushang that Malwa was no match to Gujarat, a Baltistan to reacknowledge the suzerainty of the truce was signed in 1419. Hushang, subsequently, Kashmir Sultans. Friendly relations were established invaded Jajnagar to obtain more elephants. His with the Timurid rulers of Khurasan and Transoxiana, absence prompted Sultan Ahmad to make forced the kings of Gilan and Egypt, and the sheriffs of marches to Mandu, but the garrison there stoutly Mecca. Many independent Hindu and Muslim rulers defended the fort. Hushang returned meanwhile also exchanged envoys with him. and was defeated by Ahmad near Sarangpur. Ahmad The Kashmiris gave Sultan Zainul Abidin, was still unable to capture Mandu fort, returning to the title Budshah (the Great King), and he is still Gujarat in May 1423. remembered by it. His successors were unable After 1425, Gujarat entered upon an era to match his achievements, although they were of intermittent warfare with the Rajput Raja of interested in promoting the social and cultural life Idar. Ahmad also exacted tribute from the Rajput of the region. Eventually the weaker rulers fell under chieftains of Champanir, Dungarpur, Kota, and Bundi the domination of the adventurers. In 1540, Mirza to help fi nance his campaigns and enhance his began to rule in the name of Nazuk Shah of the power. He died in 1442. Shah Mir dynasty. Although he streamlined the Muslim historians praise Ahmad Shah for his administration and built many new monuments, he devotion to Sufi s and for his determination to destroy was unable to command the loyalty of the Kashmiri idols. He forced the Rajput chiefs to marry their upper classes and in October, 1551, he was killed daughters to him in order to make them outcastes whilst quelling a rebellion. Three rulers of the Shah in their own community, thereby ensuring their Mir family succeeded him, but in 1561, the Kashmiri subservience to him. His Muslim nobles also pursued Chaks established a new dynasty and provided the same policy, and the interracial marriages gave the next six rulers until 1588, when Akbar annexed rise to a mixed religious group in Gujarat. The soldiers Kashmir to the Mughal empire. in his army drew half their salary in cash from the Gujarat royal treasury and half from land tax assignments. The independent kingdom of Gujarat was To ensure his subjects’ obedience and to prevent founded by Zafar Khan, son of Sadharan, a Jat them from uniting against him, half of the civil posts convert to Islam. Sadharan’s sister was married to Success in each department went to the free-born Muslims of Firuz Tughluq. Zafar Khan was appointed governor and the other half to slaves. of Gujarat, in 1391, with the title Muzaffar Khan. Ahmad’s successor, Muhammad Shah (1442- Despite his advanced age, he fi rmly suppressed the 51), was a mild ruler, as was the next Sultan, rebellious Muslim noblemen and Hindu chieftains. Qutubuddin Ahmad Shah II (1451-59). Fath Khan, He remained loyal to the Delhi Sultanate, even after who ascended the throne at the age of thirteen as Timur left India and anarchy prevailed there. In Mahmud Shah (1459-1511), was the greatest Muslim 1403-04 he was deposed by his son, Tatar Khan, ruler of Gujarat. Soon after his coronation, the ruler

but his uncle, Shams Khan Dandani, then poisoned Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru of Khandesh sought his assistance in repelling an | 181 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 invasion by Mahmud Khilji of Malwa. Mahmud’s strengthened its defences and foiled two successive military exploits despite his young age so impressed Portuguese attempts to seize it. He also helped the Malwa Sultan that he decided that no military Mahmud Khilji of Malwa without any motives solutions could be secured while Gujarat had such of personal gain. Although he loved music and a strong ruler, and he ceased attacking the buffer patronised musicians, this did not confl ict with his state of Khandesh. piety. His death in 1526 was followed by the brief In 1461, Mahmud defeated the Muslim ruler of reigns of two incompetent rulers. Then, Bahadur CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Jalor in south Rajasthan and made him his protege. Shah (1526-37) ascended the throne. He was the He then seised the port of Daman on the west coast last of the energetic Gujarat rulers. Early in 1531 his from its Hindu rulers. Initially, in 1466, he exacted navy, in collaboration with the Turkish fl eet, defeated tribute from the Yadava prince of Girnar (Junagarh) the Portuguese fl eet, which took shelter in Goa. but four years later, he annexed Girnar to his Next, he annexed Malwa to his kingdom and then Sultanate, thereby gaining control of the fl ourishing arrested Silahdi, the ruler of Raisen, Sarangpur, and port of Veraval. Mahmud founded a new town at Bhilsa, when Silahdi visited the Sultan in his camp the foot of the Girnar hills, Mustaphabad, where to conclude a treaty. Bahadur then seised Raisen he settled members of the Muslim religious classes and gave it to a Lodi chief from Kalpi, whom the and elite. Mahmud’s supremacy was threatened Emperor Humayun had expelled from his territory. only by the Portuguese. After the arrival of Vasco da In March 1535, the use of artillery belonging Gama in Calicut, in 1498, the Protuguese became to the Turkish gunner Rumi Khan made the Sultan a serious threat to the trade of Cambay and other master of Chittor. Rumi Khan, however, disappointed Gujarat ports. In the battle of Chaul, in January 1508, at the Sultan’s refusal to make him governor of the governor of Junagarh and the Egyptian fl eet Chittor, decided to betray him. The opportunity arose sent by the Mamluk Sultan were victorious, but before long, when Humayun, in pursuit of Bahadur, the Egyptian and Gujarati fl eets were routed by the reached Mandasor. Rumi Khan urged the Sultan fi rst Portuguese in February 1509. Mahmud realised that to strengthen his defences and then to make short the Portuguese were invincible at sea and opened work of Humayun by using his superior artillery. negotiations for peace with Governor Albuquerque. The suggestion seemed reasonable, but Bahadur’s In November 1510, the Portuguese conquest of Goa, loyal commanders rightly rejected it. They believed which belonged to the Adilshahi ruler of Bijapur, so that the victorious Gujarati army’s best interest lay greatly enhanced Portuguese power that Mahmud in an immediate assault; waiting around would only destroy their morale. While the defences were unconditionally released his Portuguese hostages, being strengthened, Humayun, naturally seised and the Egyptian-Gujarat confederacy was broken. the opportunity to cut off supplies to Bahadur’s Mahmud died in November 1511. According camp, and his army starved. Rumi Khan deserted to to the Italian adventurer, Ludovico de Varthema. Humayun at the end of April 1535, and Bahadur had Mahmud’s beard reached his girdle, and he tied no alternative but to retreat to Mandu. Chased by his inordinately long moustaches behind his head. Humayun, Bahadur fl ed from Mandu to Champanir. According to Barbosa, he had been regularly fed on From there, he sent extremely valuable presents some poison since childhood, with the result that to the Ottoman Sultan, Suleiman the Magnifi cent “if a fl y settled on his hand it fell dead”. His ravenous Success (1520-66), in the unrealistic hope of obtaining his of hunger led him to consume enormous amounts of help. Humayun’s pursuit was relentless; Bahadur had food. His title Begarha was a constant reminder of to fl ee to Cambay. There he burnt his fl eet of one both his conquest of the two forts, Junagarh and hundred warships in order to prevent their falling into Champanir, and his moustaches, for the Gujarati Humayun’s hands, and sailed to Diu. In the despairing word vegara means a bullock with sweeping horns. hope of obtaining assistance from the Portuguese, Mahmud’s successor, Muzaffar II (1511-26), Bahadur granted them permission to erect a fort was a gentle but active ruler. He refused to allow at Diu, which he had until then refused. Humayun

the Portuguese to build a fortress at Diu; instead he Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru conquered Champanir and then Ahmadabad. He | 182 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) marched on to Diu but then had to abandon the relieved the besieged fort. Hushang ensured his pursuit of Bahadur in order to deal with Sher Khan’s popularity with the majority Hindu population by threat to his throne. Bahadur took the opportunity introducing a policy of religious toleration, although to leave Diu and, reassembling his army, regained he also encouraged the ulema and Sufi s to settle in his lost kingdom. Now regretting his concessions to Mandu. Many Rajputs settled in his kingdom and the Portuguese, Bahadur marched to Gogha near served his army loyally. The Jains also supported Diu, but was outwitted by the Portuguese and slain him and proved an asset to the promotion of trade on 13th February, 1537, while returning from the ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA and commerce in Malwa. Although constant wars negotiations aboard their fl agship. With Bahadur’s against the rulers of Gujarat, Jaunpur, Delhi and the death, the glory of the independent kingdom of Bahmanis brought no material gains to his kingdom, Gujarat vanished. Its extinction by Akbar was only they frustrated his neighbour’s expansionist designs. a matter to time. Before his death, in 1435, Hushang also founded a new town, Hushangabad, on the river Narmada. Malwa His son and heir, Muhammad Shah, was an The kingdom of Malwa founded by Husain ineffectual ruler and was deposed by one of his Ghuri, whom Firuz Tughluq had made a noble, giving nobles, who ascended the throne in 1436, with the him the title Dilawar Khan. In 1390-91 Firuz’s son, title Mahmud Khilji (1436-69). He crushed Ghurid Sultan Nasiruddin Muhammad, appointed Dilawar resistance and established the Khilji dynasty. In governor of Malwa. After Timur’s departure from 1442, he invaded Delhi, but the invasion of Malwa by India, Dilawar proclaimed himself the independent Ahmad Shah of Gujarat forced him to make peace ruler of Malwa with his capital at Dhar. His son, and return of Mandu. In 1443, Mahmud attacked Alp Khan, reinforced the defence by competing Chittor, but fi nding the fort impregnable, retreated. the fortifi cation of Mandu. Dilawar maintained The historians of Malwa kingdom nevertheless a conciliatory religious policy which made both claimed victory for their ruler. Mahmud next Rajputs and other Hindus friendly to him. He even captured the Gagraun and Mandalgarh forts on settled Rajputs in his newly acquired territory of the Malwa border and later, in 1457, marched once Nimar. Dilawar extended his kingdom by snatching more against Chittor, unsuccessfully. His wars against Saugor and Damoh from the Delhi Sultanate and the Sultan of Gujarat were abortive too, and he making the ruler of Chanderi accept his overlordship. eventually, concluded an agreement guaranteeing After his death in 1406-07, his son, Alp Khan, the integrity of their borders. Thrice Mahmud’s became the Sultan of Malwa with the title—Hushang efforts to seize parts of the Bahmani territory failed Shah (1406-35). Almost immediately Sultan Muzaffar because the ruler received timely assistance from Shah of Gujarat invaded Malwa, defeating Hushang the Sultan of Gujarat. Mahmud was at length forced and taking him captive. Nusrat, Muzaffar’s brother, to make a treaty with the Bahmins, cementing good who was appointed the governor of Malwa, was neighbourly relations. Before his death, in 1469, a unable to control it and returned to Gujarat. Muzaffar realistic boundary had been established for Malwa intended to crush the popular uprising in Malwa by on its Gujarat and Deccan borders. force but good sense prevailed and he restored the throne to Hushang. Back in his kingdom, Hushang Mahmud was interested in all aspects transferred his capital to Mandu. He then invaded Success of community life. He actively promoted the of Rai Narsingh Kherla’s kingdom in the southern part development of agriculture and trade, established of Gondawana in order to obtain military assistance centres of Islamic learning, and encouraged scholars and a supply of elephants. Profi ting from Hushang’s from other parts of India to move to Mandu. The absence, Ahmad I of Gujarat besieged Mandu, but hospital he founded there was a large establishment Hushang, eluding the invading army, returned to with provision for free medicine. the city, forcing Ahmad to retreat. Hushang then The reign of Mahmud’s successor, Ghiyas Shah seised Gangraun. His subsequent invasion of Gwalior, (1469-1501), saw a period of peace and prosperity.

however, failed because Mubarak Shah of Delhi Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru In 1482, he marched to the assistance of Rawal Jai | 183 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Singh, the raja of Champan, when he was invaded Chanderi, while his associate Silahdi occupied Bhilsa by the Sultan of Gujarat. Realising that he would and Raisen. Rana Sanga invaded Mandasor. Harauti, actually have to fi ght the Sultan, he returned home Khichiwara, and Satwas also became independent. on the pretext that the ulema were opposed to his Then Mahmud offended the Sultan of Gujarat by helping ruler. Ghiyas Shah collected about 16,000 sheltering his rebellious brother. In March 1531, slave girls in his palace, including the daughters of Bahdur Shah of Gujarat captured Mandu. Mahmud many Hindu chieftains. An army of Ethopian and and his sons were sent as captives to Champanir but Turkish slave girls was formed to act as guards. ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA were killed on the way. For six years, Malwa remained Another 500 damsels were trained in state business, under the control of Gujarat but after Bahadur Shah’s and a bazar run by women was opened in the palace. death in 1537, it regained its independence. The king quaintly combined his voluptuous desires Malwa’s new Sultan was Mallu Khan, who with nightly prayers and vigils. He was easily duped adopted the title Qadir Shah. He was a far-sighted by people pretending to be religious. His elder son, ruler, making peace with Silahdi’s sons, who ruled Abdul Qadir Nasir Shah, whom he appointed his over Raisen, and improving relations with the Rajput successor, had a very aggressive nature. He beheaded chieftains. Sher Shah, the Sur ruler of Delhi, however, his younger brother and, although his father was still conquered Malwa and installed Afghan governors living, proclaimed himself king. Ghiyas abdicated, there. dying possibly from poisoning, four months after surrendering the throne. Jaunpur Nasir Shah’s despotic character and heavy Among the dynasties founded by the governors drinking disgusted his nobles. His rule ended in appointed by Firuz Tughluq or his successors, a short- A.D. 1510. His third son, who came to the throne lived brilliant line was that of the Sharqis of Jaunpur, as Mahmud II (1511-31), appointed Medini Rai, the north of Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh). It was founded by Rajput chief of Chanderi, as his wazir in order to Malik Sarwar, a eunuch belonging to Sultan Firuz frustrate the intrigues of his Muslim noblemen. Tughluq. Malik Sarwar’s remarkable rapid rise to Medini Rai fi lled all the important positions with his power was due largely to the anarchy which followed own supporters. He also ordered that Muslim women Firuz’s death. Firuz’s younger son, Muhammad should be trained as dancing girls, in retaliation Shah (1390-93 A.D.), eventually conferred the title for Ghiyas’ treatment of Hindu women. The Sultan Sultanus-Sharq (Ruler of the Eastern Kingdom) ultimately began to hate Medini Rai, who escaped upon him and made him his wazir. As reward for his to Gujarat. Early in January 1518, he returned with services, he was in 1394 A.D., appointed the governor Sultan Muzaffar Shah of Gujarat, and captured of Jaunpur, where he fi rmly crushed uprisings by Mandu. Leaving a supportive Gujarat contingent, the Hindu chiefs of Avadh and Bihar. The chiefs of Muzaffar returned to his capital. Medini then seised Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur, Champaran, and Tirhut Gagraun. Mahmud besieged him but was defeated acknowledged his overlordship. When Timur left by Rana Sanga, who rushed to relive Mandu. Rana Delhi, Sarwar proclaimed himself the independent Sanga captured the Sultan and took him to Chittor, ruler of Jaunpur. Before his death in November but when his wounds had healed the Rana sent 1399 the western boundary of his kingdom had him back to Mandu and restored him to his throne. been extended to Kol (modern Aligarh), Sambhal Comparing Muzaffar’s assistance to Mahmud Khilji Success (Muradabad) and Rapri (Mainpuri districts). His of with the Rana’s magnanimity, a Mughal historian eastern borders now ran along Bihar and Tirhut. gives greater credit to the Rana; for Muhammad Although Sultan-us-Sharq was succeeded by had helped a refuge, while the Rana had restored his adopted son Malik Mubarak Qaranfal (1399-1401 the kingdom to his captive enemy. Muzaffar again A.D.), it was his younger brother, Ibrahim Shah Sharqi sent a contingent to Mahmud’s assistance, but (1401-40), who made Jaunpur a powerful kingdom. the Sultan grew suspicious of his intentions and He made an alliance with Kirti Singh of Tirhut. When sent the Gujaratis back. Before long all the border Tirhut was attacked by a Muslim adventurer, he

region was taken from Mahmud. Medini Rai seised Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru sent his forces to help him and also attended his | 184 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) coronation. Then he invaded Bengal to remove the was deemed a personal loss by these Hindu rulers. Hindu ruler, Ganesha, from the throne and annexed This short-lived kingdom surpassed others in the petty independent sultanate of Kalpi to his helping the cause of cultural synthesis and social kingdom. He invaded Delhi too, forcing the Saiyid rapproachement. sultan there, Muhammad Shah (1435-46 A.D.), to Bahamanis make peace with him and sealed the alliance with a marriage between his son and the Sultan’s daughter. In the twelfth century, the Chalukyas of Kalyani CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA and the Cholas of Tanjavur were the two great ruling Ibrahim’s son, Mahmud Shah Sharqi (1440-57 dynasties of south India. Following their decline in A.D.), was also an ambitious ruler. In 1542 A.D., he the thirteenth century; four provincial kingdoms captured Delhi but lost it through the treachery of took their place. These were the Yadavas of Devagiri his Afghan commander. Darya Khan, who supported (Maharashtra), the Kakatiyas of Warangal (Andhra Delhi’s fi rst Afghan ruler, Bahlul Lodi (1451-89 A.D.) Pradesh), the Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra (Karnataka) consolidated the eastern boundaries of the Delhi and the Pandyas of Madurai (Tamil Nadu). Under Sultanate from Etawa to Shamsabad. In Jaunpur, these kingdoms, the political, economic and cultural Mahmud’s successor, Muhammad, was deposed vitality of south India remained intact, as it did during after a few month because of his excessive cruelty. the Chola-Chalukya phase. Till the fi rst invasion The next ruler, Husain Shah Sharqi, made peace of Alauddin Khilji against Devagiri in 1295, south with Bahlul, strengthened the army, and forced India also remained free from Turkish invasions. The Orissa and Gwalior to submit to him. In 1469 A.D., he huge booty which Alauddin Khilji collected after invaded Delhi but was driven away before he could his fi rst invasion of Devagiri, whetted his appetite cross the Jamuna. In retaliation, the Delhi Sultan to undertake the conquest of south India. After Bahlul, not content with Etawa and Shamsabad completing the conquest of North India, he sent as his eastern boundary, attacked Jaunpur. Husain Malik Kafur as the Commander of the Khilji troops Shah had frittered away his resources in raising for the conquest of these states. As a result of Malik huge armies, but his three successive bids to defeat Kafur’s campaigns, Devagiri was annexed to the Bahlul failed. In 1481-82 A.D., he sustained a crushing Sultanate of Delhi and while the Kaktatiyas and defeat near Kannauj. Bahlul reached Jaunpur in a the Hoysalas accepted the suzerainty of the Khiljis, series of forced marches and seised it, issuing coins the Pandyan kingdom of Maddurain as plundered. therein 1483-84. Husain made four more successive Khilji infl uence over the South, however proved efforts to expel Bahlul’s governor from Jaunpur, temporary. After Alauddin’s death, Khilji infl uence but Bahlul defeated Husain and forced him to seek was almost overthrown. Consequently, after coming refuge in Bihar. to power, Ghiyasuddin Tughluq deputed his son The Rajputs, particularly the Bachgotis, were Jauna Khan (later on known was Muhammad bin Husain’s staunch supporters and helped him to Tughluq) for conquest of south India in 1321, who establish his rule over an area between Chunar and annexed the Kakatiya and the Pandyan kingdoms Bihar. In A.D. 1494 he suffered another crushing to the Sultanate of Delhi, and the Hoysalas became defeat at the hands of Bahlul’s successor, Sultan tributary of the Tughluqs. Sikander Lodi, near Benares Sikander seised the On account of the extent of the Tughluq empire Bihar fort, while Husain Shah took refuge with Success in the South, and to keep the newly conquered areas of Sultan Alauddin Husain Shah (1493-1518 A.D.) of under effective control, Muhammad bin Tughluq Bengal. Sikander stayed at Jaunpur for six months, transferred his capital to Devagiri which he named demolishing the Sharqi monuments in order to as Daulatabad. But the Tughluq authority in the demonstrate his control of the district. Only the South had to face numerous rebellions and chronic mosques were spared. Husain Shah died in 1505 A.D. unrest and it lasted only for about two decades. In The Sultans of Jaunpur were frequently helped 1333-34, Jalaluddin Ahsan, the Tughluq governor of by the Hindu chiefs against their Muslim opponents, Madurai, declared this independence and founded

particularly the Lodis. The fall of the Sharqi kingdom Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru the Sultanate. The Hoysalas also threw off the yoke | 185 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 of Tughluq Suzerainty. In Andhra, the Reddis became the reign of Alauddin Ahmad Shah II, although powerful. In 1336, the empire of Vijayanagar. Taking he was a ‘newcomer’ (afaqi). Under Humayun, he advantage of this situation, the Tughluq Amiran-i- became chief minister as also governor of Bijapur. Sadahs revolted at Daulatabad and founded the During the minority of Nizamuddin Ahmad Shah Bahmani kingdom with its capital, at Gulbarga, in III, he was one of the two ministers who ruled the 1346. Thus, in the fourteenth century, two powerful kingdom under the direction of Nargis Begum. kingdoms emerged in the South—the Vijayanagar During the reign of Muhammad Shah III, CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA and the Bahmani. Since we are dealing with the he was the de facto ruler of the kingdom for empire of Vijayanagar separately in the next chapter, about twenty-four years. Under his guidance, the here we shall confi ne overselves to the Bahmani kingdom attained a height of power and prosperity kingdom. unequalled in its history. The fi nal annexation of the The Bahmani kingdom came into existence Konkan and Goa extended its frontier to the western during the closing years of Muhammad Bin Tughluq sea, and the annexation of the Godavari-Krishna as a result of the rebellion of the Amiran-i-Sadah in Doab brought it to the coast of the eastern sea. the Deccan. After the success of the rebellion, they In the south, the Bahmani power reached Kanchi. elected Ismail Mikh as the Sultan. He assumed the Apart from the territorial expansion, he provided title of Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (1347-58) and for the consolidation of the kingdom through established his capital at Gulbarga which remained administration reforms. But military and political the seat of the Bahamni government till 1424, when successes could not save the great minister from the it was shifted to Bidar. jealousy of his rivals and the folly of his sovereign. Thus, the history of the Bahmanis is divided He was executed (1481) on the Sultan’s order on into two parts—the Gulbarga and the Bidar phases. the charge of treasons which was false. The central theme of the Bahmani history hinges This tragedy was the culmination of party around the struggle with the empire of Vijayanagar, strife which was to some extent racial in origin. From mostly in the region between the Krishna and the early years of the fi fteenth century, the ruling Tungabhadra—known as the Raichur Doab. The Muslim aristocracy in the Bahmani kingdom had basic cause of this long-drawn and indecisive split itself into two rival groups. The old immigrants struggle was economic, i.e., the desire of the who had permanently settled in the Deccan were Bhamanis to capture economically productive and known as Deccanis. Among them, were some Hindu prosperous areas of the empire of Vijayanagar. In converts—the founders of the Imad Shahi and Nizam spite of this struggle continuing till the decline of Shahi dynasties, for instance. The new immigrants, the Bahmani kingdom, the nature and scene of the who came year after year from foreign countries in struggle remained the same and its results proved search of fortune, were called newcomers (afaqis) disastrous at least for the Bahmani kingdom. In the or foreigners (pardesis). They came from different Gulbarga phase, Tajuddin Firuj (1397-1422) was the countries—Persia, Turkey, Central Asia, Afghanistan, greatest Sultan who invited a large number of Afaqis Arabia—as soldiers or traders; and many of them or foreigners or West Asians to a sharp division drifted into politics which generally held the key of the Bahmani nobility into Afaqi and Deccani to political and social prominence. Some sultans

groups, which ultimately led to the decline and Success offered wide scope to them for employment in the disintegration of the Bahmani kingdom. of army. Alauddin Bahman Shah took many offi cers of Sultan Ahmad Shah I (1422-36) transferred the the Tughluqs into his service. Alauddin Mujahid Shah capital from Gulbarga to Bidar. In the Bidar phase, showed a distinct preference for the Persians and the period of the Bahmani Prime Minister Mahmud the Turks. Ahmad Shah I extended his patronage to Gawan (1463-81) who was also the regent of the scholars from Persia, Iraq and Arabia. Bahmani Sultan Muhammad Shah III (1463-82), was The Deccanis looked upon the Pardesis as the most glorious of Bahmani history. A Persian by intruders who took a share in opportunities and

birth, Mahmud Gawan came into prominence during Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru privileges which should have been reserved | 186 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) solely for them. The clash of material interests was 3. Ahmadnagar, sharpened by religious differences. Most of the 4. Bijapur and Abyssinians, were Sunnis; a majority of the Pardesis 5. Golcunda. were Shias. 1. Bidar: Qasim Barid was the founder of the During the reign of Ahmad Shah I, the Bahmani Barid Shahi kingdom. As Prime minister of the forces were defeated on three successive occasions Bahmanis, he usurped Bidar and made the by the Gujarati army. The minister, Mahmud Gawan, CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Bahmani Sultan his puppet in the beginning who was a Pardesi, attributed this humiliation to the and subsequently his prisoner. Qasim died in cowardice and treachery of the Deccanis who, in 1504 and was succeeded the post by his son, their turn, attributed it to minister’s incompetence. Amir Ali Barid. The Bahmani monarchy had The Sultan then raised the Deccanis to power. In the become so powerless that Amir Ali Barid was reign of Alauddin Ahamd Shah II, they massacred able to act as kingmaker on the demise of many Pardesis at Chakan (1446) with the Sultan’s succeeding do-nothing king, with the fl ight permission for a military reverse. The bitter hatred from Bidar of the last Bahmani ruler Kalimullah between the two parties was accentuated by in 1528, there was no impediment left for the this incident. It culmination was the execution of assumption of kingship by the Minister. But Mahmud Gawan. Bidar was always in a precarious condition, With this political crime, “departed all the being hemmed in by powerful rulers who cohesion and power of the Bahmani kingdom”. were always knocking at the gates of the Muhammad Shah III died within a year of Mahmud capital. Gawan’s execution and his minor son, Shihabuddin Amir Ali Barid died in 1542, and was succeeded Mahmud Shah (1482-1518), succeeded to the throne. by his son, Ali Barid Shah. He was an artist and The bitter fued between the Deccanis and the a man of letters, and he distinguished himself Pardesis continued and paralysed the government. by commanding the left wing of the allied An unsuccessful conspiracy to murder the Sultan armies which shattered the Vijayanagar forces was followed by a massacre of the Deccanis in the battle of the Krishna. But this did not (1487). The disintegration of the kingdom began help the security of the kingdom and it was with the appointment of Qasim Barid, a Paradesi, often menaced by the army of Ahmadnagar. as the Prime Minister and de facto ruler of the Ali Barid Shah died in 1579. His mausoleum, at kingdom. The provincial governors refused to Bidar, is one of the most magnifi cent edifi ces acknowledge his authority. Three of them asserted in the city, today. He was succeeded by his their independence, founding the Sultanates of son Ibrahim. After Ibrahim, came a number of Berar, Ahmadnagar and Bijapur. This was followed weak rulers. Not long after, Ibrahim Adil Shah some years later by establishment of the Sultanate II invaded Bidar and annexed the kingdom to of Golcunda. Meanwhile Qasim Barid died and his Bijapur, in 1619. position was inherited by his son, Amir Barid. The puppet Sultan, Shihabuddin Mahmud Shah, died in 2. Berar: The Bahmani succession state which 1518. He was succeeded by four puppet Sultans, one had the shortest span of life was Berar with after another, but Amir Barid remained in power in its shifting capitals at Ellichpur and Gawilgarh. Success Its importance lay in its being a kind of buffer Bidar. The last of them, Kalimullah, died in 1538 and of the Bahmani dynasty came to an end. between Malwa, Khandesh and the Deccan. The founder of the dynasty was Fathullah Bahmani Succession States: In the aftermath Imadul Mulk, a Brahmin of Vijayanagar of Qasim Barids appointments as prime minister by converted to Islam. He was made governor Shihbuddin Mahmud Shah, the Bahmani kingdom of Gawilgarh by Mahmud Gawan. He soon broke up into the fi ve kingdoms of: annexed the eastern portion of Berar as well 1. Bidar, and thus consolidated the whole of the rich

2. Berar, Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru black cotton tract under his rule. He never | 187 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 declared his independence, and there are Although Husain lived a short life of just over instances of the respect which he showed to twenty-fi ve years, his reign is a landmark in the Bahmani Sultan, even after the political the history of the Deccan. He had inherited a connection with Bidar had snapped. bitter feud with Bijapur, and the joint armies Fathullah died in 1504 and was succeeded of Ali Adil Shah. Ibrahim Qutb Shah and Rama by Alauddin, who assumed the title of Imad Raya of a coalition of which Rama Raya was Shah. Small as the state was, it was involved the strongest party, invaded the Ahmadnagar CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA in the perennial confl ict which was the order territories (1562). The depredation on the inhabitants of Ahmadnagar in general and of the day in the Deccan. But he was able to Muslims, in particular, made Husain very bitter, make his kingdom so powerful that his help and he was successful in forming the Muslim was sought even by the Baridi rulers of Bidar. confederacy against Vijayanagar in 1565. He was, however, not equal to the task of resisting the pressure of Ahmadnagar and Husain died a few months after the battle of Krishna and was succeeded by his son had to fl ee to Khandesh once. Alauddin died Murtada (1565-88). His reign saw the fi rst in 1529 and was succeeded by his son Darya invasion by the Mughals, and the annexation who had also to take sides in the internecine of Berar. But the Sultan’s mental faculty gave wars of the Deccan Sultans. After Darya his way after 1574 and he began to consider infant son Burhan was placed on the throne his own son, Miran Husain, to be his deadly in 1562. But it was the minister, Tufal Khan, enemy. Miran, in his turn, conspired against who became the real ruler, and he confi ned his father and had him suffocated to death Burhan to the Narnala fort. This was an open in his bath. The patricide did not reign was challenge to Murtada Nizam Shah who was mostly taken up by the struggler for power related by marriage to the Imad Shahi dynasty. between the Mahdawi sect and the Shias. The In 1572, Murtada sent an ultimatum to Tufal king’s father, Burhan, a fugitive at the court of Khan, to release Burhan at once. On receiving Akbar, returned and after defeating his sons’ an unsatisfactory answer, he invaded Berar army ascended the throne. and after a sharp struggle, took both Tufal and Burhan’s reign (1591-95) was marked by a Burhan prisoner and annexed Berar (1574). series of defeats at the hands of Ibrahim Adil 3. Ahmadnagar: The founder of the Nizam Shah II and by his failure to recover Chaul from Shahi dynasty was Ahmad, son of Hasan the Portuguese. In the context of historical Nizamul Mulk, prime minister of the Bahmani literature, his reign saw the compilation of Burhan-i-Ma’athir. He was succeeded by his kingdom after Mahmud Gawan’s execution. son Ibrahim who reigned for barely four Ahmad succeeded to his father’s title and was months. There was now confusion in the appointed to the governorship of Daulatabad. capital, with four claimants to the throne In 1494, he founded the city of Ahmadnagar supported by four different groups of the and shifted his capital therefrom Junnar. He ruling aristocracy. One of these was supported had made his position thoroughly secure by by Miyan Manjhu and another by Chand Bibi, the time he died in 1510 and was succeeded Success princess of Ahmadnagar and widow of Ali Adil of by his son, Burhan, the seven years old. He had Shah of Bijapur, who had returned to the land an able minister in the person of Mukammal of her birth. When Miyan Manjhu saw that the Khan Dakhini. Burhan was the fi rst of the line cause of his nominee, Ahmad, was in danger to assume the title of Nizam Shah. During his of being foiled, he sent a message to Akbar’s reign, Ahmadnagar was in turn the ally and son, prince Murad, beseeching his help. Murad then the enemy of Bijapur, Bidar, Vijayanagar, responded by marching towards Ahmadnagar. Golcunda and Berar. Burhan died in 1553, and When the capital was under siege, the intrepid

was succeeded by his son Husain. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Chand Bibi took over the command of the | 188 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) fort and defended the battlements as long only replaced Persian by ‘Hindawai’ (Dakhini as she could, but in the end she had to make Urdu) as the official but gave numerous peace with the Mughals, ceding Berar as its employments to the Hindus. He supported the price. Peace, however, did not last long and party opposed to Rama Raya at Vijayanagar, the Mughals again laid siege to the capital. and although he was defeated by Rama Raya’s It was during this second attack that Chand forces he recouped and was able to take Adoni Bibi lost her life (1600). in 1535. CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA The last scene in the drama of the struggle Ibrahim was succeeded by his son, Ali (1558- of Ahmadnagar for independence was its 80). There was the eternal quarrel with gallant defence by Malik Ambar, the thrice Ahmadnagar for the possession of Sholapur, manumitted Abyssinian slave, who would and in order to strengthen his own hands not bow before the Mughal might and he made an alliance with Rama Raya. The proclaimed Murtaza II king with his capital allied armies now invaded the Nizam Shahi at Parenda. From that center, he raided the territories and ultimately, forced Husain Nizam Mughal territory by means of guerrilla tactics. Shah to fl ee to Junnar. But the conduct of the Malik Ambar's stubborn resistance continued Vijayanagar army estranged all the Bahmani over a long period but he was defeated by succession states and even disgusted Ali prince Khurram, fi rst in 1617 and again in himself who was led to make a matrimonial 1621. His death, in 1626, fi nally sealed the alliance with Ahmadnagar by marrying fate of the Nizam Shahi kingdom. Its last ruler Husain’s daughter, Chand Bibi. It was this Murtada III was captured by Shah Jahan in alliance which became the pivot of the league 1636 and the Nizam Shahi territories were that shattered the power of Vijayanagar. Ali parcelled out among the Mughals and, the was murdered in his bed in 1580, and was ruler of Bijapur. succeeded by his nephew Ibrahim II. 4. Bijapur: The founder of the Adil Shahi dynasty, Ibrahim II, who reigned until 1627, was a great Yusuf Adil Khan, who ruled Bijapur until 1510, patron of learning and was affectionately claimed descent from a scion of the Ottoman called Jagadguru by his subjects. It was the dynasty. A protégé of Mahmud Gawan, he king’s aunt, Chand Bibi, who was the real was one of the most eminent fi gures of the ruler of Bijapur during Ibrahim’s reign; and last days of the Bahmani kingdom. A great her courage, quick decision and intrepidity patron of art and literature, he was married cost her own liberty many a time. When things to a Maratha, Babuji Khanum. Yusuf died in were taking a nasty turn at Ahmadnagar, 1510, and was succeeded by his 13-year-old Chand Bibi went to the city of her birth and son, Ismail. A great loss incurred by the state faced the Mughals right up to her last breath. was the capture of Goa by the Portuguese. In The reduction of Ahmadnagar by the Mughals other fi elds, however, he was more successful, and Chand Bibi’s death must have told on and was able to defeat the Baridi ruler and Ibrahim’s nerves, and he had to bow before the actually occupied Bidar for a time. He could Mughals by giving his daughter in marriage not, however, withstand the invasion of to prince Daniyal. Ibrahim was the author of

Krishnadeva Raya of Vijayanagar and had to Success the famous book of Hindu songs, the Nawras- cede Raichur to the victory. of Namah and it was in his reign that the Tarikh- Ismail was succeeded by his son Mallu (1534) i-Firishta was completed. His many public who proved to be entirely incapable of works, the magnifi cent tomb he constructed governing the State. He was deposed after for his wife, and his own versatility made his reigning for a little over six months, and his reign one of the most unique in the history younger brother Ibrahim was put on the of the Deccan. throne. Ibrahim (1534-58) was the fi rst Bijapur He was succeeded by his son, Muhammad

ruler to adopt the title of Shah, and he not Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru (1627-57). Although he extended the territories | 189 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 of Bijapur at the expense of Ahmadnagar in July 1550. Ibrahim’s reign (1550-80) was a as well as of Vijayanagar, the hands of landmark in the history of Golcunda. He was a the Mughals lay heavy on the kingdom. cultured man, a linguist of note, popular with Muhammad lies buried in the magnifi cent his subjects both Hindu and Muslim, and a tomb, the Gol Gumbad, which is one of the diplomat of high order. Ibrahim was the fi rst wonders of architecture. He was succeeded by in the line to assume the title of Shah. In the Ali II (1657-72). Emperor Shah Jahan refused to beginning of his reign he had close contacts recognize Ali II as the lawful king and ordered ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA with Vijayanagar, but the inordinate vanity of prince Aurangzeb to march against Bijapur. Rama Raya estranged him and he also joined But the life of the dynasty was prolonged for the league which defeated the Vijayanagar a few years by Aurangzeb’s return to the North army. to fi ght the battle of succession at Samugarh. Ibrahim died in 1580 A.D., and was succeeded In the South, Shivaji sprang to eminence, and by his son, Muhammad Quli. As the founder the episode of the Bijapur general Afzal Khan of the city of Hyderabad, as the author of and his murder is well-known. Ali’s court was the fi rst Diwan or collection of poems in full of literatures of note, and his half-fi nished Dakhini Urdu, and as a patron of both Telugu mausoleum testifi es to his artistic nature. He and Urdu, he holds a notable place in the was succeeded by Sikander, the last of the history of Golcunda. On the political side, the line. Shivaji was crowned as Chattrapati at meaningless squabbles between the Deccan Raigarh in 1674, while in 1681, Aurangzeb kingdoms continued. Muhammad Quli had moved to the Deccan never to return. Bijapur to suppress revolts in the eastern part of his was invested, and the city opened its gates to kingdom, and it is remarkable that he sent the Mughals on 12 September, 1686. Bijapur his Hindu as well as Muslim generals for this as an independent kingdom thus ceased to purpose. exist. Muhammad Quli died in 1612 and was 5. Golkonda: This state, with its capital fi rst succeeded by his nephew, Muhammad. The at the rock-citadel of Golkonda and then reign of this Sultan is marked by comparative at Hyderabad, was named Tilang after the peace and order. He was succeeded by his Bahmani province of that name, and was 12-year-old, son Abdullah. During the king’s placed in charge of Sultan Quli Hamadani, in minority, the state was governed by his able 1494. The Bahmani ruler granted him the title mother, Hayat Baksh Begum, who has given of Qutbul Mulk, a title which gave its name to her name to many villages, sarais, etc. When the dynasty. He assumed independence in 1512. Abdullah grew up, he indulged in a life of The period of his government was fi lled with pleasure and proved incapable of defending his struggles with Vijayanagar and his attempts the kingdom against the Mughals. The treason to reach the natural frontiers of the Andhra of Mir Jumla, who went over to the Mughals, country. Sultan Quli, at the age of ninety-eight, helped them to tighten their hold considerably, was assassinated (1543) by his son, Jamshid, resulting in their occupation of Hyderabad in who was tired of waiting for the throne. January 1656. On Abdullah’s death (1672), the Jamshid’s reign of seven years was by no Success question of succession arose since the king of means peaceful. His alleged complicity in had no male issue, and the throne passed to the murder of his father made him very his son-in-law, Abul Hasan, surnamed Tana unpopular and the sternness of his character, Shah. A deep rift grew between Abul Hasan verging on cruelty, forced his borther Ibrahim and emperor Aurangzeb, who himself arrived to seek asylum in Vijayanagar. Jamshid was in the Deccan, in 1682. Events now took a succeeded by his young son Subhan. In the quicker pace. The Mughals again occupied meantime, the discontented people invited the capital (October 1685) and the king had

Ibrahim who entered the capital in triumph Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru to seek refuge in the Golcunda fort. With | 190 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) the fall of Bijapur in September 1686, there The tradition, however, goes to say that was nothing to keeping the Mughals back. Vijaynagar was founded in 1336 by two brothers, Golcunda was invested in February 1687 and called Harihara and Bukka. It is held that these two in September the citadel opened its gates. The Sangama brothers, were appointed to guard the Qutb Shahi king was sent to Daulatabad as northern portions of the Hoyasala Kingdom against a prisoner and the last Bahmani succession possible Muslim inroads, when they became the state became a part of the Mughal empire. masters of Hoysala Kingdom. But, the popular belief CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA is that these brothers were fi rst in the service of The Vijaynagar Empire the Kaktiya King, Pratap Rudra Deva, and when his Vijaynagar—“the city of victory” and often kingdom was conquered by the Muslims in A.D. referred as the fi rst ‘Medieval Hindu Kingdom’, 1323, they switched over to Kampili, but when the ruled a substantial part of the southern peninsula same fate fell on Kampili too, they were taken to for not less than three centuries, beginning in the Delhi as prisoners and were forced to embrace middle of the 14th century. This intervening epoch Islam. They, however, were released and reappointed is also considered as an epoch of transition from as the ministers in the kingdom of Kampili. the ‘Medieval’ past to the ‘Modern’ colonial future. When after sometime both of them realised the The rulers of Vijaynagar or ‘Rayas’ were peninsular conditions as favourable, they declared themselves overlords and their capital was symbol of the vast independent and founded the Vijaynagar empire power and wealth: lordships of all sorts became with the blessings of the Sage Vidyaranya. Thus, powerful than ever. Abdur Razzaq, a Persian traveller, these two brothers founded the fi rst dynasty of consider Vijaynagar as “one of the most splendid cities Vijaynagar, which they named after their father anywhere in the world which he had seen or heard as ‘Sangama’ dynasty (1336-1485). The ‘Sangama’ of “in fact the emergence of Vijaynagar resulted in dynasty was followed by three other dynasties, the martialisation of its politics, and the transfi guring namely Saluva (1485-1505), Tuluva (1505-1570) and of older economics and social institutions by the fi nally ‘Aravidu' dynasty, which ruled till about the forces of urbanisation, commercialisation and middle of the 17th century. It was under Devaraya II monetisation as well as the ‘royalisation’ of the royal and Krishnadeva Raya that the Vijaynagar Kingdom power. Moreover, its emergence is also supposed achieved tremendous glory and authority. However, to be the symbolic expression of vigorous cultural the ‘dharmik’ and ideological impetus attributed movement. This impetus, in fact, gives south India to the formation of Vijaynagar, in the 14th century, its own individual cultural complexion by defending was spent up by 1450, when the reign of Deva from the continuous Muslim inroads as well as Raya II ended. Then, and thereafter, Vijaynagar was by intermingling with the forms and practices of itself a conquest State and acquired the status gradually evolving Islamic idiom in India. of an empire in the sense of exercising rule over Vijaynagar derived its name from its capital regions and people of the Peninsula, who spoke on the Tungabhadra river, near the center of the different languages and had a different culture. subcontinent. Over three centuries, its rulers claimed This was achieved by subjecting the lesser Hindu a universal sovereignty to rule the vast world lordships and by defending their conquest against under a single umbrella and they also, referred to the Sultanate founded immediately to the ‘North’ themselves as the rulers of the ‘Karnata’, the modern Success of it by Alauddin Gangu Bahmani. It resulted in of day Karnataka. frequent wars between the possession over ‘Raichur Doab’ region. The confl ict, however, ended when There remains considerable controversy Tuluva dynasty came to the throne. The kingdom of regarding the actual origin of the Vijaynagar dynasty. Vijaynagar now grew into a kingdom and gradually Three varying theories have been put forward; expanded into an empire. 1. The Telugu, the Andhra or the Kaktiya origin, Vijaynagar dwells into duality in terms of its 2. The Karnata (Karnataka) or Hoysala origin and politics—between the ‘centralised state’ of N.K. Sastri

3. The Kampili origin. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru and the segmentary state of Burton Stein. Burton | 191 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Stein views that the new form of polity evolved Krishnadeva Raya advises the king that “with great out by the Vijaynagar rulers had important links care and according to your power, you should attend with its earlier politics of Chola period, for being to the work of protecting (the good) and punishing segmentary in character, and one in which kings (the wicked) without neglecting anything you see or continued to be essentially a ritual sovereign, rather hear.” The successful military deeds of the Vijaynagar than autocrats ruling bureaucratised absolutist rulers led them to assume the title of ‘Divijayee’. regimes, like contemporaries of Western Europe. The king was assisted in the task of Stein’s view remains strongly disputed and does ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA administration by a council of minister, appointed not hold much weightage in the light of the recent by him. Though, the Brahmanas held high offi ces in historical research. The politics, instead of being the administration and had considerable infl uence, segmentary in character, seems greatly dispersed the ministers were restricted not only from their and parcelised, remaining closely linked to the king ranks but also from those of the Kshatriyas and at the top. It seems equally futile to assert that the rise Vaishyas. The offi ce of a minister was “something of Vijaynagar represents ‘Hindu revival’ in the South, hereditary and sometimes by selection.” Both Abdur as there is very little evidence to substantiate this Razzaq and Nuniz refer to the existence of a sort of view. It would be rather appropriate to attribute the ‘Secretariat’. Besides the ministers, the other offi cers patronage of Hindu institutions by Vijaynagar rulers of the State were the chief treasure; the custodians to the fact that this was the only substantial kingdom of the jewels; an offi cer who was the look after the ruled by ‘Hindu’ kings, who were rich enough to commercial interests of the state; the prefect of grant endowments to ‘Hindu’ institutions. Royal the police who was responsible for the prevention patronage was responsible largely for embellishing of crime and maintenance of order in the city; the older temples and building and was certainly not chief master of the horse; and subordinate offi cials concerned with stirring up anti-Muslim sentiments. like the bhats who sang the praise of the kings, the The rulers of Vijaynagar did not form an alliance, nor betel bears or personal attendants of the king, the they hesitated in attacking Hindu kings coming in calendar makers, the engravers and the composer the expansion of their empire. of inscriptions. The pattern of administration which evolved The empire, for administrative purposes, was under this new state, became much more stratifi ed divided into several provinces (rajya, mandala, and was closely linked with the pattern of the chavadi), which had again subdivisions like venthe, economy. The economic pattern, in fact, was the nadu, sima, village or sthala in the Karnataka replica of the Chola pattern, which obtained its portion and kottam, parru, nadu and village in income generally from agriculture and trade. This the Tamil portion. Writers basing themselves on pattern, though of independent origin, remained Paes estimate that the empire was divided into broadly in alignment with the pattern of northern 200 provinces—though according to H. Krishna India. Sastri, the empire was divided into six principal The Vijaynagar empire was a monarchy, with provinces. Eash province was under a viceroy, nayaka the king being at the center of affairs, and the or naik, possibly a member of the royal house or an supreme authority in civil, military and judicial affairs, infl uential noble of the State, or some descendant of and often even intervening in the social disputes. Yet, the old ruling families. Each viceroy exercised civil, a king could not afford to be a ‘despot’ as the concept Success military and judicial powers within his jurisdiction of of ‘Dharma’, as the sanction behind the restraint on thus enjoying a large measure of autonomy, they the actions and policies of the king remained un- were allowed to issue their own coins, though of questioned. The king was bound to obey the laws of small denominations only. There was no regular the ‘Dharmashastras’ and the accepted conventions, term for provincial governor, his term depending customs and practices of society. Thus, the concept on his ability and his strength. The governor had of Kingship among the Vijaynagar rulers was high the right to impose new taxes or remit old ones. and he had always an eye for the good or welfare of Each governor paid a fi xed contribution in men and

the people. In his book, on polity (Amuktamalyada), Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru money to the Central Government. Thus, it has been | 192 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) estimated that while the income of the kingdom productivity of the land, earned by the person, who was 12,00,000 parados, the Central Government undertook such developmental works. got only half the amount. Besides land tax; many professional taxes The ‘Dharmasastras’, the Smritis, and the works were also imposed, these were on shopkeepers, on polity helped in regulating the law and order farm servants, washermen, porters, shoemakers, condition. The justice was generally administered musicians etc. There was also a tax on property. through the village assemblies, temple trustees

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Grasing and houses taxes are also imposed. and caste elders in the outlying areas of the empire. Commercial taxes consisted of levies, duties and Severe punishments were given to those found customs on manufactured articles of trade. Private guilty of offences. A competent police organisation owners of workshops paid an industries tax. Special further helped in maintaining the law and order. dues on marriages, and others raised for temple Disputes of social and religious nature were decided requirements, were listed under a social taxation by religious heads. scheme. A periodic military contribution was used As far as the local administration is concerned, for maintaining forts and garrisons. Judicial fi nes the powers of the territorial assembly (nadu) as were an additional source of revenue for the State. well as the village assemblies (Sabha and Ur) were Finally, free labour could be extracted for specifi c weakened during the time of the later Cholas. projects such as the building of an irrigation tank. During the Vijaynagar period, these institutions The revenue of the State was collected both in kind did not completely disappear, when the ‘nayaka’ and and cash. particularly ‘ayagar’ systems came into prominence. During the Vijaynagar period, temples emerged (As nayaka system is often taken to curb the local as an important center of economic activities. They assemblies functioning). During this period, the not only took up irrigation work but also carried on ayagar system continued and became widely banking activities. They employed large number of prevalent. It spread in the Tamil country with the persons and Mahalingam, T.V., refers to an inscription, decline of nadu and natter, in the 15-16th century. which mentions a temple, which employed 370 The ayagars were village servants or functionaries servants. Temples had their trusts which utilised and constituted of groups of families. their funds for various purposes. As stated earlier, the pattern of administration The contemporary foreign accounts show that was closely linked with a stable economy, as it helped local and long distance trade increased under the in the proper functioning of various administrative Vijaynagar rulers. Roads and roadside facilities for organs. The State derived its national revenue from travellers between towns were excellent. The mode a number of taxes. Land tax, of course, remained the most substantial single source. Land was carefully of transportation were carts, pack animals or riverine assessed and state claimed 1/6th of the produce shipping, especially on the West Coast. Regular and as its share. The nature of the lands (whether of periodic fairs were held which gave impetus to the ‘devadana’ ‘brahmadeya’, or ‘karagama’), the tenure urban trade and towns. The literary and inscriptional of land, the properties of soil and the kind of crops evidences of the 14th to 16th centuries reveal the produced, were all considered before a levy was existence of 80 major trade centres or towns. Some made. A detailed land survey and assessment was Success towns were religious, others were commercial and of conducted during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya, administrative centres. Inside these towns were and the rate was fi xed between 1/3rd and 1/6th many bazaars—separate markets being for different depending on the quality of the land. The rate of commodities. Markets for agricultural and non- revenue did differ in different parts of the empire. agricultural products were separate in accordance Another source of income was derived as a result with the left and right hand caste affi liations. In fact, of investment in irrigation. It was called ‘dasavanda’, the Vijaynagar State possessed on urban quality in Tamil country, and ‘kattukodage’ in Andhra and which is not witnessed in any other south Indian

Karnataka. These two were a share in the increased Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru State of the time. | 193 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Paes, and Nuniz, all give vivid description of to be commonly used by high offi cers. Formerly, horse trade and talk about the minimal role of the the keeping of elephants was considered to be a Indians in the overseas trade. The Arabs and later, privilege of the Sultan alone. But during this period, the Portuguese controlled horse trade. Horses were many nobles maintained large numbers of elephants brought from Arabia, Syria and Turkey to the West and brought them to the battlefi eld in times of Coast ports. Importation of horses was of great confl ict. During this period, there were a large military importance for the Southern States as good number of zamindars all over the northern India. horses were not bred in India. Besides horses, ivory ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA They had direct contact with the peasantry, which pearls, spices, precious stones from Pegu. White put them in a very advantageous position. They rice, sugarcane and iron were the major exports. could raise large armies without any effort. During Nuniz refers to the port of diamonds stating that the this period, the center of political gravity gradually diamond mines here were the richest in the world. shifted to Agra. It was found that it was easier to At last, we see that the formation of Vijaynagar control from there the zamindars and Maliks of Kingdom represents a very signifi cant phase in Etawa, Koil and Badaun. Likewise, the activities of the Medieval Indian politics. Its emergence led the people of Mewar could be better watched from to the growth of various political institutions Agra and campaigns against the Sharqis of Jaunpur and an economic pattern conceived more along could be managed more effi ciently from there. Hindu traditions and practices, but still it had to Bahlol Lodi (1451-1489 A.D.): Early Life strike a balance with the existing Muslim pattern Bahlol Lodhi was the founder of the Lodi so administration. Assimilation with Islam was dynasty, which lasted from 1451 to 1526. He inevitable, more because of its universal character and the kind of edifi ce it had created in the form belonged to the Sahu Khail section of the Lodi clan. of Persio-Islamic Culture. This in fact, made the Malik Bahram, grandfather of Bahlol, migrated to emerging regional identity to seek its legitimation Multan during the reign of Firuz Tughluq and took from the apex body. Unfortunately, the legacy of service under Malik Mardan Daulat, Governor of such a splendid empire, has so quickly receded from Multan. Malik Bahram had fi ve sons only two of them, the minds and memories of men that the remains, namely, Malik Sultan Shah and Malik Kala became befi tting strong cosmopolitan character of this famous. Bahlol was the son of Malik Kala who had great empire, lying scattered around the little village defeated Jasrath Khokhar and set himself up as an Hampi, seem mere metaphors of ‘medieval time.’ independent chief. In 1419, Sultan Shah, his uncle was appointed the Governor of Sarhind by Khizr THE LODIS (1451-1526 A.D.) Khan and given the title of Islam Khan. About Lodhi dynasty, Prof. K.A. Nizami says that Ferishta tells us that Islam Khan married his although it was the last of the ruling families of the daughter to Bahlol and although he had his own Sultanate period, it has a greater lifespan than the sons, he nominated Bahlol as his heir on account Khiljis and had better achievements to its credit than of his ability. After the death of Islam Khan, Bahlol the later Tughluqs and Saiyyids. However, its history became the Governor of Sarhind. Bahlol was allowed was a story of confl icts between the crown and to add Lahore to his charge. Thus, Bahlol became the nobility, the petty zamindars and the powerful a very important Governor in the Sayyid empire, Hakims, the centrifugal tendencies of the age and the Success on account of the strength of his forces. When of centripetal aspirations of the rulers, the monarchical Muhammad Shah was threatened by the invasion ideals of absolute power and the Afghan concept of Mahmud Shah Khilji of Malwa, he came to the of partnership in Government. During this period, help of his master. By his cleverness, he was able to the army of Delhi Sultanate changed its complexion show himself as a victor over the army of Malwa. from the king’s army to a tribal militia. It was not Muhammad Shah was so much pleased that he centrally recruited, maintained or administered and called him as his son and gave him the title of Khan- hence, lacked homogeneity. During this period, some i-Khanan. The opportunity for Bahlol came as Alam

of the privileges and prerogatives of the Sultan came Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Shah retired completely to Badaon in 1448 and there | 194 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) was trouble in Delhi. Bahlol was invited by Hamid him that it was considered necessary for reasons Khan, who gave him the keys of the city. Bahlol also of state that he should be confi ned for a few days secured the consent of Alam Shah. Thus, it was that but in consideration of his services, his life was to be on 19th April, 1451, Bahlol became the ruler and he spared. The result was that Hamid Khan completely continued to be so till his death, in 1489. disappeared from the scene. There is a story that one day when Bahlol was In order to strengthen his position, Bahlol in the service of his uncle, he went to Samana where tried to win over the confi dence of the army by CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA he paid a visit to Sayyid Ayen, a famous Darvesh, distributing gifts and bounties. The Amirs were won with his friends. The Darvesh said: “Is there any one by holding out promises of promotion and honour who wishes to obtain from him the empire of Delhi according to their ranks. for two thousand Tankas?” Bahlol at once gave the Struggle with Jaunpur money to the Darvesh who observed thus: “Be the Although Bahlol was put on the throne, Empire of Delhi blessed by Thee.” The prophecy of Mahmud Shah Sharqi, ruler of Jaunpur, tried to oust the Darvesh came out to be true as stated above. him. Mahmud Shah advanced to Delhi and besieged Hamid Khan Khwaja Bayazid, the eldest son of Bahlol who had It cannot be denied that Hamid Khan was been left in charge of Delhi. Bahlol hastened towards instrumental in putting Bahlol Lodi on the throne Delhi and he was within 30 miles to the capital when of Delhi. No wonder, Bahlol asked Hamid Khan Mahmud Shah succeeded in making an impression to become king and expressed his willingness to on its defences. Darya Khan Lodi who was helping become merely the commander of his armies and Mahmud Shah of Jaunpur, was persuaded to leave carry out his orders. Bahlol also showed him great him and after his departure, the rest of the army of respect. However, Bahlol decided to dispose off Jaunpur was demoralised and fl ed. Thus, failed the Hamid Khan later on and hit upon a plan to achieve attempt of Mahmud Shah of Jaunpur to oust Bahlol that objective. He asked his Afghan followers to Lodi from the throne. pose themselves as rustics in the presence of Hamid The defeat of Mahmud Shah Sharqi of Jaunpur Khan and “to adopt a conduct the most remote made a profound impression on both enemies and from good sense and common reason, in order to friends. The position of Bahlol was strengthened. induce him to believe that they were thoughtless His enemies and critics were silenced. Many chiefs fellows, and of course banish all apprehension and and fi ef-holders were frightened into submission. fear of them from his heart.” The Afghan followers Bahlol proceeded towards Mewat and secured of Bahlol did what they were asked to do. The men the submission of Ahmad Khan who was deprived at arms crowded into the hall of audience on the to seven Parganas. Darya Khan Lodi, Governor of pretext that all soldiers and fellow tribesmen were Sambhai, was treated leniently in spite of treason equals. Their conduct convinced Hamid Khan that and was merely asked to give up seven Pargranas. Isa he had to deal with mere simpletons. The number Khan was allowed to retain all his possessions. similar of Afghan troops was large enough to crush any treatment was given to Mubarak Khan, Governor disturbances,which might arise in the city. Their of Suket. Qutb Khan of Rewari also submitted after number at the court was large enough to enable some hesitation. The heads of Etawah, Chandwar

Bahlol to carry out any act of violence. One day, Success and other districts of the Doab acknowledged of when Bahlol had gone to the residence of Hamid the authority of Bahlol. In 1472, Bahlol marched Khan to pay him as visit, his followers picked up a towards Multan to reduce to obedience Hussain quarrel with the gatekeeper and requested him to Shah Langah, who had succeeded his father in that allow them to go in. Hamid Khan did not suspect small kingdom. any treachery and granted their quest. However, Bahlol had to spend most of his time in fi ghting he was surprised when Qutb Khan, a cousin and against Jaunpur and he ultimately succeeded in brother-in-law of Bahlol, placed before Hamid Khan destroying its independence and annexing it. It has

chains he had concealed in his pocket and told Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru already been pointed out that Mahmud Shah made | 195 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 an attempt to oust Bahlol at the very beginning humble suggestions for a settlement, but these were of his reign but he failed in his attempt. At the rejected by Hussain Shah. Bahlol was once again instigation of his queen, who was the daughter of successful in defeating the army of Jaunpur. In spite Alam Shah of Badaon, Mahmud Shah Sharqi made of this, Hussain Shah marched against Bahlol and another attempt to enter Delhi and with that object the two armies met at a distance of about 25 miles in view marched into Etawah. However, a treaty from Delhi. Hussain Shah was again defeated but was made and it was agreed between the parties was able to make peace on equal terms. that both the rulers would retain possession of the ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Hussain Shah made another attempt and in territories, which belonged to their predecessors. March 1479, arrived at the banks of the Jamuna. Bahlol Lodi was required to restore the elephants, This was the most promising of all his campaigns. which had been captured by him in the last war. However, he was induced to make peace on Mahmud Shah agreed to dismiss Juna Shah from his obtaining from Bahol the formal recognition of his service. Acting upon the terms of the treaty, Bahlol tenure of all districts east of the Gangas. After making tried to take possession of Shamsabad, which the the treaty, Hussain Shah began a leisure retreat but ruler of Jaunpur had given to Juna Khan. Bahlol was he was treacherously attacked by Bahlol, who was opposed by the forces of Jaunpur and Qutb Khan able to capture a large number of elephants and Lodi was captured. However, at this time, Mahmud horses laden with spoils and treasure. This success Shah died in 1497 and his son, Bhikan, was raised to marks the turn of the tide in favour of Bahlol and the the throne under the title of Muhammad Shah. The latter pursued the demoralised army of Jaunpur and latter made peace with Bahlol and acknowledged occupied the Parganas of Kampil, Patiali, Shamsabad, his right to retain Shamsabad. A revolution took Suket, Koil, Marhara and Jalesar. Hussain Shah tried place at Jaunpur as a result of which Husasin Khan to face Bahlol but was defeated. He was forced to ascended the throne of Jaunpur. The new ruler agree to the retention by Bahlol of the large part was remarkable person who continued to fi ght of territory which he had recovered. Hussain Shah against Bahlol, all his life with great persevere. A retired to Rapri and Bahlol to Delhi but Hussain Shah four years’ peace was concluded by Hussain Shah once again took the fi eld to get back his lost territory. with Bahlol but it turned out to be mere truce. In However, he was defeated by Bahlol at Senha. This 1478, Hussain Shah of Jaunpur, instigated by his has been described as the heaviest defeat he had wife Jalila, marched on Delhi with a large army. experienced so far. The plunder which fell into the Bahlol was so much upset by the danger that he hands of Bahlol and the prestige which he gained request Mahmud Khilji II of Malwa to help him. with his victory, established the superiority of Delhi. Before any reply could come from Malwa, Hussain Bahlol took the initiative and defeated Hussain Shah Shah reached the banks of the Jamuna. Bahlol was at Rapri. After capturing Etawah, Bahlol marched to prepared to offer very tempting terms to the invader attack. Hussain Shah was forced to retreat and Bahlol but those were haughtily rejected. The result was marched straight on Jaunpur and Hussain Shah fl ed that Bahlol came out of the capital to fi ght against towards Kannauj. Bahlol followed him and overtook the enemy. The camp of Hussain Shah had been left him on the banks of the Rahab. He attacked him and unprotected and Bahlol crossed the river by a ford defeated and captured one of his wives. Bahlol went and fell upon it. When the Afghans began actually back to Jaunpur and captured it and put it under to plunder his tents. Hussain Shah decided to run Success Mubarak Khan Lohani as its governor. of away. Even the ladies of his harem, including Jalila, Bahlol also went to Badaon which had been were captured by Bahlol, who, however, generously nominally subjected to Hussain Shah, after the were sent them to Jaunpur, without allowing any death of Alam Shah in 1478. Hussain Shah took harm to be done to them. advantage of the absence of Bahlol and marched Another truce for three years was arranged. on Jaunpur. Mubarak Khan was forced to withdraw. After that, Hussain Shah captured Etawah and The offi cers of Bahlol gained some time by starting marched on Delhi with an army of one lac horses negotiations and in the meanwhile Bahlol came back

and 100 elephants. Bahlol once again made many Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru from Badaon and reoccupied Jaunpur. Hussain Shah | 196 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) ran away in Bihar and he was pursued by the troops and the rulers of Gwalior, Dholpur paid tribute to of Bahlol. In 1486, Bahlol placed his eldest surviving him. He possessed the clear vision of a political son, Barbak, on the throne of Jaunpur. realist. A dogged tenacity of purpose guided his activities all though. He believed that end justifi ed Estimate of Bahlol the means and he never hesitated to have recourse Bahlol was not only the founder of the Lodi to chicanery, treachery or fraud if that suited his dynasty but was responsible for its strength and purpose. He employed foul means to realize his glory. He was successful in subduing the various ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA objectives against the rulers of Malwa and Jaunpur. chiefs who could defy the central power. He was He did not hesitate to bribe Darya Khan Lodi on the able to establish the prestige on the empire on a fi rm battlefi eld of Narela. There were two major problems footing. His great achievement was the annexation confronting Bahlol—the rulers of Jaunpur and the of Jaunpur, which defi ed him for many years. Rajput chiefs of the Doab and he succeeded in Bahlol was forced to spend most of his time dealing effectively with both. The power of Jaunpur in fi ghting wars and consequently there was hardly was shattered and the Rajput chiefs were humbled. the time left for civil administration. Bahlol was Nirodbhusan Roy says: “The effacement of the Rajput brave, generous, humane and honest. He did not dynasties which had realised their heads in the last believe in any show. His view was that as he was quarter of the 14th century in the middle and lower known to be king, nothing else was required to Doab was primarily the work of Bahlol, achieved by be displayed to impress this fact on the people. his fraternisation with the Afghan.” He was very kind to the poor and no beggar was Bahlol possessed an affable personality. He was allowed to go away disappointed. He loved justice just, generous, simple and unostentatious. Certain and personally listened to the complaints of the things done by him won him popularity among people. He distributed all that he had among his the people. When he captured the treasures of the troops. He did not put on airs of superiority while Kings of Delhi, he distributed the spoils among the dealing with fellow Afghans. According to the author soldiers and took for himself only a proportionate of Tarik-i-Daudi, “In his social meetings, he never share. He did not maintain any personal guards. sat on a throne and would not allow his nobles to That shows his self-confi dence and popularity with stand; and even during public audiences he did the people. His food was not prepared in his palace, not occupy the throne, but seated himself upon a but was sent in rotation by the nobles. He did not carpet. Whenever he wrote a fi rman to his nobles, sit on the throne in the presence of the nobles and he addressed them as Masnad Ali; and if at any time forbade them to stand. All use to sit together on they were displeased with him, he tried so hard to carpets and Bahlol called everyone Masnad-i-Ali. pacify them that he would himself go to their houses, Dr. R.P. Tripathi says that the experiment unguarded his sword from his waist, and place it of Bahlol was an interesting one. “Its immediate before the offended party, nay, he would sometimes usefulness was proved by the spirit of loyalty that even take off his turban from his head and solicit it awakened among the Afghan tribal leaders who forgiveness, saying: ‘If you think we unworthy of the in fi ghting for him felt to be virtually fi ghting for station I occupy, choose some one else, and bestow their own cause. By toning down the autocratic on me some other offi ce.’ He maintained a brotherly conception of kingship, Bahlol Lodi had taken a intercourse with his chiefs and soldiers. If any one Success substantial step towards making it amenable to was ill, he would himself go and attend on him.” of the wishes of the peers.” Prof. K.A. Nizami points out that although Dr. A.B. Pandey sums up his estimate of Bahlol Bahlol started his career as the Governor of Sirhind, in these words: “His qualities of leadership were of he ended it at the ripe old age of 80 as the Sultan of a high order. He knew the material he had to use Delhi, whose authority extended from the Punjab to and moved warily about his business. He treated the frontiers of Bihar and embraced important cities his nobles and even his soldiers as his brethren. If like Delhi, Badayun, Baran, Sambhal, Rapri, Kampil anybody fell ill, he would go to his place to enquire

and Patiali. A part of Rajasthan was also under him Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru about his health. This won for him implicit loyalty of | 197 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 his followers who neither wavered in their obedience from burdening his people with insupportable taxes. to him nor considered any risks too great when To the poor and the indigent, he was always kind he was present at their head. It was not merely in and generous. In short, he was a fairly popular and formal courtesies that he showed his concern for the successful monarch.” Afghan and Mughal soldiery. Ferishta says that when he captured the treasures of the kings of Delhi, he SIKANDAR SHAH (1489-1517) distributed the spoils among his followers and took Bahlol Lodi was succeeded by his son, Nizam for himself only a proportionate share. Ferishta goes ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Khan, who took the title of Sikandar Shah. There was further and say, ‘Bahlol was very religious, brave and some hesitation on the part of the nobles to accept of a generous disposition. He did not disappoint any Sikandar Shah as their ruler as his mother was the supplicant, nor did he collect a treasure. Whatever daughter of a goldsmith and her son was more of a lands he conquered, he distributed among his plebian than a prince. However, this hesitation was followers. He did all this because he realised the overcome and he became king. Sikandar was an imperative need for an army consisting of numerous, orthodox Muslim and his bigotry must have been satisfi ed and brave soldiers.’ He did not hesitate considered as a special qualifi cation for elections to use local talent wherever practicable and we to the throne. fi nd the names of Rai Karna, Raja Pratap, Rai Bir Condition in 1489 Singh, Rai Trilokchand and Rai Dahndhu among recipients of his favours. There were some persons, The position of Sikandar Shah at the time of however, whom Bahlol could not permanently win his accession to the throne was not very strong as over to his side. Personal ambition, unsettled political there were a large number of vassals and chieftains conditions, local intrigue and shifting fortunes of who exercised a lot of power and authority in their war rendered his task diffi cult. That is why we hear respective spheres. The author of Waqiat-i-Mustaqi of Qutb Khan, Raja Pratap and Ahmad Khan, Mewati gives the following picture of India at that time: changing sides so often. Ahmad Khan Jalwani of “One-half of the whole country was assigned in Bayana even had the Khutba read in the name of Jagir to the Farmulis, and the other half to the other Sultan Hussain Shah Sharqi, when the latter’s star Afghan tribes. At this time, the Lohanis and Farmulis was on the ascendant. But when a balance has been predominated. The chief of the Sarwanis was Azam struck between success and failure and due regard Humayun and the principal chieftains of the Lodis is paid to the circumstances in which Bahlol had to were four: Mahmud Khan who had Kalpi in Jagir; act, it would be admitted that his achievement was Mian Alam to whom Etawah and Chandwar were remarkable. He had begun his career as an orphan, assigned; Mubarak Khan whose jagir was Lucknow; had steadily risen to fame and had not merely and Daulat Khan who held Lahore. Among the Sahu captured the throne of Delhi but was regarded by Khails, the chiefs were Husain Khan and Khan Jaha, competent contemporary observers, both friendly both from the same ancestor as Sultan Bahlol; Husain and hostile, to be marked out for that high destiny. Khan, son of Firuz Khan, and Qutb Khan Lodi Sahu He found the Sultanate of Delhi in the last stages of Khail, who fl ourished in the time of Sultan Bahlol. disintegration. He had arrested the rot, had infused “The districts of Saran and Champaran were fresh vigour into its bones and the Sultanate of held by Mian Hussain; Oudh, Ambala and Hodhna by

Delhi had began to show signs of fresh lease of life Success Mian Muhammad Kala Pahar; Kannauj by Mian Gadai; and vitality. Refractory chiefs were brought to book, of Shamsabad, Thanesar and Shahabad by Mian Imad; a neighbouring kingdom was virtually liquidated Maraha by Tatar Khan, brothers of Mian Muhammad; and the dominions were rounded off towards the and Hariana, Desua, and other detached parganas south and west. by Khwaja Shaikh said. “What is more to his credit, he was no mere “Among the great nobles of Sultan Sikandar’s militarist or warlord. He was a man of humane spirit time was Saif Khan Acha-Khail. He had 6,000 horses and wanted to promote public welfare by ensuring under him, and was deputy of Azam Humayun,

law and order, administering justice and refraining Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Jagirdar of Kara, who used to buy 2,000 copies of | 198 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) the Quran every year, had 45,000 horses under The last expedition was undertaken by Sikandar his command, and 700 elephants. There were also Shah at the instance of Ali Khan of Nagpur. Ali Khan Daulat Khan Khani, who had 4,000 cavalry; Ali Khan was treacherous man and having gone against Ushi who had 4000 also; and Firuz Khan Sarwani, who Sikandar asked the Governor not to surrender. The had 6,000. Amongst other nobles, there were 25,000 result was that Ali Khan was deprived of his fi ef. more distributed. Ahmad Khan also, the son of Jamal Sikandar Shah died on 21st November, 1517 A.D. Khan Lodi Sarang Khan, when he was appointed to Jaunpur, had 20,000 cavalry under him.” ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Internal Administration Foundations of Agra It is true that Sikandar Shah had to spend a lot of time in fi ghting but he was able to fi nd some time Sikandar Shah was responsible for the foundation of the city of Agra. The decision was to look to administration. He was able to weaken due to the fact that the Sultan wanted to have more the various chiefs and thereby strengthen his own effective control over the fi ef-holders of Etawah, position. He insisted on the auditing of the accounts Bayana, Koil, Gwalior and Dholpur. The new city of the Afghan nobles even at the risk of their of Agra was founded in A.D. 1504 and very soon, displeasure. When the accounts of Mubarak Khan a beautiful town came into existence. The Sultan Lodi after the Bengal campaign were examined, also transferred his residence from Delhi to Agra. no leniency was shown to him. The balance of the In A.D. 1505, there was an earthquake. “It was amount was realised from him promptly. With the in fact so terrible that mountains were overturned help of an effi cient system of spies, the Sultan was and all lofty edifi ces dashed to the ground: the living able to get information from every nook and corner thought, the day of judgment was to come; and the of the country. The personal retainers of the great dead, the day of resurrection.” The area affected by the earthquake was very large. As a matter of fact, it Amirs were appointed by the king himself. The Sultan was general throughout India. Badaoni tells us that encouraged agriculture and abolished corn duties. the earthquake extended to Persia. There was too Traders and merchants were helped in every much loss of life and property. way to do their work in peace and security. Under Narwar the orders of the Sultan, lists of poor persons were In 1508, Sikandar Shah marched to attack prepared every year and they were given rations for Narwar, which was usually included in the kingdom six months. Prisoners were released on certain days of Malwa but was now subject to Gwalior. There in a year. The Sultan listened to the petitions of the were fi ghting for some days and that was followed aggrieved persons and disposed of cases according by a general attack on the fortress. Under the stress to their merit. The Sultan had a good memory and of famine and want of water, the garrison of Utgir was able to collect a lot of useful knowledge. He surrendered on certain terms and Sikandar Shah patronised the learned people and himself wrote entered the fortress. However, Sikandar Shah poetry in Persian. destroyed all the Hindu temples and ordered the It was under his patronage that Mian Bhua construction of mosques on their sites. translated into Persian a Sanskrit work on medicine Chanderi known as Tibbi Sikandari. No one was deprived

Success of his Jagir arbitrarily. An established custom was The fort of Chanderi was captured and given to of Afghan offi cers. In 1510, Muhammad Khan, Governor never abrogated. The author of Tarikh-i-Daudi tells of Nagpur, submitted and caused the Khutba to us that “Every business had its appointed time and be read in the name of the Sultan. The Prince of custom once fi xed was never changed. When the Chanderi expressed a desire to accept Sikandar Shah Sultan had once allowed a particular meal or drink, as his overlord. The prince was allowed to remain he never altered it. A man of note came from Jaunpur nominally in possession of the city of Chanderi but to visit him in the hot weather and was given 6 jars its administration was given to the leading Afghan of Sherbet with his food on account of the heat and

offi cers. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru thirst; but when he came again in winter he still | 199 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 had six jars of Sherbet to drink. The Sultan always of Islam, he should be asked to embrace it and in behaved to the nobles and great men in exactly the case he refused to do so, he should be put to death. same way for many years as he did on the fi rst day.” Sikandar Shah accepted the decision and as the The same author tells us that “The Sultan Brahman refused to embrace Islam, they were put to daily received an account of the prices of all things death. Sikandar Shah broke the sacred images of the and an account of what had happened in the Jwalamukhi temple at Nagarkot. The Hindus were different districts of the Empire. If he perceived not allowed to have their bath at the Ghats on the CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA the slightest appearance of anything wrong, he banks of the Jamuna. The barbers were prohibited caused instant inquiries to be made about it….. from shaving the heads and beards of the Hindus In his reign, business was carried on in a peaceful, in accordance with their usual custom. All this must honest, straightforward way. The study of belles- have alienated the feelings of the Hindus against lettres was not neglected…… Factory establishment the Lodi dynasty. were so encouraged that all the young nobles and Estimate soldiers were engaged in useful works…… All the Prof. K.A. Nizami says that Sikandar Lodi was in nobles and soldiers of Sikandar were satisfi ed; each certain respects a very striking fi gure of medieval of his chiefs was appointed to the government of India. He gave a new orientation to Afghan polity in a district, and it was his especial desire to gain the India and considerably raised the stature and dignity goodwill and affections of the body of the people. For the sake of his offi cers and troops, he put an of the offi ce of the Sultan. The Afghan nobility was end to war and dispute with the other monarchs made to recognize the superior status of the monarch. and nobles of the period, and closed the road to It was impressed upon the nobles that they were the contention and strife. He can passed the whole of servants of the Sultan and their position and power his life in the greatest safety and enjoyment, and depended entirely on his goodwill and pleasure. gained the hearts of high and low.” Those who held Jagirs were required to submit accounts regularly and all cases of mismanagement, Religious Bigotry corruption and misbehaviour were sternly dealt However, there is one blot on his character, with Sikandar Lodi was an able administrator. He which cannot be ignored. Sikandar Shah was fanatical could analyses the situation with a clear head and Muslim and he did a lot to injure the feelings of his enforces his order vigorously. He displayed a great Hindu subjects. On one occasion, Sikandar Shah sense of responsibility in discharging the functions ordered the temples of Mathura to be destroyed and of his offi ce and for that he worked very hard. The Sarais and mosques were constructed in their places. result was that there was peace and prosperity The idols were given to butchers who made them in the country. The common man got justice. The into meat weights. In the case of Utgir, the Hindu highways became safe from bandits and robbers. temples were destroyed and mosques were raised The judicial system was effi ciently organised under on their sites. After the surrender of Mandrael, in Mian Bhua. The Sultan himself disposed of cases 1505, Sikandar Shah destroyed the Hindu temples brought to him. Sikandar Lodi made arrangements in the town and erected mosques on their sites. He also plundered the districts surrounding the for the distribution of cooked and uncooked food fortress. A Brahman of Bengal publicly maintained Success to poor people in the Capital. Bi-annual, weekly and of that Islam and Hinduism were both true and God daily allowances and stipends were fi xed for the poor could be approached by following any one of them. and the destitute in his kingdom. He patronised men Azam-i-Humayun, Governor of Bihar, was directed of letters, artists, poets, etc. Unfortunately, he was to send the Brahman and two doctors of the Islamic narrow-minded and fanatical in religious matters. law to the court. Theologians were summoned from He was intolerant towards the Hindus. It was he who various parts of the kingdom to consider whether ordered the destruction of the idols of the temples it was permissible to preach peace. Their decision of Nagarkot and those idols were given to butchers

was that as the Brahman had admitted the truth Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru for weighing meat. | 200 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) According to Sir Wolseley Haig, “He was the the poor and godly people. Sikandar was neither greatest of the three kings of his house and carried greedy nor miserly, and the fruits of his liberality out with conspicuous success the task left unfi nished were shared not merely by a select group of courtiers by his father. We hear little of the Punjab during his and metropolitans but his charity was broad-based reign and he drew no troops from it to aid him in his and was intended to alleviate the sufferings of the eastern campaigns, but there are indications that it people as a whole. was more tranquil and more obedient to the crown Dr. Pandey also points out that Sikandar Lodi CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA that it had been in his father’s reign. His vigorous was a great patron of learning and he loved the administration amply justifi ed the choice of the company of learned men. His benevolence and minority, which in the face of strong opposition patronage attracted them to his court from Persia, raised him to the throne and his selection saved the Arabia, and different parts of India. Rizqullah kingdom from becoming the playing of an oligarchy Mushtaqi was an author of repute both in Hindi of turbulent, ignorant, and haughty Afghans. His and Persian. Main Bhua, the Wazir of Sikandar Lodi, weakest action was his support of his hopelessly had collected around him a band of able physicians incompetent brother Barbak, but this weakness was and doctors of medicine who compiled a highly an amiable trait in a character by no means rich in authoritative work called Tibb-i-Sikandar Shah or such traits. He seems to have had a sincere affection Maha-Ayuraidik. He also got together a group of for his brother, and to have felt that he owed him calligraphists and learned men who were continually some reparation for having supplanted him in his employed in copying and compiling books on every birth right, when he discovered that leniency was science. Sikandar himself was well acquainted with a mistaken policy he knew how to act. Persian literature and wrote verses under the pen name of Gulrukhi. Yadgar says that when Sikandar “The greatest blot on his character was his Lodi heard about Shaikh Jamal Dehlawi’s return relentless bigotry. The accounts of his conquests, from his travels through Iraq. Arabia, Syria and doubtless exaggerated by pious historians, resemble genuine taste for learning and his encouragement those of the raids of the Islam in India. The wholesale of the learned and interest in their work must have destruction of temples was not the best method contributed to its progress. Sikandar Lodi was a of conciliating the Hindus of a conquered district devout and orthodox Muslim who performed his and the murder of a Brahman, whose only offence prayers regularly. He kept the fast in the month of was the desire for an accommodation between the Ramzan and spent a good deal of his time at night religions of the conquerors and the conquered was in religious study and meditation. He was always not a political act, but Sikandar’s mind was wrapped accompanied by a select group of 17 theologians by habitual association with theologians.” whom he consulted, whenever necessary, to ensure About Sikandar Lodi, Dr. Pandey says that all strict conformity with the holy law. authorities speak in superlatives about his physical Dr. Pandey concludes by saying that although charms. There are many who say that he was equally ‘he was at times consumed with jealousy, restrained adorned with excellence of head and heart. He was by timidity or deceived by soft words, he was on credited with great intelligence, discernment and the whole a better and a greater administrator moderation. He was a fair judge of men and none then either his father or his son. He improved of his highest offi cers played him false. Rizquallah Success the administration of justice; reduced the power of calls him magnanimous, religious, brave and just. of the nobility by transfers, audits and personal There are many stories about his generosity. There supervision; enhanced the prestige of the sovereign; are references to the distribution of cooked and and ministered to the general welfare and happiness uncooked food coined money and other articles on of his subjects. Sikandar was thus, quite remarkable Friday, in the month of Ramzan, on the Barawafat both as a man and as the head of growing empire, and on the 10th day of Muharram. If we can trust and even a conservative estimate would rank his Abdullah and other Afghan historians, provision among the greatest Muslim rulers of Delhi, in the

for such charities was and to satisfy the wants of Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Sultanate period.’ | 201 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Ibrahim Lodi (1517-1525) demand of the rebels that Azam Humayun be After the death of Sikandar Shah, his eldest son, released. Negotiations having failed, there was a Ibrahim, was put on the throne on 21st November bitter fi ghting and there was a lot of bloodshed. 1517. To quote the author of Malohzan-i-Afghan, ‘Dead bodies, heap upon heap, covered the fi led; and the Action against Prince Jalal number of heads lying upon the ground is beyond There were a few nobles who advocated for the reach of recollection. Streams of blood ran over CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA their own selfi sh ends a partition of the kingdom. the plain; and whenever for a length of time, a fi erce They carried Jalal Khan, a younger brother of Ibrahim, battle took place in Hindustan, the old men always to Jaunpur and put him on the throne. Khan Jahan observed, that with this battle no other one was Lohani, Governor of Rapri, condemned this suicidal comparable, brother, fi ghting against brother, fathers policy of dividing the kingdom. The result was that against son, infl amed by mutual shame and innate the Afghan nobles acknowledge their mistake and bravery; bows and arrows were laid aside, and the sent Haibat Khan, ‘the wolf-slayer’, to persuade Jalal carnage carried on with daggers, swords, knives and Khan to withdraw from Jaunpur. It was then that javelins. ‘The ultimate result was the Islam Khan was Ibrahim issued a Firman by which he ordered the killed in the battlefi eld. Said Khan was captured. The Amirs no to obey Jalal and threatened to punish rebels suffered terrible losses. them if they disobeyed. Jalal Khan allied himself with the zamindars and improved his position. Azam War with Rana Sanga Humayun who also had a grouse against Ibrahim There is a reference to a war between Ibrahim jointed him. Ibrahim confi ned all his brothers in and Rana Sanga of Mewar. It is stated that Ibrahim the fort of Hansi and personally marched against organised a large army for the invasion on Mewar Jalal Khan. Kalpi was besieged and the fort was and put in under very experienced generals. Mian dismanted. Jalal Khan fl ed towards Agra where Hussain went over to the side of Rana Sanga at the the Governor entered into negotiations with him. beginning but later on treacherously deserted him When Ibrahim came to know of those negotiations, at the crucial moment. The Afghans felt upon the he disapproved of them and passed orders for the Rajputs and killed a large number of them. Rana assassination of Jalal Khan. The latter took refuge Sanga escaped but his followers were butchered. with the Raja of Gwalior. When the fort of Gwalior was It is to be noted that excepting Tarikh-i-Salatin-i- Afghan, Waquit-i-Mushtaqi and Tarikhi-Daudi, no captured, he fl ed towards Malwa. He was captured other authority refers to his expedition. Nizamuddin by the zamindars of Gondwana and handed over Badaoni and Firishta are silent on the point. There to Ibrahim. While he was being conveyed to Hansi, is no mention of this war in the Rajput Chronicles. he was put to death on the way by the orders of According to Tod, “Sanga organised his forces with the king. which he always kept the fi red, and when called to Action against Azam Humayun contend with the descendant of Timur, he gained 18 pitched battles against the kings of Delhi and Ibrahim Shah called Azam Humayun from Malwa. In two of these, he was opposed by Ibrahim Gwalior on mere suspicion and put him and his Lodi in person at Bakrol and Ghatoli; in which last

son Fatheh Khan, in prison. Islak Kham, another Success battle the imperial forces were defeated with great of son of Azam Humayun, was deprived of his slaughter leaving a prisoner of the blood royal to governorship of Kara-Manikpur. There was a lot of grace that triumph of Chittor. “It appeared that the resentment of account of the action taken against statement of Ahmad Yadgar regarding the victory Azam Humayun. The rebels collected a large army of Ibrahim over Rana Sanga is not correct. consisting of 40,000 cavalry, 500 elephants and also a large infantry. The efforts of Shaikh Raju Bokhari, Nobles a holy man, to bring about reconciliation between Ibrahim wanted to strengthen his position at

the parties failed. Ibrahim refused to accept the Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru the cost of his nobles and he did all that he could to | 202 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) humble them. He imprisoned Mian Bhua who was to invade India. The author of Tarikh-i-Khan-i-Jhan one of his father’s leading nobles. His only offence Lodi states that invitation to Kabul was sent through was that he was careless of forms and he acted as he Alam Khan. The latter marched to Delhi but he was thought best in the interests of his master without defeated by Ibrahim who himself was defeated in always troubling to obtain the formal approval of the battle of Panipat, in 1526. his proceedings. The old man died in prison and his It appears that the real object of Daulat Khan death sapped the fi delity of his son, although he was CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA was to use Babur as a tool in establishing his own otherwise generously treated. Azam Humayaun was power on the Punjab. Alam Khan was to be put on treacherously assassinated in prison. the throne of Delhi and the Punjab was to remain Jalal Khan was put to death by the orders with Daulat Khan. It is stated that in 1524, Babur of the king when he was being actually taken invaded the Punjab and easily captured Lahore. to the fort of Hansi for imprisonment. Even the Babur gave the fi efs of Jullundur and Sultanpur to Daulat Khan but as Daulat Khan did not behave well, greatest nobles feared their safety. No wonder, Darya those were taken away from him and given to his Khan, Khan-i-Jahan Lodi and Husain Khan Farmuli own son Dilawar Khan. Babur went back to Kabul revolted against the Sultan. Hussain Khan Famuli after making arrangements for the administration was killed in his bed by some holy men of Chanderi of the Punjab. As soon as Babur was away, Daulat Bahadur Khan, son of Darya Khan, took up the title Khan took away the fi ef of Sultanpur from his son of Muhammad Shah and defi ed the authority of and turned out Alam Khan from Dipalpur. Alam Ibrahim. Ibrahim cruelly treated Dilwar Khan, son Khan went to Kabul and complained to Babur. It of Daulat Khan Lodi, Governor of the Punjab. When was under these circumstances that Babur started Ibrahim summoned Daulat Khan Lodi to the capital, for the second time from Kabul and fought the the former executed him on the ground that he battle of Panipat in 1526. Ibrahim was killed in the would come later on with the treasure of the state battlefi eld and Babur turned out to be the victor. and sent his son Dilawar Khan at once. While in Delhi, The battle of Panipat ended the Lodi dynasty and Dilawar Khan was taken by Ibrahim to the prison, brought in the rule of the Mughals. where the victims of his anger were suspended from Rushbrook Williams ascribes the defeat of the walls. Ibrahim addressed Dilawar Khan in these Ibrahim Lodi to the artillery of Babur. To quote words. “Have you seen the condition of those who him, “If there was one single material factor which have disobeyed me?” It is stated that Dilawar Khan more than any other conduced to his ultimate made his submission before Ibrahim but somehow triumph in Hindustan, it was his powerful artillery.” managed to escape to his father and told him all However, Dr. A.B. Pandey points out that Babur that he had seen and experienced at the capital. It himself does not emphasize the role of artillery was under these circumstances that Daulat Khan so much as that of archery, coupled with Ibrahim’s Lodi sent an invitation to Babur to invade India. utter incompetence as a general so that he neither moved nor halted according to the plan. Yadgar The various authorities differ on this point. It finds in the dissatisfaction of the Afghans the is stated in the Makhzan that Daulat Khan entered key to Ibrahim’s defeat and death. All these views into an alliance with Ghazi Khan and other Amirs Success partially explain the event. “Other factors which of the Punjab and addressed an invitation to Babur of contributed to Babur’s success were treachery of through Alam Khan. The statement of Firishta is Ibrahim’s nobles, his own freedom from Central that fi nding no safety for his family, Daulat Khan Asian troubles, and his scientifi c methods of warfare Lodi revolted and asked Babur to conquer India. and seasoned generalship in contrast to Ibrahim’s Before the invasion of Babur, Alam Khan, uncle or outmoded tactics, handicapped as they were by the brother of Ibrahim, had fl ed from Ibrahim Lodi and presence of too many soldiers and elephants that was residing at Kabul. The view of Ahmad Yadgar caused confusion in their own ranks when pressed

is that Dilwar Khan was sent to Babur to invite him Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru back by a deadly fi re.” | 203 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 As regards an estimate of Ibrahim, he was side of his mother. The Mughals were so proud in some respects like his father and grandfather. of their connection with Timur that they called He was intelligent, courageous and brave. He had themselves Timurids. On the death of his father some reputation for piety and orthodoxy. Like his Umar Shaikh Mirza, Babur inherited the ancestral father, he was interested in music. As man, he was kingdom of Farghna in 1494. On account of his generous and kind, but as a ruler, he had many precarious position in Central Asia, he, after crossing shortcomings, which were heightened by the the Indus, invaded India fi ve times. CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA adverse circumstances in which he was placed. He The fi rst real expedition took place in April had a certain amount of vanity and he demanded 1526. Panipat was merely the beginning of the more implicit obedience than was customary among Mughal rule and not its real foundation which was the Afghans. He was reckless in punishing all those laid by Akbar, in 1556. At the time of the battle whom he suspected of treachery or disaffection. of Panipat, the political power in Hindustan was In political dealings, he neither forgave nor forgot being shared by the Afghans. But Babur’s conquest and hence, he often appeared vindictive. His of Hindustan would have been incomplete till he treatment of the nobility was on the whole trackless defeated the Rana of Mewar, Sangram Singh or Rana and indiscreet. He could make enemies but could Sanga, who was the greatest Rajput prince of the not convert men of doubtful loyalty into devoted period. Consequently, a decisive battle took place on servants by his magnanimity. He attached too much March 16, 1527, at Khanua, a village some 60 km west importance to discipline, obedience and humility of Agra, between the forces of Babur and Rana Sanga. among his subordinates but did not know how to be securing them. His policy was calculated to provoke In this battle, the latter was decisively defeated and opposition and rebellion. He lacked qualities of Khanua confi rmed and completed Babur’s victory generalship and seldom took the fi led himself. Even at Panipat. In 1528, he captured Chanderi from a when he did so, he gave little evidence of anything Rajput Chief Medini Rai and a year later, he defeated other than courage and determination. He failed the Afghan chiefs under Mahmud in the battle of to maintain his authority over local offi cers and Ghagra in Bihar. These conquests because shortly provincial governors. He started well but failed afterwards he died at Agra on December 26, 1530. afterwards. On account of his own acts of mission Babur’s conquest of Hindustan has been called and commission, discontentment continued to by R.P. Tripathi “a result of chance thought”, because increase and the result was that by 1526, he was his original intention was only to annex the Punjab surrounded by enemies on all sides. He was no to his Central Asian territories. But the subsequent match for Babur and no wonder he lost the game. political developments led him to aim at capturing THE MUGHAL EMPIRE—FIRST PHASE, the entire Lodi heritage. The infant Mughal empire BABUR AND HUMAYUN was, however, “rather a congeries of little states under one prince than the regular and uniformly Babur governed kingdom”. A detailed record of Babur’s Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, who defeated career is found in his autobiography. Turzuk-i-Baburi

Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526, founded the Mughal Success or Baburnamah—which he wrote in his mother- of empire in India. Babur was a descendant of Timur tongue (Turki). It is reckoned among the most on his father’s side and of Chengiz Khan on the enthrailing and romantic literary works of all time. Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru | 204 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA

Humayun (1530-36 A.D.) Malwa, Gujarat and Bengal, were arrayed against

Babur’s eldest son, Humayun, who succeeded Success the Mughals. On top of it, Humayun divided the of him, inherited “a monarchy which could be held empire inherited from his father among his three together only by the continuance of war conditions brothers, Kamran, Hindal and Askari. which in times of peace was weak, structureless The Afghans, who had not yet been crushed and invertebrate”. Babur conquests had not been also raised their heads. Of them, Sher Khan known consolidated, the army lacked cohesiveness and as Sher Shah Suri, proved to be the most formidable the administration an effective machinery. The enemy of Humayun and after defeating the latter at imperial treasury was almost bankrupt and beyond Chausa and Kannauj in 1540, completely shattered

the frontiers powerful political forces, such as Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru his prospects. After his fi nal defeat at the hands of | 205 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Sher Shah Suri, the Mughal empire in India was stipulated revenue a peasant was also required temporarily eclipsed and Humayun had to pass to pay Jaribana and Munasalana together with a nearly fi fteen years (1540-55) in exile. But shortly contingency tax of 2-1/2 ser per bigha of land. after regaining the empire, Humayun died in an Shershah prefered the collection of revenue for accident. staple crop in cash. In such cases, the government’s The Sur Empire—Shershah’s Administration demand was fi xed according to the prices obtaining in near markets. While Shershah was lenient about Shershah was undoubtedly the greatest of the ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA the determination of revenue, he was strict in its Afghan rulers of India, the signifi cance of his reign collection so that arrears may not be accumulated. in Medieval Indian History may be assessed on the He also allowed for partial or complete remission of basis of his two major achievements: revenue in natural calamities. To protect standing 1. Restoration of Afghan political supremacy in crops from destruction in course of any warships, northern India, and he arranged for compensatory payments. 2. Introduction of extensive reforms in the Shershah’s revenue reforms were benefi cial for sphere of administration which subsequently the state and the peasant. But they suffered from provided the model for Akbar’s organisation certain defects. The inferior quality of land, jagirs and of Mughal administration. Sher Shah’s reforms bribery could not be abolished completely. Some of covered almost all branches of administration these defects were sought to be removed, later by including law and order, justice, currency, the Akbar. Little information is available on the central army, public works etc. But the most important administration under Shershah. It seems that the of these concerned land-revenue. earlier department of governments continued. These The objectives behind Shershah’s land revenue included Diwan-e-Wizarat or revenue department, reforms were mainly: or Diwan-e-Arz or military department, Diwan-e- 1. Elimination of intermediaries in land, Insha or secretariat, Diwan-e-Risalat or department 2. Amelioration of the condition of the peasantry, of public charities and Diwan-e-Qaza or judicial and department. But Sher Shah did not believe in delegating power or authority to his ministers. 3. Stablisation of the revenue resources of the He was despot and personally supervised all the state. different branches of administration and looked He abolished system of Jagirs and appointed into their details. government offi cials to collect revenue from the However, his despotism was based on the peasant. Each peasant was given a Patta specifying wiling consent or his subject and the welfare of his the area of land under his cultivation, the crop subjects. The details of provincial administration grown there, and the state’s demand. In return, the under Shershah are also obscure. Probably, Shershah peasant gave Qabuliyat to the state. Thus, Sher Shah allowed the earlier territorial units and administration tried to protect the peasant from the extortions setup to continue. The only exemption was made in of the Muqaddama and zamindars, and arbitrary Bengal where the entire province was partitioned assessment by the revenue offi cials. into a number of units each under a military chief. Shershah introduced the systems of Success It was at the levels of the Sarkar and Pargana that of assessment of revenue on the basis of measurement Shershah carried out a thorough organisation of of land instead of the earlier practice of crop sharing. administration. His experience as administrator of his All cultivable land throughout the kingdom was father’s jagir of Shasaram came handy to him in this measured and divided into three categories of good, connection. A Sarkar was placed under charge of a middle and bad. The average produce of the three Shiqdar-e-Shiqdaran who looked after revenue and was calculated and 1/3 of it was fi xed at the state’s judicial matters. Below the sarkar was the pargana share. Schedule of crop rate were drawn up showing each with a Shiqdar incharge of law and order, an

the method and rate of assessment. Besides the Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Amin in charge of revenue matters and a munsif | 206 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) in charge of judiciary. The Amin was assisted by a rule. Well executed coins of gold, silver and copper Khazanadar and two Karkuns, each to keep record in of a uniform standard and value replaced the old Persian and Hindi at the level of the village Shershah debased ones of mixed metals. His silver rupee allowed the headman or Muqaddam to continue remained a standard coin for centuries after him. performing his police duties. But he introduced the Smaller fraction of a rupee or even the copper one principle of local responsibility. The local headman such as quarter, half eight and sixteenth were also had to arrest thief and robbers or pay compensation coined. His coins bore beautiful legends both in to the aggrieved party. ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Arabic and Nagari. This considerably improved the existing law Shershah is rightly remembered for his works and order situation. Shershah laid great stress on of public welfare. These included the construction impartial dispensation of justice although he does of roads and sarais, patronage to education and not seem to have introduced any change—either charitable activities. To improve the means of in judicial organisation or administration of justice. communication in the empire new roads were The Munsif looked after cases concerning revenue. constructed and old one repaired. Shady trees were An orderly administration had to be supported planted on either sides of the roads linking such by an effi cient army and Shershah was aware of distant places as Dacca and Lahore, Mandu and this necessity. He carried out a through reform Eurhanpur, Agra and Burhanpur and Jodhpur and in the military. He revived Alauddin’s practice of Chittor, Minor highways connected Jaunpur and maintaining a permanent standing army recruited Bayana, Agra and Delhi, Multan and Lahor. These and paid by the center, and substituted it for the roads were as useful for commercial as for military feudal contingents of the Afghan warlords which purposes. Along these roads were sunk wells sat accounted for their turbulent behaviour and the short convenient distances and salaries were built at military weakness of the state. He also revived the intervals of four miles. Arrangements were made the practice of ‘Dagh’ and ‘Huliya’ to guard against for both Hindu and Muslims travellers. The sarai also served as centers of commerce and soon became the cheating and fraud by the soldiers and their the nuclei of new market towns that developed. They commanders. The army was stationed in forts also served as post offi ces or dark chaukies where and cantonments in different parts of the empire. news carriers and horses were kept for transmitting Shershah preered to pay his soldiers in cash and message to the next sarai. These arrangements did away with the practice of granting jagirs in largely explains the effi cient functioning of the spy most cases. system devised by Shershah. A stable and effi cient government encouraged Shershah did not fail to make adequate commercial activity in the empire considerably. It provisions for the upkeep of Madarsas and Mosques. received further impetus from the policies pursued Another sphere of state activity was the grant of by Shershah. He reduced the number of duties charity to the indigent, windows, orphans, students charged on commercial merchandise. This duty scholars and the recluse. Shershah was tolerant of was not to be paid only at two place (1) place of other religions as well and displayed no bigotry manufacture of import (2) place of sale. He also against his non-Muslim subjects. The tolerant made arrangement for the security of merchants attitude of Shershah is refl ected in the religious, and their goods in transport. The construction of Success literary and architectural achievements of his age. of roads and sarais also helped the merchants. The Muslim took great interest in the growth of In addition, Shershah introduced a uniform Hindi literature and some of them produced works system of weights and measures and a uniform of great merit and originality. In architecture too he currency throughout the empire. His currency patronised as eclectic style which assimilated both reforms were perhaps the most important since Indian and Persian artistic. The best example of it is Muhammad Bin Tughlug’s reforms. He effected his mausoleum at Sasaram. In many ways, Shershah improvements in the currency which had been paved the way for the highly enlightened policy of

debased during the later days of Turko Afghan Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Akbar and was his true precursor. | 207 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Prof. K.R. Qanungo, in his monograph on little modifi cation down of the middle of the 19th Shershah calls him the “greatest military and century were not the achievements of Akbar but of administrative genius among the Afghans”. Shershah”. Keene agrees with him when he says “no According to him Shershah may justly dispute with government not even the British has shown much Akbar the claim of being the fi rst who attempted wisdom as this pathan”, and according to Crookes to build up an Indian nation….. The work of “that he introduced such extensive reforms in his Shershah’s administrative genius did not perish short reign of fi ve years is a wonderful proof of his with his dynasty….. It forms the substratum of our ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA executive ability” historians scan even questions of present administrative system…. The revenue and tilt of Shershah to rank among the most prominent currency systems which prevailed in India with very enlightened and virile rulers of medieval India. Success of Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru | 208 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) The Portuguese Colonial Enterprises innocent men and women and tortured them. The On 17th May, 1498, Vasco da Gama, who had zamorin’s attempted invasions of Cochin were easily left Lisbon with three vessels on 8th July, 1497, repelled, and a war fl eet, consisting of 200 or 300 touched the land thirteen kilometers north of Calicut. vessels sent to the Red Sea by the Arabs, destroyed The Zamorian welcomed the Portuguese, but the four Portuguese ships. Muslims were alarmed. They poisoned the Zamorin’s In 1505, the Portuguese king introduced a mind against the Protuguese and convinced him that scheme of appointing a viceroy to reside in India CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA the newcomers were spies who would bring huge for three years. The fi rst viceroy was Francisco de forces to conquer the country. Their prophecies were Almeida. His successor, Alfonso d’ Albuquerque, not groundless. The Portuguese had meanwhile who conquered Goa in March 1510, encouraged discovered that the Hindu princes on the Malabar the Portuguese to marry Indian women and allotted coast were jealous of each other and that the region, them cattle. In 1511, Albuquerque conquered which depended for food on grain vessels from Malacca. A year later he foiled a Bijapuri commander’s the Coromandel coast, was extremely sensitive to attempts to regain Goa. Portuguese dominance a sea blockade. Most importantly they had learned at sea gave them a monopoly of the horse trade, that the Indian and Arab ships could not withstand which they used as a weapon in their diplomatic cyclones and typhoons and sailed from Gujarat to manoeuvres with the Indian rulers. Albuquerque Aden and Basra, from Bengal to Malacca, and from died in December 1515 and was buried in the church Malabar to Malacca, only at particular times of the he had built in Goa. He had laid the foundation for year. By contrast, the Portuguese ships could hold the Portuguese predominance in the eastern waters. The seas in all weather, and their cannot could destroy next Portuguese objective in India was control of the Indian ships with the fi rst volley. Gujarati port of Diu. Unfortunately for them Malik Vasco da Gama returned to Lisbon, in August, Iyaz, governor of Diu, until his death in 1522, was a 1499, with a cargo of species collected at Calicut. In formidable adversary. He possessed vast personal March 1500, the king of Protugal sent a larger fl eet resources, and his navy, fi tted with heavy cannon of thirteen vessels carrying 1,200 men, under Pedro and light pieces, was quite strong. Not only did he Alvarez Cabral, to destroy their Muslim enemies. defend Diu against Portuguese invasions, he also Seven ships were lost on the way to Calicut, but thwarted the intrigues of the Gujarati nobles, who the journey took only a few days more than six saw no harm in granting the Portuguese permission months. The Zamorian welcomed but did not help to build a fort in Diu in return for the right to trade them. War then broke out between the Protuguese freely. After Iyaz’s death, interest in protecting the and the Muslims. The Portuguese sank ten Muslim Gujarati was stepped up by Sultan Bahadur, who vessels and bombarded the town of Calicut for two built a fl eet of some 160 vessels, during his reign days. Cabral then sailed to the neighbouring port the Portuguese grew even more determined to of Zamorin had sent to punish the Portuguese. The extend their hold on the western coast with success Rajas of Cannanore and Quilon became Portuguese to some extent. allies; Cochin, which was better suited to trade, was transformed into the Portuguese trading Cartaz and Qafi la headquarters. Success 1. Throughout the 16th century, an important of The success of their fi rst two expeditions aspect of the Portuguese involvement was the prompted the Portuguese king to dispatch Vasco attempt to control and tax the trade carried da Gama again, in 1502, not only to destroy Arab on by Asian merchants in the Indian Ocean. It trade but also to plant Christianity in India. Gamma was here in their cartaz-armada-qafi la system exerted considerable pressure on the Zamorin to that the Portuguese produced their greatest expel all the Muslims from Calicut, but the Zamorin impact on Asian trade. only partially complied with his demands. Vasco 2. The main instrument used for this was the

da Gama then sank several Arab ships, captured Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru cartaz or passport backed by armadas. | 209 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 3. The near-absence or the inferiority of the naval was hostile to any heterodox movement. Advent of power of the Asian states greatly helped the Turks destroyed this alliance and caused a setback policies of the Portuguese. to the power of the Brahmans. As a consequence, 4. Under the cartaz system, every Asian ship non-conformist roots, with anti-caste and anti- was required to take a cartaz from the Brahmanical ideology took roots. The Nath panthis Portuguese. It authorised the vessel to embark were the fi rst to gain from the declining power of on a specifi ed trip. The ports of call were also the Rajput Brahmana alliances and reached its peak CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA specifi ed and generally included a visit to in the beginning of the Sultanate period. a Portuguese-controlled port to pay duties Socio-Economic Factors: Certain socio- before proceeding to its destination. economic changes took place with the establishment 5. If a ship was found without a cartaz, it was of the sultanate which created a favourable automatically confiscated and its crew ground for the spread of the Bhakti movement. immediately killed or sent to the galleys. The Turkish ruling class being urban based and Again, if a ship, even with a cartaz, violated having tremendous resources at its disposal created the conditions laid down in it, it was liable to a great demand for manufactures. This was aided confi scation. The fee charged for a cartaz was, by the growth of many techniques and crafts. This, however, very small. in turn, led to the expansion of the class of urban artisans in the 13th, and 14th century. This class was 6. In the second half of the 16th century, increasingly attracted to the egalitarian ideas of the the Portuguese introduced the so-called monotheistic movements as they were not satisfi ed qafi la or caravan system in the western coast with the law status accorded to them in traditional, of India. The main purpose of this was to Brahminical hierarchy. It has been pointed out that ensure that the ships carrying cartased were some groups of traders like the khatris in the Punjab, not able to evade calling at the Portuguese- who benefi ted directly from the growth of towns, controlled ports and pay customs duties urban crafts production and expansion of markets on their goods as also to obviate the risk of were also drawn into the movement for the same attacks by Malabari pirates on these ships. reason. Popularity of monotheistic movements was 7. Under this system, the ships operating the result of the support it obtained from one or between the specifi ed points were required to more of that different classes of the society. It is sail in a group escorted by a Portuguese fl eet. one or most of these sections which constituted But many Indian traders were reluctant to join the social base of the movement in different parts the qafi las and call at Goa to pay customs of northern India. In Punjab, the popularity of the duties there and engage in virtually forced movement did not remain confi ned to urban classes: trade. it acquired a broader base by the incorporation of Jat peasants in its ranks. Support extended by the 8. Hence the Portuguese escort fl eet had to Jats of Punjab to Nanak’s movement ultimately perform two functions: to guard the merchant contributed to the development of Sikhism as a ships against pirates and to ensure that mass religion. none of them slipped to trade outside the Was Bhakti a counterpart of Protestant Portuguese system Success Reformation in Europe Challenging Feudalism? It of BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENT has been argued that Bhakti movement represent sentiments of the common people against feudal Nature and Signifi cance of oppression. According to this view, elements of Bhakti Saints revolutionary opposition to feudalism can be Political factors: The Bhakti movement could found in Bhakti poetry of Kabir, Nanak, Chaitanya not take root in northern India before the Turkish etc. It is in this sense that Medieval Bhakti is seen conquest because the socio-religious milieu was as a counterpart of Europe protestant reformation.

dominated by the Rajput Brahman alliance which Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru However, there is nothing in their poetry to suggest | 210 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) that they represented the class interests of the 7. Followers of Kabir, Raidas and Nanak gradually peasantry against the surplus extracting feudal organised themselves into exclusive sectarian state. Bhakti saints broke away from brahmanical orders called panths. Only the Nanak panth order only to the extent that they believed in Bhakti crystallised into a mass religion. and religious equality. Normally, they continued Origin/Background to subscribe to many basic principles of orthodox Brahmanism. The more radical reformers even did Origin can be traced back to both the not call for the overthrow of the state and the ruling ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Brahmanical and Buddhist traditions of ancient class. For this reason, Bhakti cannot be equated India and to scriptures as the Gita. But it was for with or regarded as an Indian variant of European the fi rst time in south India between the 7th and Protestant Reformation which was a far greater 10th century, that bhakti grew from a mere religious social upheaval linked to the decline of feudalism doctrine into a popular movement based in religious and rise of capitalism. equality and broad-based social participation. It reached its climax during the 10th century, after Common Features of Popular Monotheistic which it began to decline. But it was reviewed as a Movements philosophical and ideological movement by a series 1. Most of the monotheists belonged to low of wandering scholars or acharyas beginning with castes and were aware that there existed a Ramanuja in the 11th century establishment of unity of ideas among themselves. Delhi Sultanate witnessed a great outburst of many diverse and widespread socio-culture movements 2. All of them had sources of inspiration Vaishnava drawing upon the concepts of Bhakti. concept of Bhakti, Nath panthi movement and Sufi sm. These three were synthesised and Difference between south Indian Bhakti give new orientation. There was only one and Popular Monotheism of Later Years way of establishing communion with God It never consciously opposed Brahmanism or by personally experiencing Bhakti. It differed the Varna system at the social level. It was integrated from Vaishnava Bhaktism as the latter believed with the caste system and the lower castes continued in ‘Saguna’ Bhakti while monotheist believed to suffer from various social disabilities. There was no in ‘nirguna’. Monotheist also recognised the elimination of Brahmanical rituals such as worship crucial importance of repitetion of divine of idols, recitation of Vedic mantras and pilgrimages name, spiritual guru, kirtan and satsang. to sacred places. Buddhist and Jains were its targets, not Brahmanas. This was the reason why Brahman 3. They followed a path which was independent dominated temples played an important role in of both dominant religions of the time the growth of south Indian Bhakti movement. It Hinduism and Islam. Denying their allegiance was ultimately integrated into the conventional to either of them, they criticised the orthodox Brahmanical religion. However, its non opposition of elements of both religions. They launched a Brahmanism strengthened it rather than weakened it. vigorous ideological assault on caste system and idolatry, rejected Brahmanical symbol Nanak and imagery. Nanak was an important expounders of

Success non-conformist popular monotheistic movement. 4. Preached in popular languages, used popular of symbol and imagery. He laid emphasis on one God, whose name with continuous repetition (with love and devotion) could 5. They were not ascetics but householders. entail salvation without distinction of caste, creed 6. Ideas spread among ‘lower’ classes and to or sect. He laid great stress on purity of character various regions. The 17th century Persian work and conduct as the fi rst condition of approaching on comparative religion Dabistan-I Mazahib God and the need of a Guru for spiritual guidance. testifi es to the continuing popularity of Kabir Like Kabir, he advocated a middle path in which

among the people of north India. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru spiritual life could be combined with the duties of | 211 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 the householder. He had no intention of founding They freed people of the tyranny of ritualism and a new religion. His catholic approach aimed at other externalities of formal religion which was a bridging distinctions between Hindus and Muslims, source of exploitation for the common man. in order to create an atmosphere or peace and goodwill. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1533), born of Kabir a brahmin family from Nadia, was the most famous

Kabir was the earliest and undoubtedly, ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA bhakti reformer in Bengal. He became an ascetic at the most powerful fi gures of the monotheistic the age of twenty-fi ve and adopted the Krishna cult. movements that began in the 15th century. He He stayed at Mathura and Vrindavana for many years emphasised the unit of god whom he called by and attracted lakhs of devotees. Deadly opposed various names (Rama, Hari, Govind). He strongly to caste system and untouchability, Chaitanya was denounced idol worship, pilgrimage, bathing in holy ‘the very image of love’ whose heart ‘melted with rivers and taking part in formal religion as manner. pity’ to observe the sufferings of the poor and the He also advocated the middle path denouncing downtrodden. He was very popular in Bengal; so asceticism. He strongly denounced the caste much so that some of his devotees declared him to system, especially the practice of untouchability be the incarnation of Lord Vishnu or Krishna himself. and emphasised the fundamental unity of man. Though his sympathies were with the poor, yet NATURE OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT he was not a social reformer, his emphasis being reform of individual under the guidance of a guru. Infl uences According to Jarachand, “the mission of Kabir was 1. Bhagvat Purana: Emphasis on Bhakti of to preach a religion of love which would unite all Vishnu in his various incarnations. The castes and creeds. He rejected those features of Bhagvata accepts the orthodox Brahmanical Islam and Hinduism which were against this spirit theory of origin of Varna system. However, and which were of no importance to the spiritual its influence was not exerted in a direct welfare of the individual. manner on Kabir and Nanak. They were mostly Their impact has been debated. It has been illiterate, not having access to Bhagvatas. argued that old forms of religion continued almost They did not believe in incarnations and unchanged. Nor was it possible to effect any major rejected Brahmanical and scriptural authority break in the caste system. Also in course of time, altogether. ideas of Nanak gave birth to a new creed, Sikhism 2. Ramananda: But his ideas of Bhakti were and followers of Kabir shrank into a sect the Kabir essentially a part of Vaishnava Bhakti, but panthis. However, their importance should be Kabir and Nanak went ahead of his ideas and assessed from a broader perspectives. They created challenged Brahmanical order in its entirely. a climate of opinion which continued to work through the succeeding centuries. It is well-known 3. Nathpanthis: Like non-conformist, most that Akbar’s real ideals and policies refl ected in a of Nath panthi preachers were from lower considerable measure in the fundamental teachings castes. Infl uence on Kabir is clearly seen in of these two great saints. Nor was Akbar alone in Success his non-conformist approach, independent of this pursuit (regional kingdoms-Kashmir-Zanul thinking, harsh style of utterances, mystical Abidin). The fact that their ideas were at the heart symbolism etc. However, Kabir and other of the religions and intellectual controversies of modifi ed the nathpanthi ideas to their own 16th/17th centuries testifi es to their signifi cance. needs. Kabir rejected their asceticism and It was the voice of Kabir and Nanak which spoke exoteric practices and other Yogic exercises. through the imperials lips and created a storm in Nathpanthi infl uence can be seen more in their orthodox circles during Akbar (Ishwari Prasad). They heterodox attitudes towards the established

also promoted the growth of vernacular literature. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Brahmanical religion than in their practices. | 212 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) 4. Islamic ideas and Sufi sm: Scholars have Kabir, Nanak and the latter project was accomplished argued that the Bhakti movement came into by Tulsidas in late 16th/17th century. However, such being as a result of Islamic infl uence. This a notion is not born out by historical evidence. claim has been made on the basis of many Impact of Islam and Causes for Growth similarities between Islam and Bhakti cults. Nonconformists as Kabir, picked up many There is much debate pertaining to the ideas from Islam non-compromising faith in infl uence of Islam as a factor for Bhakti. Such a one god, their rejection of incarnation, their ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA contention totally negates the indigenous elements conception of Nirguna Bhakti and their attack of Bhakti prevalent in Hinduism from a very early on idolatry and the caste system. However, date. Yet the impact of Islam can’t be totally denied. the Vaishnava Bhakti movement cannot be However, this impact was not so much on the interpreted in terms of such an infl uence of metaphysical and spiritual level as on its social and Islam as they neither denounced idolatry and organisational level. The simple and articulate non- caste system nor incarnation. Relationship ritualistic doctrine of Islam, its belief in egalitarianism between monotheistic Bhakti movement defi nitely sharpened the attack on Brahmanical and Islam seems to be of mutual infl uences Hinduism with its idol worship, superstition and and Sufi sm provided the common meeting rigid caste system. It seems that by its challenge as ground. Sufi concept of guru and devotional an alternative, it certainly awakened the dormant surrender to god. Kabir is even said to have trends of Hinduism which fi nds its expression in the affi liations with Chisti saints. Nanak’s encounter Bhakti movement. with Sufi s are described in the Janam Sakhis. The Bhakti Movement could not take roots in There was remarkable similarity between the north India before the Turkish conquest because them, including their common rejection of the socio-religious milieu was dominated by the Hindu and Muslim orthodoxy (Tarachand, Rajput-Brahmin alliance which was hostile to any Yusuf Hussain and Humayun, Kabir regarded orthodox movement. With the advent of Turks this Bhakti as an offspring of Islam). Rather than alliance was completely broken and the prestige of searching for far-fetched sources of infl uences Brahmanas certainly declined. from other religion, it is more appropriate The origin and growth of Bhakti Movement to understand them in terms of their own was linked to various socio-economic developments immediate historical contents. following the Turkish invasion. The period witnessed Others have tried to relate it to Hinduism. They the increase of agriculture, crafts, trade and see Bhakti as a reform coming from within commerce and various industries. The Turkish ruling Hinduism. But it was aimed at eradicating class was a predominantly urban settlers and with evils from both Hinduism and Islam. their effective organisation led to an increase in (a) They were non-sectarian, monotheistic the surplus at the hand of ruling classes. This must orders. have increased their demand which must be led to an expansion of artisans. (b) Challenged orthodoxy in both religions. Thus, a social strata emerged whose social Theory of Islamic Challenge to Hinduism status was not in conformity with their economic

According to one theory, Bhakti emerged as Success status. This class could not be satisfied in the of a response to the challenge posed by Islamic ideas hierarchical system of Brahmanism which placed to Hinduism and due to the alleged persecution of him lowly. Hence their attraction towards the Hindus under Muslim rule. According to this theory, egalitarian movement of the period, which various Bhakti movement was a two pronged defensive forms of Bhakti Movement represented. mechanism to save Hindu religion by purging it of This explanation sound creditable. Most of such evils as caste systems and idolatry and at the Bhakti Movement followers came from the peasant, same time defending its basic tenet by popularising artisan and lower class. Secondly, it gained deeper

it. The former task is said to have been undertaken by Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru roots in the region under Turkish rules. Further, many | 213 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 of the vocal supporters of Bhakti Movement such prominent among Ramaites; Mirabai, Narsingh as Jats had ambivalent social status despite the fact Mehta, Chaitanya, Surdas were famous Krishnaites. that they were will off farmers. Further even among saints there was variety of So, it is wrong to assume that Bhakti Movement differing view pertaining to each one of them. was a direct outcome of the emergence of Islam in Kabir and Nanak were prominent among India. Hinduism had in it the inherent philosophy to Nirguna sect and were move radical in their approach. achieve salvation. This was done by Jnana, Karma or They followed rational approach, rejected caste CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Bhakti. With coming of Turks, the decline in Brahman system, idol worship. Other were the Nathpanthis Rajput alliance hostile to it, and the changes in which went a step ahead to ridicule the Brahmanical socio-economic milieu certainly gave fi ll up to Bhakti system as a whole. Movement. Due to these diversities in composition of No doubt some of the principles advocated the Bhakti Movement, no defi nite character can be by Saints of Bhakti Movement as assigned to it while the Saguna were at best the 1. Universal brotherhood reformists and functioned within the establishment, 2. Opposition to idol worship the Nirguna were non-conformists and Nathpanthis 3. Disbelief in caste distinction were anti-establishment. were cardinal virtues of Islam but it would be Despite this a broad feature can be outlined: too much to say that the Bhakti saints borrowed 1. Most of them belonged to low caste. it from Islam. In fact, Hinduism knew it from the 2. All monotheist movement was infl uenced by earliest time. The “EKANTIKA DHARMA”, the religion Bhakti as a salvation. addressing itself to a single God fi nds its reference 3. Assault on caste system and superstition in the Bhagavat Gita. Idol worship was not practised (egalitarianism). for a long time during ancient India. But an outright rejection of infl uence of Islam on Bhakti too would 4. Use of popular language. be to deny the essence of Hinduism to borrow and 5. Most were non-ascetics. They preached and make it a part of its own. lived worldly life. So, it emerges that Bhakti Movement provided 6. Followers of each of major saints gradually answer to both the reason and emotion of the period organised members into exclusive sectarian which helped it to become in popular movement. order called panths e.g.—Kabir Panth. Nature and Signifi cance of Bhakti Saint 7. Ideas were drawn from both existing and Islamic traditions. The use of the term Bhakti Movement gives the impression of a homogeneous movement, which is Ramanuja far from truth. It consisted of various components 1. Born in 1017 A.D., became successor to his that some historians have rejected to call it a single guru Yamuna Muni at Srirangam. movement but rather a series of movements. 2. Ramanuja is a monotheist, but contrary to The major division which deserves note Sankaracharya he did not believe that God was between the Saguna and Nirguna sect. In the Success of may be exempt from qualities. So this qualifi ed Saguna sect, there was a belief in highly personalised Monoism (vishistadvaita) established unity of diety and the predominance of an emotional God possessing attributes. approach and appeal. They rejected the rationale of Vedanta, believed in temple traditions, supported 3. He reputed Mayavad of Shankara. He did not idol worship and did not oppose caste system regard the cosmic appearance of God as false vehemently. However, even various trends was to but as an aspect (Prakara) of God. be seen in this Saguna sect. These were Ramaites 4. According to him, God has two attributes—

and Krishnites while Tulsidasa and Ramanand were Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Prabara and Prabiriti. | 214 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (POLITICAL HISTORY) 5. Emphasised on Bhakti. 4. Wide discrepancy between teaching of various 6. Evolved prapptimarga for achieving salvation. saints. This marked beginning of movement for 5. Not much for women. upliftment of lower caste. In conclusion, our understanding of Bhakti Ramanand Movement requires the recognition of non- homogenous nature of Bhakti Movement. Its 1. Credit of spreading Bhakti Movement in North.

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA signifi cance lay in the fact that it provided hope 2. Believed in vishistadvaita of Ramanuj and or inspiration to the man of law caste people and carried it further. created an atmosphere of tolerance and peaceful 3. His disciples came to be known as Avadhutas. consistence in an atmosphere of great tumult. It 4. Opposed sectarianism and rites and preached was not only a spiritual or religious but had social in Hindi language instead of Sanskrit. overtones as well. 5. In his Anand Bhasya, he did not recognise Sufi sm in its Pantheistic Phase the right of Sudra to read Vedas. Though he It is said that during the period of our survey, did not believes in equality of four varna, he some of the Sufi s under the infl uence of Vedantist made disciples from all castes: Pantheism accepted the doctrine of Wahdatul Wujud (a) Ravidas was cobbler (Unity of Being). This doctrine was fi rst expounded (b) Kabir was weaver by Sheikh. (c) Sena was barber Muhinuddin Ibnul Arabi (1165-1240 A.D.) had (d) Sadhana was butcher found its way in mystical theosophy itself. Ibnul (e) Dhana was jat Arabi’s system is openly monistic. He asserted the identity of the creator (the Haq) and the created (f) Even women were his disciples and Padmavati and Sursari. (Khalq). According to him, God is the unity behind all the plurality and the reality behind all phenomenal Impact of Bhakti Movement appearance. “There is nothing but God, nothing 1. Diminishing rigid organisation of ritualism. in existence other than he; there is not even a 2. Eased the vigorous of caste system. “there” where the essence of all things in one”. His conception of Wahdatul Wujud is an extension of 3. Climate of understanding between Hindu the Islamic doctrine of Tauhid. From the doctrine and Muslims. that there exists but one God, he proceeded to the 4. It may have affected policies of kings as under doctrine that there is nothing in existence except Akbar. God. He argued that this being a matter of heart 5. Fastened humanitarianism. cannot be realised through reason. It required a 6. Rise of vernacular language. higher system of knowledge, based on the intuitive 7. Period of cultural systems. experience of the individual which he called zauq. 8. Two novel ideas of universal brotherhood and Ibnul Arabi’s system implies the immanence of to tolerance. God. He fully realised that it might lead to polytheism

Success which he rejected outright. To overcome this Weakness of dilemma he laid stress on the principle of love which 1. Caste system and ritualism remained, binds all beings together. According to him the institution of priesthood did not decline. The highest manifestation in which God is worshipped reason being failed to distinguish clearly from is love; the doctrine of the Unity of Being. traditional form of hinduism. Sheikh Sharfuddin discussed the mystic 2. Lack of royal patronage. implications of Islamic tauhid in his Maktubat and 3. Use of regional language restricted an all India clearly explained that both in its stage of gnosticism

character. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru (ilm) as well as in the stage of immediate vision | 215 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 (Shuhud) of the doctrine of the Unity of Being, the a part of the texture of mystic thought in India. He slave remains a slave and God remains God. His was a mystic of the Chisthia Sabriya order founded interpretation of the passing away of the Self (fana) by Sheikh Alauddin Ali Bin Ahmad Sabir. The poetry is that the devotee in this state of consciousness of Sulaluddin Rumi Hafi z and Jami went a long way experiences a vision in which he feels one with to popularise the concept of Wahadatul Wujud God who manifests himself in the form of Light. The among the intelligentsia of the country. union with God is not like the union of a body with The fi fteenth and early sixteenth centuries saw CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA a body. It is an intuitive contact and a detachment a confl ict between the followers of Wahadatul Wujud from the world and all that is other than God. The and its critics with the arrival of the disciples Shaikh remoteness or nearness to God is maintained only Alauddin Daula Simnani, the great Irani opponent of in relation to out ignorance and knowledge. That is, Ibn Arabi. Alauddin Daula argued that Being cannot he who knows more stands nearer to him than he be identifi ed with God; it is distinct from his essence who knows less. The association of a body with a although eternally inherent in him. He believed body is not real. It can be real only when the thing that Wahadatul Wujud was the initial stage in the with which it is associated is comprehended by it. development of Sufi sm, the fi nal stage being his own The comprehension of one object by another is theory of Wahdatush-Shah (Unity of Perception). in relation to its fi neness. The fi ner it is the more Some of his followers seem to have met with some comprehensible it will be. Only men of vision can success with Gesu Daraz of Gulbarga, who wrote a realise this as it is beyond the power of reason. letter condemning as misguided the works of Arabi Sheikh Sharfuddin Yahya Manairi was a prolifi c and Sufi poets like Rumi. But the Chishti traditions of writer. Besides his Maktubat (epistles) and Malfuzat Wahdatul Wujud were the strong for Gesu Daraz. The (sayings), he wrote several books for the guidance writings of Gesu Daraz did not fi nd much popularity of the devotees. As a practical mystic he laid special Simnani’s Shuhud ideology received its main setback emphasis on the service of humanity as a part of when the Shattari order was established by Shaikh mystic discipline. He said “prayers, fasting and Abdullah Shattari. Travelling as far as Bengal before voluntary worship are good as far as they go, but returning to Malwa where he died in 1485, Shattari they are not as useful as making other happy”. At challenged everyone either to teach him. Unity of another place, he has said, “the nearest way to reach Being if they knew more than him, or to learn about God for kings and nobles and men of means and it from him. wealth is to succour the needy and to offer a helping Shah Niamatullah and Makhdum Muhammad hand to the downtrodden”. To strengthen this view Jilani who lived towards the middle of the fi fteenth he refers to a remark made by a saint—“there are century introduced the Qadiri order established many paths leading to the bond, but the shortest by Sheikh Abdul Kadir Jilani of Baghdad, in the is to console the affl icted and to give comfort to 12th century. The latter settled in Ucch and was the hearts to men”. succeeded by his son Makhdum Abdul Qadir. His Another exponent of the doctrine of the Unity grandson, Sheikh Hamid Ganj Baksh was a man of Being was Sheikh Abdul Quddus Gangohi who keen mystical insight. His two sons moved to Agra died in 1537. By this time, this doctrine had become after the death of their father. Success of Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru | 216 |

Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com century, the regional languages continued to be be to continued languages regional century,the extended to the regional languages by some of the south India under the patronage the Vijayanagar Vijayanagar the patronage the under India south languages had applied in every way to the common of regional languages. He had remarked that these to the eighth century or so. Some others such as as such others so. Some or century eighth the to before the Turk established their power in India. in power their established Turk the before Muslim kings who, fi nding that these languages languages who,fithese that kings nding Muslim maturity and were employed as beans of literary literary of beans as employed were and maturity REGIONAL CULTURES AND LITERATURES knowing revenue accountants appointed in the the in appointed accountants revenue knowing court court of Bijapur. Another reason was the patronage languages in the Bahmani kingdom and later at the country, the early saints fashioned these languages reaching a certain stage of development, lost no no lost development, of stage certain a reaching used for administrative purposes in many of the the of many in purposes administrative for used of prestige suffered by the Brahmanas. Secondly,Brahmanas. the by suffered prestige of regional states. Thus, we find Telugu developing in 15th the of beginning the sincedisintegrated got sultanate.the of service Sultanate Delhi the When This is evident from the that fact we hear of Hindi- saints Bhakti the by employment their of account prestige suffered by Sanskrit as a sequel to the loss Tamil were mucholder. back origin their trace Hindi and Bengali,Marathi as such languages these life.of of Many purposes existence the noted had languages.Khusrav Amir for literary uses. Thirdly, some of them such as as such them of some Thirdly, uses. literary for the of parts many In ideas. their propagate to on popularity gained languages regional the are development a such for reasons The works. regional the of many in produced were quality administrative purposes in addition to Sanskrit even rulers and Marathi as one of the administrative administrative the of one as Marathi and rulers Marathi, Tamil and Kannada came to be used for used be to came Kannada and Marathi,Tamil not diffi cult to seek. One of them was the loss of of loss the was them of diffi One seek. not to cult Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com In the medieval period, many of them rose to During this period, literary works of high high of works literary period, this During a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com THE 15THANDEARLY 16THCENTURIES Mishra of ' s (SOCIETY, ECONOMYANDCULTURE) success rt CHAPTER-7 | 217 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success (1492-1546) was another Vaishnava devotee. Her Vaishnava another was (1492-1546) developed in Brindavana and Mathura and they they and Mathura and Brindavana in developed (1479-1531), a school of poets dealing with the the with dealing poets of school a (1479-1531), Mahabharata and the Ramayana translated into into translated Ramayana the and Mahabharata story of Krishna with a devotional background background devotional a with Krishna of story could understood easilybe by thecommon man. gatherings musical their in Hindi in poems Bhakti literaturesthe and byusing languages regional of time in giving them patronage for literary purpose and occasionally inBrajabhasha.and occasionally Gujarati Bhagavatain Purana,the lyrics of short in chapter tenth the in as Krishna of story the wrote speakers. Bhabana Gujarati the of lives the in and Gujaratiliteraturein era Bhakti byintroducingthe Gujarati Guru Nanak’s after shortly death, 1538A.D. about Nanak,Guru Bala. tohavesaid Thiswrittenis been which is attributed to one Sakhi of the disciples of in anincomplete form. compositions mostly belonged to the next period. speech.Brajabhasha The the in mainly composed Hindi Kutban, who lived as a protege of the Sultan of of Sultan the of protege a as lived who Kutban, also. Thus we see Nusrat Shah of Bengal getting the Jaunpur composed his Mrigavati in 1501 A.D., in 1501 in Mrigavati his composed Jaunpur and by putting forward Sufi concepts in a form which prose biography of Guru Nanak known as the Janam- Bengali. The Sufi saints also helped the development great poet of Gujarat who still lives in the memories school. He composed devotional lyrics in honour of A.D. 1532 again in Awadhi. This work is available only greatest of these Vaishnava poets of the Krishna cult God God conceived in the form of Krishna. He is the first in Brajabhasha was Surdasa (c. 1483-1563). Mira Bai Awadhi. Maniban composed is Madhu-Malati, before The eldest book that we have in Punjabi is is Punjabi in have we that book eldest The Through the influence of Vallabhacharya Vallabhacharya of influence the Through Narasimha Mehta (1415-81) inaugurated a new Downloaded from KnowledgePhilic.com

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Marathi Provincial Architectural Styles The two centuries following the death of The regional styles of architecture came into Namadeva, in 1350 A.D., are sometimes described as vogue usually after these states had thrown of the the dark period of Marathi literature. This was due to allegiance to Delhi and proceeded to develop a form the continuous fi ght between the Marathas and the suiting their individual requirements. They were Muslims which culminated in the establishment of distinct from the Indo-Islamic style practiced at Delhi Muslim rule in Maharashtra. Confusion became worse

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA and often displayed defi nitely original qualities. In confounded by the outbreak of frequent famines. the areas which had a strong indigenous tradition of Under these conditions, steady literary progress workmanship in masonry, regional styles of Islamic became almost impossible. The sect, architrave produced the most elegant structures. which was at fi rst unpopular on account of the On the other hand, where these traditions were not concessions it received from the Muslim rulers, so pronounced, the buildings constructed from the slowly recovered some of its lost prestige. It was a regional states were less distinctive. In some cases growing desire for rapprochement shown among all totally novel tendencies, independent of both the the Hindu sects which were suffering from Muslims indigenous and the imperial Sultana traditions, are apathy and hostility. The honour paid to the mythical also visible. sage Dattatreya by the Mahanubhava sect spread also to the followers of the Varkari-Panth. This had Eastern India resulted in the composition of poems of devotional It is interesting that the development of the nature among teachers and writers of this age of earliest regional style in architecture should have transition. The chief among them were Narsimha taken place at the other end of the subcontinent, Sarasvati and Janardana Swami, the master of in eastern India. In fact, there did emerge two major Eknath. A disciple of Narasimha Sarasvati wrote in strands of architectural style in this region viz., in verse the history of the sage-god Dattatreya. This Bengal and in Jaunpur, both of which witnessed work is held in great respect by both the Varkaris the rise of regional states. and . 1. Bengal: The establishment of an independent Bengali Muslim power in Bengal took place within a The fi rst great poet of Bengal of this period gap of fi ve years since the capture of Delhi was Krittivasa Ojha Mukhati. He adapted the Sanskrit by the Turks. But an independent building Ramayana into Bengali (c. 1418). In this work, we style, distinct from the one prevalent at Delhi, have a gentle and compassionate incarnation of developed at the beginning of the fourteenth a living deity to whom the loving faith of a simple century and lasted for a period of nearly 250 people could reach replacing the human and heroic years. Rama of Valmiki’s original Sanskrit epic. The poem Bengal style spread in all parts of the region, is mainly narrative. Maladhara Basu took up the but most of the prominent buildings were Krishna legend in his Sri Krishnavijaya. This work is based on the Sanskrit Bhagavata Purana. Bipradasa located within the boundary of the Malda composed a poem in about 1482 A.D.—using the district which had been the strategic centre story of Bihula—one of the greatest tales of wifely of the region due to the confl uence of the two Success rivers, the Ganga and the Mahananda. Here devotion and womanly courage through love, as of its theme. A very great name in medieval Bengal lie the remains of the two principal cities— literature belonging to the period under survey is Gaur and Pandua—which, in turn, enjoyed that of world is entirely dependent on God and have the status of the capital seat of the regional no independent existence. Nimbarka’s theory is thus ruling power. In our effort to understand the monistic and pluralistic. His views are expressed distinctive features of the architectural style in a commentary on the Brahmasutras called of this region, we have to depend mostly on Vedantaparijatasaurabha and in Siddantaratna or the buildings extant in these two cities and

Dasa loka. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru a few important examples elsewhere. | 218 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE) The building art of Bengal is generally divided indigenous form of decoration, i.e. terracotta into the following three phases of which the tiles was adopted. fi rst two are considered preliminary stages It, thus, becomes clear that nowhere in and the third, its ultimate development into India did climate and local conditions as a specifi c style. well as indigenous building styles affect the The fi rst phase is from A.D. 1200-1340 (During development of architecture as profoundly as most of this time Gaur was the capital seat.

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA in Bengal. Its merit lies in its dynamic ability to Only in the later years it was shifted to Pandua). transform itself by adoption and adaptation. The second extended from A.D. 1340 to 1430, 2. Jaunpur: The sharqi kingdom of Jaunpur and; was founded by Malik Sarwar, a noble of Firuz The third phase from A.D. 1442 to 1576, when Shah Tughluq, in 1394. In the wake of Timur’s the Mughals captured the province. During invasion and sack of Delhi, Jaunpur took over this phase the capital was shifted back to Gaur. from the capital as a centre for scholars and The data in the form of extant buildings for writers. The surviving architecture of Jaunpur the fi rst phase is scanty. Even where two or consists exclusively of mosques. Moreover, all three structures survive, they are in a badly the surviving buildings produced under the ruined state. It is, nonetheless, evident that Sharqis are located in the capital city Jaunpur. the buildings raised during this period were The Sharqi architecture of Jaunpur carries wholesale conversions of the existing Hindu a distinct impact of the Tughluq style, the structures. battering effect of its bastions and minarets Similarly, the second phase is also defi cient in and the use of arch-and-beam combination in data as it is represented by a solitary example. the openings being the two most prominent But this building—Adina Masjid at Pandua features. However, the most striking feature (built 1364)—surpasses all other Islamic of the Jaunpur style is the design of the structures in Bengal in size. It introduces two facade of the mosques. It is composed of lofty new features in the architectural style: propylenes with sloping sides raised in the The “drop” arch, having a span greater than centre of the sanctuary screen. The propylenes its radii, and centre at the import level. consist of a huge recessed arch framed by The method of raising the roof in a system of tapering square minars, of exceptional bulk arched-bays where small domes supported and solidity, divided into registers. The best by brick-pendentive in over-sailing courses examples can be seen in the Atala Masjid were raised over each bay. The bricks in these (built in 1408) and the Jami Masjid (1470). pendentive were set diagonally in each Evidently, the propylene was the keynote alternate course in such a manner that their of Jaunpur style and occurs in no other corners project and help in the transition manifestation of Indo-Islamic architecture. from a square to a circular base. The pillars were taken from Hindu temples and places Western India

in Laknauti. Success The regional style of architecture that came of The third phase is the most remarkable as it into being in Western India towards the beginning depicts the emergence of a semi-indigenous of the 14th century is almost exclusively confi ned style in tune with the peculiar environment to Gujarat. and local condition in Bengal. The result was Gujarat: This regional style fl ourished for to translate the native bamboo structures into a period of some two hundred and fi fty years, brick. In the course of time, this special form beginning early in the 14th century. The founders of curved roof became a fi xed convention. of Gujarat style of Indo-Islamic architecture were

In most of these buildings, moreover, an Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru in fact the governors of the Khalji Sultans of Delhi. | 219 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 There were three different phases of the The buildings at Dhar and Mandu derive Gujarat style. many features from the Tughluq architecture such The fi rst phase lasting for the fi rst half of the as the battered walls, fringed arch and the arch- 14th century marked by the demolition of the beam combination. But soon, we also noticed, the Hindu temples and their reconversion into Muslim emergence of distinctive features which give Malwa style of architecture a character of its own. Some of buildings. the more prominent features are described below:

The second phase prevailing mostly during ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Perhaps, the most important is an innovative the fi rst half of the 15th century and showing signs technique by which the two separate structural of hesitant maturity of a distinctive style. systems of the arch and the lintel have been Finally, the phase beginning in the latter half of combined in Malwa architecture. In no other early the 15th century when Gujarat style emerges in its type of architecture has this problem of using own magnifi cent form. Most of the typical examples arch and beam as structural elements been more relate to this period of Gujarat style. artistically solved. Here it is important to remember that the Another notable feature of the Malwa buildings Gujarat style of architecture is the most indigenous is the construction of stately fl ights of steps of in character. In some of the fi ner examples of this considerable length leading to their entrances. This style considerable portions of the buildings are in became necessary due to the use of unusually high fact adaptations from either Hindu or Jain temples. plinths on which most of the important buildings The essence of Gujarat style will be easily understood are raised. if you envisage a scheme of construction where the The most striking impressions conveyed by structure of a temple is fi tted into the sanctuary of Malwa style are not structural but the result of the mosque in the form of a central compartment. decorative properties. In these buildings, the element Almost all the mosques from the second and third of colour assumes a signifi cant role. There were two separate methods for obtaining this colour effect. phase are composed in this manner. The fi rst is the use of various coloured stones and Central India marble, and the second is by means of encaustic tiles. In Central India, the development of Indo- This architectural impulse died, in 1531, Islamic architecture remained confined within with the defeat of the last Malwa ruler Mahmud the Malwa region which became an independent II at the hands of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. Malwa kingdom at the turn of the 15th century. But, unlike was temporarily brought under the Mughals by other regions, the Muslim rulers of Malwa did not Humayun, in 1535 and was fi nally conquered by inherit any strong tradition of visual art. The result Akbar, in 1564. was that, to carry out their building projects skilled Deccan and experienced artisans were summoned from as The Indo-Islamic architecture that developed distant a place as Delhi who incorporated various in the Deccan, from 14th century onwards, under the styles prevalent at Delhi. It was only in the later Bahmanis acquired a defi nitely regional character period that original elements of architecture were quite early in its growth. But this architecture developed and decorative motifs of their own were followed a different pattern in evolution than other adopted in the buildings of the Malwa rulers which Success regional styles. As opposed to the growth of regional gave them a distinctive appearance. of styles in northern Indian architecture in the Deccan Malwa-Dhar and Mandu: The regional seems to have ignored to a very large extent the manifestations of Indo-Islamic architecture in Malwa pre-Islamic art traditions of the region. are located essentially within the confi nes of two In practice, the Deccan style of architecture cities, Dhar and Mandu, though some buildings consisted basically of the fusion of: may also be seen at Chanderi. The Sultans of Dhar 1. The architectural system is vogue at Delhi and Mandu have left a rich architectural legacy, the under the Sultans, particularly the Tughluq

main buildings being mosques, tombs and places. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru from and | 220 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE) 2. An entirely extraneous source that is the substantive style of architecture was now architecture of Persia. composed of forms very largely borrowed from The architectural developments in the Iran, but modifi ed and adopted to suit local Deccan may be divided broadly into three phases conditions. They did not, of course, abandon the Indo-Islamic traditions altogether. Some corresponding on each occasion to a change in the important features of Bidar style may thus be seat of the government. The fi rst phase begins in listed below:

1347 to the capital city of Gulbarga. Second phase ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA begins in 1425 when the seat of power is transferred Since colour was the characteristic feature of Indian architecture, palaces at Bidar show a to the city of Bidar. And fi nally, with the change of brilliant scheme of the use of coloured tiles capital again in 1512 to the city of Golconda, begins and the mural painting. The glased tiles which the third phase lasting till 1687, the year of Mughal covered the exteriors were imported by sea conquest. from Iran. 1. Gulbarga: Gulbarga became the seat of There is a distinctive change in the shape of an independent kingdom, in 1347, under the domes in the buildings at Bidar. They are Alauddin Bahman. With this began the slightly constricted in the lower contour and fi rst phase of architectural development in thus become the forerunners of the famous the Deccan. The early structures, however, bulbous domes of the Mughals. The drums did not as yet represent a distinctive style of these domes are made tall so as to project of the Deccan Islamic architecture. Of the the domes in full view. most part they followed the contemporary The fall of the Bahmani Sultanate towards Tughluq architecture of the North. The Jami the beginning of the 16th century brought the Masjid (1367) inside the Gulbarga fort was, fi rst phase of the Deccan style to a close. Soon, however, different and unique. This structure however, under the Adil Shahi kingdom of Bijapur, a was conceived and designed by an ingenious new phase of architectural activity was to takeover 14th century architect named Rafi . He was a from where the Bahmanis had left. But this style native of Qazvin in northern Persia and had developed contemporaneously with the Mughal taken to service under the Bahmani ruler of style. Gulbarga. The central designing idea lay in reversing all the architectural principles of Society, Culture, Literature and the Arts in mosques with a courtyard. Thus, in the Jami Vijaynagar Empire Masjid of Gulbarga the conventional design Vijaynagar has an extraordinary history. It was of the courtyard was fi lled with small cupolas born out of the incursions into the Deccan and even supported by arches placed close together. further south of the Delhi Sultanate. The capital, But this design was never repeated. Possibly the famous Vijaynagar, now deserted, is one of the the unorthodox plan of this mosque did not most important historical and architectural sites fi nd favour with the traditionalists. as it is the only Hindu city from the pre-modern 2. Bidar: The Bahmani capital was transferred period of which extensive remains still exist above to Bidar, a fortress town, in 1425 by ruler Success ground. The Vijaynagar style of architecture was of Ahmad Shah (1422-36). Soon, the new capital distributed throughout south India, but the fi nest saw a fl urry of building activity as within its and most characteristic group of buildings is to walls sprang up palaces with large audience be seen in the city of Vijaynagar itself. This city, in halls and hammams, mosques, a madarsa, fact, had a great advantage as a site for large scale and royal tombs. Moreover, this change of building activity in that it abounds in granite and capital largely eliminated the architectural a dark green chlorite stone, both used extensively infl uence of Delhi. The new buildings show as building material. The use of monolithic multiple

a strong contemporary Iranian infl uence. The Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru piers in the temple at Vijaynagar testify this fact. | 221 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA

The expanse of the city of Vijaynagar at the core with which is attached an unpressed animal height of its glory measured some 26 sq. km, and of a supernatural kind resembling a horse or a it was enclosed with a stone wall. Besides palaces hippogryph. and temples, the city had extensive waterworks and Success Another distinguishing feature is the use of many secular buildings such as elephant stables and of huge reverse-curve eaves at the cornice. This feature the Lotus Mahal. The basic elements of Vijaynagar has been borrowed into the style from the Deccan style are listed thus. and gives the pavillions a dignifi ed appearance. The use of pillars for architectural as well as As noted above, pillars form an integral part decorative purpose is on an unprecedented scale. of Vijaynagar architecture, almost all of which have Numerous compositions are used in raising ornamental brackets as their capitals. Usually, this the pillars, but the most striking and also the most bracket is a pendant known as bodegai in local

frequent is one in which the shaft becomes a central Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru parlance. This pendant, in Vijaynagar style, is | 222 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE) elaborated into the volute teminating in an inverted the Brahmins exercised as predominant infl uence lotus band. The occurrence of this pendant is a index not merely in social and religious matters but reliable of the building in the Vijaynagar group. also in the political affairs of the state. They acted The glory of the Vijaynagar empire ended, as ministers as well as the political and religious in A.D. 1565, at the battle of Talikota when the advisors and held key positions in the administrative combined army of the Sultans of the Deccan infl icted hierarchy of the state. However, the absence of the a crushing defeat on the Vijaynagar ruler Ram Raya. Kshatriya caste is really surprising. It is believed CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA that their vitality was made up by the activities There are many facets to a rich and diversifi ed of the commercial and agricultural classes. The society of Vijayanagar. Its importance in the history mercantile classes comprising ‘Settis’ or ‘Chettis’ had of the peninsula lies in the fact that it encouraged the relegated the Kshatriyas into the background. There evolution of a pattern of society which considerably were many communities of different professions conformed to the pattern set up in north India. who endeavoured to strengthen their material The period is generally considered as sterile in base. Certain communities like ‘Vipravinodins’. its cultural and intellectual manifestations; yet it Virapancharas and ‘Kaikkolas’ as well as ‘Reddis’ brought about a regionally oriented culture within a clamoured for more and more privileges as enjoyed common framework of already existing institutions by the upper classes. The economic prosperity of in India. The idea and concepts of ‘Hindu State’ and Vijayanagar resulted in the upward social mobility ‘Hindu Kingdom’ was, in fact, the manifestation of as certain lower caste, known as Sat-shudras, certain socio-cultural and religious practices existing acquired the privileges of upper castes overtime. and developing over the social order certainly The inscriptions and travellers accounts do testify moved along traditional lines where kings abided to the existence of slavery in the Vijayanagar, in the by customs and traditions based particularly on form of male and female slaves. But the slaves were ‘Varnashram’ system. However, certain practices, generally treated with kindness and consideration. also provide a counterpoint to the existing patterns in giving an individual cultural expression to the The upper strata of the society was generally whole southern Peninsula, yet within the ambit of very well off. The courtiers and the bureaucracy rolled dominant ‘Perso-Islamic culture’. in wealth, but with its accompanying vices. Within city of Vijayanagar, each class of men belonging to The ancient Vedic concept of Arya-Dharma had their respective profession was said to have shops undergone far-reaching changes, both in content contiguous to one another. The foreign visitors were and ideology, in the medieval ages owing to the amased to see the splendore of the empire in terms dominating influence of the neo-Brahmanical of wealth of its ruling elite and richness of its people. society. This setup gave unquestioned supremacy The vast quantities of gold, diamonds and material to the priestly class, mainly Brahmins. The king, as wealth possessed by the Vijayanagar inhabitant expected, had to abide by the injunctions of the was beyond comprehension and estimation of Paes Dharmasastra. His chief duty was to enforce the and other foreigners. Paes, the Portuguese traveller, observance by each caste of its particular Dharma. tells us that ‘the citizen of Vijayanagar’ ‘high or low’ So, the society of Vijayanagar is supposed to be even down to the artifi cers of the Bazar, wore jewels moving along the classical percepts. and gift ornaments in their ears and around their

In terms of its population pattern, the Success necks, arms, wrists and fi ngers. But, the material of Vijayanagar society consisted of diverse sections prosperity of the upper classes, however, did not lead and groups. Hindus certainly constituted a large to innovations and experiments in form and ideas, chunk of the population and we do witness the particularly in cultural spheres. On the contrary, they population of a large number of Muslims, Jews, conservatively held to existing patterns. as well as European traders. The caste system was The Hindu masses practised monogamy, deeply rooted in the Vijayanagar social structure. The however, the royalty and aristocracy showed laxity Brahmins, as usual, enjoyed a very high position in in morals. Nicoloi Conti, an Indian traveller, informs

the society. Being held in high esteem by the rulers Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru us that those who could afford, ‘marry as many | 223 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 wives as they please’ and they were burnt with translations of ancient scriptures from Sanskrit to their dead husbands. Thus the practice of sati was Tamil and preparation of commentaries thereon. prevalent and Brahmins played an important role Works on music, drama, dancing, grammar, logic, in this kind of self-immolation. Nevertheless, the philosophy etc. received encouragement from the general conditions of the women in the Vijayanagar emperors and the ministers, in short, the Vijayanagar empire is said to be fairly good. Women generally empire was a “synthesis of south Indian Culture”. occupied a high position in the society. Plurality of The period also marked the formative stage of the wives, however, was a recognised practice especially ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA development of Kannada and Malayalam languages among the wealthy class and child marriage was too. the usual custom. The women belonging to upper- Along with this growth of literature, we do middle class received higher education and some witness the development of a distinct style of of them took up to the statecraft. Nuniz makes a architecture, sculpture, and painting by native reference to the women scholars, writers, poets, musicians and singers. He further observes that artists. The Vitthalsvani temple is a fi ne example of the monarch of Vijayanagar had judged as well Vijayanagar style. Temple worship involved a variety as bailiffs and watchmen. The dowries were freely of rituals requiring a cluster of shrines. The gateway demanded and proudly given. Abdur Razzak, the became the dominant feature of the temple. The Persian traveller, also refers to the existence of major temples acquired an open pavilion where the brothels within the capital of Vijayanagar. weddings of gods and goddesses was ostentiatiously In the fi eld of language and learning, the celebrated. An earlier city was built in Vijayanagar, Vijayanagar rulers were considered as great patrons. with lavish temples, but what remains shows In fact, the period marked a period of Renaissance that it was characterised by sumptuous and rich in the proliferation of Sanskrit language as well in ornamentation. Pillar became blocks of statuary. the growth and development of various regional As Conti writes: “The circumference of the city is languages, which was further boosted by the spurt 60 miles; its walls are carried up to the mountains, sparked by the Bhakti Movement. Many Sanskrit and enclose the valley at their foot, so that its extent scholars, headed by Sayana reproduced religious is thereby increased. The art of painting attained scriptures and rewrote commentaries on all the a high degree of excellence, and the art of music four Vedas and some Brahmanas and Araoyakas. rapidly developed. Court circles encouraged the writings of historical Religious practices, beliefs and institutions narratives and biographies. Krishnadeva Raya was played a signifi cant role in establishing the regional himself a great scholar of both Sanskrit and Telugu. He is said to have contributed fi ve books in Sanskrit, identity of Vijayanagar. Epigraphic and literary besides the one in ‘Telugu’, Amuktamalayada. evidences clearly show that the rulers of Vijayanagar Amuktamalayada is not merely of religious interest were of pious disposition and devoted to Dharma. but also of great historical importance for the reign The kings of Vijayanagar were said to rule on behalf of Krishnadeva Raya. His poet laureate, Peddana, of a Shaivite deity, Virupakash. The royal patronage, enjoyed a wide reputation and held a high position hence, strengthened the existing popularity among Telugu writers. of Shavism in southern peninsula. By now the

The proliferation of literature produced in Success devotional cult was a recognised part of Hinduism of Telugu. Tamil was next to Sanskrit. The religious and a signifi cant concession to the growing strength literature in Telugu was produced by Shaivites, of the Bhakti cult was made by Krishnadeva Raya, Vaishnavites and the Jain scholars. Even the rulers who extended his worship to Vitthoba a popular of the Aravidu dynasty, patronised poets and deity associated with the Maharashtrian saints. religious teachers and Telugu literature fl ourished He respected all sects of the Hindu religion alike, under them with ‘reinforced vigour’. There were though his personal leanings were in favour of also authors among the petty chiefs and relatives Vaishnavism, he conferred endowments on temples

of the emperors. The religious literature comprised Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru and Brahmanas. | 224 |

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THE 15TH AND EARLY 16TH CENTURIES (SOCIETY, ECONOMY AND CULTURE) Mathadhipati, the leader of a sectarian centre it depended, too, upon, the same sort of favour the was among the most powerful men of the Vijayanagar most local magnets in their undisputed mastery age. Many enjoyed royal patronage and confi dence over countryside as well as many new towns. that resulted from serving as the spiritual advisor Thus, a cursory look at Vijayanagar society of kings and great chiefs of the realm. The head of gives us the impression that the Vijayanagar a Matha was usually a Brahmin except in the case empire certainly gave culture and linguistic of Virashaivas whose non-Brahmin head enjoyed

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA identity to a large part of south India. Its socio- the same high standing among the devotees and cultural set up permeated the consciousness of others. Like the Vijayanagar Rayas these heads sent being the fi rst bastion of Hinduism against the their agents to where their followers lived, to advise dominating infl uence of Islam. However, the patterns them in spiritual and secular matters to collect funds and parameters of the existing social order was for the order, sometimes to initiate, new members to arbitrate disputes among them, and to preach nothing very distinct, except that certain customs the doctrines of the sect. and practices were imbued with a strong sense of religiosity where the beliefs and perceptions of the Temples and mathas were prime instruments ruling elites and the local populace were gradually of Vijayanagar polities. Gods selected as well as wedded into a common denominator of their much protected their worshippers, which lent temples their social signifi cance during the fi fteenth and sought out culture of Hinduism. So, the question sixteenth centuries and made them prised for of importance is—is the ‘Hindu State’ or ‘Hindu Vijayanagar to win over. The ease with which the Kingdom’—a reality or misnomer of medieval time? remote sovereignties of the Rayas came to be The claim, however, often appeared to be more exercised over the Tamils and others depended rhetorical than real as with similar Muslim religio- upon the favour they showed to Tamil deities; but political claims. Success of Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru | 225 |

Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com were well-organised, the Rajputs, though spread spread though Rajputs, the well-organised, were expanded empire except under Aurangzeb. After under except empire expanded throughout the country as autonomous chiefs, had his hold on the throne, Akbar started a policy of of policy a started Akbar throne, the on hold his Empire became a political fact and an important important an and fact political a became Empire he must subjugate the large trade under Rajput Rajput under trade large the subjugate must he kings in the neighbouring region of Rajputana. A Rajputana. of region neighbouring the in kings Western India consolidated hisposition. and them suppressing in succeeded Khan Munim was annexed in1564. Garhkatanga was Malwa captured by Adham Khan 3. 2. Thefi expeditionwasrst sent to Gwalior and 1. andCentralNorth India the taskofexpanding hisEmpire. kingdoms. southern northwest,the In tribes some were states major India,the south and Deccan In territories. Mughal extending conflimplied This ict Political Unification EMPIRE CONQUESTS ANDCONSOLIDATION OF revolts in central India. Akbar with the help of of help the with Akbar India. central in revolts them of few A country. the of parts various in consolidating and problems initial overcoming held sway. Akbar through a systematic policy started political control mainly in Gujarat, Bihar and Bengal. major concentration in Rajputana. Afghans had had Afghans Rajputana. in concentration major Khandesh, Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda and other by his successors who added very little to the already factor factor in Indian politics. His policies were emulated with many political powers which were entrenched Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com During this period, Akbar had to face social social face to had period,Akbar this During He realised that to have a stable empire, empire, stable a have to that realised He It was during the rule of Akbar that the Mughal Jaunpur in1559-60. were Both annexed. Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com CHAPTER-8 AKBAR | 226 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success Mughal nobility and helped Akbar in expanding expanding in Akbar helped and nobility Mughal serious resistance. But within a short period, the the period, short a within But resistance. serious lasted till 1567, now again serious confl serious came again icts now 1567, till lasted A large number of them were absorbed in the the in absorbed were them of number large A Around 1592, Man Singh brought the whole of of whole the brought Singh Man 1592, Around is march Ahmedabad—his for started Akbar considered as one of the most outstanding feats outstanding most the of one as considered against the Mughal rule. On receiving the news, the receiving On rule. Mughal the against Gujarat and consolidating theEmpire. kingdom. Rajput the all of allegance the secure to calculated was policy devised not only to conquer be not taken into nottaken be account.” of1581 Rebellions rule. undertheMughal Orissa areas.many captured and Bihar towardsmarched east.the 1574,in In designes Akbar Mughal the in Eastern India Gujarat. in peace decade,was thereAkbar.a of almost For revoltedvariousregroupedgroupsrebelliousand any without fiSurat and Ahmedabad captured rst busy ports and thriving commercial centers. Akbar of number a had region fertile a being from apart factions/principalities,Gujarat, warring with Beset exception of Chittor’s Rana Pratap, Akbar managed these areas but to turn their rulers into allies. With the Bengal were ruled by the Afghans. Daud was a sore The independent rule of Bengal ended in 1576. in ended Bengal of rule independent The be regarded as the most critical time in the reign of guided by strategic as well as economic imperatives. Akbar, if his early struggle to consolidate his power Akbar’s attention towards Gujarat, in 1572, was Ever since the defeat of Humayun,of defeatand the Bihar sinceEver After the confl ict of the nobility which had had which nobility confl the the of After ict According to Vincent Smith “the year 1581 may SINCE-1993 ® Downloaded from KnowledgePhilic.com

Mishra's a of successrt

AKBAR to the surface in Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat and the The first expedition was dispatched to northwest. At the root was the discontent of the Ahmednagar and in 1595, the Mughal forces seiged Afghans who were routed everywhere by the Ahmednagar. Chand Bibi gave a valiant challenge to Mughals. Apart from there, Akbar’s policy of strict Mughals. After heavy losses on both sides, a treaty administration of Jagirs was also responsible for was formulated. According to this treaty, Chand this. By this new policy jagirdas were asked to Bibi ceded Berar, but after some time, she attacked submit the account of their jagirs and a cut was Berar. This time, the Nizamshahis, Qutabshahis and enforced in military expenditure. The governor ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Adilshahi troops presented a joint front. Mughals of Bengal enforced these regulations ruthlessly, suffered heavy losses. Akbar marched to Ahmednagar giving rise to revolt. Soon, the rebellion spread to which was captured followed by Asirgarh. Adil Shah Bihar. Meanwhile, the rebels had declared Mirza of Bijapur also expressed allegiance and offered Hakim, who was in Kabul, as their king. Mughal his daugther in marriage to Prince Daniyal. Now, forces crushed the rebellions in Bihar, Bengal and Mughal territories in the Deccan included Asirgarh, adjoining areas. Burhanpur, Ahmednagar and Berar. Mirza Hakim, to put pressure, attacked Lahore. New Concept of Monarchy But he retreated after he got the news of Akbar’s presence in Kabul. Akbar gave the charge of Kabul Monarchy was the keystone of medieval to his sister and left for Agra (1581). polity. Thus, according to Fazl, “If royalty did not exist, the storm of strife would never subside, nor Gujarat also witnessed some rebellion at around the same time. Muzzaffar Shah again selfi sh ambition disappear. The nature of the state troubled Mughal forces but was brought to heel. and complexion of administrative structure of an empire were determined largely by the theory of Northwest sovereignty and the policies propounded by the Various rebellions attracted his attention in king himself. The Mughals could not shake off the the Northwest. The fi rst and the most important Turks-Mongol tradition of monarchy obtaining in was the Roshanai movement. They rebelled and central Asia but also took caution to adapt it to local cut the road between Kabul and Hindustan. The climes. The point here underlines that the theory of onslaught against the Roshanai cost Akbar dear— sovereignty was absolute monarchy. Raja Birbal lost his life in the operations. However, Under Akbar, apart from absolutist monarchy, with a strong contingent under Raja Todar Mal and Man Singh, the recalcitrant tribes were suppressed. the divinity aspect was overbearing. While Babur Akbar also annexed Kashmir, around 1586. Thatta was the shadow of God on earth (Zil al Allah), was annexed in 1590. Akbar became the ‘light of god’ (Farr-i-Izidi)—this perception of sovereignity was the zenith that the Deccan and the South Muslim mind could go. Akbar’s interest in the Deccan states started Abul Fazal says, “no dignity is higher in the eyes building after the conquest of Gujarat and Malwa. of god than royalty. It is a remedy for the spirit of Earlier contact were limited to the visits of emissaries rebellion.“ Royalty is a light emanting from God— and casual contacts. After 1590, Akbar started a ‘farri izddi’ or ‘Kiyan Khwarah’. It is communicated by planned Deccan policy to bring these states under

Mughal control. Around this time, the Deccan states Success God to kings without the intermediate assistance were facing internal strife and regular confl icts. of of anyone. Again many excellent qualities fl ow from the possession of this light—a paternal love towards In 1591, Akbar sent a few missions to the Deccan states asking them to accept Mughal the subjects, trust in God etc. The king was, therefore, sovereignty. But these missions returned without deemed to be divinely appointed, divinely guided any success. It was reported that only the ruler and divinely protected. of Khandesh was favourably inclined towards the The theory of sovereignty propounded by Abul Mughals. Now, Akbar decided to follow a militant Fazl on behalf of Akbar refl ected in his mahzar and

policy. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru ‘Ain-i-Rahnamuni’ seems to be as close to the central | 227 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Asian and Perso-Islamic concepts as to the Chagtai king and expect him to be their spiritual leaders as traditions of sovereignty. It is signifi cant that the well, for a king possesses, independent of men, the absolute tradition of sovereignity and conjunction ray of divine wisdom.” of spiritual and temporal rulership was developed From hindsight, it can be seen that the new in many courts as a defence mechanism against conception of monarchy was an exercises in under encroachment upon kings authority by lesser political expediency. By showering divine states, mortals. the absolute power of the monarchy was guarded CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Alauddin Khilji had tried to abide by the “law from usurpation. Besides, the qualities emanating of expediency”, Akbar went ahead of him. By the from the divine ordination were seen as important ‘mazhar’, the emperor was certifi ed to be a fi rst ruler plays to garner the support of all and sundry and (Imam Adil) and was as such assigned the rank of reiterated the benevolence of the monarch and “mujtahid” (infallible authority); Nay the position his attitude towards his subjects. His conception of Imam Adil was declared superior to that of a of monarchy was the mainspring of his politico- mujtahid. The “intellect of the just king” thus became administrative policies which also had a bearing on the valuable source of legislation. Thus, Abul Fazl the evolution of unique religious-political elucidates that “people will naturally look to their outlook. Success of Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru | 228 |

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Mishra's a of successrt

AKBAR Establishment of Jagirdari and Mansab 2. Those with sawar half of more than half of Systems the number of the zat—4000/3000. Mansab and jagir systems did not develop 3. Those whose sawar rank was less than half of suddenly; they evolved steadily through time. These their zat rank—4000/1500. institutions were borrowed in some form from West The sawar rank was either equal or less than Asia and modifi ed to suit the needs of the time in the zat. But in unusual circumstances when the

India. The mansabdars were an integral part of the ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA mansabdar was operating in a diffi cult terrain Mughal burueaucracy and formed, as Percieval Spear amidst the rebels, the state often increased the says, ‘an elite within elite’. They were appointed in all sawar rank without altering the zat rank. The system government offi ces except the judiciary. By virtue was not static and reforms were introduced without of this system, Akbar welded the civil and military modifying the basic structure. One such reform was administration of the empire under one institution the ‘mashruta’ rank which meant an increase of sawar (organize both the nobility and the army). rank, for a temporary period in times of emergency. The word mansab means a place or position, Modifi cations in the system came during implying a rank in the offi cial hierarchy under the Jahangir and Shah Jahan. During Jahangir, there Mughals. Akbar gave mansabs to both military and was a tendency to reduce the zat salaries. He civil offi cers on the basis of their merit or service to introduced a system whereby selected nobles could the state. He was broadly inspired by the principles be allowed to maintain a large quota of troopers, adopted by Chengiz Khan (decimal system). Abul without increasing their zat rank. This was the ‘du- Fazl states that Akbar had established 66 grades of aspah sih-aspah’ system (trooper with 2 or 3 horses), mansabdars though only 33 grades are mentioned which implied that a mansabdar holding this rank by him. Mansab denoted three things: had to maintain and was paid for double the quota of troopers indicated by his sawar rank. Possible Position – determined the status of its holder motives for introducing this modifi cation—since the in the offi cial hierarchy. sawar rank could not be maximally more than the Salary – fi xed his pay. zat rank, the only way out to increase the number Obligation – also laid down the obligation of contingents without increasing the zat rank was of maintaining a specifi ed number of contingents. the du-aspah sih-aspah. Raising of the zat rank Initially, a single number represent the rank, would have further burdened the enchequer and personal pay and the size of the contingent of the also cause heartburn among the nobility. A further mansabdar. After some time, the rank of mansabdar modifi cation during the reign of Shah Jahan was came to be denoted by two numbers zat and sawar aimed at drastically reducing the number of sawars (1595-96). ‘Zat’ determined the mansabdar’s personal a noble was required to maintain. Thus, a noble was pay and his rank in the organisation. ‘Sawar’ fi xed the expected to maintain a quota of only 1/3 of his number of horses and horsemen to be maintained sawar rank, and in some circumstances only 174th. and accordingly, the amount the mansabdar would These modifications were not adequate receive for his contingent. William Irwin thought that enough to counter the growing number of the double rank meant that the mansabdar had to mansabdars and the consequent strain on the Success treasury on account of several other reasons. Drastic maintain from his personal pay two contingents of of troops, while Abul Aziz rejected Irwins theory cut in salaries would have formented disaffection by stating that it meant the maintenance of one among the nobility. Hence, the quota of troopers, and contingent and not two. Athar Ali clarifi ed the horses a mansabdar had to maintain out of his sawar rank was further reduced by a new scaling device. position as stated above. Salaries of mansabdars were put on a month scale They were classifi ed into three groups: saha maha (6 monthly), sih maha (3 monthly)—10, 8, 1. Those with sawar equal to the number of 6, 8 etc. and their obligation for the maintenance of

zat—4000/4000. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru a quota of sawars were brought down considerably. | 229 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Month scale was applied to cash salaries also. It 2. Mansabdari system helps in strengthening the was a device to counter the strain on the central foundation of Mughal Empire in India. Since exchequer and at the same time accommodating mansabdars were central offi cers, system new elements within the nobility due to changed helped in maintaining effective central control political compulsions (Marathas). on entire Mughal Empire. Granting a Mansab was the prerogative of 3. The mansabdars were appointed on the basis the emperor and the qualifi cations could be merit, of merit. Therefore it enabled to get services CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA loyalty or racial consideration. The most favoured from most meritorious candidates. As a result, category was the Khanazads, Uzbegs, immigrants effi ciency of administration and strength of from safavid empire and Deccan kingdoms and Mughal administration increased enormously. Rajputs. Promotions were generally given on the 4. The system helped in widening the social base basis of performance and lineage. in Mughal Empire because anybody could be Mansabdar were asked to present their mansabdar without religious or social status. contingents for regular inspection and physical 5. Mansabdari system played important role in verifi cation at the offi ce of the Mir Bakshi. It was done painting secular character of Mughal Empire by a special procedure called “Dagh and Chehra”. because both Hindus and Muslims were Care was taken that the contingents maintained by appointed as mansabdars. a mansabdar were of a mixed racial kind to prevent 6. Mansabdars were appointed by emperor and the forces of parochialism and tribalism. The escheat thus used to counter the balance of orthodox system (zabt) was another feature of the mansab elements, as witnessed during Akbar’s reign. system. 7. Mansabdari system played important role Composition of mansabdars – heredity was in success of Akbar’s Rajput policy because an important factor. Rajput nobles could be easily appointed as Khanazads – 272 (47%) mansabdars. Zamindars – 81 8. The system encouraged offi cers to perform They also welcomed Persian, Chagtai, Afghans, best because good performance was always Indian Muslims, Marathas, Rajputs and Deccanis. rewarded through promotion. Merits of the system: Unifi ed administration 9. The mansabdari system enabled ruler to hierarchy i.e. civil and military administration implement their policy of checks and balances combined. because Jahangir used to counterbalance 1. Created a centralised administration system. Subhedars. 2. Large forces used for expansion and 10. Mansabdari system led to integration of consolidation. Mughal civil and military administration because civil as well as military offi cers were 3. More loyalty. granted mansab ranks. It was a complex system. Its effi cient functioning (a) It helped in imparting uniformity in depended upon a number of factors, including the Mughal Empire because mansabdars proper functioning of the dagh system and of the

Success were appointed in every role and all were jagirdari system. If the dagh system worked badly, of bound by the same rule. the state would be cheated. If the jama dami was (b) The system played important role in infl aced, the jagir system would be in shambles expansion and consolidation of Mughal Merits and Criticism of Mansabdari System Empire. It was because of the success of 1. The mansabdari system was most remarkable this system the Mughal Empire could feature of Mughal state system. It was survive for more than a century. established by Akbar and it evolved under 11. But by the beginning of Aurangzeb’s reign the

his successors. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru system developed stress and by the middle of | 230 |

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AKBAR 18th century system collapsed completely. This Jagir System failure of mansabdari system was outcome of Jagir was akin to the Iqta system of Delhi inherent limitations of system itself. Sultanate areas assigned to a mansabdar in lieu of 12. There was central organisation to look after cash salary were generally called jagirs. It was not the and manage mansabdari system. It depended land which was assigned but the income/revenue for its successful functioning on personality from the area was given to the jagirdars. The system of emperor and when Mughal emperors developed over a period of time and underwent CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA couldn’t pay proper attention towards system, many changes before stablising. However, the basic it collapsed. framework was developed during Akbar reign. 13. The system resulted in division of loyalty of The estimated revenue from the jagir was soldier between the emperor and mansabdars. called ‘jama’, calculated in dam, which included land The soldiers were of crown but they were revenue, inland transit duties, post customs and maintained by mansabdars. Since mansabdar other taxes which were known as sair jhat. ‘Hasil’ was the permanent commander the soldiers was the income actually collected. were loyal to him as well. Jagirdars were transferred quite frequently. 14. The difference between Jama and Haasil was It checked them from developing local roots, but permanent challenge faced by mansabdari discouraged jagirdars from undertaking any long- term measure for the development of their area. system because shortfall of salaries made They were interested in extracting as much revenue mansabdars to avoid full responsibilities. as possible in a short time. 15. When Aurangzeb conferred Faujdari power There were various types of jagirs: on mansabdars, they started misusing power to exploit peasants so as to collect maximum (a) Usual – ‘jagir tankha’ possible revenue. As a result peasants suffered (b) Conditional – ‘mashruta’ immensely and serious agricultural crisis had (c) No obligations ‘inam’ developed during latter half of 17th century. (d) Assigned to zamindars in their homelands– 16. Aurangzeb appointed very large number ‘watan’–hereditary of mansabdars during his reign. These (e) To Muslim nobles under Jahangir – ‘al tamgha’ mansabdars could not get jagir on time and A jagirdar was allowed to collect only whoever got the jagir got bad jagirs as good authorised revenue (mal wajib) in accordance with jagirs were few. imperial regulations. He was watched over by the (a) As a result mansabdars started forming diwan, amin, and helped by the faujdar in collection groups and alliances so that they could (in the provinces). get best jagir on time. Rajput Policy (b) Such grouping seriously affected Mughal policy towards Rajputs contributed effi cient functioning of entire system. to the expansion and consolidation of the Empire During the reign of Aurangzeb, most under Akbar and his successors. For long, it has of appointments were from Deccan. Success been held that the Mughal alliance with the Rajputs This adversely affected homogeneity of was determined by personal religious beliefs of of system. individual rulers. On this basis, Akbar’s liberalism 17. Aurangzeb was busy in Deccan for 25 years. and Aurangzeb’s oxthodoxy were considered the He couldn’t pay attention to functioning of touchstones of their policy its impact on the political mansabdari system. All these factors gave rise seen. However, recently the Mughal Rajput relations to a very serious jagirdari crisis and this crisis are being studied within the framework of Mughal played a very important role in disintegration nobility as well as tensions within the different

of Mughal Empire. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru sections of the nobility itself. | 231 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 A centralised bureaucratic empire like common even before Babar’s time. These marriage that of the Mughals was confronted with the were in the nature of political compromise and did problem of distribution of power between its not imply conversion to Islam and break with Hindu various components. The vicissitudes of the traditions. Akbar during this phase was only ensuring Empires were governed to a large extent by the personal loyalty. A personal relationship, it was felt struggle for supremacy or autonomy by various would best ensure political allegiance. Matrimonial aristocratic elements—Mughal bureaucracy and the alliances did not lead to any kind of special bond autonomous rajas and zamindars. The socio-cultural ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA between Hindu Rajputs and Mughals. Nor were factors and the geostrategic context of the country there alliances intended at counteracting recalcitrant are equally important to be taken into account. elements or using Rajputs for personal gain. The liberal Mughal Rajput relations cannot be understood measures of Akbar such as abolition of Jizya. Remission independently but should be seen as part of pilgrim taxes etc. (1562-64) strengthened people’s a confl ict which has a part history. It developed faith in Akbar as a liberal ruler. But these measures against the backdrop of the decline of the Delhi did not create an atmosphere of total peace between Sultanate and the emergence of a new state system the Mughal and the Rajputs. The war with Chittor is in Rajasthan, Malwa and Gujarat. a glaring example. Akbar proclaimed the confl ict as Jihad and martyrs as Ghazi. The ‘fatehnama’ of Chittor A word about the motives for a sound Mughal was couched in such a fanatic verbiage that could put Rajput alliance that animated the regime of Akbar any reactionary to shame. would not be out of place. Apart from ensuring peace in Rajputana, it secured to the Empire, the During the fi rst phase, his attitude towards steadfast loyalty of a group of warriors who served Rajputs softened and Rao Dalpat Rai was accepted in the emperor valiantly in his tasks of expansion the imperial service and given jagir. However, Akbar’s and consolidation. They were used a counterpoise religious views his public policies and attitude against the growing pretensions of the Turkish towards Rajputs’ development, along separate lines, nobility. Incorporation of Rajputana opened up concided only at a later stage. vital trade routes with Central Asia. Finally, it gave Towards the end of 1590, relations with greater social legitimacy to the rule of Akbar and Rajputs were further established. A number of broad-based the social composition of the ruling Rajput rajas were enrolled in imperial service. The elite. This phenomenon fi nally culminated in the Gujarat expedition was an important landmark in growth of a composite culture under Mughals. Babur the evolution of Mughal Rajput relations. Rajputs and Humayuns’s relation with Rajputs should be were enlisted as soldiers and their salaries were fi xed viewed in the context of the Afghan problem which for the fi rst time. During the Gujarat insurrection of deterred them from making friendly overture to the Mirzas, Akbar depended largely on the Rajputs. the Rajput rulers. The battle of Haldighati between Rana of Three phases can be perceived in the shaping Mewar and Akbar was not a struggle between of Akbar’s Rajput policy. During the fi rst phase, which Mughals/Muslims and Hindus. As important ended in 1567-70, Akbar continued with the policy groups from amongst the Rajputs sided with followed by the Delhi Sultans; in the second phase, the Mughals, this struggle cannot be termed as

Akbar tried to develop and extend the alliances but Success a struggle for independence from foreign rule. certain components of the earlier policy were retired of It was largely a pronouncement of the idea of the third and last phase is marked by Akbar’s break regional independence. The power of the Rana with Muslims orthodoxy. received a serious gall when a large number of Way back in 1557, Rajputs especially Bhara Mal Rajput principlalities showed loyalty to the Mughals. had made a favourable impression upon Akbar. It From now on, Rajputs were transformed from war led to a matrimonial alliance between Bhara Mal’s collaborators into allies of the Mughals. daughter and Akbar in 1562. But this matrimonial Till the end of the second phase, Akbar’s Rajput

alliance was not unique and such alliances were Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru policy had not acquired a shape which would be | 232 |

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AKBAR disapproved by the Muslim orthodoxy or which of a sort of Pax Mughalica (Mughal peace) was would be threat to the Muslim character of the state. important if the Rajput rajas were to serve in different This phase is marked by Akbar’s break with parts of the Empire without being bothered about Muslim orthodoxy which had ramifi cations in many their homelands. This meant regulation of inter-state areas. The Mahzarnama and fall of Shaikh Abdun disputes and disputes among the Rajput rajas. The Nabi were the indicators of the shape of things to Mughal policy of conferring honour on anyone was come. a part of the process of weakening the aristocracy by CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA instigating the middle and lower strata to assert their During Mirja Hakim’s invasion of Punjab, Akbar independence from aristocracy. Therefore, the Mughals heavily relied in Rajputs—Man Singh and Bhagwant enlisted in their service many minor feudal lords who Singh from now onwards they (Rajputs) became were is of the Rajput Rajas themselves. the sword—arm of the empire and became actively involved in Mughal administration. Akbar tried to The issue of succession had invariably caused forge close relations with Rajput ruling houses— fratricidal wars in Rajput states. The concept of especially Kacchwahas and entered into matrimonial Mughal paramountcy implied controlling succession alliances. In 1583-84, Akbar initiated a new policy to the throne in these states. Akbar had pronounced of selecting loyal Muslim and Hindu nobles for that the grant of tika was the prerogative of the performing administration tasks—Todar Mal, Birbal Mughal Emperor and could not be claimed as a etc. The Kacchwaha Rajputs got the largest share of matter of right. Mughal intervention settled the appointment among Rajputs. contentions issue of succession without a civil. By 1585-86, Akbar’s Rajputs policy had become Akbar’s alliance with the Rajputs began as a fully developed. The alliance with Rajputs had political coalition but latter, it developed into an become steady and stable. They were now not only instrument of closer relation between the Hindus allies but were partners in the empire. and Muslims, which formed the basis for a broad liberal tolerant policy towards all, irrespective A study of the state structure of the Rajputs of faith. Thus, the Mughal Rajput relations were is important for understanding their relation with seen as the beginning of a secular, non-sectarian the Mughals. On the eve of Mughal conquests, the state in which all sections of people would have administrative structure was based on the ‘bhai bant’ some interest in its continuation. But this was system—a sort of loose confederation in which a not in accordance with socio-political reality. The region was held by a clan. The leading family of Rajputs refused to enroll themselves in Akbar’s a clan held only a few parganas or mahals under Tauhid-i-Ilahi and also did not support Akbar in direct control in a region and the rest were assigned opposing sati. Akin to the Rajputs, the Mughal elites in patta to individual members of the family who was also generally orthodox. The Mughal elite and constructed their own fortresses. These holdings the ulema feared that a broad liberal policy would were hereditary. When a raja was enrolled in the be detrimental to their dominant position. Their imperial services, he was given jagir against his opposition could be put down only by furthering Mansab which consisted of mahals where the clan the Mughal Rajput alliance supported by powerful members lived. This region was the real watan of non-sectarian movements. Stressing common points the raja. Watan jagirs were granted for lifetimes in between the followers of the two religions. These

Rajasthan. Success

of movements were limited in their infl uences and the The change in the state structures of Rajasthan Mughal-Rajput alliance having no powerful bulwark and the evolution of the concept of watan jagir became strained and collapsed. which replaces ‘bhaiban’ system is an interesting phenomenon. Watan jagirs allowed the Raja to Evolution of Akbar’s Religious and Social consolidate their position vis-à-vis the pattayats Outlook which was a step towards the evolution of a stable Akbar’s attitude towards religion and religious and centralised state structure. Rajput rajas were communities is generally evaluated on the basis of

granted jagirs outside their watan. The establishment Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru the measures which he took between 1560-65 and | 233 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 which primarily affected the Non-Muslim population Ibadatkhana was opened to Sufi s, Shias, Brahmanas, of the Empire. During this period, Akbar established Jaina, Christians, Jews, Parsis etc. Discussions at matrimonial alliances with Rajputs, abolished the Ibadatkhana proved to be a turning point as they pilgrim tax, prohibited the conversion of prisoners convinced Akbar that the essence of faith lay in of war to Islam and abolished Jizya. These measures “internal convision” based on reason. He made seem to have given Akbar the image of a “secular” an attempt by proclaiming himself ‘mujtahid’ emperor. However in his personal beliefs, Akbar and declaring himself Imam Adil, to claim the was a devout Muslim. Gulzar-i-Akbar and Nafais- ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA right to interpret all the legal questions on which ul-Maasir suggest that Akbar showed deep respect there existed a differences of opinion among the to the ulema and bestowed favours upon them. ulema. These measures were aimed at curbing the Encouraged by the Emperor’s bounty, they also predominance of the orthodox elements. persecuted Shias and Mahdawis. His Tauhid-i-Ilahi is another signifi cant of this His ‘liberalism’ has been explained in several reign. According to R.P. Tripathi, “Shrewd as Akbar ways. It is suggested that his upbringing and various was, he must have felt that it was neither possible intellectual infl uences moulded his personal beliefs. to melt all religion down into one, nor to launch a Another view fi nds Akbar having forsaken Islam new religion which would have added one more to and being hypocritical in his tolerant attitude. The others. But he felt himself called upon to propogate current opinion however, favours the view that these his ideas among those who cared to listen to them. measures were political concessions. In the absence The sect had no sacred book, no priestly hierarchy, no of any reliable Muslim support, Akbar had little sacred place of worship and no rituals/ceremonies alternative but to seek alliance with the Rajputs and except that of initiation….. a member had to give a Indian Muslims. These measure were concessions written promise of having accepted for a grades of to win their support. entire devotion, viz. sacrifi ce of property, life, honour A change in attitude is discernible in 1565. There and religion. It was not a religion and Akbar never is a marked retrogression in his attitude in matters intended to establish a church …. neither force nor pertaining to religion. Examples are numerous: money was employed to enlist disciples … It was document to Munim Khan ordering the collection of entirely a personal matter, not between emperor Jizya in the vicinity of Agra; the fathnama of Chittor, his and the subjects, but between Akbar and those who orders to Qazi Abul Samad of Bilgram to check Hindus chose to regard him as their pir or guru”. from practicing idol worship there. To crown all this, in It seems that Akbar wanted to build-up a 1575, according to Badayuni, Akbar reimposed Jizya devoted band of people around him acting as their though it did not work. An interesting aspect of this spiritual guide. Thus, Tauhid I Ilahi had nothing to do phase was that despite an atmosphere of religious with Akbar’s religious or political policy. Thus, we see intolerance most of the Rajput chieftains paid his that Akbar, in the interest of political consolidation, service, during the years 1566-79. did not generally resort to religious discrimination. Yet he never hesitated in taking strong measures Thus, religion was not the main concern of against those who threatened his position or Akbar. The signifi cant issue before him was to exceeded the limits of social or ideological values subdue the local chieftains. Religion was used only regardless of their faith or creed. It should also as a tool to attain political goals. When the strategy Success

of be voted that stern actions were taken against did not yield substantial gains, Akbar dropped it. individuals, and not against religious groups. Another important fact of his religious political outlook was the establishment of the Ibadatkhana The Mahzar of 1579 in 1575. Established with the aim of having free The Mahzarnama of 1579 was part of larger discussions on various aspects of Islamic theology. design of Akbar to repudiate the conceit and pride Akbar was soon disillusioned with the council of the ulema. The wranglings in Ibadatkhana, the of the ulema who quarreled incessantly. Though corruption and tyrany of the chief sadar Abdun

initially opened only for the Sunnis, in 1578, the Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Nabi and the revolts, of 1579-80, in which fatwas | 234 |

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AKBAR were issued against Akbar declaring him to be a everywhere to be found why should truth be heretic had convinced Akbar that the ulema had confi ned to one religion”. It was not a new religion far transgressed their role. but a socio-religious order of a brotherhood. Though The declaration of Mahzar asserted that if there Badayuni terms it as a new religion, the term ‘Din’ were confl icting views among the mujtahids (those or faith was not added to it till 80 years. According fi t to interpret Islam). Akbar, by virtue of being a to Abul Fazal and Badayuni, it was Tauhid-i-Ilahi or “most just and wise king” and his rank being higher Durine monotheism. It was really an order of sufi stic in the eyes of God than that of the mujtahids, was ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA type without having a priestly heirarchy, scripture, entitled to choose any one of the interpretations, rituals and ceremonies. Neither force nor honey which would be of “benefi t to the nation and in the was used for making disciples. R.P. Tripathi is closer interests of good order”. Further, if Akbar issued a new to the truth when he says that it was a personal order in conformity with the Quran and calculated matter not between the Emperor and subjects but to benefi t the nation, all should be bound by it. Akbar and those who choose to regard his as their Vincent A. Smith has described the edict as “a pir or guru. In fact, many of the leading noblemen, decree of infallibility”—a pact of the fi t of religions except Birbal, refused to join the order. frenzy which assailed Akbar at the beginning of Regarding Akbar’s motives, Badayuni says that 1578. “But it is far from the truth. It made Akbar, who it was on account of Akbar’s head being turned by was the temporal head of the state, the supreme many unworthy fl atters who suggested to him that head of Islamic faith in India. It overthrew the power he was the “INSAN-i-KALIM” or the “perfect man of of the ulema, since they had sanctioned the edict, the Age”. It was at their instance that Akbar initiated making the king the supreme arbiter of all causes— the ceremony of pabos or kissing the fl oor before the civil or ecclesiastical. The decree was political and sovereign, a ceremony erstwhile reserved for God. so it did not involve Akbar's repudiation of Islam. In Abul Fazal says that it was natural for people to turn fact, it was a Muslim king that Akbar could decide to their ruler for spiritual guidance and that he was between the confl icting views of the muitahids. well-qualifi ed to lead the people to spiritual bliss Further, it did not invest Akbar with infallibility and and to establish harmony among warring creeds. to the extent, the scope of the decree was limited. It Din-i-Ilahi had hardly 25 members and it died only showered Akbar with requisite authority and with its author. The ethical rationalism of Akbar, which sanction to adopt any one of the confl icting opinions was to have united all, pleased none. In fact, Akbar and was empowered to issue an order, provided it was far ahead of his times. It neither appealed to was in consonance with the Quran and was for the the Muslims nor to the Hindus. Badayuni, The Jesuit ultimate benefi t of the people. Missonaries, Vincent A. Smith and Wolsey Haig are Din-i-Ilahi his worst critics. Vincent Smith has termed Din-i-Ilahi as a monument of Akbar folly and not his wisdom. The fi nal stage in Akbar’s red spiritual evolution It is wrong and unjust. There were many precedents was Tauhid-i-Ilahi (1582). Unlike other so-called of rulers combining temporal and spiritual power liberal measures, it was not a political contrivance. in their person. Moreover, it was on keeping with By that time, i.e. 1582, Akbar had consolidated his the paternalistic nature of his sovereignty wherein internal position and was now in a position to re- he also thought of leading people spiritually. There orient the administrative structures of the empire. Success

of was no force or persecution to accept it. He sincerely Thus, a religious prop was hardly needed. It had felt that religion was a personal belief and insofar nothing to do with his religions or political policy. as this ideal was concerned, the success or failure His contact with enlightened men of different of Din-i-Ilahi did not matter. religions convinced him that there were good points in almost all religions. Thus, the tauhid was Relations with other Religions an amalgamation of good virtues from different Jains: He came into contact with jain scholars religions and was based on simple reason. Thus, quite early, primarily due to his alliance with the

Badayuni says “If some true knowledge was thus Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru ruling families of Rajasthan. Akbar invited one of | 235 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 the great living Jain divines, Hira Vijaya Suri, from real ruler. It was also the duty of the ruler to maintain Gujarat. He was awarded the title of ‘Jagat Guru’ and equilibrium in society by not allowing people of was ranked by Abul Fazl among the 21 most erudite one rank or profession to interfere in the duties and men at Akbar court. It was under the infl uence of obligations of another. Above all, he was not to allow Jaina doctrines that he forsakes meat consumption sectarian confl icts. All these together constituted and gave up hunting. the doctrine of Sulh-i-kul. Akbar tried to emphasis Zoroastrians: It made a deep impact on Akbar. the concept of Sulh-i-kul in other ways as well. He CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA In 1573, he came into contact with Dastur Mahyarji set up a big translation department for translating Rana, at Surat. Zoroastrian scholars took part in works in Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, etc. into Persian. the religious discussions held at the Ibadatkhana He also introduced a number of social reforms. He and they received a grant of 200 bighas of land in stopped sati; legalised widow remarriage; raised the Madad-i-Mash. age of marriage; and restricted the sale of liquor. Christians: He invited portuguese missionaries With his principle of Sulh-i-kul, Akbar proved from Goa for expounding Christian doctrines. Jesuits himself to be far in advance of his age. He must in turn were anxious to ensure that the imperial have received the greatest opposition to his belief authority extended its support to the introduction in Sulh-i-kul from the orthodox Muslims, for in of Christian religion in his dominions. Accordingly, religious societies tolerations no virtue. Toleration 3 missions were sent from Goa to Akbars court in was regarded in those times as the symbol, not of 1580, 1591 and 1595. They were permitted to build an enlightened and humane mind, but of laxity of churches at Agra and Lahore. Later, the missionaries principle, for, if a man would tolerate error, he could became his ardent critics as they had contemplated not love truth. conversion of the monarch. They had failed to grasp Composite Nobility under Akbar his rationalism and quest for the truth. The evolution of homogenous nobility out of Theory of Sulh-i-Kul and Religious Policy multi-racial and religiously heterogeneous elements Sulh-i-kul means peace for all. It was Akbar’s brought about by Akbar, in the 16th century, was policy. Akbar’s Persian tutor, Mir Abdul Latif Qazvini, a signifi cant aspect of the transformation that is said to have infused this doctrine into Akbar. came about in the nature and functioning of the Akbar’s state policy was infl uenced by this doctrine. institution of the Mughal empire. The composite The Rajput alliance marked the beginning of a new nobility evolved out of the historical objective to orientation of state-policy based on Sulh-i-kul. Akbar maintain the political unit and centralised structure entered into matrimonial relations with the Rajputs. of government by redefining the relationship Mansabs were given not only to the Rajputs with between the sovereign and the Mughal nobility. whom he had established personal relationship, In the very heterogeneity of the nobility i.e. in but also to others on the basis of their competence. the balancing of Hindus, and Muslim nobles, the Among the latter were Todar Mal and Birbal. Akbar Shaikhzadar, Rajput, Iranians, Turanis. The Mughal abolished Jizya, pilgrim tax on bathing at holy places saw a great safeguard for royal power by ensuring such as Benares, and the practice of converting that no one faction dominated the affairs at the forcibly the prisoners of war. His attitude towards the court.

Hindu subjects were closely linked with his views of Success It may be pointed out that the whole problem of how a sovereign should behave towards his subjects. of nobility under Akbar is generally sought to be These views were a mixture of Timurid, Persian and understood in the term of their relation with the Indian ideas of sovereignty. Akbar thought that king; which is no doubt an important aspect of a true ruler was distinguished by a paternal love the issue. But equally important are the aspect of towards his subjects without distinction of sect or pattern of radical and religious alignments within creed, a large heart so that he wishes of great and the nobility, Tribla & Clan ties among the group small were attended to, prayer and devotion, and a of nobility, their relation with other section of the

daily increasing trust in God who is considered as the Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru population etc. In brief, factors which determined | 236 |

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AKBAR largely the change in the role and standing of the increasing and Akbar was trying to use the non- nobility. A signifi cant transformation was brought Turani groups particularly Persians to pull down about in the nature of the working of Mughal empire, the Turani disaffection. A natural corollary of this by the evolution of a composite nobility under Akbar. situation was the growing tension between the An analysis of the history of the nobles who Turani and the Persians. Akbar openly supported accompanied Humayun to Hindustan, in 1555, shows the Persians against the Turani nobles which clearly that the nobility inherited by Akbar consisted of indicate the trend visible in the fortunes of Persians CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA chiefl y two racial groups—Irani and Turanis. Turani after 1562-67. enjoyed a predominant position (53%) of the Persian Akbar wanted to organize a centralised state nobles, with the exception of Bairam Khan and Mirza and for this, he had to rode the Turks-Mongol theory Hasan etc. The rest could exercise but little infl uence of kingship and to do that, he had to reduce the in matter of state. power of the Turani faction who were the major But for the promotions received by a few obstacle in the way. persons of Persian origin, the composition of nobility Akbar tried to reduce the power of the nobles remained unaltered, during the domination of by disfavouring the concentrations of jagirs of a Bairam Khan. After his fall, the situation gradually particular clan in one region. The Uzbeks in the east changed. As is evident from the data available, and in Malwa, the Mirzas around Sambhal and the two elements of local nature entered the imperial Atka Khail in Punjab were of affected Turani class. service between 1560 and 1575. There were Rajputs On the other hand, the Persians nobles were mostly chiefs and the Indian Muslims. (mostly Shaikhzadas) individuals adventurers and had no worthwhile clan belonging to the families living on ‘madad-i-mash’ followings. Akbar also reduced the size of the jagirs grants or enjoying zamindar (system) rights. and separated fi scal and administrative right and At the same tine, there was a marked increase jagirs, were given only for revenue collection. He in the relative strength of the Iranis especially in their tried to realize arrears of the revenue from nobles higher grades. The net result of this process was and even transfer of jagirs followed during this the gradual fading away of the Turani complexion period. While the former hit the fi scal power of the of the nobility as well as the erosion of the chagtai Turanis, the latter checked them from developing tradition and customs of state organisation. Thus, local base and association. indirectly facilitating Akbari quest for an alternative In 1560, two nobles—Munim Khan and Atkai— theory of kingship in the subsequent years. shared the post of Waqil and so the power of the The Persian nobles seem to have improved post was reduced. During 1562-65, Akbar carried their position, in the period of 1562-67 mainly by out administrative changes to reduce the power of earning positions in the course of military operation, the waqil. He was deprived of the control over the during the revolt of sections of the nobility. It may Dewani, which was placed under a Persian known as be noted that except for a temporary desertion by Diwan-I Wizarat-i-Kul, another department the Mir Asaf Khan (1505-66), none of them revolted and for Bakshi was created taking part of Waqil’s functions. that matter, none else than the Turani section of the From 1562 onwards, there was a definite nobility were behind every other revolt. Even the tendency to exclude the highly placed nobles rebellion of the Uzbek offi cers, which was led by Ali Success from the central government. It was sought to be Quli Khan, who himself had a Persian background of manned by a set of newly promoted offi ces mainly was in reality the rebellion of the whole clan of experts in various fi elds, who rose to distinction Uzbek nobles serving under Babur amongst whom solely on the basis of their personal expertise and but for Ali Quli Khan and his brother, all leading displayed particular zeal in greater centralisation fi gures like Sikandar Khan, Ibrahim Khan, Abdullah and standardisation of administration process. In Khan etc. were Turanis. most cases, prominent nobles Turanis as well as There is evidence to show that during this time, Persians were being deligated to commands and

the alienation of the Turani nobility from Akbar was Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru charges in frontier regions. | 237 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 As Prof. I.A. Khan puts it, these changes most infl uential and numerous ruling groups of the apparently aimed at achieving the objective of Indian Muslim population were the Afghan. The the separation of routine administration from experience of the period 1526-40, had convinced. military functions and entrusting it exclusively to The Mughals that they could not hope to get the perfectionally competent persons. support of any considerable section of the Afghans, As a result of all these developments, a new who were their chief contenders for supremacy set of offi cers came to preside over the central over Hindustan. CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA department. For e.g. the team of ministers running It was, therefore, natural for Akbar to look to the central Diwani at the time of the introduction of other important ruling groups, obviously, the Rajput ‘Dagh’ consisted of Shahibaz Khan, Mir Guiasuddin, chiefs who at that time controlled autonomous Rai Puroshotam Das, etc. There were many others principalities as well as zamindars in a major part of like Todarmal, Abul Fazal, Birbal, Nuzzaffar Khan the empire were the most important of such groups. etc. had very important position at the court. These However, between 1562-67, none of the Rajputs men rose to prominence simply on account of their except the Kachchwahas of Amber joined the Mughal readiness to carry out and develop the policies laid imperial service. But soon after the suppression down by the king. of the Uzbek rebellion, Akbar’s attitude towards All these fi scal and administrative reforms Rajputs changes radically, consequently, we fi nd threatened the independent existence of the Akbar adopting a vigorous policy towards Rajputs nobility, particularly Turanis and hence the revolt to reduce them into submission by force. There was of the Turanis from 1563-68. But more important a corresponding shift in the religious policy too, changes were yet to come. Akbar’s attempt to shown by the efforts at palacating orthodox Muslim redefi ne crown’s relationship with the nobility were sentiments. The public manisfestation of Akbar’s bound to produce reaction amongst the Iranis too. attitude during the seize of Chittor, 1568, describing Morevoer the Iranis could not have provided the it as a victory of Islam and the reimposition of Jaziya kind of support he needed. Akbar required a more (1575) can be sighted as evidence. wide social base and deeper penetration of the After the fall of Chittor (1568) and Mughals in India, thereby providing as stronger Ranthambhor, it became clear to the Rajput states economic base as possible. that their independent existence was at stake. It is In these circumstances, Rajputs and Indian noteworthy that Akbar offered them liberal terms Muslims came to play very important role. Iranis of peace and they began joining one by one and having no social base in India, Akbar had to turn in turn Akbar recognised their hereditary territorial towards the indigenous elements who were going rights. They were granted full independence within to provide him a solid social base for the expansion their territory, which was termed as watan jagir, a of the Mughal empire for the development of his non-transferable jagir. Akbar was quite successful centralised despotism. in his attempts at wining over and for these watan Soon after coming to the power he followed jagirdars supported the crown right till the end, a liberal policy towards Rajputs. He entered into until the right to watan jagir itself was questioned matrimonial alliances with the big Rajput families by Aurangzeb. and Indian Shaikhzadahs of Delhi and agri pilgrimage Success Moreover, the Indian Muslims were also of tax was abolished in 1563, practice of conversion was included on an increasing scales under different stopped and fi nally Jaziya was abolished in 1564. racial groups. The Muslims, who entered the Mughal According to I.A. Khan, all these steps were service from the 1560s, improved their position dictated principally by exigencies of state policy particularly during 1575-80. It is signifi cant that rather than consideration of religious tolerance during the rebellion of 1580-84, the Indian Muslims and intellectual infl uence of anyone. One important and the Rajputs as a body sided with the king. This reason put forward for the induction of the Rajputs clearly shows that during the year preceding the

in the imperial service is that during this time, the Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru revolt, the Indian noble must have been specially | 238 |

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AKBAR cultivated to make them the most steadfast support as a person continued to serve. Moreover, it was the central authority in a confl ict that arose around frequently changed from one place to another in certain issue regarding the composition of nobility. order to prevent the growth of local association on The emergence of Indian Muslims as an the part of the individual holder. Thus, the jagirdars important section of the nobility was also important were entirely an offi cial class, which created more insofar it must have provided a under support for favourable conditions for the establishment of royal the empire amongst the Muslim community in absolutism. CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA India. Apparently, the reorganisation of Department However, the ruling class at the lower level of Sadarat during 1570s was motivated by Akbar’s consisted of small chieftains and zamindars with desire to gain and retain the further sympathy of great infl uence in the rural areas. Akbar integrated the local Muslim upper class. His attempt at gaining this class into the Mughal governing institution support of Muslim is also evident from the liberal making them a part of Mughal administrative set grants to Muslims. up. This class became the social base of the Mughal The Mahzarnamah of 1579 seems to be the in the rural areas. outcome of Akbar, eagerness to win recognition According to Abul Fazal, the zamindars were as the sole head of the orthodox Muslims of India. overwhelmingly Hindus. Between these two ruling In the Mahzar, the king’s title as the Head of the class upper zamindars, mostly muslims etc. and orthodox Muslims and as the monarch of Islam lower, there was both unity and contradiction. In a Badshah-i-Islam, rests on the sanction given by the sense that without the support of the zamindars, leading Ulema of the realm. While according to the revenue could not be collected and at the same theory that developed later, kingship is recognised time the zamindars were rival in claims and revenue. as a divine attribute confi rmed upon the later by But nevertheless the system functioned effi ciently. God, without the interpretation of any one. Hence, The sum up, the growth of a composite nobility the Muhzarnamah was a means used by Akbar for (governing class) under Akbar was marked by cutting promoting and be friending Indian Muslims. the wings of powerful clan fractions among the The mansabdari system not only established a nobles and induction of two new elements of local defi nite order of precedence among nobles but also origin, Rajputs and Indian Muslims in the nobility, led to the gradual evolution of a defi nite convention who shared a major power. Such a development was regarding pay privileges etc., which changes the mainly facilitated by the gradual indianisation of value of the nobility. The nobles now came to be the governing class and extension of its social base regarded as the paid servants of the king. Thus, a resulting from the steady increasing involvement further step was taken in the bureaucratisation of of zamindars in the offering of the empire. the nobility. The governing class at the upper level consisted The principle of balancing the various ethnic mainly Muslims (though Hindu consequently gained and regional groups was also sought to be applied strong foothold) while at the lower level, it consisted by Akbar to the contingents that the mansabdars mainly of Hindus. Thus, the governing class under were required to maintain. In the initial phase, the Akbar was truly composite in nature brought about contingents of a large number of the mansabdars by carefully balancing the various multiracial and consited of tribal levies of their clansmen and fellow Success multicultural hetrogenous elements. countrymen. Gradually, defi nite rules and convention of were developed regarding the composition of the ABUL FAZL, THINKER AND HISTORIAN nobles contingents. Thus, he forced making, tribal, Abul Fazl was the second son of Shaikh national and sectarian, exclusiveness were dealt Mubarak Nagori. Beginning his service with marking in a blow. horses and attending to the mahalli, he managed to The jagirs were essentially the assignment raise himself to a mansabdar of four thousand and to of revenue and did not primarily involve any the dignity of wazir. He was introduced into Akbar’s

administrative changes. A jagir lasted only as long Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru court in his seventeenth year. He was imbibing the | 239 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 liberal opinions of his father. He styled himself Allani, the cost of a pineapple, from the organisation of (very learned). He soon ingratiated himself with an army and the grades and duties of nobility to Akbar by his unremitted devotion to Akbar’s service, the shape of a candle-stick and the price of a curry- by his temporising disposition, by his duplicity, by comb. None can dispute its originality and unique his stucked of Akbar’s temper and sentiments and historical value. In the words of V.A. Smith, “Even in by his boundless fl attery. Europe, it would be diffi cult to fi nd an authoritative He set himself in opposition to all sects and compilation of a like kind until quite recent times.” CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA bound the girdle of reform about his loins. It is He further observes, “Abul Fazl is outitled to the therefore not surprising that he was reviled by the gratitude of later ages for the industry and skill with faithful as heterodox, as apostate, as heretic, as free- which he handled his embarrassing mass of material”. thinker, as perverter of truth and deceiver of the Further, the Ain contains an autobiography of Abul faithful. It has been asserted that he was an infi del. Fazl and the “Happy Sayings” of Akbar. Some say he was a Hindu or a fi re-worshipper. Some Some complain against the long array of bald still go further and call him an atheist. But others pass details and regard the descriptive part of the Ain a jester sentence and say that he was the Prophet. as more rhetorical than practical. Still others charge It may not be correct to say that Akbar’s tolerance, Abul Fazl with plagiarism for the Ain contains an was due to his infl uence. For Akbar’s doubts, his elaborate account of Hindu culture in its various inquiries into the principles of other religions had aspects taken bodily from Alberuni’s treatise without shown themselves before he was introduced at acknowledgment. In spite of all these, the Ain court. While it may be true that he did mind, with represents a masterly performance which engaged feelings and opinions similar to but more decided the serious attention of its author for seven years. than his own. The second work of Abul Fazl, the Akbar- In Abul Fazl, he had frequent converse and nama, traces the ancestry of Akbar from Timur indulged his partiality for theological discussion. and deals in detail with Humayun and the history The result was that both the emperor and Abul Fazl, of Akbar’s accession to 1602, in which year Abul mutually infl uenced each other, progressed through Fazl was murdered at the instance of Prince Salim various phases of scepticism and credulity, until they (later Jahangir), besides being complete and fi nally arrived at the establishment of the so-called chronologically accurate, it represents the work of Din-i-Ilahi, which was really a religious order. While a talented man of liberal views. Akbar stood at the head of this order, Abul Fazl Scholars are divided on the question of Abul came next after him. He believed in the Apostolic Fazl’s veracity as a historian. Abul Fazl is accused of tradition that a mujaddid (religious reformer) would gross fl attery, suppression of facts and dishonesty. appear towards the end of the fi rst millennium after Some have gone to the extent of saying that he the Hegira and claimed Akbar to be that religious cannot stand comparison with ministers like, Sully reformer. and Clarendon who have written contemporary Abul Fazl, Akbar’s alter ego, is the greatest history either in frankness or simplicity. There is fi gure of the age, next to Akbar. He is principal no doubt that he defi es Akbar and attributes to authority for the reign of Akbar. He has given us him powers bordering on the supernatural. His two valuable work concerning the history of Akbar. Success veneration tantamount to adoration. He was an of The fi rst is the Ain-i-Akbari or institutes of Akbar. The encomiast like Harisena and Bana, the panegyrists Ain was compiled about A.D. 1595. It is a detailed of Samudragupta and Harshavardhana respectively. descriptive and statistical record of the Mughal Further he was not fair to Sher Shah, yet it is widely empire, in the 16th century, from many points of accepted that he was more a rhetorician than a view—the various departments of government, fl atterer, that he should not be condemned because the material and human resources of the empire, he came across a real hero, that his intelligent the revenue system, etc. The data presented in this partiality is pardonable and that he was too great

work range from the revenues of the province to Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru to give a perverted history. | 240 |

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AKBAR COURT PATRONAGE OF ART AND They belonged to different castes and religion. They TECHNOLOGY placed before them one single goal i.e., production of works of a high quality which would win the Patronage of Art approval of the emperor. Paintings: Akbar loved painting, in spite of Calligraphy: Though not a lettered man, the Quranic prohibition. He thought that painting, Akbar had a taste for calligraphy which was highly far from making a man irreligious, compels the prised in India at that time. He employed men CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA painter to turn to God and to seek his help to bestow skilled in penmanship and entrusted them with individuality upon his work. He was responsible for the work of producing beautiful copies of books introducing into his court the Persian style which for his library. Abul Fazl tells us that eight modes of was nothing but a refi nement of the Sino-Mongolian calligraphy were in vogue at Akbar’s court. Nastaliq, style of painting. This style of painting now mingled the eight of its kind, was specially favoured by with the style of Indian painting. The two styles, Akbar. Muhammad Hussain Kashmiri was the most Persian and Indian at Akbar’s court began gradually important calligraphist at Akbar’s court. He was to fuse and in course of time they became one. As given title of Zarin Qalam. time passed, the foreign characteristics gradually Closely associated with calligraphy were the dropped out and eventually, it became purely Indian. arts of artistic binding of books illuminating the The process of this evolution can be seen in the margins and covers of books or illustrating their unique copy of the Tarikh-i-Khandan-i-Timuria and a copy of the Badshanama. Akbar’s patronage themes with drawings. Those who were engaged attracted the best painters to his court. The Hindu in this work were highly valued as painters. painters formed the ablest and the most numerous Music: Akbar was devoted to music. Abul Fazl group among them. Of the seventeen master says that Akbar paid much attention to music and painters of Akbar, thirteen were Hindus. They were was the patron of all who practised this enchanting experts in portrait painting. They were employed to art. The Ain-i-Akbar gave the names of thirty-six paint the walls of Akbar’s capital at Fatehpur Sikri fi rst rated musicians at his court, arranged in seven and also to produce albums. The most important division each division entertaining the emperor among them were Daswanth, Kesu, Lal and Mukund for one fi xed day in the week. Akbar himself was Basawan. Daswanth was fond of painting pictures a skilled musician and a good performer on the on the walls. Basawan excelled in the painting of Naggara (kettle drum). He had learned Hindu vocal background and the drawing of features, distribution music under Lal Kalwant. Tansen, the most notable of colours and portraiture painting. musician of the time adorned his court. Speaking Akbar created a separate department of about him Abul Fazl says, "a singer like him had not painting. Khwaja Abdus Samad, a Persian was placed born in India for the last thousand years”. Tansen had at its head. He was given the title of Shirin Qalam his training in a school established in Gwalior by Raja or Sweet pen. The pieces executed by the court Man Singh Tomar. He is credited with the invention painters were placed before the emperor every week. of some new ragas. Baba Rama was another musician Rewards were given for excellent pieces. Special ranking next only to Tansen. Baba Hari Das was grants were made to the master painters whose contemporary of Tansen and Akbar. His name does paintings were approved by the emperor. Increments Success not fi nd a place in the list of great musicians given in their salaries were sanctioned immediately. The of by Abul Fazl. It is said that Akbar paid a visit to him artists were enrolled as royal servants and granted incognition for hermitage in Brindavan. Sur Das, mansabs, according to their ranks. Abdus Samad one of the greatest Hindi poets of all times, was was a mansabdar of four hundred. not a musician of Akbar’s court. At his court, Hindu National Indian School of Painting was and Muslim music, vocal as well as instrumental, established during his reign, encouraged by mingled and became one. Akbar brought about the emperor’s interest and patronage. Its members were emergence of a new stint in Indian music through

drawn from all parts of India and even from outside. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru the fusion of the two diverse systems of music. | 241 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Architecture: Akbar made a conscious effort of marble and sandstone. It is one of most perfect to amalgamate the Hindu and Muslims styles of architectural achievement in the whole of India. architecture and thereby laid the foundation of Inside the enclosure of the mosque lies the tomb of the national school of architecture. A public works Shaikh Salim Chishti which is built in white marble. department was setup to carry out his plans. Many Another remarkable building, Akbar’s gigantic forts were built in his time—the Agra mausoleum at Sikandara was planned in his lifetime. Fort, the Lahore Fort and the Allahabad fort. The

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Akbar built many sarais, excavated many Agra Fort was built on the model of the Gwalior tanks, erected many schools and place of worship. fort. Inside the fort alone hundred buildings of Compared to the other advanced civilisations of red sandstone were raised. The most important of the period, specially Western Europe and China, these was Akbari Mahal and the Jahangiri Mahal. India’s technology was remarkably backward. Hence, According to the critics, the latter was Hindu in famous textiles were manufactures without the aid design that it can hardly be out of place at Chitor of multi-spindle wheels known China or the water or Udaipur. The decoration in Lahore fort is more powered throwing mills with 200 spindles of the vigorous and unrestrained than at Agra. Hindu Italian industry. Its ocean-going ships lacked virtually craftsman dominated the decorations so much that all modern nautical instrument except the astrolabe. one is inclined to infer that the supervision of the The massive Mughal buildings were constructed Mughal overseers must have been of a very tolerant without the use of even such elementary aids to character. The Zamana in the Allahabad fort shows human labour like the wheel-barrow. India did that one of the special features of the building was not know the uses of coal as yet. It had no proper the number of distribution of its pillars with their cast-iron. It had not known the techniques of superstructures. deep mining. Its chemical industry was primitive. The greatest architectural achievement of Its shortcomings in fuel resources, metallurgy and Akbar was his new capital at Fatehpur Sikri. The city chemical industries effectively blocked any prospect was surrounded on three sides by walls and by an of wide-ranging technological development. It was artifi cial lake on the fourth side. It included many not able to produce even such elementary objects buildings in the style of Gujarat and Bengal. The as screws with proper grooves quite necessary for most important buildings inside the enclosure are most of the mechanical processes. Watermills and the Diwan-i-Khas, the Diwan-i-Aam Panch Mahal, the windmills were peripheral to the technology of so called Jodha Bai palace and the Birbal’s house. The the period. Though India had contacts with both Diwan-i-Khas with a projecting veranda roof over a Europe and China, there was yet no inclination to colonnade is distinctly of Hindu design. This Diwan- adopt the printing press. In spite of the dominance i-Khas, is distinctly Indian character in planning, of non-mechanical bias and the basic simplicity of construction and ornamentation. The Panch Mahal, Indian technology, one heavy industry appeared showing continuation of the plan of the Indian to be the most technologically advanced and that Buddhist Vihara with a pyramidal structure in fi ve was the manufacture of cannon and hand guns. storeys. The Jodha Bai’s palace is predominantly Under the patronage of Akbar, India produced in Hindu in character. The Birbal’s house is the mixed the sixteenth century the heaviest cannon—cast of style, like the four temples of Krishna in Brindavan. bronze—of which the most famous was the Malik Persian and Central Asian infl uence can be seen in Success Maidan which was about 3.7 m in length. Since such of the glased blue stones used for decoration in the pieces were not easily maneuverable, lighter iron walls or for tilling the roofs. Outside the enclosure cannons were also produced. These however, were stand the Jami mosque with its lofty portal called mostly made of wrought-iron since the technique the Buland Darwaza. The Buland Darwaza is built of casting iron was not yet perfected. Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru | 242 |

Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com go to Agra to seize the treasury. But better sense sense better treasury. But the seize to Agra to go and cultural growth, and the second half as one one as half second the and growth, cultural and period of internal peace, economic development peace, economic internal of period was his eldest son, succeeded to the throne, and the to succeeded son, eldest his was of political developments. Economics, social and and social Economics,developments. political of cultural development will however, be taken up up taken however, be will development cultural separately and will include the seventeenth century brothers, Murad and Daniyal, had died earlier on on earlier died had Daniyal, and Murad brothers, and economic decline. While not accepting all these assumptions, for purposes of convenience we have up at Allahabad.Kalpi,at at governorsup appointed He the in kept.was he company1599, In Akbar when of type the and this for up Salim pull to occasion him,on doted who father disappointedhad Salim account of drunkenness, but Salim’s accession was younger Jahangir.his of of Twotitle the assumed DIFFICULTIES ACCESSION—HISJAHANGIR’S EARLY as anintegrated entity. century into two almost equal halves for the study economic and religious, and of cultural stagnation (1658-1707). The first half is generally considered a y aagr 10-7 ad hh aa (1627- Jahan Shah and (1605-27) Jahangir by Deccan, Salim was instigated by his companions to adhered to the existing division of the seventeenth not without controversy. Although a favourite of his prevailed. Crossing the Jamuna, Salim set himself himself set Salim Jamuna, the prevailed.Crossing century into two, the fi rst half being dominated dominated fibeing two,the half into rst century which was the besetting sin of the Timurids. He had 58), and the second half being under Aurangzeb under being half second the and 58), Deccan. Akbar was also unhappy at his hard drinking against Mewar to which he had been appointed. been had he which to Mewar against him by his lackadaisical attitude during the campaign Earlier, he had refused to go to Transoxiana or to the of growing confl ict in various spheres—political, confl various growing in of ict Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com After the death of Akbar in 1605,in Salim, who Akbar of death the After It has been customary to divide the seventeenth a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success MUGHAL EMPIREIN17THCENTURY rt CHAPTER-9 | 243 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success and upset, and ordered a relentless pursuit and and pursuit relentless a ordered and upset, and and Khan-i-Azam Mirza Aziz Koka, to supersede supersede to Koka, Aziz Mirza Khan-i-Azam and when he was returning to Agra from the Deccan Deccan the from Agra to returning was he when Salim’s blemishes of character. seems However, of it Salim’s blemishes and Orissa to him. But Salim refused to leave leave to refused Salim But him. to Orissa and into the jungles and evaded arrest. Meanwhile, Meanwhile, arrest. evaded and jungles the into break with his favourite son, Akbar allotted Bengal ofrupees. lakhs which contained thirty Jaunpur and Bihar, and seised the treasury of Bihar called called the Saiyids of Barha and other supporters of Tartars, andshallnever be.” was “contrary to the laws and customs of Chaghtai successionlifetimethe the in son a of fatherhis of down. turned wasproposal the arguedthatwas It was Akbar while it consider to nobles of meeting a called they proposal, because the about serious Akbar when Salim had been in disgrace. Moreover, Allahabad, andresumed hisoldways. to effected.returned However,was 1603, Salim in wrath, and a patch up between the father and son retreated latter Deo,the Singh Bir of punishment Akbar’sangry at behest. very was Akbar Although Allahabad, and even began to issue coins in his his in coins issue to began even and Allahabad, Fazl by the Bundela chief, Bir Singh Deo Bundela Bundela Deo Singh chief, Bir Bundela the by Fazl Salim by his son, Khusrau. Man Singh was Khusrau’s on his death bed. As might have been expected, been have might bed. As death his on that neither Man Singh nor Aziz Koka were very very were Koka Aziz nor Singh Man neither that Akbar’s mother, Gulbadan Begum, softened Akbar’s name. He was also responsible for the killing of Abul that to thwart this conspiracy, Shaikh Farid Bukhari Khusrau was cultured and refined, and did not have married to Khusrau. Khusrau had been favoured by by two of the Akbar’s leading nobles, Raja Man Singh maternal uncle, and Aziz Koka’s daughter had been backing of Akbar, was dropped. However, we are told Akbar hastened back to Agra. Eager not to to not Eager Agra. to back hastened Akbar Thereafter, the scheme which did not have the This was the background to the attempt made Downloaded from KnowledgePhilic.com

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Salim, to back his claim, and also extracted from him responsible for the construction of the Harmandir a general promise to defend Islam. There are strong (Golden Temple) at Amritsar, was fi ned on a charge reasons to doubt that any such promise was made, of blessing Khusrau by putting a tika on his forehead or sought to be extracted. Nor does it seem correct and giving him some fi nancial help. The Guru was to give a religious colouring to the event, because executed for refusing to pay the fi ne. Jahangir refused to take any action subsequently Shortly afterwards, when Jahangir was at Kabul, against Khusrau, or against Man Singh or Aziz Koka. a conspiracy was unearthed by his younger son, CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA However, it made him worry about the old Akbar Khurram, that Khusrau was plotting the assassination Shahi nobles. Khusrau was also kept in a state of of Jahangir. Jahangir ordered Khusrau to be blinded semi-confi nement. so that he could no longer be a claimant to the The matter would have ended, but Khusrau throne. could not forget his dream of independence, and The future trials and tribulations of Khusrau six months later, he escaped from Agra with a small need not detain us further, except to note that he body of 350 men. On the way to Lahore, he was remained a subject of intrigue till his unnatural death joined by some Badakhshanis, and by Afghans and in 1620. During this period, there was at least one Indians so that his forces swelled to 12,000 by the uprising in his favour. time he reached Lahore. However, the governor of Lahore, Dilawar Khan, refused to allow him to The rebellion of Khusrau had made Jahangir enter the town. Jahangir hastened in pursuit after suspicious and often ill tempered, though that him. Jahangir was still uncertain of the loyalty of was not his normal character. It led him to try and the Akbar Shahi nobles and the Rajputs since, as promote those who had been closely associated he says in the Tuzuk, some of “these short-sighted with him, and whom he could trust. Thus, he gave ones” imagined that “by making Khusrau a tool they the post of Wazir, and the title of Amir-ul-Umara to might conduct the affairs of state through him”. Shaikh Farid Bukhari, son of Khwaja Abdus Samad, Jahangir was suspicious of Badakhshanis whose the famous painter, who had been sent by Akbar temperament, according to him, was “seditious to Salim to pacify him but had, instead, joined him. and turbulent”. He says that many of the Aimaqs He had no special qualifi cation for the post, and or Turkish tribals attached to the royal army were was looked down upon by the grandees. Jahangir in league with Khusrau. He was also uncertain of promoted Mirza Ghiyas Beg to the post of Joint the loyalty of the Rajputs, calling Man Singh “an Wazir, with the title of Itimad-ud-Daulah. old wolf”. Moreover, Rai Rayan, the ruler of Territorial Consolidation and Expansion of who had been close to Akbar, had deserted the royal standards on the way to Lahore on the basis The Empire: Mewar, East India and Kangra of an astrologer’s prediction that Jahangir’s reign While establishing his position on the would be very brief. throne, Jahangir was faced with the problem of This may explain the harshness of Jahangir consolidating the empire bequeathed to him by after he defeated Khusrau in a light skirmish at Akbar. This involved paying attention to the long Bhairowal, and captured him shortly afterwards continuing dispute with the Rana of Mewar, and while he was trying to fl ee to Afghanistan. A double the problem created in the Deccan by Malik Ambar. row of gibbets was created at Lahore over which Success In Bengal, the Afghan menace had yet to be dealt of Khusrau’s followers were crucifi ed. Abur Rahim, with fully. son of Bairam Khan, was tortured brutally but We have already seen how after considerable pardoned. Itamad-ud-Daulah, father of Nur Jahan, effort and display of political fl exibility, in 1615 was imprisoned and released on a payment of a Jahangir was able to settle the contentious dispute fi ne of two lakhs, while his eldest son, Muhammad with Mewar. This enabled him to further consolidate Sharif, was executed. Shaikh Nizam of Thaneswar the alliance with the Rajputs. By 1620, he had also who had blessed Khusrau was banished to Mecca. been able to shatter the efforts of Malik Ambar

Guru Arjun who had succeeded in 1581 and was Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru to lead a united front of Deccan states against | 244 |

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MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY the Mughals, and to dispute Mughal control over full control, the provincial capital was transferred the territories ceded to them by the treaty of from Rajmahal to Dacca which began to develop 1600 with Ahmadnagar. As has been explained rapidly. An attack was launched on the Ahom ruler elsewhere, Jahangir’s decision not to extend Mughal of Assam, but it failed ignominiously. possessions in the Deccan beyond this limit was not Like Akbar, Jahangir realised that conquest on account of military weakness but was deliberate could be lasting not on the basis of force but by policy. securing the goodwill of the people. He, therefore, CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA The settlement of Mewar, and containing Malik treated the defeated Afghan chiefs and their Ambar were substantial achievements, though followers with consideration and sympathy. After historians have generally been chary of giving due sometime, many of the rajas and zamindars of Bengal credit to Jahangir for these successes. detained at the court were released and allowed to return to Bengal. Even Musa Khan was released A third achievement of Jahangir was the and his estates were restored. Thus, after a long consolidation of Mughal position in Bengal. spell, peace and prosperity returned to Bengal. To Although Akbar had broken the back of the power cap the process, the Afghans also now began to be of the Afghans in this region, Afghan chiefs were inducted into the Mughal nobility in larger numbers still powerful in various parts of east Bengal. They and promoted to high positions. The leading Afghan had the support of many Hindu rajas of the region, noble under Jahangir was Khan-i-Jahan Lodi who such as the rajas of Jessore, Kamrup (western Assam), was placed in charge of the Mughal operations in Cachar, Tippera, etc. Towards the end of his reign, the Deccan, and enjoyed high favour with Jahangir. Akbar had recalled Raja Man Singh, the governor Kangra of Bengal, to the court, and during his absence the The fort of Kangra in modern Himachal was Afghan chief, Usman Khan and others found an considered one of the strongest forts of the area. opportunity to raise a rebellion. Mughal control over the mountainous tracts had Jahangir sent back Man Singh for sometime been steadly expanding, and many hill rajas, such but the situation continued to worsen. In 1608, as the ruler of Kumaon, had accepted Mughal Jahangir posted to Bengal Islam Khan, his close suzerainty and agreed to pay tribute. However, it was associate, and the grandson of Shaikh Salim Chishti, felt that the various other rajas of the region would the patron saint of the Mughals. Islam Khan, though not submit unless the raja of Kangra who was proud young and inexperienced, handled the situation of his mountain fastness was humbled. A campaign with great energy and foresight. He won over many in 1615 led by Murtaza Khan, the governor of Punjab, of the zamindars, including the Raja of Jessore to failed. However, in 1620, Raja Bikramjit Baghela was his side and fi xed his headquarters at Dacca, which sent to reduce the fort. The fort surrendered after a was strategically located. short siege. A Mughal commander to the fort, and a faujdar was appointed to control the area. In 1622, He fi rst directed his efforts to the conquest of the ailing Jahangir, while visiting the mountains to Sonargaon which was under the control of Musa avoid the heat of the plains, visited Kangra. In order Khan and his confederates who were called the Barah to emphasize that Kangra fort would now be an (twelve) Bhuiyan. After three years of campaigning, Islamic stronghold, Jahangir had the Khutba read

Sonargaon was captured. Soon afterwards, Musa Success inside the fort and, after slaughtering a bullock, of Khan surrendered and he was sent to the court ordered a lofty mosque to be built. as a prisoner. The turn of Usman Khan came next, The determination of keeping hold of the fort and he was defeated in a fi erce battle. The back of of Kangra had the result of the submission of the the Afghan resistance was now broken and the Raja of Chamba who was the greatest of all the rajas other rebels soon surrendered. The principalities of of the region and, according to Jahangir, his country Jessore, Sylhet, Cachar and Kamrup were annexed. was “the asylum of all the zamindars (rajas) of the Thus, Mughal power was fi rmly entrenched in east region” and that “uptil now he had not obeyed any

Bengal up to the seacoast. To keep the area under Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru king nor sent offerings.” | 245 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 The Rebellions of Shah Jahan and the coup the fort of Ranthambhor should be assigned to de main of Mahabat Khan him for safeguarding his family. The demands were By 1621, Jahangir was at the height of his not by themselves unreasonable but Jahangir was power. The various disturbed regions—Mewar, vexed that the delay would mean the Persians Bengal and the Deccan had been brought largely consolidating their position at Qandahar. A way could have been found if Jahangir had accepted the under control. Relations with the Shah of Iran were suggestion of Khan-i-Jahan Lodi, the governor of

extremely cordial, and there appeared to be no ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Multan, to immediately lead an army for the relief of cloud on the horizon. Jahangir was only fi fty-one Qandahar. That Shah Jahan’s attitude was not straight years old, and a long era of peace and prosperity forward is borne out by his sending his agent, Zahid appeared to lie ahead. But two developments Beg, with presents to the Shah of Iran, wishing him completely transformed the picture—the Persian good luck in his Qandahar enterprise. Shah Jahan threat to Qandahar, and the worsening health of had also arranged for a plentiful supply of money Jahangir which unleashed the latent struggle for from the rulers of Deccan and the zamindars of succession among his sons. The death of the capable Gondwana for his stay at Mandu. wazir, Itimad-ud-Daula, early in 1622, led to the jockeying of power among the nobles. All these Acerbic exchange of letters between Jahangir factors pitchforked Nur Jahan into the political arena. and Shah Jahan worsened the situation. Jahangir asked Shah Jahan to send to the court the royal Khurram (Shah Jahan) was the most competent offi cers and forces—especially the Saiyids of Barha and capable of Jahangir’s sons, and by 1619, had and Bukhara, the Shaikhzadas, the Afghans and been marked out as the heir apparent. But it seems Rajputs if he proposed to come after the rains. that it was being felt that Shah Jahan was becoming Sazawals or high level messengers were appointed too powerful. Hence, in the same year, Khusrau was to induce the commanders to return to Lahore released from jail, and the mansab of Parwez, the where Jahangir was staying. Also Shahriyar was younger brother of Shah Jahan, raised to 20,000. appointed to lead the army to Qandahar. Jahangir Shah Jahan’s demand that Khusrau be handed over passed orders that Shah Jahan’s jagirs in Hissar and to him before he would move to the Deccan was not the Doab should pay for the salaries of these soldiers, liked since he had made such demands earlier. But and Shah Jahan was asked to choose jagirs of equal his demand had to be acceded to. As we have seen, value in the Deccan, Gujarat, Malwa or Khandesh, as a check on Shah Jahan’s ambition, Ladli Begum, wherever he wished. daughter of Nur Jahan from her fi rst husband, Sher Afghan, was betrothed to prince Shahriyar. Shah A brush with Shah Jahan’s men at Dholpur Jahan’s rejoinder was to get Khusrau strangled at with Shahriyar’s men to whom this jagir had been Burhanpur (Feb. 1621), and put out that he had transferred, led to further bitterness. However, died of colic. Jahangir was not convinced till that time that Shah The next stage in the drama came with the Jahan meditated rebellion. Hence, orders were siege of Qandahar by the Safavid, Shah Abbas, in passed that the subahs of Gujarat, Malwa, the Deccan 1622. Jahangir sent urgent summons to Shah Jahan and Khandesh should be handed over to Shah Jahan who was then in the Deccan to lead the campaign and that he might set up his habitation anywhere to relieve Qandahar. Shah Jahan was afraid that Success he liked and “employ himself in the administration of the campaign against Qandahar would be long of these regions”. and diffi cult, and that intrigues would be hatched In his defi ance of the Emperor, Shah Jahan was against him when he was away from the court. supported by most of the great amirs posted in the Hence, he put forward a number of demands—that Deccan, Gujarat and Malwa. He also had the support he should be allowed to stay at Mandu with his of powerful nobles such as Abdur Rahim Khan-i- family for the duration of the rains, that when he Khanan and his son, and other noted military leaders went to Qandahar he should have full command including Rana Karan of Mewar, and Raja Bikramjit

over the army and control of the Punjab, and that Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Baghela, the victor of Kangra. In the imperial camp, | 246 |

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MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY he could count on Asaf Khan, the wazir, and Abdullah now wrote beseeching letters, seeking Jahangir’s Khan Firuz Jung. Above all, he had the seasoned pardon. Jahangir had no desire to drive his most soldiers of the Deccan campaign at his disposal. competent son to desperation. Hence, Shah Jahan Convinced of his superiority, and banking on was pardoned. He was asked to send two of his sons, the illness of Jahangir and the inability of Nur Jahan Dara and Aurangzeb, as hostages. Balaghat was to bring together suffi cient forces to meet him, assigned to him as his jagir. This was early in 1626. Shah Jahan moved out of Mandu, and decided to Shah Jahan’s rebellion kept the empire CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA make a sudden attack on Agra which contained the distracted for four years. It resulted in the loss of remaining boards collected by Akbar. However, Nur Qandahar, and emboldened the Decann is to recover Jahan had taken energetic action. Parvez was asked all the territories surrendered to the Mughals by to hurry with his forces from Bihar, the Rajput rulers Malik Ambar in 1620. It also pointed to a basic of Amber, Marwar, Kota and Bundi were summoned weakness of the system—a successful prince tended to the support of the throne, and the veteran military to become a rival focus of power, particularly when leader, Mahabat Khan, was summoned from Kabul it was felt that the monarch was not able or willing to lead the imperialists. Asaf Khan was sent off to to wield the supreme power himself. Shah Jahan’s Agra, ostensibly to bring the hoarded treasures to constant charge was that following Jahangir’s failing Lahore. Jahangir himself, despite his frail health, health, all effective power had slipped into the hands moved from Lahore to Delhi. of Nur Jahan Begum—a charge which is diffi cult to accept since Shah Jahan’s father-in-law, Asaf Khan, In the battle at Bilochpur near Agra (March, was the imperial diwan. Also, though in poor health, 1623), Shah Jahan was decisively defeated, despite Jahangir was still mentally alert and no decisions the defection of Abdullah Khan Firuz Jung from the could be taken without his concurrence. imperialist side. Shah Jahan now became a fugitive, and more and more nobles and commanders Perhaps, much of the prejudice against Nur deserted him. Shah Jahan no longer had any hope Jahan, and the charge of meddling in imperial affairs of success, but he kept the empire distracted for the leading to disaffection and rebellion, refl ected the next three years, moving from one place to another. deep seated anti-feminist bias of many contemporary First he sought shelter with the ruler of Golconda historians which has often been repeated uncritically by a number of modern historians. who entertained him for sometime only on the promise of his going to Orissa. Entering Orissa, Shah Mahabat Khan’s coup de main Jahan took the governor of the area by surprise. It Struggle between the members of the royal was clear that he and other senior offi cers of the family was an opportunity for ambitious nobles region had no heart in offering stout opposition to augment their power, position and privileges. to the prince. It was also an occasion when the old struggle for Soon, not only Orissa, but Bengal and Bihar power between the monarchy and the nobles could came under Shah Jahan’s control. Mahabat Khan resurface. The danger of such a development was was pressed into service again to meet the threat. demonstrated by Mahabat Khan who had taken He met Shah Jahan at Jhusi, opposite Allahabad. The a leading role in the struggle against Shah Jahan. rapidly recruited raw troops of Shah Jahan could His powers and position and close association with not meet the battle hardened, numerically superior Success Prince Parvez were considered a potential threat of forces of Mahabat Khan. Shah Jahan suffered a by some sections. To begin with, Mahabat Khan sharp defeat and retreated into the Deccan. He was appointed governor of Bengal, with Khan-i- found shelter with Malik Ambar who was busy Jahan Lodi replacing him as a guardian of Parvez. against the Mughals in Ahmadnagar and Berar. Mahabat Khan was asked to render accounts, and Ambar assigned to Shah Jahan the task of ousting to surrender the war elephants captured by him. A the Mughals from Burhanpur. But the commandant strong group of Ahadis was sent to bring him to the of the fort defended it strongly and Shah Jahan court. Mahabat Khan came with a trusted body of

failed twice. Desperate and humbled, Shah Jahan Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Rajputs and seised the emperor at an opportune | 247 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 moment when the royal camp was crossing the river war with Mewar, his generosity in dealing with the Jhelum on its way to Kabul. Nur Jahan, who had not Afghan and important zamindar rebels of Bengal been apprehended, escaped across the river but an which enabled Bengal to embark upon a long assault against Mahabat Khan failed ignominiously. process of renewed development and growth, and Nur Jahan now tried other ways. She surrendered his policy of consolidating the gains of Akbar in the herself to Mahabat Khan in order to be close to Deccan yielded results leading to a growing Mughal Jahangir. Within six months, taking advantage of alliance with Bijapur and the frustration of a policy the mistakes committed by Mahabat Khan who ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA of confrontation with the Mughals. was a soldier but not a diplomat or an administrator, Jahangir broadened the Mughal polity by and due to the growing unpopularity of his Rajput bringing other Rajput rulers more or less on par with soldiers, Nur Jahan was able to wean away most the Kachhawas. Thus, early in his reign, Rai Rayan of the nobles from Mahabat Khan’s side. Realising Rai Singh of Bikaner, Raja Sur Singh of Jodhpur (and his precarious position, Mahabat Khan abandoned following his death, his son Raja Gaj Singh), and Rao Jahangir and fl ed from the court. Sometime later, he Karan of Mewar were all granted mansabs of 5000. joined Shah Jahan who was biding his time. Raja Man Singh held the personal rank of 7000/7000, The defeat of Mahabat Khan was the greatest but after his death, in 1614-15, his son, Bhao Singh, victory attained by Nur Jahan, and it was due, in no was granted the title of Mirza Raja and the rank of small measure, to her cool courage and sagacity. 4000, which was soon raised to 5000. However, Nur Jahan’s triumph was short-lived, for He also started inducting Afghans, such as in less than a year’s time, Jahangir breathed his last, Khan-i-Jahan Lodi to high positions, and made a not far from Lahore (1627). The wily and shrewd Asaf beginning of enrolling into the imperial service a Khan who had been appointed wakil by Jahangir, number of leading Maratha sardars, such as Kheloji, and who had been carefully preparing the ground Maloji, Udaiji Ram etc. for the succession of his son-in-law, Shah Jahan, In the sphere of religion, which shall be now came into the open. Supported by the diwan, reviewed separately, he more or less continued the chief nobles and the army, he made Nur Jahan Akbar’s liberal policy, much to the disappointment a virtual prisoner and sent an urgent summons of orthodox elements which had wanted the to Shah Jahan in the Deccan. Shah Jahan reached restoration of Islam to a position of hegemony. Agra and was enthroned amidst great rejoicing. Earlier, at his instance, all his rivals including his Jahangir was an aesthete, and all his works, imprisoned brother, cousins, etc. were done to death. whether in the fi eld of architecture, or painting or This precedent and the earlier precedent of a son gardening showed the highest standards. He, thus, rebelling against his father, which was begun by made the Mughal court, and the emperor personally, Jahangir and was followed by Shah Jahan, was to the arbiter of standards. He was ably assited in his lead to bitter consequences for the Mughal dynasty. fi eld by Nur Jahan who had herself a very refi ned Shah Jahan himself was to reap the bitter fruits of cultural taste. what he had sown. As for Nur Jahan, after attaining The cultural role of the Mughal emperor was the throne, Shah Jahan fi xed a settlement upon another device which linked the ruling elites more her. She lived a retired life till her death, eighteen closely than over to the throne. The concept of years later. Success justice to which a great deal of popularity became of attached by use of the bells, also brought the JAHANGIR AS A RULER monarchy closer to the masses. The political achievements of Jahangir, and his Like Babur, Jahangir was also very fond of the role in consolidating the polity bequeathed to him fl aura and fauna of the country which he describes by Akbar is generally underestimated by historians, with the practiced eye of an expert. After describing and the role of Nur Jahan as a loyal and trusted some of the fl owers of Kashmir, he says “The red rose, consort distorted. Jahangir’s political fl exibility which the violet, and the narcissus grow of themselves,”

enabled him bring to an end the long drawn out Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru and adds “I saw several sorts of red roses; one is | 248 |

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MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY specially sweat-scented, and another is a fl ower an accompaniment of dance and music. There are of the colour of sandal (light yellow) and with an frequent references in his memoirs to such parties exceedingly delicate scent”. He also mentions black to which nobles were invited. tulips. He asked the court painter Mansur, to paint In the ordinances which Jahangir issued at some of these fl owers. Jahangir gives a long list of the time of his accession, for two days in a week, birds, including those not found in Kashmir. Thursday, the day of his accession, and Sunday, The failures of Jahangir took place, after the day of Akbar’s birthday and because “it was CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA 1621, when his health had begun to fail. This was dedicated to the Sun and also the day on which compounded by the rebellion of Shah Jahan, and creation began” (according to the Christians), there growing factiousness in the nobility. was to be no killing or slaughter of animals for food. Shortly, afterwards, in what were called the Ain-i- State and Religion in the First Half of the Jahangiri or Jahangiri rules, forcible conversion to 17th Century Islam was forbidden. The liberal character of the state instituted Jahangir’s attitude towards Akbar’s policy of by Akbar was maintained during the fi rst half of sulh-i-kul, and of giving respect and freedom to the 17th century, though with a few lapses under all religions is manifest from his memoirs. Praising Jahangir, and with some modifi cations by Shah Akbar, he says: Jahan. “The professors of various faiths had room in At the outset of Jahangir’s reign, there was the broad expanse of his innumerable sway. This an expectation in orthodox circles that Akbar’s was different from the practice of other realms, for policy of sulh-i-kul and religious eclecticism would in Persia there is room for Shias only, and in Turkey, be abandoned, and the supremacy of the sharia India and Turan there is room for Sunnis only.” He restored. The hopes of the orthodox sections were goes on to say how in his dominions “which on all raised by some actions of Jahangir immediately sides was limited only by the salt sea”, “there was after his accession. Thus, he had asked the ulama room for the professors of opposite religions, and and the learned men of Islam to collect distinctive for beliefs, good and bad, and the road to altercation appellations of God which were easy to remember was closed. Sunnis and Shias met in one mosque, so that he might repeat them while using his rosary. and the Europeans (Firangi) and Jews in one church, On Fridays, he associated with learned and pious and observed their own forms of worship”. men and dervishes and saints. At the Ramzan Id Not only did Jahangir follow Akbar’s policy of which followed his fi rst accession, he went to the sulh-i-kul, he continued Akbar’s policy of enrolling Idgah, and several lacs of dams were distributed murids (disciples) and giving each of them a token, in charity. However, there was nothing unusual in or shast, and shabi or likeness of the emperor. At these actions, and the orthodox elements were the time of initiation, the disciples were advised to soon disabused of their expectations. Neither by avoid sectarian quarrels, and to follow the rule of temperament nor by training was Jahangir orthodox. universal peace with regard to religion. They were Apart from his own fondness of drinking—which also advised not to kill any living creature with he sometimes carried to excess—he tells us that by their own hands, honour the luminaries (sun, light the time of his accession he had reduced his intake

Success etc.) which are manifestations of God, and to dwell of wine from twenty cups of double distilled spirit of constantly on God. (brandy) to fi ve, and that, too, only at night. Jahangir felt free to invite his nobles and others to join him in However, the devise of discipleship, which was wine drinking. When he visited the grave of Babur meant to bind the nobles closely with the Emperor, at Kabul, he found a basin which could contain seems to have fallen into disuse after sometime. two Hindustani maunds of wine. Jahangir ordered Jahangir also continued to celebrate the another such a basin to be built, and every day he various Hindu festivals, Diwali, Holi, Dashera, ordered to fi ll both the basins with wine and gave it Rakhi, Shivratri etc. at his court. Jahangir himself

to the servants who were present there. There was Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru participated in them, as also many of the nobles. | 249 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 We are told that during the celebration of Diwali, them as an orthodox Muslim ruler. Thus, he declared Jahangir himself took part in a bout of gambling the war against Mewar to be a jihad, although there that continued for three nights. was little reason for doing so. During the campaign, Jahangir also banned cow slaughter in the many Hindu temples were destroyed which, again, Punjab, and perhaps extended it to Gujarat. Nauroz, was uncalled for because Jahangir had instructed which was an old Central Asian festival as also the Khurram to treat the Rana as a friend if he was festival of the Parsis, was celebrated for nineteen prepared to submit. Again, in 1621, the Kangra CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA days with music and festivity. The Christians, too, campaign was declared a jihad, even though it were allowed to celebrate Easter, Christmas and was commanded by a Hindu, Raja Bikrmajit. As other festivals. These practices were a public we have noted, in the presence of theologians a declaration of a polity of religious freedom to all. bullock was slaughtered in the fort and a mosque They also provided opportunity for greater social ordered to be erected. From Kangra, Jahangir went interaction between the ruler and his offi cials with to the Durga temple at Jwalamukhi. He found that people of various religious persuations. apart from “infi dels whose custom is the worship of idols, crowds on crowds of the people of Islam, The position regarding religious freedom traversing long distances, bring their offerings, and is set out clearly in one of the early drafts of the pray to the black (stone) imagine”. No attempt was Tuzuk where Jahangir says, “I ordered that with this made to put a stop to this practice. Earlier, while exception (prohibition of forcible sati), they (the visiting Pushkar, Jahangir was shocked to fi nd that Hindus) may follow whatever is their prescribed the Hindus worshipped Vishnu in the form of a custom, and none should exercise force or varaha (boar). He ordered the image to be broken compulsion or oppression over anyone.” noting that the Hindu theory of incarnation in ten There was no ban on the Hindus building forms was not acceptable to him since God could new temples. Apart from Bir Singh Deo Bundela not be limited in this way. However, none of the other building a magnifi cient temple at Mathura, a large temples dedicated to Vishnu were harmed. At Ajmer, number of new temples were built at Banaras. The Jahangir granted madadd-i-maash in the entire Christians too, were given land and permission to village of Pushkar to the brahmans of that place. build churches. In 1617, Jahangir issued an order in Gujarat that Jahangir continued Akbar’s policy of giving the all Jain temples should be closed and the Jain gifts and grants to brahmans and temples. In his saints expelled from the empire because of moral fi rst Regnal year (1605-06), when marching against reasons: wives and daughters of the devotees visited Khusrau, he distributed large sums of money to the Jain saints at the temples where they lived. But faqirs and brahmans. Documents in the possession this order does not seem to have been implemented of the Vrindavan temples of the Chaitanya sect show because we have inscriptional evidence from Gujarat how Jahangir went on adding grants to the temples supported by Jain sources that during the period and their votaries. Thus, between 1612-15, he made when the order was issued, Jahangir continued to at least fi ve grants to the followers of Chaitanya at have good relations with Jain saints and also gave Vrindavan. liberal grants for the construction of Jain temples. In 1621, when going to Kangra, Jahangir There has been a good deal of controversy went via Haridwar which, he noted, was “one of Success about Jahangir’s attitude towards the Sikhs, and of the established place of worship of the Hindus his dealing with the Sikh Guru Arjan Dev. In his where brahmans and recluses retire in lovely places memoirs, Jahangir notes that at Gobindwal on the to worship God in their own way”. He gave gifts in river Beas, Guru Arjan Dev “posing as a religious cash and in kind to many of them. guide and instructor” had enrolled as his followers Despite his liberalism, there were occasions a large number of Hindus and Muslims, that “They when Jahangir displayed a narrow spirit, perhaps out called him Guru, and from all sides came to him of a desire to please the orthodox clerical elements and expressed their absolute faith in him.” He goes

who were powerful, or out of a desire to be seen by Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru on to say that this had continued for three or four | 250 |

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MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY generations. Denouncing the followers of the Guru Like Akbar, Jahangir was always eager to visit as “fools and fraud-believers,” Jahangir declares that and to discourse with dervishes, saints and religious “Many times it occurred to me to put a stop to this thinkers of various kinds, and to make grants to vain affair or to bring him into the assembly of the them. In 1613, Jahangir had started the custom people of Islam.” that deserving people and dervishes were brought This statement occurs almost immediately after before him every night so that, after personal enquiry Jahangir’s accession, and in the context of Khusrau’s into their condition, land or gold or clothes were CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA rebellion. It is not clear when precisely Jahangir had bestowed on them. There is no reason to believe contemplated taking action against the Sikhs. If it that these were confi ned to Muslims. was during Akbar’s reign, it is well-known that Akbar Jahangir continued Akbar’s practice of inviting had favoured Guru Angad and Guru Ramdas, and religious divines for personal discussions. It seems given them a grant of fi ve hundred bighas of land that Jahangir’s main area of religious interest was and a pond around which the Harmandir and the city monotheism. It was this which made him seek the of Amritsar grew. If after accession, the period had company of Mian Mir, the famous Qadri sufi of Lahore to be very brief because Khusrau rebelled barely six and a friend of Guru Arjan Dev. Jahangir was also months after his accession. Thus, this again appears devoted to Muinuddin Chishti, the patron saint of the to be an attempt on Jahangir’s part of trying to Mughals. In 1613, when he visited Ajmer, he walked please the orthodox sections. on foot for a kos before entering the shrine. He was It is clear that Jahangir took no action against hostile to Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi who denounced the Sikhs as such, but only against Guru Arjan Dev wahdat-al-wajud or monotheism. As Jahangir says, on a charge that he had blessed Khusrau by putting he kept him for sometime in “the prison of correction a tika on his head, and by giving him some money. until the heat of his temperament and the confusion According to Jahangir’s lights, this was the reason. in his brain were somewhat quenched, and the He, therefore, summoned him, handed over his excitement of the people should also subside”. The houses, dwelling places and children to Murtaza greatest satisfaction Jahangir found was among Khan who was like a kotwal, confi scated the Guru’s votaries of Vedant which he calls “the science of tasawwuf". In this search, he met Jadrup Gosain property and commanded that he should be put at Ujjain in the eleventh year of his reign (1616). to death. During the next three years, he met Jadrup seven It has been argues on the basis of Jesuit and times. Jadrup lived in a hole on the side of a hill other evidence, including Sikh traditions, that which had been dug out and a door made. Hearing Jahangir had not ordered the Guru’s execution of his reputation, Jahangir wanted to call him to but only imposed a heavy fi ne on him which he Agra, but did not do so on account of the trouble refused to pay, and that it was due to the tortures it would cause him. Jahangir went one-eighth of infl icted on him to realize the fi ne that he dies. a kos or two and a half furlong on foot to see him. However, this does not exonerate Jahangir from Jadrup made a great impression on Jahangir by his the charge of awarding excessive punishment to a knowledge and simplicity. Jahangir says “he (Jadrup) highly respected saint for an inadvertent mistake. His had thoroughly mastered the science of Vedanta”, action in imprisoning the Guru’s son and successor, and “God Almighty has given him unusual grace, a

Guru Hargovind, fi ve years later for realising the Success lofty understanding, an exalted nature and sharp of arrears of the fi ne, and keeping him in prison for intellectual power”. He was free from the attachment two years, appears even less defensible. of the world, so that “putting behind him the world It has been pointed out that Jahangir punished and all that was in it, he sits content in solitude not only the Sikh Guru for taken support to and without want”. Subsequently, Jadrup shifted to Khusrau but a sufi , Shaikh Nizam Thanesari, who Mathura where Jahangir visited him twice. When had accompanied Khusrau for some distance. Hakim Beg, brother-in-law of Nur Jahan, who held However, he was only banished to Mecca, and his charge of Mathura, ill-treated, Jadrup, Jahangir

road expenses paid. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru dismissed him from service. | 251 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 We do not know much about Jahangir’s death. After an enquiry, one of his attendants was personal religious beliefs. He remained within the found guilty for the outrage. He was put to death, framework of Islam, but had a good knowledge of the mansab of Muqarrab Khan reduced by half, and other religions, especially Hinduism and Christianity. he was made to make an allowance to the widow. Though continuing to follow many Hindu practices However, despite his benevolence, the Mughal which had become common in India, he specifi cally emperor remained a despot. Thus, Jahangir had no rejected idol worship and, as we have seen, the compunction in summarily executing a groom, and CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA theory of incarnation. stringing two kahars (water carriers) whose sudden Jahangir had a very exalted opinion of kingly appearance had enabled a nilgai which Jahangir duties. Echoing Abul Fazl, he says that the just creator was hunting to get away. bestows sovereignty on him whom he considers fi t Liberalism and autocratic benevolence were for this glorious and exalted duty. It was, therefore, underpinned by a policy of cultural pluralism, futile for the seditious and the short-sighted to try enabling people of all religions and regions to and deprive crown and dominion from one chosen contribute. These included not only architecture by God, the Crown-cherisher. and gardening, but music, painting, literature etc. For Jahangir, the state was not only to be a The work of making Persian translations of Hindu liberal institution but to be marked by benevolence religious works, such as the Ramayana, continued. and justice. The benevolent aspect was emphasised Court patronage was also given to Hindi poets. by Jahangir in the Twelve Edicts issued by him after The new spirit was refl ected in the Hindi poems of his accession. Thus, road and river cesses imposed Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan in which verses on niti by the jagirdars for their own profi t were abolished; or polity was taken up, along with a strong lyrical the local offi cials were not to open the bales of sense of devotion to God in his various incarnations, merchants on the roads without informing them especially Krishna. and obtaining their permission; if anyone, whether unbeliever or a Muslim should die, his property and SHAH JAHAN—CONSOLIDATION AND effects should be left to his heirs, and if they had no EXPANSION OF THE EMPIRE heirs, to utilize the proceeds for building mosques, After his accession in 1627, Shah Jahan sarais, repair of broken bridges, and digging of tanks embarked on a vigorous policy of expansion and and wells, i.e. works of public benefi t. To improve consolidation in order to overcome the distractions facilities for the merchants, jagirdars and offi cials of caused by his own rebellion and the failing health the khalisa were asked to build sarais. Local offi cials of Jahangir. The fi rst matter to engage his attention were also told not to take possession of any person’s was the Deccan where all the gains made under house; and not to take forcible possession of the Jahangir, upto 1621, had been lost. We have already raiyat’s lands to cultivate them on their own account. discussed Shah Jahan’s Deccan policy, leading to Hospitals were to be founded in great cities, and the treaties of 1636 with Bijapur and Golconda, doctors appointed, the expenditure to be met from and the renewed confl ict with them towards the the khalisa establishment. Jahangir also repeated end of his reign. Akbar’s orders forbidding the cutting off the nose As a result of Mughal expansion in the Deccan, or ears of anyone as a punishment. Success the Mughal position in Bundelkhand and Gondwana of Jahangir’s chain of justice is too well-known in modern Central India was strengthened. The to be repeated here. Only one instance of Jahangir’s most powerful ruler in the area was Bir Singh Deo emphasis on justice irrespective of one’s position Bundela. In 1628-29, an army had been sent against may be mentioned. A widow complained that Jujhar Singh, son of Bir Singh Deo Bundela (d. 1627) Muqarrab Khan, governor of Gujarat, had taken who had been a favourite of Jahangir. With the fall her daughter by force at Cambay, and kept her in of the powerful fort of Irij, Jujhar Singh surrendered. his own house, and when she enquired about the He paid rupees fi fteen lakhs and forty elephants

girl, he said that she had died by an unavoidable Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru as indemnity. His original rank of 4000/4000 was | 252 |

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MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY restored, though some of his jagirs were confi scated. Ujjainiya zamindar near Buxar; the zamindar of He was required to serve in the Deccan with 2000 Ratanpur in modern Jharkhand, the zamindar of horses, and 2000 infantry. Palamau etc. were subdued and fl eeced. By 1634, Jujhar Singh returned, leaving his son Shah Jahan also forced the rajas of Kumaon to deputise for him in the Deccan. He embarked and of Garhwal to accept Mughal overlordship upon a career of conquest at the expense of the (1654, 1656), an earlier Mughal attempt to capture Gonds of the Gondwana region. He attacked Prem Srinagar, the capital of Garhwal, having failed. CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Narayan, the Gond ruler of Chauragarh. Prem Jagat Singh, son of Raja Basu of Mau Nurpur in Narayan had to vacate his fort after the Mughals the Punjab hills near Chamba, had been a favourite refused to respond to his plea for help. He was of Jahangir, both father and son having performed treacherously attacked and killed by Jujhar Singh, useful service, and been appointed faujdar of Kangra. violating his own promise of safe conduct. Jujhar They incurred Shah Jahan’s displeasure. However, Singh seised all the hoarded wealth of the Gond unlike Bundelkhand, it did not attract imperial ruler. Prem Narayan’s son appealed to Mahabat Khan rapacity. Hence, after some hard fi ghting and after in Malwa. Negotiations now began between Shah destroying a number of his forts, Jagat Singh was Jahan and Jujhar Singh. Shah Jahan’s main attempt restored to his imperial mansab. The overall lesson was to get as much as possible from the hoard of was that in the new setup, even zamindars who had Prem Narayan, and compensation for the territory served the Mughal emperor earlier, would have to gained by the Bundela ruler. be more submissive. Thus, Jujhar Singh was at first asked to More signifi cant was the Mughal attempt to surrender the territories he had conquered in bring under control the Baltistan area in Kashmir, Gondwana. Once Mughal military preparations were then known as Greater Tibet (Ladakh being called complete, Shah Jahan demanded sarkar Biyanwan in the Little Tibet). In 1634, and again in 1637, imperial place of Chauragarh, and a fi ne of thirty lakhs. After forces attacked its ruler, Abdal, penetrated upto his the Mughal campaign, and the killing of Jujhar Singh capital, Skardu, and forced him to submit, and pay by the Gonds while he was in fl ight, a portion of the an indemnity of ten lakhs. That the Mughals could Orchha kingdom was granted to Raja Debi Singh, operate in these diffi cult and remote areas showed whose family had been superseded by Jahangir the highest degree of devotion to service which had earlier while giving tika to Bir Singh Deo. To exclude been instilled into the Mughal commanders and for all times the claims of Jujhar Singh’s family to troops by this time. The operation was obviously the gaddi, his sons and grandsons were converted aimed at bringing more closely under imperial to Islam. control the trade route to Yarkand, Khotan etc. Thus, Shah Jahan’s Bundela policy was basically Shah Jahan’s attempt to bring the coastal one of imperial aggrandizement. In order to present areas of East Bengal seem to have some economic it as a victory of Islam, the maginifi cent temple built overtones also. Although the Mughals had, under at Orchha by Bir Singh Deo was demolished, and a Jahangir, captured Jessore and Bakla, the two coastal mosque erected at its place. districts, they had not been able to revive trade and Shah Jahan also took action against Rana Raj agriculture of the area due to the piratical activities

Singh of Mewar for refortifying Chittor. We shall Success of the Portuguese and the Arakanese. Apart from discuss the signifi cance of this move in the context of carrying on trade, the Portuguese raided the coastal of Aurangzeb’s later breach with the Rajputs. towns and villages, took captives, sold them and The growing power of the Mughal state was converted many to Christianity. also refl ected in operations against a number of The main Portuguese center was at Hugli and other zamindars who were wealthy, but had so there had been many complaints against them. far paid only formal respect to the Mughal power. This was the background to Shah Jahan’s attack Thus, Kipa of Chanda, called the chief zamindar on Hugli in 1632. The Portuguese fought well, but

of Gondwana, was made to pay eight lakhs; the Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru were no match for the Mughal army. With the fall | 253 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 of Hugli, the coastal area upto the sea was freed period of 28 years. The annual cost works out at of pirates. The Mughal treatment of the captured £ 10,32,143. According to a recent estimate, 82.9 Portuguese prisoners was very cruel and can hardly percent of the imperial income was assigned as be justifi ed. They were given the choice of Islam on jagirs. Of the remaining 17 percent, Shah Jahan had imprisonment, and many of them languished in jail fi xed, according to the offi cial historian, Qazwini, for long periods on their refusal to convert. the Khalisa or imperial establishment at 60 crore

Attempts were also made by Shah Jahan to dams (¤ 150 lakhs) annually. Out of this, the annual

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA ¤ strengthen the Mughal hold on Sindh, and the lower expenditure varied from ¤ 199 to 120 lakhs, Thus, Indus. For the purpose, campaigns were launched the annual cost of building amounts to 10.33 percent against the tribals who preyed on trade, and imperial of the annual khalisa expenditure, or 6.45 percent of thanas were set up. the annual khalisa income as reported by Qazwini. We may thus conclude: Apart from these military activities, the power, wealth and majesty of the Mughal state was sought “The cost of building construction represented to be demonstrated by the Peacock Throne (takht-i- a signifi cant share of expenditure from the khalisa taus), the building of the Taj Mahal at Agra, and the under Shahjahan. It does not, however, seem to have foundation of a new imperial capital at Delhi. The been so excessive as to set a heavy drain on imperial Peacock Throne struck all the visitors of the time, fi nance, or to interfere with military expenditure”. many of whom have described it. We are told by (Shireen Moosvi) the contemporary historian, Lahori, that out of the Shah Jahan’s Religious Policy existing jewels in the imperial jewel house, selected There has been a controversy whether Shah jewels worth eighty-six lakhs of rupees, and pure Jahan continued the liberal policies of Akbar with gold of one lakh tolas, then worth fourteen lakhs some change in form, or whether he was “orthodox of rupees, were handed over to the superintendent in his leanings as well as his beliefs and he took of the goldsmith’s department. The outside of the some measures to show that orthodoxy was back canopy was to be of enamel work, with occasional in power”. (I.H. Qureshi). Thus, he exempted the gems, the inside was to be thickly set with rubies, theologians from sijda or zaminbos, the former garnets and other jewels and it was to be supported implying prostration before the ruler, and the latter by twelve emerald columns. On top of each pillar putting both the hands on the ground and touching there were to be two peacocks thick set with gems, them to the forehead. It might be mentioned that and between each two peacocks a tree with rubies Jahangir had also exempted the high theologians and diamonds, emeralds and pearls. from sijda. Shah Jahan banned mixed marriages The throne, which was three yards in length, between Hindus and Muslims in Kashmir which two and a half in breadth, and fi ve in height took had implied that Muslim girls embraced the religion seven years to complete, and Shah Jahan sat upon of their Hindu husbands, and vice versa. Earlier, it for the fi rst time in 1635. Jahangir had also banned this practice, but was The Taj Mahal, built in memory of Mumtaz unable to stop it. Mahal, the favourite consort of Shah Jahan, who Perhaps, the most signifi cant step taken by died in childbirth in 1630, was built over twelve Shah Jahan was that in the Sixth Regnal year (1633), years at a cost of rupees fi fty lakhs which was a big Success he ordered that no temple whose foundation had of sum for those days. The new city of Delhi, called been laid in Jahangir’s time but had not been Shahjahanabad, which was commenced in 1638, completed would be allowed to be completed. took almost ten years to complete and cost rupees Accordingly, 76 temples begun at Banaras were sixty lakhs. A modern historian, Shirin Moosvi, has destroyed. Temples and churches were also calculated that all the buildings and gardens of destroyed during the wars. Thus, during the Bundela Shah Jahan, including renovations carried out in rebellion, Bir Singh Deo’s temple at Orchha was the Lahore and Agra forts, and the mausoleum destroyed and a mosque built in its place. Christian Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru of Jahangir, cost a little over ¢ 289 lakhs over a churches at Hugli were destroyed during the clash | 254 |

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MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY with the Portuguese there. However, it does not Shah Jahan came into confl ict with the Sikh seem that Shah Jahan tried to implement seriously Guru, Hargovind, culminating in a furious battle at the policy of not allowing new temples to be built. Kartarpur (1631), after which the Guru retreated to Thus, in 1629, he granted land to Shantidas, the the Kashmir hills. leading Jain jeweler and banker at Ahmadabad, The Muslim orthodox sections rallied under to build a resting place (poshala) for Jain saints. Shaikh Abdul Haq of Delhi and Shaikh Ahmad Shantidas also built a beautiful Jain temple near Sirhindi who was hailed as Mujaddid or renovator CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Ahmadabad to which no objection was made. In during the second millennium of Islam. Both of them 1654, when Aurangzeb was the governor of Gujarat, were profound scholars of Muslim jurisprudence, he converted this temple into a mosque by building theology etc., and laid great emphasis on the strict a mihrab (niche) for prayer inside it. implementation of the sharia. The point to note here This was part of Aurangzeb’s policy of breaking is that both of them had a political agenda which newly built temples in Gujarat. However, on a they tried to implement by winning over the leading complain from Shantidas, and a ruling from the nobles to their side by writing letters to them. They noted scholar Mulla Abdul Hakim that Aurangzeb also enrolled students in their seminaries. From an had fl agrantly violated the Sharia by usurping analysis of their letters, it would appear that their Shantidas’s property, and that, in consequence, the main demands were: mosque had no sanctity, Shah Jahan ordered the 1. The humiliation of the Hindus which implied mihrab to be blocked up, and the temple restored breaking of temples, having no social to Shantidas. The imperial farman also commanded intercourse with them and denying them that any material taken from the temple should be public service, and if that was inescapable, restored and compensation paid for any material not to trust them. lost. Likewise, the magnificent temple built at Mathura by Bir Singh Deo Bundela during the reign 2. Revival of the jizyah which was the mark of of Jahangir was not interfered with. the superiority of the Muslims, and was meant to humiliate the kafi rs, and That Shah Jahan’s ban on new temples was only a token is conceded by I.H. Qureshi, a leading 3. Exclusion of all practices, which were bidat historian in Pakistan, saying that the measure was i.e. not strictly within the ambit of the sharia, “more an assertion of a principle than an effective where they applied to culture (ban on music measure (it) was more an effective declaration and painting), morality (ban on wine etc.) or that Islam would again be treated as the dominant social practices (tuladan, jharoka darshan etc.) religion than an attempt at the suppression of Like Jahangir, Shah Jahan also rejected almost Hinduism.” all these demands. Even the ban on construction It has been argued that the building of many of new temples was not implemented strictly, as magnifi cient mosques, including the Jama Masjid Aurangzeb found when he was governor of Gujarat. at Delhi, and the Taj Mahal at Agra, which was The liberal elements came together under the supposed to replicate the Muslim idea of paradise, slogan of wahdat-al-wajud or monism. The Chisti also demonstrate Shah Jahan’s new emphasis on the saints, and the Qadiri saint Mian Mir of Lahore, who power and majesty of Islam. The building of such was backed and supported by Dara and Jahanara,

Success led this trend. Shah Jahan did not join either of these

mosques was not unusual. That broad tolerance of continued was also evident from his confi rmation trends, even though some contemporary historians of the grants given to the Vaishnava temples at gave him the title of mujadid or renovator of Islam. Vrindavan. Even more signifi cant was his order that Nor did the nobles, as a whole, join either the liberal the time-gong at the temple may be permitted to be or the orthodox group, remaining eclectic in their sounded since “a large number of God worshiping approach. Hindu mendicants are engaged in divine worship We may conclude that Shah Jahan tried to according to their own religion and custom”. This effect a compromise. While formally declaring the

was an affi rmation of Akbar’s policy of sulh-i-kul. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru state to be an Islamic one, showing respect to the | 255 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 sharia, and observing its injunctions in his personal There were no clear traditions of succession life, he did not reject any of the liberal measures of among the Hindus either. Right from the time of Akbar, such as jharoka darshan, weighing himself for the Buddha when Ajatshatru had displaced and gifts (tula dan), etc. Like all the compromises, Shah imprisoned his father, and later during Ashoka Jahan’s compromise was based not on principle but Maurya’s struggle against his brothers succession on expediency. As such, it satisfi ed no party, and had been dependent on military strength. This had the orthodox elements, feeling themselves to be also been the tradition of the Rashtrakutas, and later stronger than before, continued the demand of a ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA of the Rajputs. Thus, Sanga had to wage a bitter state based on a strict implementation of the sharia. struggle with his brothers before he could assert his claim to the gaddi. War of Succession Shah Jahan who had been residing in the Shah Jahan was fortunate in having four new city of Shahjahanabad or Delhi which he sons, all born of his cherished wife, Mumtaz Mahal, who grew up to capable, hard working and free of had recently constructed, was taken ill with the Mughal vice of drunkenness. They were given stranguary in September 1657. For sometime, his administrative responsibilities and high mansabs life was despaired of, but he rallied and gradually, as they grew up. Shuja, the second eldest, was recovered his strength under the loving care of appointed governor of Bengal in 1637, and kept Dara. Meanwhile, all kinds of rumours had gained good control over that turbulent province for currency. It was said that Shah Jahan had already the next two decades. The youngest, Murad, was died, and Dara was concealing the reality to serve appointed governor of Gujarat to which Malwa was his own purposes. In December 1657, Shah Jahan added later on. Aurangzeb was appointed viceroy of was well enough to slowly make his way to Agra. the Deccan, in 1636, at the young age of eighteen, Meanwhile, the Princes, Shuja in Bengal, Murad in and held it for the next six years. He was appointed Gujarat and Aurangzeb in the Deccan, had either viceroy of the Deccan again in 1652. The eldest, Dara, been persuaded that these rumours were true, or was appointed governor of Allahabad and then of pretended to believe them, and made preparations Lahore. But he was his father’s favourite, and most for the inevitable war of succession. of the time, he remained with him at the court. This Shah Jahan had long considered Dara as his led to resentment against him by the other three rightful successor. As early as 1654, he had been brothers who gradually came together in a kind of given the title of Sultan Buland Iqbal, given a a coalition which turned against Dara. Thus, in 1652, golden chair next to the throne, and his mansab Shuja betrothed his daughter to Aurangzeb’s eldest son, Sultan Muhammad, and Aurangzeb promised raised progressively till, in 1658, he received the his daughter to Shuja’s son. Murad also became unprecedented rank of 60,000 zat, 40,000 sawar (of friendly with Aurangzeb. which 30,000 were du-aspa sih-aspa). Dara was also nominated as his successor (wali ahd), and the nobles The very capacity of the princes made the were asked to obey him as their future sovereign. But problem of succession more diffi cult, and threatened these actions, far from ensuring a smooth succession to make it long and bloody. There was no clear tradition of succession among the Muslims. While as Shah Jahan had hoped, convinced the other the consent of the people had been asserted at the princes of Shah Jahan’s partiality to Dara. It thus beginning, the right of nomination of a successor Success strengthened their resolve of making a bid for the of by a successful ruler had come slowly to prevail, throne. and even accepted by some political thinkers. The confl ict between Dara, his father’s favourite, However, no special rights had been given to the and Aurangzeb the most energetic of Shah Jahan’s eldest born. The Timurid tradition of partitioning sons, was heightened by Aurangzeb’s suspicion had not been accepted in India, though it kept on that Dara had consistently used his infl uence with raising its head. In the ultimate resort, connections Shah Jahan to try to humiliate and thwart him. among the powerful military leaders, and military Thus, when Aurangzeb was transferred to the

strength and capacity had become the real arbiters. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Deccan from Multan and Sindh after the failure | 256 |

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MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY of his two campaigns against Qandahar, his jagirs and holding out favours to them. Thus, Aurangzeb were also transferred a big loss. The Deccan was had been in contact with Jai Singh at least since also a chronically defi cit area. In consequence, the 1636. In a letter to Jai Singh, dated 1647, Aurangzeb expenses of its government had to be made up acknowledges the Raja’s allegiance to him, though by cash subsidies from Malwa and Gujarat. Shah outwardly inclined towards Shuja. Jahan’s constant refrain was that the defi cit should On hearing the military preparations of Shuja, be met by expanding and improving cultivation. Murad and Aurangzeb, and their decision to march CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Aurangzeb tried to do so with the help of Murshid to Agra, on the ostensible pretext of visiting their Quli Khan who was the diwan of the Deccan. But father and freeing him from the control of the Shah Jahan was impatient, and unfairly accused ‘heretical’ Dara, Shah jahan, at the instance of Dara, Aurangzeb of negligence and incompetence. He sent an army to the east, led by Dara’s eldest son accused him of appropriating the most productive Sulaiman Shikoh and aided by Mirza Raj Jai Singh, to villages in the jagirs allotted to the nobles posted deal with Shuja who had crowned himself. Another there. Matters reached such a pitch that Shah Jahan army was sent to Malwa under Raja Jaswant Singh to even accused Aurangzeb of keeping for himself most persuade Murad, who was advancing from Gujarat of the mangoes from one of Shah Jahan’s favourite after crowning himself to turn back. However, on mango tree at Burhanpur. arrival at Dharmat in Malwa, Jaswant Singh found In order to meet his financial difficulties, that the forces of Murad and Aurangzeb had joined. Aurangzeb tried to persuade Shah Jahan to permit Jaswant Singh had not clear instructions how to deal attacking Golconda and Bijapur, both for getting with this situation. The two princes asked him to a part of the treasures they had gathered during stand aside and let them proceed to Agra. Although their campaigns in the Karnataka, and to gain for a mere noble to fi ght princes of blood was against more territory. Aurangzeb felt cheated when Shah etiquette, and the combined forces of the two Jahan entered into a compromise with Bijapur and princes were superior, Jaswant considered retreat Golconda, whereas Aurangzeb felt he was on the to be dishonourable. The victory of Aurangzeb at verge of total victory. In both cases, he accused Dara of intervention, and of having been bribed by Dharmat (15 April 1658) emboldened his supporters the Deccani rulers. However, Shah Jahan was in full and raised his prestige, while it dispirited Dara and control at the time, and there is no reason to believe his supporters. that he acted primarily at Dara’s instance. Meanwhile, Dara made a serious mistake. The character and outlook of Dara and Overconfi dent of the strength of his position, he Aurangzeb were very dissimilar. Dara constantly had assigned for the eastern campaign some of associated with liberal sufi and Bhakti saints, and was his best troops. Thus, he denuded the capital, Agra. deeply interested in the question of monotheism. He Led by Sulaiman Shikoh, the army moved to the had studied the testaments, and the Vedas, and was east and gave a good account of itself. It surprised convinced that the Vedas supplemented the Quran and defeated Shuja near Banaras (February 1658). in the understanding of monotheism. On the other It then decided to pursue him into Bihar as if the hand, Aurangzeb was devoted to the study of the issue at Agra had been already decided. After the Quran and the hagiological literature, and was strict defeat of Jaswant Singh at Dharmat, express letters in the observance of the various religious rituals. Success of were sent to these forces to hurry back to Agra. Dara called Aurangzeb a hypocrite, and Aurangzeb After patching up a hurried treaty (7 May 1658), called Dara a heretic. But it would be wrong to think Sulaiman Shikoh started his march to Agra from that the difference of outlook between the two led to a division of the nobility into two camps, liberal his camp near Monghyr in eastern Bihar. But it was and orthodox. The nobles acted on the basis of their hardly likely that he could return to Agra in time for personal contacts, interests etc. On their part, the the likely confl ict with Aurangzeb. princes tried to win over the infl uential nobles and After Dharmat, Dara made frantic efforts to

rajas to their side by establishing personal linkages Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru seek allies. He sent repeated letters to Jaswant Singh, | 257 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 who had retired to Jodhpur. The Rana of Udaipur Contemporary correspondence including the was also approached. Jaswant Singh moved out letters of Aurangzeb show that though Jahanara tardily to Pushkar near Ajmer. After raising an army was close to Dara in his religious quest and shared with the money provided by Dara, he waited there his eclectic outlook, she did not close her doors to for the Rana to join him. But the Rana had already her other brothers. Since she was considered to be been won over by Aurangzeb. Thus, Dara failed to close to Shah Jahan, the various princes, including win over even the important Rajput rajas to his side. Aurangzeb, wrote to her, seeking her support and CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA The battle of Samugarh (29 May 1658) was intermission with the Emperor on their behalf, and basically a battle of good generalship, the sides on many occasions, she helped them. being almost equally matched in numbers (about After the defeat and fl ight of Dara, Shah Jahan 50,000 to 60,000 on each side). In the fi eld, Dara was was besieged in the fort of Agra. Aurangzeb forced no match for Aurangzeb. The Hada Rajputs and the Shah Jahan into surrender by seising the source of Saiyids of Barha, upon whom Dara largely depended, water supply to the fort. Shah Jahan was confi ned could not make up for the weakness of the rest of to the female apartments in the fort and strictly the hastily recruited army. Aurangzeb’s troops were supervised, though he was not ill-treated. There battle hardened and well led. he lived for eight long years, lovingly nursed by his Not only was Dara no match for Aurangzeb favourite daughter, Jahanara, who voluntarily chose as a general, he had become arrogant and too self- to live within the fort. She reemerged into public confi dent of himself. Thus, he failed to win over the life after Shah Jahan’s death and was accorded great nobles in general to his side. Nor was he prepared honour by Aurangzeb who visited her regularly, to need to the advice of others more capable than and restored her to the position of the fi rst lady of him. It was a fatal error while Shah Jahan was still the realm. He also raised her annual pension from the reigning sovereign, and had been advised that twelve lakh rupees to seventeen lakhs. he should himself meet Aurangzeb on the fi eld of According to the terms of Aurangzeb’s battle if he refused to recant. agreement with Murad, the kingdom was to be The war between Aurangzeb and Dara was partitioned between the two, with Murad ruling not between religious orthodoxy on one hand, and Punjab, Kabul, Kashmir and Sindh. But Aurangzeb liberalism on the other. Both Muslims and Hindu had no intention of sharing the empire. Hence, he nobles were equally divided in their support to treacherously imprisoned Murad and sent him to the two rivals. We have already seen the attitude the Gwaliyar jail. He was killed two years later. of the leading Rajput rajas. Similarly, Shiahs were After losing the battle at Samugarh, Dara had almost equally divided between Aurangzeb and fl ed to Lahore and was planning to retain control of Dara. A recent study shows that among nobles its surrounding areas. But Aurangzeb soon arrived of 1000 zat rank and above, upto the battles of in the neighbourhood, leading a strong army. Dara’s Samugarh, 27 Iranis supported Aurangzeb, and 23 courage failed him. He abandoned Lahore without of them sided with Dara. In this confl ict, as in so a fi ght and fl ed to Sindh. Thus, he virtually sealed his many others, the attitude of the nobles depended Success fate. Although the civil war was dragged for more upon their personal interests and their association of than two years, its outcome was hardly in doubt. with individual princes. Dara’s move from Sindh into Gujarat and then into There is little reason to accept the widespread Ajmer on an invitation from Jaswant Singh, the belief that like the nobles, members of the royal ruler of Marwar, and the subsequent treachery of family were also divided in their support to the the latter are too well-known. The battle of Deorai various contending princes, princess Jahanara near Ajmer (March 1659) was the last major battle being a partisan of Dara, Rausharara a supporter Dara fought against Aurangzeb. Dara might well

of Aurangzeb, and Gauharara a spy for Murad. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru have escaped into Iran, but he wanted to try his luck | 258 |

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MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY again in Afghanistan. On the way, in the Bolan Pass, a AURANGZEB’S REIGN AND HIS treacherous Afghan chief made him a prisoner and RELIGIOUS POLICIES handed him over to his dreaded enemy. A panel of jurists decreed that Dara could not be suffered to live “out of necessity to protect the faith and holy law, and also for reasons of state, (and) as a destroyer of the public peace.” This is typical of the manner CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA in which Aurangzeb used religion as a cloak for his political motives. Two years after Dara’s execution, his son, Sulaiman Shikoh, who had sought shelter with the ruler of Garhwal was handed over by him to Aurangzeb on an imminent threat of invasion. He soon suffered the same fate as his father. Earlier, Aurangzeb had defeated Shuja at Khajwah, near Allahabad (December 1658). Further campaigning against him was entrusted to Mir Jumla, who steadily exerted pressure till Shuja was hounded out of India into Arakan (April 1669). Soon Aurangzeb ruled for almost 50 years. During his afterwards, he and his family met a dishonourable long reign, the Mughal empire reached its territorial death at the hands of the Arakanese on a charge climax. At its height, it stretched from Kashmir in the of fomenting rebellion. north to Jinji in the south, and from the Hindukush in The civil war which kept the empire distracted the west to Chittagong in the east. Aurangzeb proved for more than two years showed that neither to be a hard working ruler, and never spared himself nomination by the ruler, nor plans of division of the or his subordinates in the tasks of government. His empire were likely to be accepted by the contenders letters show the close attention he paid to all affairs of state. He was a strict disciplinarian who did not for the throne. Military force became the only arbiter spare his own sons. In 1686, he imprisoned prince for succession and the civil wars became steadily Muazzam on a charge of intriguing with the ruler of more destructive. After being seated securely on the Golconda, and kept him in prison for 12 long years. throne, Aurangzeb tried to mitigate, to some extent, His other sons also had to face his wrath on various the effects of the harsh Mughal custom of war unto occasions. Such was the awe of Aurangzeb that even death between brothers. At the instance of Jahanara late in his life, when Muazzam was governor of Kabul, Begum, Sipihr Shikoh, son of Dara, was released from he trembled every time he received a letter from prison in 1671, given a mansab and married to a his father who was then in south India. Unlike his daughter of Aurangzeb. Murad’s son, Izzat Bakhsh, predecessors, Aurangzeb did not like ostentation. was also released, given a mansab and married to His personal life was marked by simplicity. As a pious another daughter of Aurangzeb. Earlier, in 1669, Muslims, he copied the Quran and even stitched

Success caps which were sold. But we can hardly accept the

Dara’s daughter, Jani Begum, who had been looked of account of some contemporary writers that he met after by Jahanara as her own daughter, was married his personal expenses by these means. Aurangzeb to Aurangzeb’s third son, Muhammad Azam. There had a number of wives and mistresses, including the were many other marriages between Aurangzeb’s slave girl, Hira Bai (later entitled Zainabadi Mahal) family and the children and grandchildren of his whom he met and married in 1652. Udaipuri Mahal, defeated brothers. Thus, in the third generation, the his favourite, was a Georgian slave girl who had families of Aurangzeb and his defeated brothers previously belonged to Dara’s haram. All of them

became one. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru were maintained in an appropriate style. | 259 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Aurangzeb himself was a learned man. Apart infl uenced the Mughal state policy to some from memorising the Quran after his accession, he extent. was well read in the hadis and Muslim jurisprudence. 2. Aurangzeb fought number of battles. In the He was fond of the works of the orthodox Imam war of succession his main opponent was Dara Ghazali, as also of Sadi and the liberal sufi s, Hafi z Shukoh. He was supported by liberal elements and Maulana Rum. whereas orthodox elements supported Historians are deeply divided about Aurangzeb, that is why in 1659 Aurangzeb CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Aurangzeb’s achievements as a ruler. According ordered to demolish new Hindu temples so to some, he reversed Akbar’s policy of religious his orthodox supporters could be convinced toleration and thus undermined the loyalty that the new emperor was a truly committed of the Hindus to the empire, in turn, leading to Muslim ruler. popular uprisings which sapped the vitality of the 3. Some of the orthodox measures initiated by empire. His suspicious nature and his insistence on Aurangzeb were the outcome of changes in strictly following the injunctions of the sharia and Mughal Rajput relations. refusing to give drastic punishments added to his - After 1667, the warmth in Mughal Rajput problems so that in the words of Khafi Khan, “all his relations had got reduced signifi cantly. enterprises were long drawn” and ended in failure. Aurangzeb no longer trusted Rajputs Some modern historians think that Aurangzeb completely. has been unjustly maligned, that the Hindus had 4. The Mughal Empire was facing a number of become disloyal and too powerful due to the laxity serious challenges in the form of revolts of of Aurangzeb’s predecessors, so that Aurangzeb Jat, Satnami and Ahom. had no option but to adopt harsh methods and - During this period of crisis, Aurangzeb to try to rally the Muslims on whose support in needed greater support of Muslim nobles the long run the empire had to rest. In the recent and to achieve this objective he issued writings on Aurangzeb, efforts have been made to orders to prohibit public celebrations assess Aurangzeb’s political and religious policies of Hindu religious festivals in 1668-69. in the context of social, economic and institutional Orders were issued to demolish Hindu developments. There is little doubt about his being temples. orthodox in his beliefs. He was not interested in 5. Economic challenges being faced by Mughal philosophical debates or in mysticism—though he empire were also responsible for some of the did occasionally visit Sufi saints for their blessings, orthodox elements. The department of history and did not debar his sons from dabbling in Sufi sm. writing was closed down in 1668 because It would be wrong, however, to see Aurangzeb’s Aurangzeb did not want to spend limited religious policy in a rigid framework, based on his resources on non-politico-military affairs. personal religious beliefs. As a ruler, Aurangzeb had to contend with many political, economic, social 6. The reimposition of Jaziya was outcome of and administrative problems. While keen to ensure serious challenge posed by Rajput revolt. The that the state did not violate the sharia, he could Rajput of Marwad had raised the banner of not forget the political reality that any policy which revolt and refused to accept Ajit Singh. Success (a) To counter this challenge, Aurangzeb

meant the complete alienation of the numerous of and powerful Hindu nobles, rajas and zamindars needed full support of Muslims and would be unworkable. to mobilize them behind throne, he imposed Jaziya. Factors responsible for Aurangzeb’s (b) Reimposition of Jaziya was the outcome religious outlook of politico-military factors. It also revealed 1. Aurangzeb was devoted Sunni Muslim. He that Aurangzeb’s decision of removal of was a man of simple habits. He was free from Jaziya in 1694 to counter the challenge

evils of age. This devoted religious outlook Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru in Deccan. | 260 |

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MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY For purposes of analysis, Aurangzeb’s religious veena. Thus, the jibe of Aurangzeb to the protesting policies can be divided into two broad phases, the musicians that they should bury the bier of music fi rst lasting upto 1679, and the second from 1679 they were carrying deep under the earth “so that no to his death, in 1707. These two broad phases are echo of it may rise again” was only an angry remark. divisible into several sub-phases. Aurangzeb discontinued the practice of jharoka The First Phase: 1658-1679 darshan or showing himself to the public from the balcony, since he considered it a superstitious CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA A number of moral and religious regulations practice and against Islam. Similarly, he forbade the were issued by Aurangzeb shortly after his accession. ceremony of weighing the emperor against gold and He banned sijda or prostration before the ruler, silver and other articles on his birthdays. This practice something which the clerics had maintained was which was apparently started during Akbar’s reign reserved for God. Aurangzeb also forbade the kalma had become widespread and was a burden on the being inscribed on coins—since coins could be smaller nobles. But the weight of social opinion was trampled underfoot or be defi led while passing from too much. Aurangzeb had to permit this ceremony hand to hand. He discontinued the festival of Nauroz, for his sons when they recovered from illness. He as it was considered a Zoroastrian practice and was forbade astrologers to prepare almanacs. But the favoured by the Safavid rulers of Iran. Muhtabibs order was fl outed by everybody, including members were appointed in all provinces. These offi cials of the royal family. were asked to see that people lived their lives in accordance with the sharia. Thus, it was the business Many other regulations of a similar nature, of these offi cials to see that wine and intoxicants some of a moral character and some to instill a sense such as bhang were not consumed in public places. of austerity, and some to ban practices considered They were also responsible for regulating the houses against the Islamic spirit, were issued. Thus, the of ill repute, gambling dens, etc. and for checking practice of the Emperor putting a tika or saffron weights and measures. In other words, they were paste on the forehead of a new raja was stopped. responsible for ensuring that things forbidden by Public display of Holi and Muharram processions the sharia and the zawabits (secular decrees) were, were also stopped. The courtiers were also asked as far as possible, not fl outed openly. However, if the not to wear silk gowns, or gowns of mixed silk and Italian traveller, Manucci, who lived in India for a long cotton. The throne room was to be furnished in a time, is to be believed, all these regulations were cheap and simple style; clerks were to use porcelain fl outed openly. In appointing muhtasibs, Aurangzeb ink-stands instead of silver ones; the gold railings in emphasised that the state was also responsible for the diwan-i-am were replaced by those of lapis lazuli the moral welfare of the citizens. But the offi cials set on gold. Even the offi cial department of history were instructed not to interfere in the private lives writing was discontinued as a measure of economy. of citizens. Although displaying a puritanical frame of In the eleventh year of the reign (1669), mind, these measures were promoted, in part, by a Aurangzeb took a number of measures which have fi nancial crisis which Aurangzeb faced around this been called puritanical, but many of which were time. Following the setback caused by the civil war, of an economic and social character, or against for a succession of years after 1660, there was scanty superstitious beliefs. Thus, he forbade singing in Success rainfall and crop failure in one province after another. of the court, the offi cial musicians being pensioned After his accession, Aurangzeb had forbidden rahdari off. Instrumental music and naubat (the royal band) or transit duty and a large number of cesses, rural were, however, continued. Singing also continued and urban, considered illegal. Although many of to be patronised by the ladies in the haram, and by these cesses had been prohibited by earlier rulers, individual nobles. It is of some interest to note that they had continued to be collected by the jagirdars, the largest number of Persian works on classical and sometimes even in the khalisa or reserved Indian music were written in Aurangzeb’s reign, and domains. We do not know how seriously these

that Aurangzeb himself was profi cient in playing the Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru prohibitions were implemented, but we are told | 261 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 that in the khalisa areas alone, rahdari had yielded of worship could be repaired “since buildings 25 lakhs of rupees a year. Another tax was pandari cannot last forever”. This position is clearly spelt or ground rent for stalls in the bazar in the capital out in a number of extant farmans he issued to the and other towns. Another vexatious tax which was brahmanas of Banaras, Vrindavan, etc. abolished, in 1666, was the octroi duty on tobacco. Aurangzeb’s order regarding temples was not According to the Maasir-i-Alamgiri, the semi- a new one. It reaffi rmed the position which had offi cial history of Aurangzeb, in the thirteenth year, existed during the Sultanate period and which had CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA it was reported that expenses had exceeded income been reiterated by Shah Jahan early in his reign. In during the preceding twelve years. Some of the practice, it left wide latitude to the local offi cials as measures of economy adopted by Aurangzeb were to the interpretation of the words “long standing”. “the retrenchment of many items in the expenditure The private opinion and sentiment of the ruler in the of the Emperor, the princes and the Begums”. matter was also bound to weigh with the offi cials. It seems that Aurangzeb was keen to promote For example, after the rise of the liberal-minded Dara trade among the Muslims who depended almost as Shah Jahan’s favourite, few temples had been exclusively on state support. In 1665, he reduced the demolished in pursuance of his order regarding duty on import of goods by Muslim traders from fi ve new temples. Aurangzeb, as governor of Gujarat, ordered a number of new temples in Gujarat to be percent to two and a half percent, and two years later destroyed, which often meant merely defacing the abolished it altogether. But he had to re-impose it images and bricking up the temples. At the outset when he found that Muslim traders were abusing of his reign, Aurangzeb found that the images in it by presenting goods of Hindu traders as theirs! these temples had been restored and idol worship However, it was kept at two and a half percent for had been resumed. Aurangzeb, therefore, ordered the Muslims. again, in 1665, that these temples be destroyed. The Similarly, in 1671, he passed orders that famous temple of Somnath which he had ordered karoris of all crown lands should be Muslims and to be destroyed earlier in his reign was apparently all governors and local offi cials were asked to dismiss one of the temples mentioned above. their accountants (diwan) and clerks (peshkars) Aurangzeb’s order regarding ban on new and replace them by Muslims. But this led to an temples did no apparently lead to a large-scale uproar among the nobles, since suffi cient competent destruction of temples at the outset of the reign. As Muslims were not available. According to Khafi Khan, Aurangzeb encountered political opposition from a the measure was, therefore, withdrawn, a fact which number of quarters, such as the Marathas, Jats, etc. many historians fail to notice. he seems to have adopted a new stance. In case of However, these again showed a narrow and confl ict with the local elements, he now considered limited outlook on the part of Aurangzeb, particularly it legitimate to destroy even long standing Hindu on social and economic issues. temples as a measure of punishment and as a warning. Further, he began to look upon temples Hindu Temples as centres of spreading subversive ideas, that is, We may now turn our attention to some of ideas which were not acceptable to the orthodox the other measures of Aurangzeb which may be elements. Thus, he took strict action when he learnt, called discriminatory and show a sense of bigotry Success in 1669, that in some of the temples in Thatta, Multan towards people professing other religions. The of and especially at Banaras, both Hindus and Muslims most important were Aurangzeb’s attitude towards used to come from great distances to learn from the temples, and the levying of jizyah. brahmans. Aurangzeb issued orders to the governors At the outset of his reign, Aurangzeb reiterated of all provinces to put down such practices and to the position of the sharia regarding temples, destroy the temples where such practices took place. synagogues, churches, etc. that “long standing As a result of these orders, a number of temples such temple should not be demolished but no new as the famous temple of Vishwanath at Banaras,

temples allowed to be built.” Further, old places Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru and the temple of Kashava Rai at Mathura built | 262 |

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MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY by Bir Singh Deo Bundela in the reign of Jahangir grants to Hindus, such grants continued to be given were destroyed and mosques erected in their place. to some of the Vaishnava temples at Vrindavan, to The destruction of these temples had a political the jogis at Jakhbar in Punjab, to the Nath Panthi motive as well. Mustaid Khan, author of the Maasir- jogis in Sarkar , and grant of 100 pakka i-Alamgiri says, with reference to the destruction of bighas of land to Panth Bharati in pargana Siwana the temple of Kashava Rai at Mathura, “On seeing in Rajasthan “since he feeds travellers and is worthy this instance of the strength of the Emperor’s faith of offering prayers”. There are instances of grants and the grandeur of his devotion to God, the proud ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA to others also. However, there is little doubt that rajas were stifl ed, and in amazement they stood like the trend was to limit revenue free grants given to images facing the wall”. non-Muslims. It was in this context that many temples On the whole, the atmosphere created by built in Orissa during the last ten to twelve years Aurangzeb’s restrictive policy towards the Hindus, were destroyed. But it is wrong to think that there and of his demolition of many temples of old were any orders for the general destruction of the standing on one ground or another was bound to early part of the eighteenth century and who had create disquiet amount a large section of the Hindus, been closely associated with Aurangzeb, asserts leading to disaffection and opposition. that the motive of Aurangzeb was to “establish Jizyah Islam” and that the Emperor ordered the governors to destroy all temples and to ban public practice Although Aurangzeb had not raised the slogan of the religion of these misbelievers, that is, the of defending Islam before the battle of Samugarh Hindus. If Mustaid Khan’s version was correct, it with Dara, and had tried to befriend the Rajput rajas would have meant Aurangzeb going beyond the as we have seen, there were a number of factors position of the sharia, for the sharia did not ban the which make it necessary for Aurangzeb to present non-Muslims from practising their faiths as along as himself as the defender of the sharia, and to try and they observed certain conditions, such as loyalty to win over the theologians. A principal factor was the the ruler, etc. Nor have we found any farmans to the popular revulsion against his imprisonment of his governors ordering general destruction of temples, father, Shah Jahan, and his treatment of his brothers, as suggested by Mustaid Khan. Murad and Dara, both of whom had the reputation The situation was different during the periods of being liberal patrons of the poor and the needy. of hostilities. Thus, during 1679-80, when there was Aurangzeb was shocked when at the time of his a state of war with the Rathors of Marwar and the second coronation in 1659, the chief qazi refused Rana of Udaipur, many temples of old standing to crown him since his father was alive. However, were destroyed at Jodhpur and its parganas, and Aurangzeb was rescued when Qazi Abdul Wahab at Udaipur. Gujarati gave a ruling that since Shah Jahan was too feeble to discharge the duties of sovereignty, it In his policy towards temples, Aurangzeb may was legitimate to crown him. Aurangzeb rewarded have remained formally within the framework of Abdul Wahab by making him the Chief Qazi. the sharia, but there is little doubt that his stand in the matter was a setback to the policy of broad Aurangzeb rewarded the theologians not toleration followed by his predecessors. It led to Success only by putting down practices considered un- of a climate of opinion that destruction of temples Islamic, as we have noted. He renovated mosques on any excuse would not only be condoned but and monasteries which had fallen into disrepair, would be welcomed by the emperor. We do have and appointed imams, muezzins and attendants instances of grants to Hindu temples and mathas by with salaries. The theologians were obviously the Aurangzeb. Thus, he gave grant to the gurudwara of main benefi ciaries of these measures. Guru Ram Das at Dehradun. Grants to other temples Another step taken at this time which would have also been listed. Although an order had been have gladdened the hearts of the orthodox ulama

issued in Gujarat, in 1672, banning revenue-free Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru was the revival of pilgrim taxes on the Hindus at | 263 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Mathura, Kurukshetra etc. thus reversing Akbar’s Nevertheless, jizyah was regressive and bore policy in the matter. more heavily on the poor than on the more affl uent. However, the major problem Aurangzeb The assess were divided into three classes according faced was the question of jizyah. Orthodox clerical to property i.e. those with property less than 200 opinion had been demanding its reimposition on dirham, those between 200 to 10,000 dirham, and

the ground that it was wajib (compulsory) according those above, 10,000 dirham. They paid 12, 24 or 48

¥ ¥ to the sharia, and also because they felt that jizyah dirham or ¥ 3/1/3/, 6/2/3 and 13/1/3 per year. The was a means of asserting the superior status ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA tax bore most heavily on the fi rst of these, called of the theologians and Islam, and emphasising tailors, dyers, cobblers, shoe makers etc. since the the dependent and inferior position of the non- average wage of a worker or artisan in those days

Muslims in an essentially Islamic state. We are told was about ¦ 3 per month. However, it should be that immediately after his accession, Aurangzeb noted that apart from women, the insane and those considered reimposition of jizyah, but postponed in government service who were exempt, jizyah the matter due to “certain political exigencies”. That it was not levied on the indigent who is defi ned as was reimposed twenty-two years after Aurangzeb’s one who owned no property, and whose income accession to the throne is a clear indication that its from labour did not exceed his and his family’s institution was on account of political considerations, necessities. In other words, jizyah was a property not “to promote the faith and to promote the laws tax, not an income tax. of the sharia” as was the offi cial explanation and What then, were the motives of Aurangzeb in has been dutifully reproduced by a number of reimposing jizyah after such a long lapse after his contemporaries. accession. It would appear that he took this step According to some English factors and the at a time when he was facing a growing political Italian, Manucci, Aurangzeb Jizyah which was crisis. By 1676, all the efforts to conciliate Shivaji sanctioned by sharia, since he had abolished the had failed. After crowning himself, he had gone on various taxes considered illegal. to make extensive conquests in the South, with the However, these arguments do not stand up to active aid and support of the brothers, Madanna and a critical scrutiny. We are told by the contemporary Akhanna, who dominated Golconda. Following the Khafi Khan that the various taxes remitted by the internal dissolution of the state of Bijapur, Aurangzeb Emperor, continued to be included in the jama dami had launched a series of wars aimed at its conquest or the assessed income of the jagirs. In consequence, and the containments of the Marathas. But these the remissions remained a dead letter. had failed. To the essentially conservative mind of Second, the income from jizyah was put in a Aurangzeb, he hoped to meet the situation by a separate treasury the proceeds from which were striking declaration which would rally the Muslims disbursed among the needy Muslims. Thus, it hardly behind him, especially, if he decided to invade the relieved the general treasury. brother Muslim rulers of the Deccan, as appeared likely. Regarding the economic impact of jizyah on poor Hindus, it should be borne in mind that the The reimposition of jizyah was not only meant Hindus had the reputation of being very strong in to serve this purpose but to further cement his their faith, this being conceded by sufi s, such as alliance with the theologians. Jizyah was to be Success collected by honest, God-fearing Muslims, who were

Nizamuddin Auliya, many poets and other thinkers. of Although jizyah had been levied and collected since especially appointed for the purpose. Its proceeds the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, it had not which we are told, amounted to rupees four crores led to any large scale conversions. Nor did it happen in the entire kingdom, which was a large sum of during Aurangzeb’s reign, else Aurangzeb would money, and was reserved for the ulama. It was, thus, have been praised to the skies for his great success. a big bribe for the theologians among whom there As is well-known, large scale conversions in Sindh, was a lot of unemployment. But the disadvantages West Punjab, Kashmir and East Bengal had taken outweighed the possible advantages of the step. It

place much before Aurangzeb’s accession. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru was bitterly resented by the Hindus who considered | 264 |

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MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY it as a mark of discrimination. Its mode of collection faith”. During the period, the Deccani rulers were also had some special features. The payee was denounced as “lustful and sinful” for their alliance required to pay it personally and sometimes in with the Maratha infi dels, so that “no respect was left the process he suffered humiliation at the hands for Islam and its adherents; mosques were without of the theologians. In the rural areas, amins were splendour while idol-temples fl ourished.” (Maasir- appointed for collecting jizyah, but, perhaps, the i-Alamgiri). amount was collected along with the land revenue. It was during this period that conversion of CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA In the cities well-to-do Hindus were often harassed individuals, often for petty gains, was made much by the collectors of jizyah. We, therefore, hear of a of though privately Aurangzeb complained of the number of occasions when Hindu traders shut their boastfulness and lack manners of some of the new shops and observed hartal against the measure. converts. Also, there was a lot of corruption, and it is said that However, by these means Aurangzeb could the collectors of jizyah made lakhs. In a number of neither detach the Deccani rulers from their alliance instances, the amin or collector of jizyah was killed with the Marathas, nor were the theological elements for his extortionate ways. even in the camp were impressed. Thus, Qazi Shaikul Jizyah may also be seen as the fi nal step to Islam, the upright and highly respected sadr of the establish the hegemonic position of Islam in the imperial army, refused in 1688 to give a fatwa that state. While this did not necessarily mean oppression war against a Muslim king, that is the “heretical” of the non-Muslims, or denying them the regulated Deccani rulers, was ‘lawful’. He resigned his post, religious freedom as dhimmis or protected people, and decided to go to Mecca for a visit. Aurangzeb it implied giving the Muslims a superior position. had to appoint a new chief qazi. Aurangzeb’s religious policies led to a series of contradictions, which he found hard to resolve. After the conquest of Bijapur and Golconda, Although Aurangzeb tried as far as possible to Aurangzeb was faced with the task of winning satisfy the orthodox clerical elements, even he over the powerful rajas, nayaks and deshmukhs could not fulfi l completely the “orthodox” agenda of Telangana and the Karnataka. This led to a put forward by men like Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. He modifi cation of his policy of destroying even old refused to throw the Hindu rajas and others out of standing temples as a reprisal for political opposition. the service of the state, saying tersely on a petition Thus, the contemporary observer, Bhimsen, noted “What connection does religion have with worldly “The temples in Bijapur and Hyderabadi Karnataka affairs”? And what right have matters of religion to are beyond numbering, and each temple is like the enter into bigotry. For you is your religion, for me is fort of Parenda and Sholapur. In the whole world, mine. If this rule (suggested by you) was established, nowhere else are there so many temples”. Many it would be my duty to extirpate all (Hindu) rajas of the famous temples are named and described and their followers.” In fact, the number of Hindus in detail by Bhimsen. He goes on to say, “From in the imperial service increased, both in absolute the neighbourhood of Adoni and Kanchi and the numbers and proportionately at all levels during kingdom of Jinji and the ocean, there is not a village the second half of his reign, as we shall note. in which there is no temple, large or small”. However, except in a few cases, little attempt was made by

The Second Phase: 1679-1707 Success Aurangzeb to destroy them for fear of rousing Aurangzeb’s modern biographer, Sir Jadunath of further opposition. Sarkar, was of the opinion that “Neither age nor From the beginning of his accession, experience of life softened Aurangzeb’s bigotry.” Aurangzeb used to send large sums of money to However, recent research leads us to modify this Mecca to be distributed among the shaikhs and the opinion. poor. However, he gradually became disillusioned at Between 1679 and 1687, Aurangzeb tried the corrupt and grasping ways of the theologians, to project himself as “the asylum of Muslims”, and wrote the Sharif of Mecca, warning him of

who “honours none but the people of the true Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru appropriating for himself the money sent for the | 265 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 needy at Mecca. He concluded sadly, “Why should 4000, and 62 from 1000 to 2700, thus for surpassing it (the money) not be distributed among the poor the Rajputs. However, they were not given important of this country because the manifestation of God commands or posts, or treated as integral parts of is refl ected in every country”? the imperial service. Nor was any attempt made to Aurangzeb was unrelenting in his opposition establish personal or friendly social relations with in giving remissions in jizyah. However, in case of them, on the model of the Rajputs. The Maratha crop-failure, such remissions were regularly given, Mansabdars generally held three-monthly jagirs CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA often at the instance of the jagirdars. Finally, in 1704, and, as per the practice since the days of Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb suspended jizyah “for the duration of even from this one-fourth was deducted. the war in the south”, since an end to war with the Marathas was nowhere in sight, it was tantamount to its abolition in the south. Jizyah was formally abolished, in 1712, at the instance of Asad Khan and Zulfi qar Khan, two of the leading nobles of Aurangzeb. Some modern writers are of the opinion that Aurangzeb’s measures were designed to convert India from a dar-ul-harb or a land inhabited by infidels to dar-ul-Islam, or a land inhabited by Muslims. This is not correct. According to sharia, a state in which the laws of Islam prevailed and The Empire and the Zamindars where the ruler was a Muslim was dar-ul-Islam. Apart from the Jagirdars, the various other In such a state, the Hindus who submitted to the classes who appropriated a share in the produce Muslim ruler, and agreed to pay jizyah were zimmis of the land were the ‘madadi-i-mash’ suyurghal or protected people according to the sharia. Hence, grantees. It was granted to the class of religious the state in India had been considered a dar-ul- men who were patronised by the state. These grants Islam since the advent of the Turks. Even when did not invest the grantees with any right over the Mahadji Sindhia, the Maratha general, occupied land but were entitled to the prescribed revenue Delhi in 1772, and the Mughal emperor became a from its produce. These grants were intended to puppet in his hands, the theologians decreed that create pockets of infl uence and to develop waste the state remained a dar-ul-Islam since the laws lands (Akbars policy to grant half cultivable and of Islam were allowed to prevail and the throne half waste land to improve cultivation). Granted to Shaikhs and Sayyids, who, in emergency joined was occupied by a Muslim. Although Aurangzeb the government forces to crub local disturbances. considered it legitimate to encourage conversion to There was a tendency on the part of the grantees Islam, evidence of systematic or large-scale attempts to acquire zamindari right in their area—some of at forced conversion is lacking. them transformed themselved into small zamindars. Nor were Hindu nobles discriminated against. By the fi rst half of 18th century, those grants were Athar Ali’s study has shown that the number of treated as zamindari lands in all transactions.

Hindus in the nobility during the second half of Success

of Zamindars were present in practically every Aurangzeb’s reign almost doubled with the Hindus, part of the empire and held the most signifi cant including Marathas, forming about one-third of the position in the agrarian structure of Mughal India. nobility. In the pre-Mughal period, the word was used in the Aurangzeb inducted large numbers of sense of the Chief of a territory but during Akbar, Marathas into the service during the latter half of this term was offi cially used for any person with any his reign, of the 96 Marathas who held ranks of 1000 hereditary claim to a direct share in the peasants zat and above between 1679 and 1707, 16 held ranks produce. The areas without zamindar were termed

of 5000 and above, 18 held ranks between 3000 and Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru ‘raiyyati’ lands (peasant held). | 266 |

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MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY Nurul Hasan: Divides zamindars into three roas, ranas who governed their estates without categories: any interference from the imperial administration. 1. Primary zamindars who had some proprietary Their obligation to the king did not go beyond rights over the land. paying him a fi xed amount as tribute (peshkash). Their share in the surplus produce of the peasant 2. Secondary zamindars who held the amounted to the difference between what they intermediary rights and helped the state in collected from the peasant and what they paid as

revenue collection. ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA ‘peshkash’. Irfan Habib says, the difference between 3. Autonomous chiefs had autonomous rights zamindars and autonomous chiefs ‘lay most clearly in their territory and paid a fi xed amount to in the relationship with the imperial power which the state. allowed autonomy to the chiefs, but made ordinary Rights: Zamindars did not signify proprietary zamindar mere propertied subjects of the Empire”. right in land. It was a claim on the produce of the Zamindars had their own footmen and cavalry soil, co-existing in a subordinate capacity with and had garhis or forts. Abul Fazl estimates that the land revenue demand of the state. Yet, like the troops of zamindars in the whole Mughal any article of private property, it could and was empire exceeded 44 lacs. Some of the zamindars freely bought and sold. It was also inheritable and were designated as chaudhuris for the purpose of divisible, i.e. the heirs of a zamindar could divide collection of revenue. They were supposed to collect the fi scal claims and perquisite of their inherited the revenue from other zamindars of the pargana. zamindari. Zamindar acquired his rights by virtue of Apart from the customary nankar, they were entitled the historical tradition of control he and his kinsmen to another share in the revenue collected by them exercised over the inhabitants of particular villages. (2.5%). He was appointed by the state and could At same time, the zamindars had settled villages and be removed. distributed its land among the peasantry. zamindari rights therefore, were not created by the ruling Nature of the Mughal State classes, but preceded them. The king however, could The Mughal Theory of kingship was an create zamindari in villages, where none existed. A admixture of Mongol, Turkish and Islamic ideals. zamindar could also be dislodged in extreme cases It brought about a complete change in the theory of sedition or non-payment of revenue. of kingship advocated by the Turkish Sultan of Medieval rulers recognised the rights of the Delhi claiming ancestry from the Mongloid Turks. zamindars, but were equally insistent on treating The Mughals could hardly feel the need of any them as agents of the government for revenue reference to the Abbasid caliphs as the source of collection. For this purpose (khidmat), he was entitled their authority. At the same time the destruction to a percentage of the total revenue collected (10% of the Safavids and Uzbegs, both whom refused known as nankar). When the administration decided to consider themselves subordinate to any other to collect the revenue through own agents, by authority made it necessary for the Mughals to passing the zamindars, the latter was entitled to emphasize on their absolute independence of any a share in the revenue collected called ‘malikana’ other suzerain power. (proprietary rights) and was fi xed at 10% of the The Mughal Emperors of Indian designated revenue collected. In the Deccan, it was 1/4th Success themselves Badshah, a title claimed by one of of (Chauth). Babar’s ancestors and indicative of freedom from Besides, their principles fi scal claim, zamindars the Caliph’s suzerainty, while the title of Sultan, also enacted a number of petty perquisites from under the Mughals became synonymous with a the peasantry. These class of zamindars basically subordinate ruler of price accepting the suzerainty of resided in the directly administrated territory and of the Mughal Emperor. However, the Mughals retained whom the administration was anxious that they be the names of the fi rst four Caliphs on their coins reduced to the status of mere ‘rent gatherers’. Apart and in the Khutba. This was a symbolic expression

from them, there were autonomous chiefs—rajas, Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru of their belief in Islam, but did not amount to an | 267 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 acceptance of the Caliph’s suzerainty. The Mughal by Abul Fazl continued to infl uence Mughal notions theory of kingship evolved gradually and obtained of sovereignty and kingship until the reign of fi nal shape under Abul Fazl, the leading light at Aurangzeb who tried to reiterate the fundamentally Akbar’s court. Babar was essentially a man of action Islamic character of the state during his reign, fi nally, and showed little interest in the theoretical aspect Abul Fazl suggested a judicious organisation of of monarchy. Under Humayun some vague notions the fourfold constituents of the political body began to emerge. It was held that sovereignty was for realising the aims of good government these hereditary (a Mongal trait), that it is indivisible and ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA included: not subordinate to a foreign power (a Timurid trait), 1. Warriors to these Humayun added the mystic concept of 2. Artisans the monarch being place like the sun in the solar system vis-à-vis his nobles. He believed in the divine 3. Intellectuals origin of kingship and considered sovereignty a 4. Labours personal possession which could be deligated by He identifi es them respectively with fi re, air the sovereign at will. However, these ideas were still water and earth, the four components of life and in an embryonic form. They were to develop fully considers them as essential for the survival for the only in the reign of Akbar. state as these four elements are for life; the monarch Abul Fazl gave an entirely new form of Mughal is to ensure the right balance and harmony among theory of Kingship. He began by justifying the need these different elements. of an institution like kingship by maintaining that Late 17th Century Crisis: Revolts man by nature is greedy, corrupt and evil and it The word ‘jagir’ is compound of two Persian needs a monarch to ensure order and peace in worlds—‘Ja’ or place and ‘gir’ or holding. It means the universe. To quote him “if royalty did not exist, an area of land or any other source of income over the storm of strife would not suside nor selfi sh which the king transfers or assigns his right to ambitions disappear. Mankind being under the revenue and other taxes to its holder (jagirdar) burden of lawlessness and lust, would sink into in lieu of salary. There were precedents in Ancient the pit of destruction, and the whole Earth would India in the Afghan kingdom of Ghur, the Delhi become a barron waste. Royalty is a remedy for Sultanate and in the Mughal Empire of this system. these realty is a light emanating from God, and a But it was under Akbar that the system became well- ray from the Sun, the illuminator of the universe, the organised so much so that W.H. Moreland described argument of the book of perfection, the receptacle it as ‘the most prominent feature of Moslem agrarian of all virtues”. system. However, certain inherent contradictions Monarchy being a light emanating from and circumstantial development brought about God and communicated by him directly the king a crisis in the system, by the end of 17th and the has many inherent qualities such as paternal love beginning of 18th centuries. The causes for this towards his subjects, large heartedness, daily crisis have been a center of scholarly controversy. increasing trust in God, prayer, devotion etc. Thus, while Irfan Habib, J.P. Richards and Pearson Abul Fazl distinguishes between the ‘true king’ see it in context of a crisis of managerial skill, Satish who is the possessor of the above virtues and is a Success Chandra sees the same in a broader perspective of of benevolent guardian of his subjects and ‘false king’ socio-economic crisis. who is a tyranty. He emphasised on the duty of The jagirdars were an entirely offi cial class the king to follow a policy of universal toleration appointed by the emperor. The jagirs were essentially (sulh-e-kul). Thus, Abul Fazl goes beyond the limited the assignment of revenue and did not involve set by Islamic jurists and widens the scope of the any administrative charge. The judicial and police monarch’s duties and activities. He liberates the dues were assigned to the Qazi and the Jagirdar monarch from the religious limitations. However, respectively. A jagirdar claim was, thus, confi ned

his concept is not anti-Islamic. The ideas expounded Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru to land revenue and other taxes (Mai-i-Wajibi-O | 268 |

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MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY huguqai-i-Diwan). He had no hereditary claim over entrant led to great lamentation in the camp among land and his jagir lasted as long as he remained those who had waited for an appointment for years. in service. The idea that the control over the jagir Also, the inability on part of mansabdars to secure was purely temporary in character, was enforced suitable mansabs for their children and relations by the frequent transfer of the jagirdars—almost affected the future loyalties of these nobles to the ones in every 3-4 years. Abul Fazl tells us that the empire. idea behind it was to prevent the jagirdars from The Mughals adopted a system of frequent CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA building local connections or claiming hereditary transfer of jagirs (Bernier). Accounts of Bhimsen right over the land. would make us believe that the frequency of The revenue from the jagir was to be equivalent transfers increased during Aurangzeb’s reign. Yet, we to the jagirdar’s salary. But they rarely corresponded. come across many examples of important Mughal This created a gap between jama and Hal-i-Hasil mansabdars holding their jagirs for as long as 10 which caused problem for the state as the jagirs years. Also, a study made by A.J. Qaiser, ‘Distribution constituted a major portion of revenue assignment. of the revenue resources of the Mughal Empire In the tenth year of Aurangzeb’s reign, the total among the Nobility’. I.H.C. 1967, fi nds that large jamadani was 924 crores dam for in whole empire, mansabdars who accounted for over 80% of the land out of which 725 crores were assigned to jagirdars assigned as jagir, could not have been transferred so or placed under Paibaqis (Mirat-al-Alam). Also the frequently. In fact, not so frequent transfers of jagirs jama fi gure would be infl ated by a stroke of pen by during the 18th century made the jagirs hereditary the clerks—such a situation came to surface in the and led to further strengthening of zamindars as a reign of Jahangir. By the beginning of Shahjahans class, asserts Prof Satish Chandra. reign the problem of the growing gap between the revenue needed for assignment to the mansabdars Both Bhimsen and Bernier contend that the and its availability become so acute that the rule of culminative effect of frequent transfer of jagir was 1/3, 1/4 etc and the ‘month scale’ were introduced the growing exploitation of peasants. Agreeing which considerably diminished the military strength with them Prof. Irfan Habib points out that fearing of the jagirdars. This is signifi cant as the working transfer at any time, the jagirdars tried to take as of the Mughal revenue system depended upon much as they could from the soil. But it’s a matter the ability of the Mughal government and its of speculation whether the jagirdars could actually representatives to over the jamindars and cultivators put their wishes into practice in defi ance to the with their superior military strength. Emperor. In fact, the system of checks and balances To add to these limitations was the threat were very shrewedly evolved under the Mughals. posed to the Mughal rulers as well as the peasantry Signifi cantly, the clause of imperial check is crystal by the multiplication of mansabdars by fi ve times clear from Aurangzeb’s farman to Rashikdas and within a short span of time. Figures will speak better Mohammad Hashim. 1,605-2,069 mansabdars (those above 1000 and What is significant, however, is not the 280 nobles. 1,637-8,000 mansabdar (those above oppression of the peasantry but the lack of incentives 1000 and above 576 nobles) and in later half of at both agricultural and non-agricultural levels to Aurangzeb’s reign—11,456 mansabdars. This Mughal cope with the situation. Remarks S. Chandra that nobility consisted of regular infl ux from central Asia, Success the only manner in which the crisis of the jagirdari of the Khanazada, Rajputs, Marathas (later), Shaikhzada system could have been deferred for a longer period and some professionals. The induction of new was a rapid development of economy both in the elements into the nobility adversely affected the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors. But even Khanazada. Moreover, the working of the central though land was surplus, the landless labourers machinery of administration was such that there was (comprising of 25% of the population) were not a great delay in the granting of jagir to new entrants. allowed to gain proprietary rights. Thus, denying So Aurangzeb’s declaration (after the conquest of them of an incentive to increase production. Irfan

Bijapur and Golconda) that he required no new Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Habib adds that a jagirdar who could not hope | 269 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 to hold his jagir for more than 3-4 years, could the real crisis which was rooted in the structure of never follow a professional policy of agricultural the medieval society and its working. development. M. Athar Ali rightly emphasised To stabilise the empire, the Mughals tried that the lack of technological innovations in non- to forge alliances with local landed elements. The agricultural sector left India vulnerable to the centralisation of authority and giving impression incoming threat of industrial revolution of the west. that one group would not be allowed to encroach Individual emphasis of the scholars over the upon the rights of others created a situation in CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA reasons for the crisis of the jagirdari system vary. which various sections started working to the Both Irfan Habib and Athar Ali have explained the central government rather than local chieftains problem in terms of scarcity of paibaqi land, which for protection and redressal of their grievances. To made the routine working of the system impossible. add to their confi dence was the system of checks The reason attributed to the Deccan wars and infl ux and balances. But this social balance was liable to of large number of people into mansabdari rank. Such be upset on many courts—power struggle at center, an analysis sees the problem as an administrative disaffection in the nobility, challenge to Empire crisis. Working within the same framework, both J.P. by regional satraps, augmentation of power of Richards and Pearson put forward similar arguments jamindars, serious weakening of the position of with varies modifi cation. Richards sees the crisis as Khud-Kasht etc. This social balance was shaken fi rst a deliberate creation of Aurangzeb. He argues that in the fi rst half of 17th century or the so-called period the annexation of Bijapur and Golconda could have of stability. The crisis manifested itself in the growing generated enough revenue to offset the infl ux of gap between revenue needed for assignment to new Deccani nobility into Mughal elite. He estimates the mansabdars and its availability which led to that while the nobility grew by 23.5%, the Jama grew the application of the rule of 1/3-1/4 etc. Such a by 23%. But the emperor chose instead to restrict rule was an administrative answer of the Mughal access to the greater part of the most productive ruling class to socio-economic problem. tracts to meet his strategic objectives in South. In To conclude, the jagirdari system was a complex 1695 and 1697, Aurangzeb enlarged the Hyderabad phenomenon closely linked to the structure and Khalisa by transferring few districts with potential working of the village society and the working

revenue of § 17 million from paibagi and Khalisa. of the Mughal system of administration, both at In fact, to cope with military requirements of the central and local level. The end of the 17th and the empire, the Khalisa land had been increasing from fi rst half of 18th century, saw a crisis in the structure 1/9th under Jehangir to 1/5th under Aurangzeb. due to the emerging social imbalances. This social However, it can be forcefully argued that it was imbalance was accompanied by an administrative not the shortage of paibaqi land because of the and fi nancial crisis. The two acting and reacting on increasing Khalisa but the manner of demarcation each other to intensify the crisis. of the Khalisa land which created problems. Revolt of Jats The above arguments, though largely correct 1. Revolts of the Jats during the reign of Mughal do not tell the whole story, Prof. S. Chandra in his two Emperor Aurangzeb took place under the articles, ‘The Jagirdari Crisis’ and ‘Review of the crisis leadership of Gokul in A.D. 1669. of Jagirdari system’ for the fi rst time sees the problem Success of in a broader perspective of social confl ict, which the 2. The Jats organised the fi rst revolt of the Hindus Mughals were unable to resolve, within the broad against the policy of religious persecution framework of the class. The allies forged by them of Aurangzeb. The local Muslim officer and it was refl ected in a fi nancial crisis in general. at Mathura, Abdul Nabi destroyed the temples Prof. Chandra, rightly postulates that the system of the Hindus and disrespected their women. was not merely an administrative crisis, linked to - In the year A.D. 1661, Abdul Nabi the lack of suffi cient jagirs required for a growing destroyed a Hindu temple and raised a

number of mansabdars. These were incidental to Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru mosque on its ruins. | 270 |

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MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY 3. The Jat under their leader Gokul revolted an opportunity to get rid of the oppressive against the oppression in A.D. 1669 killed rule of the Mughals. Abdul Nabi and looted the tehsil of Sadabai. Evolution of Deccan policy of Mughal rulers 4. In 1670 A.D., the temple of Keshav Rai was 1. Akbar was the first Mughal emperor to destroyed by the orders of Aurangzeb. It pay attention to Deccan. His Deccan policy further infl amed the Hindus and Gokul could paved entry of Mughals into peninsular India. collect twenty thousand followers and he CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Beginning in 1591, Akbar initiated number of defeated a few small Muslim forces which steps to secure Mughal entrance into Deccan. were sent against him. 2. Akbar’s Deccan policy was infl uenced and - He was, however, defeated and killed at directed by number of politico-military- the battle of Tilpat. economic factors. 5. The Jats were punished severely. But, the Jats (a) The safety of Mughal rule in Gujarat remained undaunted. In the year 1686 A.D., required the wiping out of rebellious they again raised the standard of revolt under activities being organised by Guajarati their leader Raja Ram gave serious trouble to rebels from Deccani states. the Mughals for many years, defeated a few (b) When Akbar conquered Gujarat in 1572, Mughal offi cers and attacked even Agra. a number of Guajarati nobles took - Raja Ram was, however, defeated and shelter in Deccani states e.g. Khandesh, killed in A.D. 1688. Ahmednagar. Subjugation of these 6. But then Churaman, the nephew of Raja Ram Deccani states was essential to eliminate led the Jats. This revolt of the Jats continued the rebellious activities. till the death of Aurangzeb and, ultimately, 3. The ports located on the west coast of the Jats succeeded in establishing their Maharashtra were enjoying immense independent kingdom with its capital in economic signifi cance. Bharatpur. (a) Akbar wanted to establish Mughal Confl ict with Satnamis (1672) control over these ports so that Mughal external trade could be increased. It was 1. The Satnamis formed a Hindu religious sect possible only by establishing Mughal in the district of Narnaul and Mewat. Most of sovereignty over Deccani states. them carried on agriculture. (b) The rising power of Portuguese was 2. Generally they were pious people. However, assuming threatening proportions. The they would not tolerate any oppression. They Deccani states were small. The Deccani kept arms and weapons to protect themselves rules didn’t have strength to stand from any kind of attempt to do wrong to them. against Portuguese so Akbar had turned 3. An innocent Satnami cultivator was murdered his attention towards Deccan. by a Mughal soldier. Being agitated they rose 4. The sultan of Gujarat used to enjoy a number in rebellion and killed the local Mughal offi cial. of ceremonial rights over Deccani states. The

4. The Mughal army retaliated with a heavy hand. Success rulers of this Deccani states used to read Aurangzeb himself decided to go in person to of Khutba in name of sultan of Gujarat. Narnaul as he apprehended a general revolt (a) After conquering Gujarat in 1572, of the Hindus in the entire region. Akbar demanded the transfer of these 5. Aurangzeb attacked them with a heavy force ceremonial rights but Deccani rulers supported by artillery. The Satnamis were refused to comply. massacred indiscriminately. (b) To ensure the Mughal sovereignty was 6. The rebellion was crushed but the people accepted by rulers of Deccan, Akbar

began to hate the rule and looked forward for Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru turned his attention towards Deccan. | 271 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 5. Akbar was an imperialistic ruler. He was - He annexed Ahmednagar in 1636. He extremely powerful and after completing brought immense pressure on Bijapur conquest of north India it was quite expected and Golkonda. In 1636, Portuguese state that Akbar must turn his attention towards accepted Mughal sovereignty. In this way Deccan. Shahjahan’s Deccan policy was highly - In 1591, Akbar completed the conquest successful. of Sindh. There was hardly any other 9. Aurangzeb was one of the most capable CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA territory left in north India to be Mughal rulers. He had lived in Deccan for subjugated. many years as Mughal governor. He knew 6. After Akbar, Jahangir succeeded the throne. the geo-political environment prevailing in Despite the fact that he was not a powerful Deccan very well. ruler, Jahangir continued the policy of his (a) During the reign of Aurangzeb the father. nature of Deccan challenge changed - The objective of his Deccan policy was signifi cantly as a result of emergence of to maintain Mughal dominance over Marathas under Shivaji. Ahmednagar and increase pressure over 10. Aurangzeb was under impression that the Deccani states of Bijapur and Golkonda. Deccani Muslim states of Bijapur and Golkonda 7. Rise of Malik Amber as prime minister of were supporting Marathas against Mughals so Ahmednagar transformed nature of challenge that Mughals could remain busy in Maratha in Deccan. land and rulers of Bijapur and Golkonda could (a) Malik Amber is considered to be one of remain free from Mughal interference. the ablest administrators and military - Annexation of Bijapur and Golkonda was strategist in the entire history of India. considered precondition to tackle the (b) He started guerrilla warfare against challenge of Marathas. As a result of this Mughals. As a result of this Mughals Bijapur and Golkonda were annexed by had to struggle hard to maintain their Mughals in 1686 and 1687 respectively. dominance over Ahmednagar. 11. The Shia-Sunni differences were considered (c) Ahmednagar declared its independence to have played role in annexation of Bijapur from Mughal rule, the Mughal forces had and Golkonda. Both of these states were ruled to struggle hard to restore control over by Shia rulers and Aurangzeb was orthodox Ahmednagar. Sunni Muslim. (d) In 1617, prince Khurram forced 12. Maratha king Sambhaji was captured in 1689. Ahmednagar to accept the sovereignty This was climax of success of Aurangzeb in of Mughals once again but this success Deccan. Hereafter the Mughals had to face proved to be short lived. an extremely serious challenge of Maratha (e) Finally in 1621, Ahmednagar accepted national revolt. Mughal sovereignty and agreed to pay 60 lac rupiya to Mughals as indemnity. Aurangzeb’s Rajput policy

Jahangir could not get any new success Success 1. Rajput policies adopted by Aurangzeb were in Deccan but success in maintaining of strict and stern. Aurangzeb reversed the policy Mughal dominance was no less which was enunciated by Akbar and pursued signifi cant. by Jahangir and Shah Jahan. 8. Shahjahan had lived in Deccan for long time 2. The Rajputs were the greatest obstacle in as Mughal governor. He had acknowledged his pursuance of policy against the Hindus. the geo-political circumstances prevailing in Aurangzeb, therefore, attempted to destroy Deccan. Therefore he followed very calculated the power of the Rajputs and annex their

aggressive policy against Deccani states. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru kingdoms. | 272 |

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MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY 3. There were three important Rajput rulers at 10. Aurangzeb offered peace to Mewar and it was that time, viz. Raja Jaswant Singh of Marwar, accepted. The Rathors of Marwar, however, Rana Raj Singh of Mewar and Raja Jai Sing continued their fi ght against the Mughals. of Jaipur. All the three were at peace with 11. Pursuing his son Akbar, Aurangzeb left for the Mughals when Aurangzeb ascended the Deccan and could never come back from throne. there. - But, Aurangzeb never kept faith in the

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA 12. Marwar fought against the Mughals till the loyalty of these Rajput rulers. death of the emperor in 1707 A.D., accepting 4. Aurangzeb deputed Raja Jai Singh in the peace in between twice, and fi nally succeeded Deccan where, ultimately he died in A.D. 1666. in gaining its independence. 5. Raja Jaswant Singh was deputed to defend 13. Thus, Aurangzeb failed to subdue either Mewar the northwestern frontier of the empire. Two or Marwar. The only result of his policy against of his sons died fi ghting against the Afghan these states was that he lost the support of rebels and he himself died in Afghanistan in the Rajputs. 1678 A.D. 14. The Rajputs, who were one of the best (a) Aurangzeb was waiting for this supporters of the Mughal Empire since the opportunity. At that time, there was no reign of Akbar, revolted against Aurangzeb. successor to the throne of Marwar. Their services could no more be utilised in (b) He occupied Marwar immediately and, strengthening the Mughal empire. with a view to disgrace the ruling family, - On the contrary, it added to the troubles sold the throne of Jaswant Singh for of the empire. It encouraged other revolts rupees thirty-six lakhs. also. Thus, the Rajput policy of Aurangzeb 6. It seemed that the existence of Marwar was failed and its failure contributed to the lost forever. But, Marwar was saved. While failure of Aurangzeb and resulted in the returning from Afghanistan, the two wives of weakening of the Mughal Empire. Rana Jaswant Singh gave birth to two sons at THE AHOM KINGDOM Lahore. At the time of the advent of the Muslims (a) One of them died but the other named in Bengal in the early thirteenth century, the Ajit Singh remained alive. Brahmaputra valley was parceled out into a number (b) Durga Das, the commander-in-chief of independent principalities, at war with one of the Rathors came to Delhi with the another. A line of Chutiya (a tribe of mixed Bodo- prince and requested Aurangzeb to Shan stock) kings ruled over the tract east of the handover Marwar to Maharaja Ajit Singh. Subansiri and the Disang, while a strip to the south But Aurangzeb did not agree. and southeast was under the control of some Bodo 7. Ajit Singh was declared the ruler of Marwar tribes. Further west was a Kachari kingdom lying and the war of independence of Marwar south of the Brahmaputra and extending probably began from that time. halfway across the Nowgong district. West of the Success Chutiyas on the north bank and of the Kacharis on 8. Rana Raj Singh of Mewar, who realised that it of the south, were the domains of some petty chiefs was in the interest of Mewar to fi ght against called Bhuiyas. To the extreme west was situated the Mughals, gave support to Marwar. the kingdom of Kamarupa, the western boundry 9. In 1681 A.D., Akbar, son of Aurangzeb revolted of which was marked by the river Karatoya and the against his father with the support of the eastern boundary varied according to the position of Rajputs. The revolt of Akbar failed and he fl ed its hostile neighbours. It was known as the kingdom to Maharashtra under the protection of Durga of Kamata. The Ahoms, a section of the great Shan

Das. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru tribe, had appeared as a new element in the history | 273 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 of the Brahmaputra valley early in the thirteenth The territorial expansion of the Mughal Empire, century, and checked the eastern expansion of the which was a process continuing through two Kamata kingdom, while its western neighbours the centuries, went on a pace in the reign of Aurangzeb. Muslim Sultans of Bengal, led several invasions into If we exclude the losses of the preceding reign in its territories with varying results. Qandahar and Central Asia, the conquests of the Early in the fi fteenth century, a strong monarchy Emperors had remained intact, and before the rise was established in Kamata by the Khens with their of the Maratha kingdom in the south, Aurangzeb’s CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA capital at Kamatapur, a few miles to the south of “ambitious and enterprising offi cers” successfully Cooch Bihar. The Khens ruled over Kamata for about extended their master’s dominion. Palamau was seventy-fi ve years and their last ruler, Nilambar, was conquered in 1661 by Dau Khan, the governor of overthrown by Alauddin Hussain Shah, in about A.D. Bihar. On the eastern frontier of the Empire the 1498. After a short period of confusion, Biswa Sinha, offi cers of Aurangzeb found ample scope for their of the Koch tribe, which was Mongoloid in origin, energies. In 1661, Mir Jumla, the governor of Bengal, established a powerful kingdom with Koch Bihar, set out with a well equipped army towards this modern Cooch Bihar, as his capital, about A.D. 1515. frontier to check the aggressions of the Ahoms. The greatest ruler of this line was Biswa Simha’s son The people of Mongoloid origin, the Ahoms had and successor, Nara Narayan, during whose reign migrated from their original home in Upper Burma and occupied a part of the Brahmaputra valley the kingdom of Kamata grew in prosperity, and as early as the thirteenth century A.D. Gradually reached the zenith of its power. But in 1581 he was extending their territories to the west, during the compelled to cede the portions of his kingdom to fi fteenth and sixteenth centuries, they established the east of the river Sankosh to his nephew, Raghu a dominion which by the end of the seventeenth Dev. Thus, the Koch kingdom was divided into two century stretched up to the Bar Nadi river in the rival principalities, called Koch Bihar and Koch Hajo northwest and the Kalang river in the southwest. by the Muslims. Their feuds drew the intervention of Here they were gradually Hinduised and adopted the Ahoms and the Muslims, and in 1639 the western the Hindu religion and customs. and the eastern States fell under the supremacy of the Muslims and the Ahoms respectively. At the same time, the eastern limit of the Mughal Empire had been extended up to the Bar The Ahoms, a section of the Shan tribe, who Nadi river by the conquest of Koch Jaho, embracing appeared in Assam in about A.D. 1215, gradually the present districts of Kamarupa and Goalpara. consolidated their position and established a This made a confl ict between the Mughals and the strong monarchy which lasted for six centuries. Ahoms inevitable. As a matter of fact, the Mughals During the period under review, they checked the had already had to fi ght hard with the Ahoms, when eastward expansion of the kings of Kamarupa and the latter raided the eastern frontier of the Empire the Sultans of Bengal. The kingdom of the Ahoms during the reign of Shah Jahan, and a peace was became vulnerable to Muslim attacks only after concluded early in 1639. But taking advantage of the latter had subjugated Kamarupa. Thus Ala-u- the war of succession, the Ahoms occupied Gauhati din Hussain Shah of Bengal led an expedition into in 1658 and seised 140 horses, 40 pieces of cannon, Assam when it was ruled by Suhenpha. In spite of 20 matchlocks and much property. To punish there the initial success of Muslim arms, this expedition Success aggressors, Mir Jumla started from Dacca early in of had a disastrous end. There was no Ahom-Muslim November 1661, with a powerful army of 12,000 confl ict for more than thirty years, till the second cavalry and 30,000 infantry, provided with artillery, phase of it began when invasions into Assam were provisions for siege and a number of armed boats, conducted by some local Muhamadan chieftains of which were indispensably necessary for carrying Bengal. But their attempts also failed by September on war in those parts. His early operations were 1533. Thus the attempt of the Muslims of Bengal to successful. He conquered both Cooch Bihar and conquer Assam ended in failure by the thirties of Assam, and sharing with the common soldiers all

the sixteenth century. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru the hardships which the “opposition of nature and | 274 |

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MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY man” could impose during his “triumphant march”, he could not be wholly eradicated. It continued to reached Garhgaon, the capital of the Ahom kingdom, harass the people of eastern Bengal, till late in the on the 17th March, 1662. The Ahoms now offered eighteenth century. little resistance and left their capital and property Shivaji and the Early Maratha Kingdom to the mercy of the imperialist, who got enormous spoils. During the fi rst half of the seventeenth century, when the Mughal empire was at the height of its But nature soon fought for the Ahoms. With CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA glory, the rise of the Marathas under Shivaji gave the commencement of the rainy season, Mir Jumla’s a severe jolt to it. In the next half century, most of army suffered terribly from the unhealthy climate the military resources of the Mughal empire had and lack of provisions and medicine. Emboldened to be deployed against the Marathas: so much so by this, the Ahoms, who “had been scared away and that the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb had to spend not crushed”, soon resumed the offensive and began the last twenty fi ve years of his reign in the Deccan to harams the Mughals, whose suffering increased owing to the outbreak of pestilence and famine in desperately fighting the Marathas. The nearly their camp. But, undaunted by the odds, the Mughal half-century long struggle against the Marathas governor continued to fi ghts and resumed the proved disastrous for the Mughal empire. Four offensive after the rains. Considering that further generations of the great Mughals, from Akbar to resistances would be of no avail, the Ahoms Aurangzeb, had spend the resources of the empire concluded a treaty of peace with the imperialists. in establishing their hegemony over the Deccan; but Thus, “judged as a military exploit”, remarks Sir J.N. when it became a near reality, the Marathas washed Sarkar, “Mir Jumla’s invasion of Assam was a success”. out all their achievement in the latter half of the The Ahom king, Jayadhvaj, promised to pay an seventeenth century. They emerged as the most annual tribute, and a heavy war-indemnity, a part of formidable power in India, till they were decisively which was to be delivered immediately and the rest defeated in the third battle of Panipat, in 1761. was to be cleared off during the next twelve months The history of the Marathas can be divided into in three equal instalments. The Mughals were also two well-marked phases namely the earlier phase to occupy more than half the province of Darrang, from the later half of the seventeenth century till rich in elephants. But this success was purchased the death of Aurangzeb i.e. the period of Shivaji, at a great cost. It caused immense hardships to Sambhaji, Rajaram and Tarabai and the letter the Mughals and the loss of many lives, including Mughal phase, when the Peshwas became the de that of Mr Jumla himself, one of Aurangzeb’s best facto rulers and the turned into a generals, who died on the 30th March, 1663, on his loose confederacy of the Maratha chiefs under the way back to Dacca. It was also short-lived. A few leadership of the Peshwa. During the later phase, years later the Ahoms reoccupied Kamarupa. The the Maratha king was completely relegated into the Mughal government carried on a long desultory background and his status was reduced to mere warfare, but with no permanent advantage. ‘fl ag king’. It was during this phase that the Maratha Shaista Khan, son of Asaf Khan, and maternal infl uence spread like a ‘confl agration’ from the far uncle of Aurangzeb, was appointed governor South to Northwest frontier of India and they began of Bengal after the short and unsuccessful to dream of themselves as true successors to the administration of an acting viceroy, which Success Mughals. This within half a century the Marathas of immediately followed the death of Mir Jumla. He emerged as a bridge between the great Mughals held this post for about thirty years, with a break of and the rise of the British power in India. less than three years, and died at Agra, in 1694, when The rise of the Marathas in the latter half he was more than ninety years old. He chastised the of the seventeenth century, however, was not a Portuguese pirates, annexed the island of Sondip “sudden confl agration”, as described by Grant Duff. in the Bay of Bengal, which had been a stronghold A number of diverse factors, including geography, of pirates, and conquered Chittagong (1666) from polity socio-religious and cultural infl uences and

their ally, the King of Arakan. But the evil of piracy Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru conditions, played an equal part in their rise as the | 275 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 most formidable challenge to the Mughal power Ranade lays great stress “on the close in India. connection between the religious and political upheaval in Maharashtra”. The spread of the Bhakti Factors Leading to the Rise of the Marathas movement in Maharashtra inculcated the spirit The popular maxim of Indian history that of oneness among the Maratha. Shivaji’s father “unproductive lands and diffi cult terrain produce teacher Ramdas Samarth (1680-82) (or Samarth Guru brave and sturdy warriors” is equally applicable to the Ramdas), the author of the book ‘Dasbodh’, taught Marathas. The broken rocky nature of the Maratha ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA the philosophy of action or karma and exhorted country kept the population down, for cultivation Shivaji’s son Sambhaji to unite all Marathas and to was comparatively diffi cult and geography served as propagate the ‘Maharashtra dharma’. By Maharashtra a barrier to trade and commerce. The mountainous dharma, he meant a liberal religion which was free country provided security to the Marathas, on one from caste discriminations, raised the status of hand, and made them hardy soldiers with a spirit of women, preferred Bhakti to rituals and checked self-reliance and capacity for hard work, on the other. the excesses of polytheism. This was the dharma The broken ranges of hills provided the Marathas preached by the saints from the days of Jnaneshvar “nature-made and easily defensible rock forts”. Sir and Namdev to Tukaram, and Samarth Ramdas Jadunath Sarkar says, “the nature developed in the gave expression to this noble vision in his work Marathas self-reliance, courage, perseverance, a Anandavana Bhuvana. The ‘elevated teachings’ of stern simplicity, a rough straightforwardness, a social the saints played a signifi cant role in provoking and equality and consequently pride in the dignity of sustaining a new national spirit among the Marathas man as man”. There were different ethnic elements and provided a fresh spiritual background for their in the Maratha population representing Aryan, political activities. Dravidian, foreign and tribal elements. The civil institutions as also the religious systems maintained Politically speaking, the ground for an equilibrium in the composite society, free from establishment of an independent Maratha state the shackles of rigidity. The literature and language was prepared by the advance of the Mughal armies of the Marathas also acted as a unifying force. in the south. The fall of Khandesh, the gradual disappearance of Ahmadnagar and the creation of Western Maharashtra and Konkan, the actual the Mughal viceroyalty in the Deccan affected every homeland of the Marathas, remained almost free aspect of Marathi life, which induced an awakening from Muslim political infl uence. The hold of the among the Marathas as a nation under leadership Bahmani Sultans of Bijapur and Golcunda—over of Shivaji and others that followed him. this region was superfi cial. Even before the rise of Shivaji, the Marathas occupied a privileged position Shivaji (1647-80) in administrative and military fi elds. Many Maratha Shivaji, born in 1627, in fort of Shivner, belonged silahdars and mansabdars were employed in the to the Bhonsle clan and his grandfather, Maloji rose Bahmani kingdom and its successors, namely, to the prominence in the Nizamshahi kingdom of Adilshahi kingdom of Bijapur and Nizamshahi Ahmadnagar. Maloji’s eldest son, Shahji, father of kingdom of Ahmednagar. Malik Ambar of Shivaji, married Jijabai, daughter of a Nizamshahi Ahmadnagar made friends with the Marathas and noble named Lakuji Jadav Rao, a descendant of the using their best talent and cooperation, both for Success Yadavas of Devagiri. Shahji played an important part of war and administration, he improved revenues in the political and military affairs of Nizamshahi of that kingdom and successfully opposed the kingdom and fought for Ahmadnagar in its fi nal Mughal advance for a quarter of a century. In this struggle against the Mughals in 1636. He then grand political struggle Shivaji’s father, Shahji, and entered in the service of Bijapur and subsequently, grandfather, Maloji, were closely associated with had to fl ee for life to Karnatak after entrusting his Malik Ambar in such a manner that they gradually paternal jagir of Poona and the care of his wife realised their strength and asserted their power in Jijabai and her young son Shivaji to his trusted

course of time. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru agent Dadaji Kondadeva who was earlier an offi cer | 276 |

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MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY of the Adilshahi kingdom. Probably in 1637 or 1638, resistance, Shivaji negotiated for submission and a Dadaji became the guardian of Shivaji and the treaty was concluded at Purandhar (1665), by which administration of the Jagir remained under Dadaji’s Shivaji was allowed to retain twelve of his forts, de facto control till his death in 1947 when Shivaji including Raigah, on condition of obedience and assumed full charge. The jagir entrusted by Shahji service to the Mughals and surrender to twenty-three to the care of Dadaji extended over the regions of his forts. After the treaty of Purandhar, Shivaji’s known as the Mavals. visit to the Mughal court at Agra, his confi nement CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Shivaji’s early campaigns were directed against there and his great escape are well-known facts of the Adilshahi kingdom of Bijapur. He took care to history. After returning to Deccan in 1666, Shivaji maintain peace with the Mughals because he was took no aggressive measures and devoted a year or two in reorganising his resources. On the other not strong enough to fi ght on two fronts. In 1653, hand, Muazzam, the Mughal viceroy in the Deccan, he captured Kalyan, an important city and wealthy also adopted a conciliatory policy and Aurangzeb mart of the Adilshahis on the west coast. From 1657 conferred the title of ‘Raja’ on Shivaji and his son to 1660, Shivaji repeatedly attacked and plundered Sambhaji was granted a mansab and jagir in Berar. the Adilshahi territories. Thereupon the widowes But the three-year long peace (1667-70) was broken queen of Muhammad Adil Shah decided to take when Aurangzeb attacked a part of the jagir in Berar. vigorous measures to put down Shivaji’s power by Now Shivaji, with a second sack and plunder of Surat capturing him dead or alive. In 1660, Afzal Khan, in 1670, renewed his attacks against the Mughal and a front-rank noble and general of the Adilshahi the Adilshahi territories. In 1674, he arranged his kingdom was entrusted with the command of an grand coronation according to the Vedic rites at his expedition against Shivaji. Afzal Khan proposed capital Raigarh. On this occasion he announced the an interview with Shivaji, promosing him pardon formation of his sovereign state. He also introduced and grant of territory. But his actual plan was to a new era of his own, dating from his coronation. arrest Shivaji. At the said meeting, when Afzal Khan With all the splendour and demonstration while embracing Shivaji attacked him with a dagger, of Shivaji’s coronation and the lofty titles of full the latter promptly killed him with the tiger-claws sovereignty assumed by him, his actual dominion (baghnakh). was hardly more than two hundred miles in length Meanwhile Aurangzeb deputed his maternal and far less in breadth. Even the whole Maratha uncle Shayista Khan to the Deccan to annihilate country had not come under his control. The Siddis Shivaji. Early in 1660 a joint attack was launched of Janjira and the Portuguese were his constant against Shivaji, the Mughals advancing from the enemies on the west coast. The Mughal pressure north and the Bijapuris from the south. For three from the north was increasing. Even his brother, years (1660-63), Shivaji was so hunted from all Vyankoji, in the south had imitated him and directions that he became a homeless wanderer. announced his sovereignty at Tanjavur in a similar At this juncture, he launched a night attack at the coronation ceremony. Expansion of his dominion well-guarded mansion of Shayista Khan who was thus became a necessity for Shivaji. It was against this wounded in the attack and whose son was killed. This background that Shivaji marched for his longest and incident gave a rude shock to the Mughal prestige last campaign, in 1677, which took him to Karnatak in the Deccan, leading to the recall of Shayista Khan Success and Tamil Nadu. The objective of his campaign was of and the appointment of Aurangzeb’s son Muazzam the subjugation of the Adilshahi kingdom of Bijapur, as viceroy in the Deccan. The next blow to the for which he entered into a secret pact with the Mughal prestige in the Deccan was the sack of Surat Sultan of Golcunda through the good offi ces of by Shivaji in 1664, which was followed by plunder Madanna and Akanna, the two Brahmin ministers of Ahmadnagar. In 1665, Aurangzeb entrusted the of Golcunda. As per the terms of treaty between task of suppressing Shivaji to Mirza Raja Jai Singh the Marathas and Golcunda, it was decided that the of Amber who opened the campaign with the siege conquered Adilshahi territories would be divided

of Purandhar. Driven to desperation after months of Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru between the two parties and both would cooperate | 277 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 in resisting the Mughal invasions against either of 3. The waqia-navis or the mantri. His duties were them. During the course of this campaign, Shivaji similar to those of a Home Minister of today. conquered Gingee, Madurai, Vellore etc. and about 4. The Dabir or the Sumanta. He was in-charge 199 forts in Karnatak and Tamil Nadu. He also settled of foreign affairs. the affairs with his brother Vyankoji, who was ruling 5. The shru-navis (surnis) or the sachiv. He looked at Tanjavur. In order to further extend his kingdom to the coastal region, he seised certain territories to after the royal correspondence. the south of Goa and conquered the island of Janjira ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA 6. The pandit rao. He was the minister of religion. (70 km south of Bombay) from its Abyssinian ruler 7. The sar-i-naubat or the senapati. He was the called the Siddis. The Karnatak expedition proved commander-in-chief and in this capacity he to be Shivaji’s last great achievement. maintained the army. The last two years of Shivaji’s life were tragic. 8. The nyayadhish. He was the Chief Justice In December 1678, his son, Sambhaji, escaped with exercising jurisdiction over all civil and his wife, Yesubai, and joined Diler Khan, the Mughal criminal cases in the kingdom. governor in the Deccan. It was nearly after a year Besides performing the departmental duties, that he returned to the Maratha dominion. During three of the ministers the Peshwa, the sachiva and this period, the Mughals exerted great pressure on the mantri were put in-charge of extensive provinces. the Marathas. All these events had a shattering effect Moreover, all ministers, except the pandit rao and the on Shivaji’s health from which he never recovered nyayadhish, had to serve in war whenever necessary. and died on April 4, 1680. In his departmental duties each minister was assisted Shivaji’s Administration: Shivaji was the by a staff of eight clerks:diwan (secretary), majumdar master of extensive territories in Maharashtra, (auditor and accountant), fadnis (deputy auditor). Karnatak and Tamil Nadu. His empire was divided Sabnis or daftardar (offi ce-in-charge), karkhanis into two parts: swaraj (own kingdom) or mulk-i- (commissary), chitins (correspondence clerk), jamdar qudim (old territory), and an undefi ned belt of land (treasurer) and potnis (cashier). legally part of the Mughal empire which paid chauth but was not subject to Shivaji’s administration. There were eighteen departments in the state, Shivaji Hinduised the administration by appointing which were looked after by the ministers under the Hindus to high offi ces and by replacing Urdu and guidance of the king. The swaraj territory, which was Persian by Marathi as the language for offi cial work. directly under the rule of Shivaji, was divided into a A dictionary of offi cial terms, entitled ‘Raja Vyavahara number of prants (groups of district) which were all Kosha’, was prepared by a panel of experts under aggregated into three provinces, each being placed the supervision of Raghunath Pandit Hanumante. under a viceroy. The system of jagirs was abolished At the time of his coronation, he announced the and the offi cers were paid in cash, a practice which scheme of his administration with regulations and resulted in great administrative effi ciency. Though duties of his Council of Ministers (known as ashta the Maratha bureaucracy was well adapted to meet pradhan mandal). the needs of the time, it contained within itself the seeds of dissolution. All members of the Council, The eight ministers were: Success except the pandit rao and the nyayadhish, were 1. The Peshwa or the mukhya pradhan. He was of expected to be like the Mughal offi cers, military the king’s principal minister. He performed commanders who, when they got an opportunity, all tasks of administration, put his seal on tried to set up their own independent power, as offi cial letters and documents and made happened during the later period of Maratha history. arrangements for the preservation of the Shivaji guarded against this danger by making a rule conquered districts. that none of these offi ces should be hereditary, but 2. The Mazumdar or the amatya. He was the after his death this practice was departed from with

minister for fi nance and revenue. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru the result that all his plans were upset. | 278 |

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MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY Revenue Systems: Shivaji’s revenue system Ranade, Chauth was a military contribution in lieu was based on the principles followed by Malik Amber of protection against the invasion of a third power. in the Ahmadnagar kingdom. The provinces in the But Jadunath Sarkar does not agree with this view. swaraj region were, for revenue purposes, divided He says that the payment of chauth merely saved a into a number of prants, each consisting of two or place from the unwelcome presence of the Maratha more districts. The number of prants in Sahu’s time soldiers and civil underlings; it did not impose on was thirty-seven; some of these might have been Shivaji any corresponding obligation to guard the created after Shivaji’s death. ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA district from foreign invasion or internal disorder. Shivaji did away with the hereditary revenue S.G. Sardesai says that chauth was a military tribute offi cers, such as the patil, the kulkarni, the deshmukh realised from hostile on conquered territories. and the deshpande in the districts. The work of The sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10 collection of revenue was entrusted to offi cers percent which Shivaji demanded on the basis of a appointed by the king. The offi cer in-charge of legal fi ction that he was the hereditary sardeshmukh a prant was designated as subahdar, karkum or (Chief Headman) of Maharashtra. According to muhkya deshadhikari. Sometimes, several prants Ishwari Prasad, desai is the corrupt form of the were placed under a supervising offi cer called Sanskrit word deshwami also called deshmukh. sarsubahdar. Those who were given assignments of The sardeshmukh stood above several desais or revenue in lieu of cash salary were not empowered deshmukhs, and his duty was to look after the work to exercise administrative authority over the of the latter. He was paid for his services, and this peasants. Shivaji discouraged the revenue farming payment was called sardeshmukhi. Shivaji claimed system and introduced direct management. The to be the hereditary sardeshmukh of his country. old division of the country into subahs, sarkars, parganas and mauzas was replaced with a fresh Administration of Justice: The administration division into mahals, prants, tarafs and mauzas. He of justice was of a primitive kind. There were no abolished the farming of revenue and in certain regulate courts and no systematic procedure. In cases resumed the lands given to temples and other villages, the elders held panchayats to settle the religious and charitable institutions. The system disputes submitted to them. Trial by ordeal was of payment in cash was enforced throughout the common and we read of men fearlessly grasping red kingdom. The land was carefully surveyed by means hot iron or plunging their hand into boiling water of a kathi or measuring rod, and a record was kept or oil. Criminal cases were heard by the patel who of fi elds, and annual kabuliyats were taken from was an offi cer having the qualifi cations of a modern those who held them. The state demands was the tahsildar. Appeals in civil and criminal cases were fi rst fi xed at 30 percent, but later it was raised to 40 heard by the Brahmin nyayadhish, whose decisions percent by Shivaji, when all other taxes and cesses were based upon the ancient Smritis. The fi nal court had been abolished. The peasant was not left in of appeal was the hazir majlis who seems to have a state of uncertainty; he knew what he had to disappeared after Shivaji’s death. pay and, as Pringle Kennedy rightly observes, he Military Organisation: Shivaji was a born seems to have been able to pay it without any great general and captain of war. He organised the oppression. The accounts were carefully kept and military system, which he had inherited from his examined by offi cers under the king’s personal Success predecessors, and effected several improvements of control. Agriculture was encouraged; and in times in it. The forts formed a special feature of his military of famine, grain and money for buying seed were administration. The chronicles mention that there advanced to the peasants, and this amount was were about 280 forts in his possession. In fact, realised in installments according to the means of the hill fort with the adjoining territory under a the debtor. havaldar formed the unit of Shivaji’s government. Chauth and Sardeshmukhi: The two most He spent a large sum of money in repairing some important taxes in the Maratha taxation system of the more important forts like Rajgarh, Raigarh,

were chauth and sardeshmukhi. According to Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Torna and Pratapgarh, and no effort was spared to | 279 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 keep their defences in good condition. Each fort under the command of a hazari, and over seven was under a Maratha havaldar with whom were hazaris was placed a sar-i-naubat. associated a Brahmin subahdar responsible for civil The army consisted of both Hindus and and revenue administration, and an offi cer of the Muslims and no distinction was made. In time of Prabhu (Kayastha) caste, who held charge of the need Shivaji could also call the feudal forces of the grain and fodder supply and of the military stores. Maratha wattandars, but he did not place reliance The havaldar had a garrison under his command, upon them. Soldiers was paid in cash or by an CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA recruited from the various castes. Shivaji’s political assignment on the district governments. They had wisdom is refl ected in the caste balance which he full confi dence in their leader and loved to follow tried to maintain in order to prevent conspiracy and him to the fi eld of battle. Those who served him revolt on the part of his offi cers. loyally were rewarded, and the children and widows Shivaji maintained a regular, standing army of those who fell in battle were well looked after by and provided quarters for it during the rainy the state. Shivaji’s liberality attracted men from far season. At the time of his death, his army, which and wide, and even veteran warriors felt the magic of was originally a small force, consisted of 30,000 to his powerful personality and regarded it a privilege 40,000 cavalry, and one lakh infantry drawn from the to follow him. His military camp was much better ranks of the peasantry. He had an elephant corps, than that of latter times. He was always anxious to which according to the Sabhasad Bakhar, numbered maintain discipline in the army and never allowed 1,260 and also a fl eet which contained about 200 anything which might lower the morale of his troops. men of war. The strength of his artillery arm is not During the conduct of his military campaigns, Shivaji precisely known, though Orme writes that “he had maintained a very high moral and ethical standards, previously purchased eight pieces of cannon and as the Mughal historian Khafi Khan writes: lead, suffi cient for all his matchlocks from the French “…. But he made it a rule that whenever his Director of Surat”. The Sabhasad mentions the use followers went plundering, they should do no harm of fi rearms in battles, and says that the enemies to the mosques, the Book of God, or the woman of were attacked with rockets, musket shots, bombs anyone. Whenever a copy of the sacred Quran came and stones. into his hands, he treated it with respect, and gave it The army had the same gradation of offi cers to some of his Muslim followers. When the women as obtained in the civil administration. The cavalry of any Hindus or Muslims were taken prisoners by was divided into two classes the bargirs and the his men, he watched over them until their relations shiledars. The former were supplied with horses and came with a suitable ransom to buy their liberty.” arms by the state, while the latter had to fi nd their The same writer says at another place: “Shivaji own equipment. One unit in the cavalry was formed had always striven to maintain the honour of the to twenty-fi ve troopers; over them was placed a people in his territories. He persevered in a course havaldar, and fi ve havaldars formed one jumla under of rebellion, the plundering caravans, and troubling a jumladar. The jumladars made a hazari charge, and making; but he entirely abstained from other fi ve hazaris were placed under a panjhazari. Who was disgraceful acts, and was careful to maintain the given a salary of 2,000 huns. The panjhazaris were honour of women and children of Muslims when

under the command of a sar-i-naubat. For every Success they fell into his hands. His injunctions upon this twenty-fi ve troopers, a farriers and a water-carrier of point were very strict, and anyone who disobeyed were provided by the state. the received punishment.” The infantry army was similarly organised. It Shivaji was a born leader. From the son of was divided into regiments, brigades and divisions. a small jagirdar of Ahmadnagar, he rose to be an The smallest unit was formed by nine soldiers who independent king and a formidable foe of the were under the command of a naik. Over fi ve such Mughal empire. His greatest contribution was that naiks was placed a havaldar, two or three of whom he united the Marathas and instilled in them the

formed the charge of a jumladar. He jumladars were Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru sense of self-pride, sacrifi ce and chivalry. | 280 |

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MUGHAL EMPIRE IN 17TH CENTURY Sambhaji (1680-89) Rajaram (1689-1700) The death of Shivaji (1680) was followed by At the time of Sambhaji’s death, his son, Sahu, internal dissensions in the newly created Maratha was only seven years old. Rajaram, the younger son of kingdom. There was a dispute about succession Shivaji and stepbrother of Sambhaji, who had been between the two sons of Shivaji from his two kept in prison by the latter, was proclaimed King different wives Sambhaji and Rajaram. Finally, after by the Maratha Council of Ministers and crowned at Raigarh in February 1689. But soon thereafter, deposing Rajaram from the throne, Sambhaji or ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA apprehending a Mughal attack, Rajaram left Raigarh Sambhuji ascended the throne on July 20, 1680. and moving from one place to another, ultimately For more than a year aftwerwards, however, his reached Jinji or Gingee (South Arcot district, Tamil position continued to be insecure. As a matter of Nadu). The Maratha Council of Ministers and other fact, his whole reign was distributed by frequent offi cials also joined him at Gingee which, till 1698, conspiracies and desertions among his offi cers and became the center of Maratha activity against the rebellion among his vassals. His character failed to Mughals. inspire the loyalty of the old and trusted servants of Shortly after Rajaram fl ight to Gingee, the the state. Distrust of the Maratha leaders led him to Mughals under Zulfi qar Khan captured Raigarh place his confi dence in a Brahmin whom he invested in October 1689 and all members of Sambhaji’s with the supreme control of the administration and including his son Shahu, fell into Mughal hands. the title of Kavi-Kalash. In 1680-81, when Aurangzeb Although Sahu was given the title of Raja and grated was engaged in the Rajput War, Sambhaji renewed a mansab, he virtually remained a prisoner in the war with the Mughals raided Burhanpur and even hand of the Mughals till the death of Aurangzeb attempted an attack on Ahmadnagar. While these (1707). Thus at the close of 1689, the situation in raid were going on Aurangzeb’s rebellious son, Akbar the Maratha kingdom had completely changed. arrived in the Deccan and sought protection from The royal family was virtually immobilised, the Sambhaji, which led to the arrival of Aurangzeb Maratha country no longer had a common head in the Deccan and his stay there till his death. or a central government and the whole of the Sambhaji made a grandiose plan to install Akbar Deccan was divided into different spheres of on the Mughal throne after removing his father. infl uence under various Maratha commanders. But instead of making any concrete preparations With a nominal Maratha king living at a distance to the end, he merely frittered away his energy from the Maratha homeland, the resistance to and resources in fi ghts with the Siddis of Janjira the Mughals in the Deccan was organised by the and the Portuguese. At long last, the disillusioned Maratha leaders and commanders. This situation Akbar left for Persia, in February 1687, Sambhaji also changed the basic character of the Mughal-Maratha struggle into a civil war or a war or independence. did not utilize the opportunity to improve his own The continuing Mughal threat produced four able position, when Aurangzeb was busy with Bijapur and leaders: Nilakantha Moreshwas Pingle (the Peshwa), Golcunda. After the annexation of these kingdoms Ramchandra Nikantha Bavedekar (the amatya), and Akbar’s fl ight from India, Aurangzeb was free to Shankarji Malhar (the sachive) and Prahalad Niraji deal exclusively with the Marathas. Politically isolated Ravji (the son of the late chief justice). Three other after the fall of Bijapur and Golcunda distracted by Success men, who had hitherto served in unimportant of internal conspiracies and uprisings, dependent solely posts, came to the front by virtue of their abilities: upon Kavi-Kalash whom the Marathas regarded as a Dhanaji Jadhav, Santaji Ghorpare and Parashuram ‘foreigner’, Shambhaji completely lost his grip on the Trimbak. Ramchandra Bavdekar was made dictator affairs of state. While absorbed in cautious merry- (hukumatpandh) with full authority over the Maratha making he was captured, along with Kavi-Kalash, by commanders and other offi cials in head and a central a Mughal offi cer in February 1689 and after cruel government among the Marathas, as every Maratha torture for more than three weeks, they were hacked captain with own retainers fought and raided in

to pieces; limb by limb, on March 21, 1689. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru a different quarter and on his won account.” This | 281 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 situation, along with the grant of jagirs by Rajaram de facto ruler of the state. She saved the Maratha to different Maratha commanders, subsequently state during a period of grave crisis. The succession led to the formation of the ‘Maratha confederacy’. to the throne was in dispute, personal jealousies The return to the Mughal-Maratha struggle divided the Maratha leaders. Several thousands of during the reign of Rajaram, the Maratha movels (Maratha hill infantry) were in the Mughal commanders with their plundering hosts ravaged pay. Aurangzeb, after the fall of Gingee, concentrated the country, cut off the Mughal convoys and all his resources on the siege of successive Maratha CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA spread terror and confusion everywhere. Towards forts. In this situation, Tarabai played a role with the middle of 1690, the Marathas won their fi rst elicited high praise from the hostile Muslim historian important victory, when the Mughal General Sharza Khafi Khan who says, “under Tarabai’s guidance, Khan was captured near Satara with his family, horses Maratha activities began to increase daily. She and the entire beg and baggage of his army. In 1692 took into her son hands the control of all affairs, there was a conspicuous success; the recovery of such as the appointment and change of generals Panhala. Throughout 1694 and 1695 the Mughals the cultivation of the country and the planning were worn down by desultory fi ghting and the end of raids into the Mughal territory. She made such of 1695 Santaji defeated and killed two top-ranking arrangements for sending troops to ravage the ‘six Mughal Generals, Qasim and Himmat Khan. In 1696- subahs’ of the Deccan the winning the heart of her 97 the Maratha cause was weakened by a civil war offi cers, that all the efforts Aurangzeb against the which had its origin in the rivalry of Sanataji and Marathas down to the end of his reign failed.” Dhanaji for the high offi ce of senapati (commander- Tarabai moved from place to place with a in-cheif). In Gingee fell to the Mughals and after view to guiding the Maratha operations against fl eeing from there Rajaram reached Vishalgarh the Mughals. In 1703, the Marathas attacked Bears. near Maharashtra. In 1966 he formed plans for an In 1706, they invaded Gujarat and sacked Baroda. extensive raid through Khandesh and Berar and In the same year, the Marathas threatened the started from Satrara which had become the Maratha camp of Aurangzeb at Ahmadnagar. The province capital after the fall of Gingee. But soon afterwards of Aurangabad was ravaged on main occasion. In Rajaram died in March 1700. the midst of this confusion and disorder, Aurangzeb died on March 3, 1707, while Tarabai was still power, Tarabai (1700-71) during the nearly half century long Mughals- After Rajaram’s death, his minor son by his Maratha struggle. Aurangzeb’s grand political wife, Tarabai, named Shivaji II, was placed on the designs has been frustrated, his armies shattered throne. Tarabai’s energy and ability made her the and his resources exhausted. Success of Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru | 282 |

Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com to attempt estimating the Indian population on the On the basis of the Extent of Cultivated Area index of economic growth. It is, therefore, legitimate admission that a definitive demographic history of India but not covered by his two basic assumptions, India from c. 1601 to 1872 is impossible. No phase of extent of cultivation and the size of the population poulation of the reign at 30 million. Allowing for Allowing million. 30 at reign the of poulation assuming a constant correspondence between the arazi (measured area) which he took to represent the 60 millions, and of India as a whole at 100 millions. he put the population of Akbar’s Empire in 1600 at other territories lying within the pre-1947 limits of the estimated population,he civilian and soldiers the betweenTaking 1:30 ratioof ratherarbitrary a as the basis of his calculating strengththe military Applying Civilian: Ratio Soldier atmillion people theendof16thcentury. that from “Multan to Monglyr” there were 30 to 40 the with arazi area.the cropped Comparing gross figures given in the Ain. This work gives figures for help the with population the estimate to attempt available to us. are that kind diverse of data quantitative of basis major a as considered often is growth population factor.societies,demographic pre-modern forFor economic history can be studied without allowing POPULATION OFMUGHALINDIA of the data of the Ain-i-Akbar. He tried to determine right through the intervening period, he concluded gross cultivation at the beginning of this century and of the Vijaynagar Empire and . Deccan and Empire Vijaynagar the of the population of northern India on the basis of the Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com It was, It however, an with contentrest to hard William Harrison Moreland made the fi the rst made Moreland Harrison William For the Deccan and south India, Moreland took a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt ECONOMY ANDSOCIETY, 16TH AND 17THCENTURIES CHAPTER-10 | 283 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success was area measured for revenue purposes which which purposes revenue for measured area was India and Pakistan. This notifi reasonable This Pakistan. cation, and India still for Deccan and south India. The army:civilian army:civilian India.The south and Deccan for still Nevertheless, Moreland’s basic assumptions assumptions basic Moreland’s Nevertheless, Davis raised Moreland’s estimate for the whole whole the for estimate Moreland’s raised Davis the undependable; but arbitrary only not ratio uncultivable and cultivable some and current, area fallows cultivated the besides included, estimating the population of northern India, he he India, northern of population the estimating makes theassumptionsthat makes of India to 125 millions in his book Population of Population book his in millions 125 to India of general statementvery by European travellers. from the fact that Moreland’s count of the number modern regimes in the tropical zones. This is apart pre- in ratios military:civilians range the for limits states and economies are so variable. Any of these the military: civilian ratios maintainable in modern and I.Francepre-WorldWar the with comparison completed everywhere. was means no waste.Moreover,by measurement (and therefore his fi gures) are questionable. For questionable. fi are his gures) therefore (and of troops in the Deccan kingdoms was based on on based was kingdoms Deccan the in troops of . It was carried out by the Mughal administration 2. northern India loses much of its credibility. It is weaker 1. Measurement was made of the cultivated cultivated the of made was Measurement 1. weight to the areas outside the two region. To make well as statistical evidence that the arazil of the Ain an appropriate allowance for these regions, Kingsley Germany seems, in particular to be quite inept, since can can by no stretch of the imagination be used to set It has been shown on the basis of textual as textual of basis the on shown been has It However, Moreland has given inadequate inadequate given has Moreland However, These estimates received wide acceptance. wide received estimates These Thus, Moreland’s estimate of the population of land only; and figures are offered. any which for localities all in completion to Downloaded from KnowledgePhilic.com

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 insofar as it goes, does not, of course, remove the and wages given in the Ain and, then, of all-India more substantial objections to Moreland’s method average prices and wages of the early 1960s. The indicated above. yields and crop-rates by Abul Fazl provide him with In spite of the various objections to the a means of measuring the total food consumption estimates of Moreland, it still remains legitimate to in Akbar’s time which was 1/5th of what it was in use the extent of cultivation to make an estimate of the 1960s (cultivation was then concentrated in population. The arazi fi gures of the Ain can provide the areas with highest yields). He found that the the means of working out the extent of cultivation ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA productivity per unit of the area should have been in 1601. 25 to 30 percent higher in 1595 than in 1961. This, Making allowance for cultivable and in turn, enables him to estimate the productivity uncultivable waste included in the arazi and per worker in agriculture at a level twice as high in establishing the extent of measurement in various 1595 as in 1961. parts of the Mughal Empire, Shireen Moosvi in Basing himself on the statistics of consumption her book—Economy of the Mughal Empire— in the 1960s, Desai extrapolated the level of has concluded that the area under cultivation in consumption, in 1595, and found that the Mughal Empire, in 1601, was about 55 percent of consumption level was somewhere between 1.4 the cultivated area in the corresponding region, in and 1.8 times then modern level. He then proceeds 1909-10. to breakdown the average consumption at the end This estimate receives further reinforcement of the 16th century for each major agricultural item. from the extent of cultivation worked out by Ifran With these fi gures at hand and taking into Habib from a detailed analysis and comparison of account other relevant modern data, Desai worked the number and size of villages in various regions out the area under the various crops per capita of the Empire, in the 17th century and in 1881. Irfan which he then mutlplied by the revenue rates, to Habib suggests that the area under plough, in the estimate per capita land revenue. 17th century, was more than one-half but less than Dividing the total jama (which Desai treats as two-thirds of the ploughed area in 1900. the total land revenue) by this estimated per capita On the basis of the above mentioned revenue, the population of the Empire works out analysis, Shireen Moosvi makes the following three at about 65 millions which confi rms Moreland’s assumptions: estimate. 1. The total cultivation, in 1601, was 50 to 55 Desai’s assumptions and method have been percent of what it was during the fi rst decade criticised by Alan Heston and Shireen Moosvi. of the present century. Heston’s main objection is that the yields for 1595 2. The urban population was 15 percent of the have been overestimated. While Shireen Moosvi total and, thus, the rural population was 85 makes some more serious objections, namely, he percent of the total population. used modern all-India statistics to compare with 3. The average agricultural holding in 1601 was 16th century data. Since the prices and wages in the 107 percent larger than in 1990. Ain are those of the imperial camp and, therefore, She gives the estimate of the population of apply to Agra (and possibly to Lahore), it is surely Success inappropriate to compare these with modern all India in the 17th century as between, 140 and 150 of millions. India average. In the same way, the Ain’s standard crop-rates applied either to the immediate vicinity Using Total and Per Capita Land Revenue of Sher Shah’s capital, Delhi or at the most to the Another significant attempt to estimate region where the later dastur-ul amals (schedules of population, by using different kinds of data was revenue rates) were in force, i.e., mainly Uttar Pradesh, made by Ashok V. Desai. This required rather complex Haryana and Punjab. These are thus not comparable assumptions. Desai compared the purchasing power to all-India yields. Moreover, Desai divided the total

of the lowest urban wages on the basis fi rst of prices Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru jama of the Empire by the hypothetical land-tax per | 284 |

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ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES capita without making any distinction between the Comparison with Contemporary Europe zabt provinces (for which the various cash-revenue The accompanying tables gives population rates had been framed) and the other regions where growth rates (compound) calculated from estimates the tax incidence might have been at a different of European countries (1600-1700): level altogether. Another assumption of his which requires correction is that the jama was equal to Spain and Portugal 0.12 the total land revenue whereas, given the purpose Italy 0.00 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA for which it was fi xed, it could have only been an France 0.08 estimate of the net income from tax-realisation by the jagirdars to whom the revenue were assigned. British Isles 0.31 Moreover, the pattern of consumption in Germany 0.00 Akbar’s India was not comparable to that of 1960s Switzerland 0.18 because the Mughal Empire was mainly confi ned Russia 0.12 to wheat-eating region, and oil-seeds consumption Total 0.10 could not possibly be as high as in 1595 as in the 1960s. These estimates show that compared to the European demographic experience, the Mughal Shireen Moosvi makes use of the basic method suggested by Desai but modifi ed his assumption Empire was by no means exceptionally sluggish in for 1870s to meet the objections raised. She uses raising its population. The rate of 0.21 percent on the the data available for 1860-70 for purposes of contrary suggest an economy in which there was comparison and extrapolations fi rst, working out some room for ‘national savings’ and net increase in the population for fi ve provinces of Akbar’s India food production, although the growth, on balance, that were under zabt and then assuming that the was slow. The slowness must have come from the population ratio of these provinces to that of the natural calamities like famines as well as the man- Empire, and of the latter to the whole of India, made factors (of which the heavy revenue demand have remained constant since 1601, estimates the could have been one). If one had data for estimating population of Akbar’s Empire at 100 millions and populations of some intermediate points such as that of India (pre 1947 boundaries) at 145 millions. the year 1650 and 1700, one could perhaps have Average Rate of Population Growth worked out the rate of population growth for shorter Taking the population of India to be around period and obtain a closer view of the effi ciency 145 millions in 1601 and 225 million in 1871— of Mughal economy within those periods. Such this being the total counted by the fi rst census of estimates would have been helpful, too, in indicating 1872 as modifi ed by Davis to allow fuller territorial whether the rate of population growth in the 18th coverage the compound annual rate of growth of century (period of the dissolution of the Mughal the country’s population for the period 1601 to 1872 Empire signifi ed any different movement in the comes to 0.21% per annum. Adopting this rate and economy than the one for the 17th century the given the two population fi gures for 1601 and 1872, classic period of that Empire). one gets for 1801 a population of some 21 millions. Implications of the Rate of Growth This offers a welcome collaboration of our estimates; Success the most acceptable estimates for 1801 based on of An overall annual rate of growth of 0.2 percent quite different arguments and calculations range for the period 1601-1801 suggests some interesting from 198 millions to 207 millions. inferences about the Mughal Indian economy. If The rate of population growth among the last population growth is regarded as an index of the three decades of the 19th century (1872-1901) was effi ciency of a pre-capitalistic economy, the Mughal 0.37 percent annum—a rate higher than the one economy could not been deemed to have been we have deduced for the long period of 1600-1801, absolutely static of stagnant for the population

but not in itself a very high rate of growth. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru tended to grow between 36 and 44% in two hundred | 285 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 years. Davis, on the basis of the arguments that AGRICULTURAL AND CRAFT have been heavily criticised, believed in a stable PRODUCTION population of 125 millions continuing for practically through the two hundred years from 1601 to 1801, Agricultural Production thus yielding a zero rate of growth. India has a very large land area with diverse climatic zones. Throughout its history, agriculture has Composition of the Population: been its predominant productive activity. During the Rural and Urban ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Mughal period, large tracts of land were under the There is again no direct data about the plough. Contemporary Indian and foreign writers proportion of urban population. Ifran Habib has praise the fertility of Indian soil. made an attempt to estimate the urban population Extent of Cultivation on the basis of the pattern of consumption of In the absence of relevant data, it is diffi cult agricultural produce. The Mughal ruling class tended to find out the exact area under the plough. to lay claim on one half of the total agricultural Nevertheless, the available data helps us to have produce, but all of it was not taken away from the an idea about the cultivable land during Mughal rural sector. Assuming that about a quarter of the period. total agricultural produce was reaching towns, and, Abul Fazl in his Ain-i-Akbar provides area making allowance for the higher ratio of raw material fi gures for all the Mughal provinces in north India in the agricultural produce consumed in the towns, except Bengal, Thatta and Kashmir. In the case he assumes the urban population to be over 15 of most of the provinces, like Delhi, Agra, Awadh, percent of the total population. Lahore, Multan, Allahabad and Ajmer, separate fi gures are provided for each paragana (with a few Estimated Population in Various Towns exceptions). Nizamuddin Ahmad in his Tabaqat-i-Akbari The fi gures of the Ain-i-Akbar belong to the (c. 1593) records that in Akbar’s Empire there were year c. 1595. The area fi gures for the 17th century 120 big towns and 3,200 townships. Taking the for various regions are available in an accountancy total population of Akbar’s Empire to be nearly 100 manual of A.D. 1686. The same fi gures have been millions and the urban population as 15 percent of reproduced in a historical work Chahar Gulshan it, the average size of these 3,200 towns works out (1739-40). This manual provides measured area at about 5000 each. However, in the Mughal Empire fi gures for each province; total number of villages there were quite a few big towns. The European in each province and a breakup of measured and travellers provide estimated population of some unmeasured villages. major cities as follows: As stated earlier, the Ain provides area fi gures in most cases for each pargana but it is diffi cult to say Town Year Estimate to what extent the pargana was actually measured. Agra 1609 500,000 The set of fi gures available from Aurangzeb’s region Delhi 1659-66 500,000 provide a better picture. These show that almost

Success fi fty percent of the villages were not measured till

Lahore 1581 400,000 of A.D. 1686. Thatta 1631-35 225,000 The fi gures for Aurangzeb’s reign show that Ahmedabad 1663 100,000-200,000 the measured area increased compared to the Surat 1663 200,000 Ain (1595). But it is diffi cult to say that the total Patna 1631 20,000 increase in the measured area was due to extension of cultivation. This may as well have been due to the Dacca 1630 20,000 inclusion of some of the earlier unmeasured area Masulipatnam 1672 20,000

Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru under measurement. | 286 |

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ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES There is a debate among historians as to what of ploughs must be expected from a light plough these measurement fi gures actually represent. The that could be carried by the tiller upon his shoulders, questions raised are: whether these fi gures are for to the heavy one meant for harder soil. Again, for the area actually under crop, or cultivable land or the soft soil, the iron plough share or coulter could have total measured area? W.H. Moreland was of the view been dispensed with, more so as the price of iron that these fi gures represent the total cropped area. was high. Many contemporary European travellers Irfan Habib holds that it would have included noted with surprise that India plough just turned the CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA cultivable measurement area which was not sown soil and that deep digging was not done, it seems and also area under habitation, lakes, tanks, parts that this suited to Indian conditions because deep of forests, etc. Shireen Moosvi agrees with Irfan digging would result in the loss of moisture in the Habib and has calculated this cultivable waste as ten soil. Moreover, it was only the upper layer which percent of the measured area. But she feels that even was more fertile. after decucting this ten percent, the remaining area A separate devise was used for breaking the cannot be take as net cropped area because large clods of lumps of Earth. This was done with the help tracts of cultivated areas were not measured. She of wooden boards called patella in parts of north also thinks that many a times she land under kharif India. Like plough this fl at board was also harnessed and rabi crops was measured separately and, after to a pair of oxen. Generally, a man would stand on the adding the two, it was recorded as measured area. board to provide weight. The patella was dragged In such a situation, measurement fi gures of Mughal on the fi eld by oxen. period alone are not of much help to ascertain the The sowing of seeds was generally done extent of cultivation. Irfan Habib and Shireen Moosvi through scattering by hand. In 16th century Barbosa have taken the help of other available data such also refers to the use of a sort of seed drill in the as detailed fi gures of some areas available in some coastal region for sowing rice. revenue papers, jama fi gures and dastur rates. These Efforts were made to increase the fertility of have been compared with the fi gures of actually the soil through artifi cial means. In south India, fl ocks cultivated area in the beginning of 20th century. of goat and sheep were widely used. Generally, fl ocks According to their estimates the cultivated of these cattle were made to spend a few night area between the end of the 16th century and the in the agricultural fi eld for their droppings were beginning of the 20th century almost doubled. considered good manure. It was assumed that if a The increase in Bihar, Awadh, and parts of Bengal fl ock of 1000 spend fi ve or six nights in one kani of is ascribed to the clearance of forest. In Punjab and land (1.32 acres), it was enough to keep land fertile Sindh the spread of canal network also contributed for 6 to 7 years. (Cambridge Economic History of to the extension in cultivation. India, I, p. 231). The same practice was commonly used in northern India also. Fish manure also seems Means of Cultivation and Irrigation to have been used in coastal areas. The Indian peasant used a variety of Rotation of crops was used for the optimum implements and techniques for cultivation, utilisation of land throughout the year. It was also depending on the nature of soil and need of the considered good to maintain the productivity of the crops. Similarly, irrigation was done through various

Success soil. Peasants through the experience of generations means in different regions. of had acquired some knowledge of using rotation of Means and Methods of Cultivation crops for the good of the soil. They would decide Tillage was performed by harnessing a pair of which crop to be replaced by another in a particular oxen to the plough. The latter was made of wood fi eld for a better yield. with an iron ploughshare. Unlike in Europe, neither A semi-circular sickle was used for cutting horse nor bullock-drawn wheeled plough nor mould the crop. board were ever used in India. Regional variation, in The harvested crop was spread on the ground

a sprawling country like India, in the size and weight Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru for threshing. Our sources refer to two methods: in | 287 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 the fi rst method the crop was beaten with sticks; in 3. In the third method, the rope-pulley was used the second method the animals were made to move with the addition of the employment of a pair on the spread out crop. The weight and movement oxen. The use of animal power in his method of the animals treaded the grain. helped in irrigating larger areas. The threshed out matter was put in open 4. The fourth device worked on a lever principle. baskets and the contents were thrown outside the In this method, a long rope is lashed to the basket at a controlled speed. The chaff got scattered fork of an upright beam or trunk of a tree to CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA by the wind and the grain fell on the ground. put it in a swinging position. The bucket was fastened to rope tied on one end of the pole. Means of Irrigation The pole’s other end carried a weight heavier Indian agriculture was heavily dependent on than fi lled bucket. One person is required to rains for irrigation needs. The major criterion for operate it. selecting the crops of sowing was availability of rain 5. The fi fth method required the use of a wheel. water in a particular region. Apart from rain water, a In its earlier form, the pots were attached to number of devices were used for artifi cial irrigation. the rims of the wheels which was to rotate Well-irrigation was the most common method with the help of animal power. It was used to employed throughout the length and breadth of lift water from shallow surface and was of no the country. A number of methods were used to use for wells. lift water from wells depending on the watertable The use of wheel for lifting water from the and technology available. well as also made. In this form, a garland of pots In northern plains, both masonry and non- was used with 3 wheels, a gear mechanism and masonry wells were dug. The non-masonry wells animal power. With the help of this device regular were not durable and some digging was required supply of large amounts of water could be ensured every year. for irritating large fi elds. This was also helpful for The masonry wells were durable and were lifting water from deep wells. The complex machine suitable for fi xing better water lifting devices. The and animal power would have made the device masonry wells had raised walls and enclosures or expensive. If, therefore, would have been accessible to the peasants with substantial means. platforms. Both bricks and stones were used to construct wells. These wells were usually set inside Lakes, tanks and reservoirs of water were also with terracotta rings. These are also known as ring used uniformly in all parts of the country. In south wells. India, this was the most prevalent method used for irrigation. Here the dams were made over the A number of devices were used for lifting rivers. Construction of such reservoirs was beyond water from the walls. individual means. It was, therefore, the responsibility 1. The most simple method was to draw water of state, local chiefs and temple managements to with rope and bucket by hand without any create such facilities. The massive Madag lake built mechanical aid. Due to its limited capacity, this by Vijaynagar rulers is a marvel of civil engineering device could not have been used for irrigating of the time. It was built on the Tungabhadra with

large fi elds. Success three earth embankments to bridge the gaps in 2. The second method was the employment of the hills. When full, this lake was 10-15 miles long. of pulleys over the wells. The same rope and Each of the three embankments had sluices built bucket was used over the pulley to lift the to huge slabs of hewn stones. water. With the help of pulley larger amounts Rajasthan is another region where large of water could be drawn with less effort than reservoirs for storing water abound. The Dhebar our fi rst method. Both the above devices were lake in Mewar, according to the Ain-i-Akbari, has used for the supply of water in domestic use a circumference of 36 miles. The Udaisagar is said

or for irrigating small plots. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru to have circumference of 12 miles; Rajsamand and | 288 |

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ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES Jaisamand were other important lakes built in different crop were absent. Here, on wet lands one Mewar in the 17th century. Similar reservoirs created paddy (rice) crop was in the fi elds from June/July with the help of dams in Marwa and Amber regions to December/January and another from January/ were Balsan and Mansagar respectively. February to April/May. In north Arcot, dry crops Almost every cluster of village had smaller (kumbu, red gram, horse gram, castor) were sown reservoirs and lakes where rain water was stored. from May to September, October and harvested Our sources inform us that in the 1650s, Mughal from August to December/January on the wet CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA lands, in August/September the ragi and cholam administration proposed to advance ¨ 40,000 to 50,000 to the cultivators in Khandesh and Berar for in February and in February/March the paddy crop, erecting dams for irrigation. It is interesting to note were harvested. that a wide network of such small dams in Khandesh Rice and wheat were the two major food is still in use, and they cover the basins of the fi ve crops throughout the country. The regions with major rivers in this region, viz., Mosam, Girna, Ken, high rainfall (40° to 50°) accounted for the bulk of Panjbra and Shivan. rice production. The whole of northeast, eastern In northern plains, canals fi gure prominently India (Bihar, Bengal, Orissa with parts of Eastern as a means of irrigation. We have read about canals U.P.), southern coast of Gujarat and south India, constructed by Sultan Firuz Tughluq, during 14th were rice producing areas. As indicated above, in century. The trend seems to have continued under south India there were two main seasons of rice the Mughals. The Nahr Faiz built during Shah Jahan’s cultivation kuddapah-kar and samba-peshanam. reign was around 150 miles in length. It carried the They were names after the variety of rice cultivated water from the Yamuna to a large area. Another during the summer and winter seasons. canal, around 100 miles long, was cut from the river Rice cultivation also reported from irrigated Ravi near Lahore. Remains of a number of canals areas of Punjab and Deccan. Every region had its are available in the whole Indus delta. Irfan Habib is own variety of coarse to ordinary to fi nd quality of the opinion that the main defi ciency of Mughal of rice. Regions of Bengal and Bihar produced the canals was that they did not often run above the fi nest quality of rice. surrounding plain, and so the water that could be Like rice, wheat also had specifi c regions. obtained from them for irrigation was limited to Punjab, Sind, western Uttar Pradesh and other regions what could be lifted from them. The network of with little rainfall produced wheat. References to its canals in the region kept on increasing. Canals are production in Bihar, Gujarat, Deccan and even some not reported for south India. parts of Bengal are also available. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE Apart from these two major crops, barley was grown extensively in the Central plains. The Ain- India with extensive land area, different types i-Akbar refers to barley production in Allahabad, of soils and varying climatic conditions, could boast Awadh, Agra, Ajmer, Delhi, Lahore and Multan etc. of a large variety of agricultural products. For the Millet is reported with some exceptions mainly convenience of study, we will discuss the agricultural from wheat producing zones. Jowar and bajra were produce under three heads—food crops, cash crops the two main millet. and fruits, vegetables and spices. Success Pulses are reported from different regions. Food Crops of Important ones are gram, arhar, moong, moth, urd The majority of seasonal crops in north and khisari (the latter was grown extensively in India were grown in two major crop seasons Bihar and the regions of present Madhya Pradesh). kharif (autumn) and rabi (spring). In some areas, However, Abul Fazl says that its consumption was the peasants tended to grow even three crops injurious to health. The same is confi rmed by modern by producing some short-term crops in between. researches. Rice was the main kharif crop and wheat was rabi. It was believed for long that maize (makai or

In south India, these distinct crop-seasons with Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru makka) was not known in India during 17th century. | 289 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Some recent works establish beyond doubt that it Cultivation of tobacco seems to have spread was grown defi nitely in Rajasthan and Maharashtra in India in short time. The Ain-i-Akbari does not and possibly other regions also during the second mention it as crop in any of the dastur circles or half of the 17th century. other regions. It seems to have been introduced in India, during the 16th century by the Portuguese. Cash Crops Its cultivation was noticed in almost all parts of our Crops grown mainly for the market are study as a common beverage. commonly termed as cash crops. These are referred ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA San or sunn-hemp, a fi bre yielding plant, was in Persian records as jinsi kamil or jinsi ala (superior cultivated in all the core provinces of the Mughal grade crops). Unlike the seasonal food crops, these Empire (Awadh, Allahabad, Agra, Lahore, Ajmer etc.). occupied the fi elds almost the whole year. The major cash crops in 16th-17th centuries were sugarcane, Sericulture (rearing of silkworms on a mulberry cotton, indigo and opium. plant) was carried on in Bengal, Assam, Kashmir and western coast. However, Bengal was the main All these crops were known in India from region of production. historical times. However, in the 17th century their demand increased due to enhanced manufacturing The plants whose seeds were used for and commercial activities. During this period, a large extracting oil come under the category of food as foreign market also opened for these commodities. well as cash crops. The main oil yielding crops listed The Indian peasant, quick to follow the market are rapeseed, castor, linseed. Rapeseed is reported demand, increased the cultivation of these crops. in all provinces from Allahabad to Multan as also in Bengal. Cultivation of other oilseed plants was Another cash crop grown throughout the relatively less widespread. country was cotton. The region with large scale cultivation were parts of the present day Maharashtra, Fruits, Vegetables and Spices Gujarat and Bengal. Contemporary sources refer to Horticulture seems to have reached new its cultivation in Ajmer, Allahabad, Awadh, Bihar, heights during the Mughal period. The Mughal Multan, Thatta (Sind), Lahore and Delhi. Emperors and the nobles planted lavish orchards. Indigo was another cash crop widely cultivated Almost every noble of consequence had his gardens under the Mughals. The plant yielded a blue dye on the outskirts of the towns where they resided. (neel) which was much in demand in India and Orchards and groves were laid down with careful European markets. Its presence is recorded in the planning. A number of fruits available today were dastur circles of Awadh, Ajmer, Delhi, Agra, Lahore, introduced in India during 16th and 17th centuries. Multan and Sind. Its cultivation is referred in Gujarat, Pineapple (anannas) is one such fruit which was Bihar, Bengal, Malwa and Coromandal in south India brought from Latin America and introduced in and Deccan. India by the Portuguese. In a short period of time The varieties high in demand were those of it became popular and was extensively cultivated Bayana and Sarkhej. Bayana, a place near Agra, was all over the country. considered as producing the best quality of indigo Papaya and cashew-nuts were also introduced and fetched high price. Sarkhej, near Ahmedabad, through the same agency, but their spread was was considered second in quality and also fetched Success a bit slow. Leechi and guava seem to have been of a high price. Other notable places for quality indigo introduced later. Cherries were brought from Kabul were regions around Khurja and Aligarh (in U.P.), and grown in Kashmir through grafting. The practice Sehwan (in Sind) and Telingana (in Deccan). of grafting was in order to improve the quality of Cultivation of opium is reported from a number a number of fruits. Quality of oranges and other of places in India. The Mughal provinces of Bihar and types of citrus fruits, apricots, mangoes and a host of Malwa seem to have produced good opium. It was other fruits was greatly improved through grafting. also cultivated in Awadh, Bihar, Delhi, Multan, Lahore, Coconut was grown not only along the coastal

Bengal, Gujarat, Marwar and Mewar in Rajasthan. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru region but also inland. | 290 |

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ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES Seeds of different variety of melon and grapes carts. The banjaras (migrant trading community) are were brought from Kabul and successfully grown said to have maintained fl ocks of a few hundred to in the gardens of Emperors and nobles. Ordinary thousand animals. Flocks of thousands of sheep and melons were grown everywhere in riverbeds by goats were also reared. the peasants. Craft Production A large variety of vegetables were grown all India had a high level of craft production over the country. The Ain-i-Akbari provides along CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA during the period of our study. This craft production list of vegetables in use at that time. Potato and was linked with the pattern of trade and commerce. Tomato seem to have been introduced in the 17th We fi nd that the manufacturing activity was brisk in century and after. and around the main commercial centers. For centuries, India was known for its spices. Craft production was basically governed by The southern coast of India witnessed large scale the demand and consumption in the home market. spice export to various regions in Asia and Europe. The increase in demand in overseas markets, in the Pepper, clove, cardamom were plentiful. Ginger 17th century, as so great that it started infl uencing and turmeric were grown extensively. The Dutch the production activity. and English purchased large quantities for export. In this unit, we will take into account the major Saffron grown in Kashmir was celebrated for its crafts, their centre, law materials used and, wherever colour and fl avour. Pan (betel leaf) was produced possible, the techniques of production. We will in many areas. The Maghi Pan of Bihar and various also discuss the availability of minerals and their other varieties from Bengal were famous. Betel-nut production. We will also analyse the organisation was also produced in coastal regions. of production in some selected crafts. Large forest tracts supplied a number of commercially important products. Lignum used Agro-based Production for medicinal purpose and lakh were exported in It should be noted that the term agro-based large quantities. industries in the present time is used altogether for a different type of industries. We are using it here Cattle and Livestock simply to indicate the crafts where raw material The cattle played a very important role in the came from agricultural produce. agricultural production of our period. They were The most widespread production of employed in important agricultural activities like commodities during the period of our study was in ploughing and irrigation, and their dung was used a sector where the basic raw material was obtained for manuring. Besides, dairy products contributed from agricultural produce. India had a high level substantially to the agriculture-related production. of production of cash crops like cotton, sugarcane, The peasant in general along with some specialised indigo, tobacco etc. It was, therefore, natural that castes were involved in the rearing of cattle. crafts related to these would fl ourish. Large scale involvement of cattle in agricultural operations suggests the presence of large cattle TEXTILES population. With high land-man ratio, grasing Cotton: Cotton textiles were manufactured

fi elds would have been available in abundance. Success practically all over the country since with the of Contemporary European travellers refer to large exception of sub-Himalayan region, cotton could numbers of cattle in Indian fields. Irfan Habib be grown almost everywhere. Abul Fazl gives a list suggests that the per capita cattle population in of important centers of production of cotton textiles. Mughal India compares favourably with modern Gujarat emerges as one of the important statistics. Abundance of butter or ghee is said to be region of textile manufacture. Here, the main centers the diet of the common people; this also suggests were Ahmedabad, Broach, Baroda, Cambay, Surat etc. a large cattle population. Oxen were used for In Rajasthan, we could mention Ajmer, Sironj and

transporting goods as pack-animals or for bullock Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru many small town. In U.P., Lucknow and a number of | 291 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 small towns around it. Banaras, Agra, Allahabad etc. cloth. Chintz (chhent) was cotton cloth with foral or were prominent centers. Other areas in the north like other patterns printed or painted. Khasa was a kind Delhi, Sirhind, Samana, Lahore, Sialkot, Multan and of muslim. It was expensive cloth of a fi ne quality. Thatta produced textiles of good quality. In Bengal, (Irfan Habib has provided a detailed glossary of Bihar and Orissa, Sonargaon and Dacca, Rajmahal, textile terms). Qasimbazar and a number of towns, Balasore, Patna Some clothes were names after the placed and a number of small towns around it were famous or production, such as Dariabadi and Khairabadi, CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA textile centers. Samianas (Samana), Lakhowries (Lakhowar near In Deccan, Burhanpur and Aurangabad Patna), etc. Some regions specialised in a particular produced cotton cloth of a fi ne variety. On the variety, Bafta from Gujarat and muslin from western coast of Maharashtra, Chaul and Bhivandi Sonargaon and thereafter from Dacca in Bengal are had a fl ourishing weaving industry. The Qutab examples of this specialisation. In the seventeenth Shahi kingdom was also famous for its textiles. century, signifi cant changes were notices due to Masulipatnam and Coromandal also produced the intensifi ed activities of the European trading cotton textiles. In the south, Coimbatore and Malabar companies whose numbers now increased with were also known for producing good quality cotton. the arrival of the English, Dutch and French East Many centers specialised in producing only India Companies etc. yarn which was taken to weaving centers and However, the most common cotton cloth mush even exported. Spinning of yarn, thus, became a in demand was superior quality white calico cloth specialised occupation. In and around all the major called by different names such as Ambartees (in centers of textile production, many peasants and Bihar, Bengal etc.), Bafta in Gujarat, etc. Other famous women took it up as an additional source of earning varieties were fi ne muslim of Bengal called Khasa, and supplied yarn to weavers. Chintz, a printed cloth and fabric made with mixing Women in large number spun yarn in Mysore, silk yarn. Ahmedabad acquired fame for its printed Vizagapatam and Gunjam. Broach, Qasimbazar and cloth known as chintz (Chheent). Balasore were prominent markets for selling yarn. The manufacture of cotton textiles involved Gujarat supplied yarn to Bengal in the second half a number of steps. The fi rst was ginning, that is, of the seventeenth century. separating seeds from cotton. Later, the carder The fi ne yarn required to Dacca muslim was (dhuniya) cleaned cotton with the bowstring. Next, spun by young women with the help of takli or yarn was spun on the spinning wheel. The yarn was spindle. sued in looms by the weavers. The most common There was a considerable variation in quality. loom was horizontal, the pit-loom with foot treadles. Hameeda Naqvi has listed forty-nine varieties of The cloth, thus, woven was as yet in a raw state. clothes, produces in fi ve major prodction centers of The next step was to get it bleached or dyed before the Mughal Empire. The European accounts mention being used. These functions were performed by a more than one hundred names. It is very diffi cult to separate group of people. Though these processes list all the varieties of cotton textiles produced in were performed everywhere, some centers became the country. Every region had their own specialities. prominent. Broach in Gujarat was supposed to be

A few important varieties may be explained Success the best bleaching place because of the special of there. Bafta is described in the Ain-i-Akbari as a type quality of its water. The English East India company of high quality calico normally white or of a single sent baftas purchased in Agra, Lahore etc. to Broach colour. The word calico was commonly used by and Nausari (Gujarat) for bleaching before exporting Europeans for all kinds of cotton cloth. It also meant them. Ahmedabad, Surat, Patna, Sonargaon, Dacc, white cloth of a thick variety. Tafta was a silk cloth Masulipatam etc. were other towns where textiles sometimes inter-woven with cotton yarn. Zartari were bleached in large quantities. was a cloth which was inter-woven with gold or Bleaching involved soaking of cloth (as in the

silver thread. Muslin was a very fi ne quality of thin Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru fi ne fabrics) or boiling it in a special solution. After | 292 |

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ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES this, it was washed and dried. Indigo was used for The tents used mostly by royal establishment bleaching (whitening). and nobles were also manufactured. Abul Fazl Dyeing and printing also became specialised mentions eleven types of tents. Their size varied profession. Rangrez (dyers) had specialised in it and a great deal. were considered a separate caste. Vegetable dyes Embroidery on all types of textiles with cotton, were generally used. Red dye was produced by chay silk or silver and gold thread was also an allied craft. or lac and blue by using indigo. Large number of craftsmen were involved in it. CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Silk: Silk was another important item for the Indigo: The demand for it in the country and manufacture of textiles. Abul Fazl mention Kashmir for export was very high. Except for the hilly regions, where abundant silk textile was produced. Patna and indigo was available in all parts of the country. The Ahmedabad were known for silk fabrics. Banaras best variety was secured from Bayana, near Agra. The was equally famous. In the seventeenth century, next best variety was from Sarkhej near Ahmedabad. Bengal produced the largest amount of raw silk Being a basic dye (blue), it was in great demand in which was exported abroad as well as to other parts India as well as abroad. of India. In Bengal, silk fabrics were manufactured at In Gujarat other centers where indigo dye Qasimbazar and Murshidabad. Around the middle could be had were Jambussar, Broach, Baroda etc. of the 17th century, the total annual production In north India, Agra and Lahore were two other was estimated around 2.5 million pounds. Around cities where indigo dye could be purchased in vast 75 million pounds were carried away in raw form by quantities. On the Coromandal coast, Masulipatam the Dutch alone. In 1681, the London silk weavers was another important mart for this dye. petitioned to the British Parliament to ban its import Sugar, Oil, etc.: Since sugarcane was cultivated by the English East India Company. The import of widely, sugar was also manufactured all over the Bengal silk fabrics was stopped in 1701. Nevertheless, country. Generally, we get reverences to three types Bengal remained the premier centre in India for of sugarcane product; the gur or jaggery; the powder producing silk textiles and raw silk. sugar and the fi ner quality grains called candy. The Wool: Wool was another important material jaggery was made in all sugarcane producing areas used for manufacturing textiles. The most famous and was mainly consumed locally. The other two was the Kashmiri shawl, exported all over the world. qualities were manufactured mainly in Bengal, The fi ne wool used in these shawls was imported Orissa, Ahmedabad, Lahore, Multan and parts of from Tibet. Akbar promoted its manufacture northern India. Writing about Deccan in the 17th at Lahore but it could not match the quality of century they remarks that every peasant who grew Kashmiri shawls. Finer varieties of woolen textiles sugarcane had his own furnace. Abul fazl records were generally brought in by the Europeans for the price of powder sugar around 128 dams for one the upper classes. Blankets were made from wool man, while that of the candy 220 dams. almost all over north India. The method of extracting sugarcane juice Other textile items included cotton durries, involved the cane-press which was operated carpets (of silk and wool), tents and quilts, etc. manually or with animal power. The jaggery or fi ner Carpet weaving was yet another branch of textile quality was obtained by boiling it over in pans or production. Bihar (Daudnagar, Obra etc.), Delhi, Agra, open furnace. It was during the process of boiling Lahore and Mirzapur were famous centers in the Success that different qualities were obtained. Bengal sugar of north. Warrangal in the south was also famous for was considered the best and was in great demand carpet weaving. The carpet weaving was also done for export to Europe and Persia. in Masulipatam along the Coromandal coast. The Extraction of oil was also mostly a village- output of carpet weaving was not very large and based industry. The oil seeds were put to a simple Persian carpets continued to be in use. Akbar took oil-press operated manually or by animal power. special interest in developing the manufacture of The specialised caste involved in extracting the oil silk carpets in the royal Karkhana after the Persian was called the telis. The residual product was used

variety. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru for animal feed. | 293 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 MINERALS, MINING AND METALS Most of the silver requirements were met Deep mining was not carried out in the 16th through imports. Gold and silver were used for and 17th centuries in India, but surface mining for a minting of coins. A large amount was used for large number of minerals and metal was practised. making ornaments and for hoarding purposes as We will deal with both in this. precious metal. Mineral Production: The salt was the essential Rajasthan was the main centre for copper production where copper mines existed (at Khetri). commodity in which India seems to have been self- ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA suffi cient. The sources of salt were the Sambhar lake The bulk of the copper was used for minting copper in Rajputana, the Punjab rock-salt mines and sea- coins. Small and big household objects were also water. Sea salt was made mainly in Sind, the Rann manufactured. of Cutch, other coasts of Gujarat, Malabar, Mysore Iron was the most commonly found metal. and Bengal etc. Since salt was not available in all the Iron mines were widely distributed in the north, parts of the country, it was one of major articles of east, west, central and southern parts of the country. trade at regional and inter-regional level. Abul Fazl records Bengal, Allahabad, Agra, Bihar, Salpetre was one of the most important Gujarat, Delhi and Kashmir is iron producing regions. mineral products. It was in great demand by the Chhotanagpur in Bihar and adjoining regions of Europeans. It was primarily used as ingredient for Orissa also produced large quantities. The iron found gun powder. Initially, saltpetre was extracted at in the south was converted into steel. Ahmedabad, Baroda, etc. But since the supply could Iron was used for making ploughs, axes, nails, not meet the demand, it started to be made even the screws, swords, daggers. The steel made in the south, Delhi-Agra region. However, by the second half of especially in Golconda, was used for the manufacture the seventeenth century, Patna, in Bihar, became an of Damascus swords, admired all over the world. important centre for procuring saltpetre. Saltpetre, Some other metals, though in small amount, collected from the nearby places of Patna was then were also produced. Lead was found in north and sent by boats down the Ganges to Hugli and sent western India. to Europe. Diamond Mining: Diamond mining was The methods of obtaining saltpetre from salt carried out in some parts of India, but the diamond earth was a simple one. Shallow reservoirs were miners of Golconda were most famous. Other places made on the ground and salt earth was mixed in included Biragarh in Berar, Panna in Madhya Pradesh, water. The salt dissolved in water and Earth settled Khokhra or Chhotanagpur in Bihar. down. This salt water was then boiled in large pans, the water evaporated and saltpetre was obtained. Wood-based Crafts Indian artisans used earthern pans for boiling. The Wood provided the basis for a large number Europeans used iron or copper pans for boiling. of crafts. The means of surface transport made of According to one source, the total production in a wood included palanquins and bullock-drawn carts. year (1688) was around more than two lakhs mans Both were made in a wide variety of styles and the of raw saltpetre from Bihar alone. ones used by rich were carved and decorated. Large Other minerals such as alum and mica were number of boats and sea-going ships were always

produced on small scale. Success needed since India has a long coast line and north of Metals: India did not have gold and silver India is criss-crosse crossed by a large number of mines in the proper sense. The famous gold mines of navigable rivers. Kolar were not explored. However, small quantities The boats were built in various sised: from small of gold were obtained from river beds, but the cost one for pleasure trips to large ones for transporting of procurement was more than its value. Fitch (1584) hundreds of kilograms of goods over long distance. has described the method of washing the river sand The ports on the Arabian sea well as the and fi nding gold dust in Bihar. Similarly, gold was Bay of Bengal, such as Thattah Surat, Bassein,

found in river beds in some other regions. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Goa, Cragnore, Cochin, Masulipatam and the | 294 |

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ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES neighbouring, Naraspur Hariharpur, Satgaon and Class manufacturing was also undertaken in Chittagong were important shipbuilding centers. several parts of the country. When the Europeans intensifi ed their activities, Other miscellaneous items produced by Indian they got their ships repaired at these places. They craftsmen included soap, objects of ivory and shell, found Indian ships better suited for eastern waters articles of horn, etc. and, hence, they purchased ships built in India. Thus, Several crafts were forest-based. Among shipbuilding industry received a considerable boost

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA them, lac was used for the manufacture of bangles, because of the rising European demand throughout varnishing doors and windows and toys and for the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. preparing a red dye. It was extracted from forests in Other uses of wood were to make doors, Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Orissa, Malwa, Gujarat, Malabar, windows, and a large number of household furniture etc. Bengal lac was considered to be the best. In such as boxes, bed stead etc. The rich had their Surat, bangles and toys were made of lac. It was furniture made from high quality wood. also used for sealings. Miscellaneous Crafts Various contemporary authorities refer to pearl fi sheries being practiced in the sea waters along Each and every region had its highly specialised the southern coast. crafts. Here, it would not be possible to go into the details of all these crafts. We will describe some ORGANISATION OF PRODUCTION important crafts only. All forms of production from independent Stone-cutting was an important craft as stones artisan level to the karkhanas existed in India. The were widely used in the construction of houses, organisation of production varied in different crafts palaces, forts, temples, etc. Indian stone-masons and industries in accordance with the needs and were known for their skill. requirements of that craft. Other items of non-agricultural production Village Artisans: The artisans in rural areas, were leather goods such as shoes, saddles, who produced articles of daily use, formed a regular bookcovers, etc. manufactured all over the country. part of the village establishment called jajmani system. The most crucial services were those of the Paper blacksmiths, carpenters, potters and shoemakers. Paper was manufactured during the period Generally, they were paid in kind for providing under review in a number of centers, such as the basic tools, agricultural implements and their Ahmedabad paper was of several varieties and maintenance needs. The system was much more was exported to Arabia, Turkey and Persia. The paper organised in Deccan and Maharashtra where village from Kashmir was also famous. artisans and servants were called balutedars. There Pottery was one more group of workers in Deccan called alutedars which were also included in some regions. The contemporary records refer to the use With the money economy penetrating into of earthenwares by people for cooking, storing the rural areas and also the increasing demand, the water and grains, etc. Besides, most of the houses situation in this subsistence-oriented system started had earthen tiled (Khaprail) roof. The demand for Success changing. According to Tapan Ray Chaudhuri, “By earthenware must have been great. Every large of the seventeenth century, if not earlier, exchange village in India had its potter and pottery for every had made signifi cant inroads into the subsistence- day use was made all over the country. oriented system of manufacture by collectively Apart from the above coarse pottery, fi ne maintained artisans. Payments in cash and kind for crockery was also made. Manucci (1663) mentions additional work, or entirely on a pice work basis, the manufacture of earthen crockery which was co-existed with the more widespread practice of fi ner than glass and lighter than paper. Marshal allocating fi xed shares of the rural produce and/or

(1670) also noticed fi ne crockery. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru land to the artisan families”. | 295 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Tapan Ray Chaudhuri adds that probably by system. In dadni the money was advanced to artisans the mid-eighteenth century the entire production by the merchants and the artisans promised to for the long and medium distance trade was deliver the goods at a given time. Here the merchant dependent on artisans who were fully weaned from was in a position to dictate his specifi cations. The the jajmani system. practice in textiles sector became so widespread With the increase in demand, it seems the rural that it was diffi cult to obtain cloth without making artisan catered to urban markets also. The village advance payment to the artisans. In the seventeenth CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA artisan seems to be quite mobile and would move century, the weaving industry in Deccan was found from one village to another or to the nearby towns. to be dominated by merchants. In south India, according to Alaev, “The subjection of crafts to Production for Market merchant capital was widespread. Practically, all Production for the market was mainly done at the artisan settlements along the Coromandal coast the independent artisan-level production. Almost were under the control of one trader or another. In every craft had specialised artisans manufacturing the 17th century, the biggest of them (merchant) articles for sale. Pelsaert, a Dutch traveller (1623 was Kasi Viranna, who had in his hands all the A.D.) mentions that around 100 specialised coasts from Madras to Armagaon except Pulicat. categories of artisans work in different crafts. The Weaver settlements of this region were known as high level of specialisation is most evident in the ‘the Viranna village’.” (The Cambridge Economic textile manufacture. Almost every operation was History of India, Vol. I, p. 320.) performed by a different group of workmen like The system of Dadni empowered the buyer carding, spinning of yarn, winding silk thread, to dictate the quality and quantity of the goods weaving of cloth, bleaching, dyeing, printing and produced. The artisan got the much needed money painting of cloth, etc. Peasants in villages played a to buy raw material with the guarantee of the sale signifi cant role by taking up various manufacturing of the goods made, but he lost his control over sale. activities. In almost all the agro-based crafts like indigo, sugar and others like spinning of silk and Manufacturing cotton yarn, manufacture of salt and saltpetre, were In 1620-21, the English factory at Patna at the core of manufacturing activity. established probably the fi rst such unit for winding The localisation of manufacture was a silk yarn and employed around 100 workmen. The signifi cant feature. Different regions specialised Dutch, at Qasimbazar, employed 700-800 weavers in in the production of certain crafts. The European their silk factory. But such instances are just sporadic. traders tell us that they had to go from place to place (see A.J. Qaisar, ‘The Role of Brokers in Medieval to procure the desired commodities. Masulipatam India’). and Benaras each are said to have around 700 Another specialised area where large number weavers. Similarly, Qasimbazar had around 2500 of workmen were assembled to work at one place silk weavers. were shipbuilding and building construction. Almost At the individual artisan-level production, the all the shipbuilding centers in Deccan and south artisan himself procured the raw material and tools, India had large number of artisans working on each performed the manufacture and also retailed the ship under one single supervision. Building activity Success also like shipbuilding required large number of products. The working place was invariable the of house of the craftsman or artisan. The artisans had artisans working under one single supervision. (A.J. little capital to work with. Therefore, the individual Qaisar, ‘Shipbuilding in the Mughal Empire during output was small and merchants had to make great the Seventeenth Century’ and Building Construction efforts to procure it. The quality also differed. in Mughal India. The Evidence from Painting) There were two other production sectors Dadni where large number of Golconda and Deccan These problems gave rise to a revised form had around 30,000 to 60,000 people working at

of production called dadni or a sort of putting-out Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru periodical season of mining. Here, the plots of land | 296 |

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ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES were taken on rent from the ruler by the prospectors. these lines of enquiry has been done in the West. Each of them used to employ 200 to 300 miners to Unlike this, however, the study of urban history in work on their plots. The miners were paid wages India is still in the developing stage. per day. Similarly, in Bihar around 8000 men used The town, in contrast to a village, is now, by to come to diamond mines in the season of mining consensus, seem to posses two basic features: (December-January). These people were generally dense concentration of population within a defi ned peasants and workers who came to work here after

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA and also limited space, and a predominantly non- sowing their fi elds. cultivating character of this population. A town, thus, The second case of assemblage of large has a defi nite man-space ratio and an essentially workers was in the production of saltpetre. In this heterogenous occupational pattern. case also large number of people worked under For the emergence of towns, in medieval India, one master in small groups. In Bihar they were several explanations have been put forward. The called nooneas. With the increasing demand, the causative factors inherent in these explanations Dutch and English established their own units for refi ning saltpetre. The workmen in their refi neries postulate the emergence of mainly four types of were to work with the equipment provided by these urban centers: European companies. 1. Administrative Karkhanas 2. Religious 3. Military/strategic A unique feature of production in the period of our study was the karkhanas. These karkhanas were 4. Market in operation even in the 14th–15th centuries. These The administrative towns obviously functioned karkhanas were part of the royal establishment primarily as seats of governance. For the Mughal and also of the nobles. They produced things for Empire, towns like Delhi and Lahore, come under the consumption of the royal household and this category. The religious centers were pre-eminent the court. Many high nobles also had their own pilgrim attractions, e.g. Varanasi and Mathura. The Karkhanas. Generally, expensive and luxury items military or strategic towns developed essentially were produced here. Skilled artisans were employed as military cantonment, and in due course of time to work under one roof to manufacture things attracted civilian population also. The town like needed. They were supervised by the state offi cials. Attock and Asirgarh fi t this description. Finally, The need for such karkhanas arose because the there were urban centers as the focus of large artisans on their own were not in a position to invest scale commercial activities were predominantly huge amounts required for royal needs. Because of the production centers. Sometimes both these valuable raw material, the state also did not want to activities together characterised an urban center. give these to artisans to work at their own places. We have, for the Mughal Empire, towns like Patna As summed up by Tapan Ray Chaudhari, and Ahmedabad falling under this category. “The organisation of manufacture in Mughal India Here, two things should be noted. An average did not remain unchanged. A lot was happening, town in the Mughal Empire was in fact an extension but on a limited scale, and the sum total of new of the village in the sense of social unities and Success attitudes. This rural-urban continuum is, thus, a developments did not amount to a break with the of past. Continuity was still the dominant characteristic. notable feature of urbanisation during the Mughal Yet, the changes in this organisation were more period. Moreover, given the diversity of urban basic than those in technique”. economies in the Mughal Empire, the stereo type of an Indian town would be a misnomer. Thus, the Development of Towns in Mughal India other important thing to note is that the character Urbanisation has been seen by scholars both of two apparently similar cities (at least functionally) in terms of the physical growth of a town as well as would often be different. The emergence of an

particular way of life. Of late, much work along both Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru urban center, therefore, was dependent on a variety | 297 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 of factors relating to its geographical location and religious and charitable grants were given in the historical situation. vicinity of towns. Besides, a large number of poets, Even while accepting the caveat about musicians, physicians also made their abode in Mughal towns as stated in the preceding section, towns because here money could be earned or it is possible to identify some common features. We patronage of the king and nobles was available. discuss them below: Artisans, workmen and labourers formed one of the biggest groups in towns having large Composition of Population (Urban Classes) ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA commercial activities. The people working as artisans The urban population was not a homogenous in various crafts may be divided in many groups: one. In our sources we come across various categories 1. The individual artisans working at their own of people residing in towns. These can be classifi ed places and selling their wares; into four broad groups: 2. Artisans working in the karkhanas of the kings 1. Nobles and their retainers, offi cials of the state nobles, and in large scale building construction and troops; undertaken by the kings and nobles. There was 2. Persons engaged in mercantile activities a large workforce of semi-skilled and unskilled (merchants, sarrafs, brokers, etc.) workmen who would assist artisans or work 3. People involved with religious establishments, in such large scale enterprises as shipbuilding, musicians, painters, poets, physicians, etc. and diamond-mining, saltpeter and salt making. 4. Artisan, menials and workmen of sundry sorts. A number of workmen were employed as The composition of different categories of domestic help and daily wage labourers. people in different town depended on the nature The Dutch East India Company of towns, i.e. administrative centers, or commercial The Dutch East India Company was formed, in centers. In case of imperial headquarters, perhaps the 1602, through a charter. The Dutch were primarily biggest group was that of the retainers and troops interest in spice trade. Therefore, they paid more of the king and nobles. Bernier (1658) estimated the attention to the far East. India was just a trading total strength of Shah Jahan’s great camp around depot for them. They established their fi rst factory 3-4 lakh. at Petapuli North Coromandal in 1606, followed The situation in other administrative by another at Masulipatam in the same year. headquarters was also the same. The provincial Gradually, they realised that Indian textiles could governors, high nobles and other administrative be the best commodity for exchange with the spice offi cers all had their contingents, offi cial hangers- islands (Indonesian Archipelago). This necessitated on, servants, slaves and their families. expansion of their network in India. They established As most of the big town were commercial their factories at Pulicat (1610), Cambay (1620), Surat centers of importance, the mercantile community and Agra (1621), Hariharpur (1633), Patna (1638), of the towns was quite important. At Ahmedabad it Dacca (1650), Udaiganj (1651), Chinsura (1653), was estimated that there were around 84 castes and Qasimbazar, Barangore, Balasore and Negapatam subcastes of Hindu merchant alone. In 1640 there (1659-60). were 600 brokers in Patna. Our sources mention Success They had two factories in the interior of the of that in big towns all the roads were lined with Golkunda territories—one at Nagalavancha and shops for miles. The number of grocers in Patna, a another at Golkunda. The former was established moderate town, was around 200. In a comparatively in 1670, but owing to political unrest the Dutch smaller town, Jodhpur, more than 600 were owned withdrew from there in the 1680s. In Golkunda they by Mahajans. established their factory in 1662. Once again, owing Another important group in town comprised of to the political disturbances (Mughal-Golkunda people associated with the professions of medicine, clashes, 1684-87) they withdrew from Golkunda

learning, literature, art and music. Generally, the Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru also in 1684. By 1675 Hugli rose into prominence. It | 298 |

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ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES undermined the importance of the Dutch factory at Conditions were more favourable to establish Pipli (on the Orissa coast), and fi nally they abandoned a factory in the South as there was no strong Indian it in 1675. Similarly, in 1658 the Dutch factories at state in that part. Vijaynagar had faded away ever Dacca and Udaiganj were two more factories were since their defeat in 1565. In the South, the English established by the Dutch in 1669 (Khanakul) and opened their fi rst factory at Masulipatam in 1611. In 1676 (Malda), but both had to close down soon. 1626, another factory was opened at Aramgaon. In The rising power of the Dutch was looked 1639, they got Madras on lease from the local Raja. CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA upon as a threat by the English to their own vested Soon, they fortifi ed it which came to be known as interests. When the English established a factory Fort St. George. They acquired the islands of Bombay at Masulipatam and opened trade at Petapuli, the in 1668 and fortifi ed it soon after. It was soon, to supercede Surat (by 1687) as the headquarters of Dutch interest lay in not allowing English to have the company on the west coast. a share in the Pulicat trade. This confl ict of interests continued. However, in 1619, the Dutch managed The English penetration in the East was to have a truce with the English and both agreed comparatively late. They established their first to become, copartners in Indian trade. The English factory in Orissa at Hariharpur and Balasore, in 1633. Company was allowed to share the Pulicat trade In 1651, they got permission to trade at Hugli. Soon provided they bore half the maintenance cost of the they also opened their factories at Patna (Bihar) and Qasimbazar (Bengal). In 1690, an English factory was Dutch fort and garrison there. But it did not last long. opened at Sutanati which was later (1696) fortifi ed. In In 1623 and again in 1653-54, the Dutch attacked 1698, the English acquired the zamindari of Sutanati, the English ships. Between 1672-74 the Dutch again Kalikata and Govindpur, where they built the Fort tried to obstruct English settlements at Surat and William. Soon it grew into a big city and came to be Bombay and captured an English vessel in the Bay known as Calcutta. of Bengal. The English realised the supremacy of the Dutch over the Eastern Islands. They decided The French East India Company to drive them away from their Indian possessions. The French were latecomers to the Eastern To fulfi l their designs, the English joined hands with trade. The French East India Company was founded the Portuguese in India. Finally, they succeeded in in 1664. The fi rst French factory was established, at defeating them at Bedara (1759) which weakened Surat, in 1668. This was the place of prime importance the Dutch opposition in India greatly. Since then to the English. But the Mughal-English armed clash the Dutch confi ned themselves to “country trade” at Hugli caused a serious setback to the English in India. Whatever small possessions they had at possessions and trade in India. It also provided an Nagore and Negapatam were surrendered in 1773. opportunity to the French to strike roots in India. In By 1795, the English succeeded in expelling the 1669, the French established their second factory Dutch completely from their Indian possessions. at Masulipatam. In 1673, they got Pondicherry, and Even their hold on the Cape of Good Hope loosened in 1674 the Nawab of Bengal granted them a site in favour of the British. near Calcutta where in 1690-92 they built the town of Chandranagore. The English East India Company The French, had to face the Dutch and English

In 1559, the ‘English Association of the Success rivalry very soon. The Dutch merchants convinced Merchant Adventures’ was formed to trade with of the ruler of Golkunda about the aggressive designs the East. This company (popular known as the East of the French. Thus, Golkunda in coordination with India Company) got a Royal Charter with her trade the Dutch power, decided to expel the French from monopoly in the East by Queen Elizabeth on 31st St. Thome (1674). Finally, the French had to surrender December, 1600. In 1608 the English merchants St. Thome. decided to open their ‘fi rst’ factory at Surat. By 1619, Later, in the early 1690s, when the war they succeeded in establishing factories at Agra, broke out between France and the Netherlands,

Ahmedabad and Broach. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru their Indian counterparts also raised their arms | 299 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 against each other. In 1693 the Dutch captured was responsible to the Central Board of Directors Pondicherry from them. The Dutch blocked the known as “Gentlemen XVII who met for six years in French commercial activities at Hugli. By 1720, the succession at the Chamber of Amsterdam followed French control over Bantam, Surat and Musulipatam by two years at the Chamber of Zeeland. got loosened: “even it started selling is licenses to A ‘factor’ was appointed at each station (factory). others.” But a revival came about in 1721. A new These factors used to send regular reports to Batavia Company was reconstructed soon (1725) at Mahe regarding trading activities of the region, the list of (on the Malabar coast). In 1739, they opened their ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA ships, commodities exported and imported etc. factory at Karikal. The Ducth factories at Coromandal were There was fi erce rivalry between the English administered by a Directorate headed by a Director and the French. Clashes in India began with the war (designated as governor in 1615), at Pulicat. Prior between the two countries (France and Britain) in to 1655, the Dutch factories in Bengal were Europe, in 1742, leading to the three ‘Carnatac wars’ controlled and administered by the Coromandal (1746-48; 1749-54; 1758-63). The decisive battle was ‘factor’. However, in 1655, a separate ‘Directorate’ fought a Wandiwash (January 1766). The French were independent of the ‘government’ at Pulicat was defeated and lost almost all their possession in India. formed at Hugli. This gave great impetus to the Now, the English supremacy over other Dutch trade in Bengal. In the 1690s, the seal of the European companies was complete. The Portuguese Dutch administrative machinery in Coromandal also had to be content with Goa, Daman and Diu, while shifted from Pulicat to Negapatnam. the French were confi ned to Pondicherry, Karikal In India, each factory was administered by a and Mahe. The scene was not left open for English Council consisting of the director, a senior factor, aggrandizement. the in-charge of the Company’s trade-books, a law Other European Trading Companies enforcement offi cer, the in-charge of the warehouses, the in-charge of the loading and unloading of the The Danes entered as traders, in 1616, but with ships and six junior factors, one of whom acted as no ambition to establish an Empire. They managed the secretary to the Council. Their salaries were not to secure the Trancquebar port from the Nayak of very lucrative. Tanjore, in 1620 and built a fort there. But the overall resources available to them were extremely scanty. The English They also established their factories at Masulipatam, As for the interval management of the Porto Novo and Serampur (1755). However, their English Company, it was administered by a ‘Court success was limited, and ultimately they sold off their of Committees’ whose nomenclature later was factories to the English and fi nally quit India in 1845. changed to ‘Court of Directors’ in 1709. It consisted The Swedish East India Company was formed of a governor, a deputy governor and 24 members in 1731, but its activities were directed exclusively to be elected annually by a general body of the towards China rather than India. The Flanders merchants forming the Company. Besides, there merchants established the Ostend Company, in was a secretary and a treasurer. Its members were 1722, but their activities were also limited in India. known as Directors. The Company’s superior body ‘Court of Directors’ was based in London while its Success subordinate body was in Asia. The directors were

ADMINISTRATION OF THE EUROPEAN of COMPANIES to be annually elected by the shareholders of the Company meeting in a ‘Court of Proprietors’. Each The Dutch shareholder, irrespective of the value of the share, The Dutch East India Company’s chief had only one vote. The membership of the Company administrative centre was at Batavia. This was not confi ned to shareholders only. But it could establishment was headed by the Governor- be secured through inheritance or presentation by General of the Dutch East Indies and a Council. It paying an entrance fee through apprenticeship,

controlled all the Dutch factories in Asia. The Council Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru services etc. | 300 |

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ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES The Company enjoyed extensive powers to king. All the colonial offi cers were subordinate to issue orders and to make laws in accordance with the Council. the laws and customs of the realm. The Company One notable feature of the French India also possessed judicial powers to punish its servants Company was the constant quarrels and jealousies of for their offences by imprisonment or fi ne. the French offi cials in India, which ultimately affected In India, each factory was administered by a the smooth development of French interests in India. Governor-in-Council. The governor was the President In the 1670s, Caron got envious of the remarkable CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA of the ‘Council’ with no extra privileges. Everything success of his fellow Frenchman, Marcara. Though, was decided in the ‘Council’ by majority votes. ultimately Marcara succeeded in convincing the The members of the ‘Council’ consisted of senior French government about the baselessness of the merchants of the Company. charges, the seeds of confl icts and clashes thus sown While the ‘Court of Directors’ was the supreme from the very inception of the French factories in authority in framing policies for the Company, the India proved harmful. Similarly, in 1726, Dupleix was suspended from his offi ce and it was only in rights and its prerogatives in Asia were limited. 1730, that the suspension order was withdrawn Generally, various day-to-day matters were and he was appointed ‘Intendant’ or Director of directly referred to the sub-committees unless the Chandranagore. matter was for the consideration of the Court. The Presidents and the members of the Council in Asia THE INDIAN RULERS AND THE could communicate directly with the ‘Court’ or the EUROPEAN COMPANIES Secretary of the Company at home (London). But The Mughals and the Indian rulers were this freedom and privilege were rarely given to the interested in the development of India’s overseas factories under the authority of the presidencies. As trade. They wanted as it would have increased their a measure of check, the Court at London encouraged revenue resources. Therefore, in spite of all the odds, the senior offi cials to report separately on various the Mughal Emperors and the local Indian rulers, in subjects. Thus, information generally got duplicated general welcome foreign merchants. However, the and discrepancies could be checked. Mughals and other Indian rulers were weak on the The maintenance and implementation of the seas. To ensure smooth sailing of the Indian ships, policies of the Company obviously rested upon the it was necessary from them to align with one or the Company’s President and Council in India. other powerful European power who were masters The administration of the English factories of the seas. You will notice so long as the Mughals of the Eastern coast was governed from Fort St. were strong, the European merchants followed the George (Madras) having their President and Council policy of seeking concessions through petitions stationed there. The Council advised the governor and presents. The Companies also combined in administrative matters. trade and diplomacy with war and control of the territory where their factories were situated. With The French the weakening of the Mughal power, the European The French East India Company’s headquarters Companies started imposing their will on the Indian in India was at Surat, which was later shifted to rulers to get monopolies and concessions. They also Pondicherry. The supreme body was known as Success

of took full advantage of the internal confl icts. ‘Superior Council of the Indies’ and headed by a Director-General. He was the overall incharge of The Dutch the French affairs in India. The Supreme Council The Dutch got favourable response from the composed of fi ve members was presided over by rulers of Golkunda. They granted them concession the governor. The entire administration was in his to trade on payment of 4 percent customs duty hands. Though laws were enacted in the name of the on their exports and imports. The Company was French king, the governor and the counselors could also given exemption from duty on cloth (which

be removed without any reference to the French Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru amounted to about 12 percent). In 1612, the duty | 301 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 of 4 percent was commuted into a fi xed payment of transit duties along the Pipli-Agra route. In 1662, of 3000 pagodas annually. Aurangzeb confi rmed all the privileges granted by The chief feature of the Company’s relation Shah Jahan to the Dutch in Bengal. This was followed with the Indian rulers was that in spite of getting by another farman, in 1689, by which Aurangzeb concessions from the Indian rulers, the local offi cials permitted all the concessions enjoyed by the Dutch constantly used their power to evade the orders and in Golkunda which was shortly occupied by the imposed duties on Company’s trade. It frequently Mughals. Shah Alam (1709) even reduced customs CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA resulted in clashes with the local offi cials. In June duty from 3½ percent to 2½ percent at Surat and 1616, the Dutch had to close down their factory at Hugli. He also granted total exemption to the Petapuli owing to the exorbitant demands of the local Company from paying transit dues throughout the havaldar. In 1619 also the Dutch were virtually on the Mughal Empire. But, owing to the hindrances posed brink of closing down their factory at Masulipatam by the local offi cials, the Dutch factors sometimes owing to the local havaldar’s oppression, but the could not avail of the rahdari exemptions. Similarly, Golkunda ruler acted promptly and replaced Mir to oblige the local offi cials, they had to spend a Qasim, the local havaldar. In 1636, the Dutch had to handsome sum. But the Company often misused abandon their factory at Hugli owing to harassment their privilege of carrying duty-free goods. Instead of by the local offi cials and rivalries of local merchants, carrying their own goods, the Company often helped etc. (the factory was later reopened in 1645-50). Indian merchants in evading customs at Hugli. In They were also exempted from the custom dues 1712, Jahandar Shah confi rmed all the privileges at Masulipatam on payment of 3000 pagodas. In granted by Aurangzeb in Coromandal. However, 1657, they got from the Golkunda king the right the local authorities were not ready to surrender to mint coin in the Pulicat mint. They collected the the privileges granted by Jahandar Shah. A major mint duty of 5.38 percent. By the farman of 1676, confl ict broke out at Palakottu and Drakshavaram the Golkunda ruler granted the Dutch complete in 1725-30, and the Dutch factory was attacked and plundered (1728). freedom from tariffs in Golkunda. In the 1680s, the Dutch had to resort to The English arms owing to their confl ict with the Golkunda It was during Jahangir’s reign that the fi rst minister Akana. In 1686, they occupied the port of English envoy reached the Mughal court and Masulipatam. The siege continued for two months. received a royal farman in 1607. In 1608, when Ultimately, Golkunda had to come to terms and the the English established their fi rst factory at Surat, king agreed to restore all previous privileges. Captain Hawkins was sent to Jahangir’s court for In 1690, the Nayak of Tanjore allowed the securing trading concessions. Jahangir, initially, Dutch to pay only half of the toll in all parts of his welcome the English envoy and a mansab of 400 kingdom. They also got the right to keep other zat was bestowed on him by the Emperor. Though European out from the ports of Tanjore. They also in 1611 Hawkins got permission to open trade at received the right to mint coins at Nagapatam. The Surat, later, under the Portuguese infl uence, he was Bijapur ruler also confi rmed all the privileges granted expelled from Agra. The English realised that if they to them by the Nayak of Jinji in 1651. wanted any concessions from the Mughal court, they

For trade along the west coast, the Dutch Success had to counter the Portuguese infl uence. It resulted of succeeded in getting farman from the Mughal in armed confl ict between the two at Swally near Emperor Jahangir. They were exempted from tolls Surat (1612, 1614). It bore fruits. The Mughals wanted from Burhanpur to Cambay and Ahmedabad. Shah to counter the Portuguese naval might by joining Jahan also issued two farmans granting them hands with the English. Besides, they also wanted permission to trade in Bengal (1635) and at Surat. benefi ts for Indian merchants who could aspire to In 1638, the Company got another farman from gain better profi ts in getting a royal farman (January Shah Jahan to trade in saltpetre as well. In 1642, 1613) to open factories in the west coast—Surat,

Shah Jahan exempted the Dutch from the payment Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Cambay, Ahmedabad and Goa. | 302 |

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ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe was sent to Jahangir’s were more than a match to a small trading company. court. He tried to take advantage of the naval It resulted in the latter’s humiliation. They had to lose weakness of Indian rulers. They harrased the Indian all possessions in Bengal. Their factories at Surat, trader and ships. These pressures resulted in the Masulipatam and Vishakhapatam were seised and issue of another farman by which the English their fort at Bombay was besieged. merchants got the right to open factories in all Realising the Mughal might they again went parts of the Mughal Empire. The English success back to their old policy of ‘petition and diplomacy’. CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA led to an English-Portuguese confl ict from 1620 They again turned humble petitioners and agreed to 1630 to the advantage of the English. After that, to trade under the protection of the Indian rulers. the Portuguese gradually lost almost of their Indian Soon, the Mughals pardoned them considering possessions except Goa, Daman and Diu. In 1662, the advantage of increasing foreign trade. Aurangzeb they gave the island of Bombay to king Charles II granted them permission to trade on payment of of England in dowry. 1,50,000 as compensation. In 1691, the English During the closing year of Jahangir’s reign, Company succeeded in getting exemption from when the English Company tried to fortify their the grant of custom duties in Bengal on an annual factory at Surat, they were imprisoned by the Mughal payment of 3000. In 1698, the English king sent offi cers. When the Company’s rival group of English a special envoy Sir William Noris to Aurangzeb’s merchants attacked Mughal ships, the President court to secure the formal grant of the trading of the Company of Surat was imprisoned by the concessions and the right to exercise full English Mughals and could only be released on payment jurisdiction over the English settlements. In 1714-17, of £18,000. another mission was sent under Surman who was In 1651, the English East India Company got able to procure three farmans from Farrukh Siyat a nishan from Sultan Shuja, the son of Shah Jahan, that exempted them from paying custom dues in the then governor of Bengal. By this nishan, they Gujarat and Deccan as well. In Bengal so long as received trading privileges in return for a fi xed Murshid Quli Khan and Ali Vardi Khan remained

annual payment of © 3000. By another nishan in on the scene, they strictly checked the corruption 1656, the English Company was exempted from of any of the privileges granted to the Company. custom dues. However, after Shuja’s withdrawal But immediately after their departure (1750s), the from Bengal his successors ignored his orders for Company got an opportunity to intrigue and soon the obvious reason that it affected the treasury. But succeeded in defeating the Nawab of Bengal, in later Shaista Khan (1672) and Emperor Aurangzeb’s 1757, at the battle of Plassey. farman fi nally ensured a custom-free English trade. The rulers of Golkunda also maintained friendly During Aurangzeb’s region, we notice relations with the English Company. In 1632, the ruler some changes in the Mughal-English Company’s of Golkunda issued a farman by which they were relations. By this time, the English Company with allowed to trade freely in the ports belonging to fortifi ed settlements at Madras and Bombay felt Golkunda on payment of 500 pagodas irrespective of the volume of trade. This certainly gave a great more strong. Aurangzeb himself was busy in his boost to English trade in the Coromandal region. Deccan campaigns. Now they would well think of

abandoning their role as humble petitioners. By Success The French of the use of force, they could now dictate prices and The French had to face the wrath of the acquire a free hand in trade. They were planning Marathas (Shivaji) as early as 1677. French to establish trade monopoly by gradually driving commander (later Director General of French affairs out all other European powers from competition. in India) Martin readily acknowledged the authority In 1686, the English declared war against the of Shivaji and agreed to pay him an amount in Mughal Emperor and sacked Hugli. However, they lieu of a license to trade in his dominions. Shivaji were highly mistaken in assessing the Mughal might. accepted the French request on the condition that

Unlike their counterparts in south India, the Mughals Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru they would not participate in military operations | 303 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 against him. In 1689, the French got the permission exchange and lending of money were important to fortify Pondicherry (from Sambhaji). The French ones. Trading partnership and insurance were also also succeeded in getting a farman from Aurangzeb in vogue. as early as 1667 to open their factory at Surat. In Personnel of Trade 1688, the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb ceded Chandranagore village to the French. The French In this section, we will discuss the merchants, maintained close ties with Dost Ali the Nawab of sarrafs, moneylenders and brokers operating in Carnatic. On the basis of a strong recommendation ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Indian markets. Increasing commercial activities by him, the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah attracted a large number of people to these issued a farman granting permission to the French professions. However, the above trading groups to mint and issue gold and silver currency bearing were not necessarily divided into watertight the stamp of the Mughal Emperor and the name of compartments. At times the same person did two the place of minting. or more tasks at the same time. Here we will study them in separate groups according to the roles A change in the political situation in South performed by them in trade and commerce of the provided the French with an opportunity to interfere period. in the internal affairs of Indian rulers. In 1738, civil war broke out at Tanjore following the death of Venkaji’s Merchants grandson Baba Sahib. Sahuji, another claimant to Theoretically, vaisyas were supposed to indulge the throne, approached the French governor M. in commercial activities, but in actual practice people Duman for help. In return, the French got Karaikal from a wide range of background could and did and Kirkangarhi. Sahuji’s reluctance to cede the participate in it. During the period of our study we promised territory provided the opportunity to notice that certain groups and castes dominated Chanda Sahib, (son-in-law of Dost Ali, Nawab of in particular regions. Carnatic) to act promptly and he promised the Banjaras French Karikal and Kirkangarhi if they allowed him to occupy parts of Tanjaur. But soon Chanda Sahib had In our sources we get innumerable references to face the wrath of the Marathas which compelled to the banjaras as a trading group who carried on him to seek the French help. Muhammad Shah on trade and towns in a region and even at inter-regional hearing about the successful French resistance to level. They were an important link for rural-urban Marathas granted M. Dumas the title of Nawab and trade. The banjaras confi ned their trading activities bestowed upon him a mansab of 4500/2000. The to some limited commodities like grain, pulses, French involvement in the affairs of the principalities sugar, salt etc. They procured a number of animals of south India ultimately resulted in Carnatic wars (mainly oxen to carry the load) and moved from place to place buying and selling goods. Jahangir and the defeat of the French. in his Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri records: “In this country the INDIAN MERCANTILE CLASSES— Banjaras are a fi xed class of people, who possess a BANKING, INSURANCE AND CREDIT thousand oxen, or more or less, varying in numbers. They bring grain from the villages to the towns, SYSTEMS and also accompany armies”. The Banjaras generally

A broad spectrum of merchants padding at the Success moved with their families and household in groups. local level to the big traders involved in overseas of These groups moving together were called a Tanda. commerce were to be found in all parts of the Each Tanda had its chief called Nayaka. At times a country. In the whole commercial process, certain Tanda could have upto 600-700 persons (including specialised groups of merchants, brokers and sarrafs women and children), each family having their oxen. played their role at various levels. The Banjaras were both Hindus and Muslims. Large scale trading operation strengthened Some scholars divide them into four groups on the some of the existing practices and institutions and basis of commodities they traded in: grain, pulses,

gave rise to new ones. System of banking, bills of Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru sugar, salt and wood and timber. | 304 |

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ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES The Banjaras operated in many parts of north The Bohras were important merchants of India, but there were other similar traders known by Gujarat. They were mostly Muslims. They were an different names. The Nahmardis was one such group urban community mainly based in Gujarat and other of traders operating in Sindh. Another such nomadic western parts. Apart from Gujarat, they had some traders were the Bhotiyas operating between the settlements in Ujjain and Burhanpur. The Bohar Himalayas and plains. merchants like Mulla Muhammad Ali and Ahmed Ali had assets or millions of rupees. Among Muslims, Merchants in Different Regions ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA An important vaisya subcaste, that is, the other merchants communities operating on the Baniyas were the leading merchants in north India western coast were Khojahs and Kutchi Memons and Deccan. They belonged to the Hindu and Jain of Gujarat. (mainly in Gujarat and Rajasthan) communities. South India Their counterparts were the Khatris in Punjab and In the southern part of the sub-continent, Kornatis in Golkunda. various merchants groups played prominent roles. The word Baniya is derived from a Sanskrit The Chetti was one such group. This term is derived word vanik meaning merchant. Many of the Baniyas from Sanskrit Shreshthi (Seth). Perhaps, the Chetti carried surnames pointing to the place of their were very wealthy merchants. The merchants along origin. The Agarwals came from Agroha (present the Coromandal coast up to Orissa were known as Haryana) and the Oswals from Osi in Marwar. Marwar Kling. The Komatis were the merchants belonging gave probably the highest number of traders who are generally referred to as Marwaris. They were to to a trading caste. They mainly worked as brokers be found in all parts of India and were the most for textiles and were suppliers of various products eminent merchant group during the period of our from hinterland to the port towns on southern coast. study. There was a close caste bond between these They were mainly Telugu speaking. merchants. They had their councils (mahajan). Like the Chetties, another merchants group Contemporary European travellers (Linschoten, called Chulias were also divided into four sub- 1583-89; Tavernier, 1656-67) marveled at the skills groups. Of these, the Marakkayar were the wealthiest of the Baniyas as merchants and had all praise for merchants dealing in the coastal and southeast their accounting and book-keeping. The Baniyas Asian trade. This was a very mobile group and many unlike Banjaras were involved in all sorts of trading had settled in Ceylon, the Maldives, Malacca, Johore, activities. At the village level, they traded in grain Javanese coast, Siam and Burma. In India, they were and other agricultural produce. They also acted most active in south Coromandal, Madura, Cuddalore, as moneylenders, giving loans to peasants and Porto, Nova, Nagole, Nagapatnam, Koyalpatnam etc. other people including state offi cials and nobles. They mainly dealt in textiles, arecanuts, spices, grain, In towns, they dealt in grain; textiles; gold; silver; dried fi sh, salt, pearls and precious metals. jewels; spices; and sundry other commodities. Some Chrutian Paravas were active in trade from of them possessed assets of million of rupees. They Coromandal to Malabar and Ceylon. They specialised owned ships also. The community as a whole was in coastal trading and brokerage.

known for simplicity and frugality. Success In the region of Punjab, the Khatris were a of Among the Muslims, the Golkunda Muslims major trading community. Guru Nanak, the founder were involved in overseas shipping. They were of Sikh religion, was also a Khatri. Many of them were prominent in south of Madras and were the main converted to Islam. This community had in its fold merchants in Bay of Bengal region. The Mopilla Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. Muslim of Indo-Arab origin, were also important The Multanis were an important trading merchants in the region. community of Delhi, parts of Punjab and Sindh in Some Gujarati merchants had also established

the 13-17th centuries. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru themselves in the Madras region. | 305 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Foreign Merchants activities and transactions. With increasing inter- We get a large number of references to regional and foreign trade they became crucial. the presence of foreign merchants in almost all Merchants from foreign lands and distant regions commercial centers of the period. Among other heavily depended on them. According to A. foreign merchants, the Armenians were the Jan Quaisar, the foreign merchants, who were prominent. They dealt in all sorts of commodities unacquainted with the centres of production, pattern of marketing and language had to depend

from textiles to tobacco. They were settled in Bengal, ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Bihar and Gujarat. The Khorasanis, Arabs and Iraqis on the native brokers for their trading transactions. also frequented Indian markets. The need for brokers in India was mainly due to 1. Centres of production for the same Moneylenders and Sarrafs commodities were scattered all over the In large parts of northern India, the traditional country; merchants played a dual role as traders as well as 2. Individual output of these centers was moneylenders. In villages we hear of traditional small (some centers specialised in particular Baniya lending money to individual peasant to commodities only), and pay land revenue. In towns and bigger places also 3. Large number of buyers competing for the merchants acted as moneylenders. same commodities in the same markets. We Another category among the personnel of get innumerable references to the transactions trade which played a signifi cant role was that of done through broker. The English East India the sarrafs. They performed three distinct functions: Company records refer to brokers being 1. as money-changers; employed at their different factories. Fryer (late 17th century) says that “without brokers 2. as bankers, and neither the natives nor the foreigners did any 3. as traders of gold, silver and jewellery. business”. Ovington (1690) also commented The fi rst two functions need some elaboration. that “For buying and selling company’s goods brokers are appointed who are of the bania As money-changers, they were considered caste and are skilled in the rates and value of as experts in judging the metallic purity of coins all the commodities”. as well as their weight. They also determined their current exchange rate. According to Tavernier, “In We hear from Manrique (1640) that there were India, a village must be very small indeed if it has around 600 brokers and middlemen at Patna. Their number might have been much larger in bigger not a money-changer called “Chenab” (Sarraf), who commercial centers like, Surat, Ahmedabad, Agra acts as banker to make remittances of money and and other coastal towns. issue letters of exchange”. Indian brokers were to be found in foreign The sarraf was also a part of Mughal mint ports also. They were operating at Gombroon establishment. Every mint had a sarraf who would (Bandar Abbas), Basra, Bandar Rig. etc. Sometimes, fi x the purity of bullion. He also verifi ed the purity the whole family worked as brokers in partnership. of coins after minting. Bhimji Parak, a prominent broker, had a joint business As bankers, they would receive deposits and with his brothers. He had 8 shares, Kalyandas 5, Kesso Success

give loans on interest. They used to issue bills of of and Vithaldas 4 each. A. Jan Qaisar divides brokers exchange or hundis and honour the ones issued into 4 categories: by others. 1. Those employed by companies or merchants, Brokers 2. Those who worked for several clients, Dallals or brokers as specialised mercantile 3. Those who worked on an ad hoc basis as professional trading group seem to have been active broker-contractors, and in the wake of the Turkish conquest of north India. 4. State appointed brokers at commercial centers

They worked as middlmen in various commercial Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru to register sale and purchase of article. | 306 |

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ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES The brokers operating independently can hundis were simply drawn and honoured against be divided in various groups on the basis of their other hundis without the intermediation of actual areas of partnerships. Some dealt only one specifi c cash payments”. In this process, it became a medium commodity like silk, saltpetre, cotton, textile, indigo of payment. etc. Others dealt in more than one commodity. The use of hundi was so widespread that even Some worked as sub-brokers or under brokers for the imperial treasury and state were using it. In 1599,

a well-established broker.

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA the state treasury sent 3,00,000 to the army in Brokers’ fees or commission was not strictly Deccan through a hundi? Tributes paid by Golkunda

fi xed. It depended on the commodity and the efforts  (  10,00,000) and Ghakkar Chief ( 50,000) to the of the broker to strike the deal or the labour involved Mughal Emperor were also transferred through in procuring the commodity. In ordinary dealings, hundis. the brokerage was two percent of the value of transaction. One percent was changed from each We get quite a few references where provincial of the parties (buyers and sellers). offi cial were instructed to transfer the revenue Brokers who were in regular employment were through hundis. Even the senior nobles would take paid fi xed salaries and also some commission in the help of the sarrafs to transfer their personal some deals. We do not have much information on wealth. Muqarrab Khan, the governor of Bihar, when their total emoluments. However, a few references in transferred to Agra, gave  30,000 to the sarraf at English Company records show the salaries of their Patna to be delivered at Agra.

brokers between 10 and 38 per month. Many big merchants also issued hundi. Such Besides helping their clients in procuring and merchants and sarrafs had their agents at important selling goods, and brokers played a key role in the commercial centers. At times, member of one family organisation of production. Most of the money (father, son, brother, nephew) worked as agents for advanced (dadni) to the artisans were made through each other. Big fi rms had their agents even outside brokers. the country. COMMERCIAL PRACTICES A commission was charged by the sarrafs on each hundi. The rate of exchange depended on the Bill of Exchange (Hundi) rate of interest prevalent and the period for which it During this period, hundies or bills of exchange was drawn. The period was calculated from the date became an important from of money transaction. of issue to its presentation for redemption. The rate Hundi was a paper document promising payment fl uctuated as it also depended on the availability of of money after a period of time at a certain place. money at the time of issue and maturity. If money To begin with, the practice started because of the supply was good, the rate would drop. In case of problems involved in carrying large amounts of scarcity, the rates rise. According to Irfan Habib, “a cash for commercial transactions. The merchants sudden spurt of payment in any direction might interested in carrying cash to a particular place create pressure upon the sarrafs for cash at one would deposit with a sarraf who would issue a hundi place, while leaving more in their hands at another, to the merchant. The merchant was to present it a situation that they could rectify by discouraging to the agent of the sarraf at this destination and Success encash it. This started as a safe and convenient of remittance from the former to the latter and method of transferring money. In due course, encouraging reverse remittance by modifying the hundi itself became an instrument of transaction. exchange rate”. It could be presented against a transaction. It could To give you a rough idea, a few rates are also be freely bought or sold in the market after provided. In normal times 1½ percent was charged endorsement. for hundis from Patna to Agra and 7-8 percent from According to Irfan habib, “the negotiability of Patna to Surat. For the hundi drawn at Ahmedabad

hundi led to a situation in which large number of Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru for Burhanpur, 7¼ percent was charged in 1622. | 307 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Banking The rate of interest for Patna, in 1620-21, is The sarrafs, apart from issuing bills of exchange, given as 9 percent per annum, while around 1680 also received money or safe deposit. This was it seems more than 15 percent. At Qasimbazar (Bengal), the rate of interest, in 1679, is given as returned to depositor on demand. The depositor high as 15 percent per annum while the rates for was paid some interest on his deposits. The rate of the corresponding period for Madras (8 percent interest payable to depositors kept changing. The per annum) and Surat (9 percent per annum) were rates available for Agra, for 1645 and Surat for 1630 ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA much less. The English factory kept a vigilant eye on works out around nine and half percent per annum. the interest rate and would supply money to their The bankers in turn would given money on loan factories in various region after taking loan from the to the needy on a higher rate of interest. We get places where interest was lowest. The rates at Agra a number of references where state offi cers gave and Surat, during the 17th century, ranged between money from treasury to these bankers and kept the 6 and 12 percent per annum. On the Coromandal interest with them. Tapan Roy Chaudhuri writing coast, much higher rates (18 to 36 percent) seem about the Jagat Seth of Bengal says that “their rise to have prevailed. to fi nancial eminence was partly due to the access The difference in interest rates in various they had to the Bengal treasury as a source of credit”. regions suggests that the integration of fi nancial Sujan Rai (1694) says that this sarrafs who market had not taken place. accepted deposits were honest in dealings. Even Bottomry stranger could deposit thousands for safe keeping A number of uncertainties and risks were and demand it any time. involved in long distance sea voyages. These Usury and Rate of Interest uncertainties gave rise to a new practice called. Money lending for personal needs and ‘avog’ or bottomry. It was a type of speculative commercial purposes was an established practice. investment which was quite popular during the period of our study. In bottomry, money as lent Much of trading was conducted through the at high rates ranging between 14 to 60 percent. money taken on interest. Generally, the sarrafs The money was lent to be invested in a cargo for a and merchants both indulged in moneylending. particular destination. The rate of interest depended Sometimes, the moneylender were called Sah, a on the risks involved. The lenders were to bear all distinct category. The loans were taken for various the risks of voyage. purposes. The money was taken on loan by peasants for paying revenue and repaid at harvest. Nobles Partnership and zamindars would take it for their day-to- In partnership, the merchant pooled their day expense and repay it at the time of revenue resources to carry on trade. Some persons formed collection. Moneylending for business purposes joint ventures for overseas trade. We hear of two was also very common. nobles, Nawab Qutbuddin Khan and Nawab Qilich The rate of interest for smaller loans is diffi cult Khan having built a ship and taken to trading jointly during Akbar’s reign. Banarsidas described to ascertain. It depended mainly on the individual’s his partners trade in jewels during 1611-16. Even need, his credit in the market and his bargaining Success

of brokers at times, carried their joint ventures. In 1662, power. Tapan Roy Chaudhuri shows that peasant two brokers Chhota Thakur and Somiji of Surat, took loans at a high rate of 150 percent per annum bought a ship (Mayfl ower) in partnership and fi tted in Bengal in the eighteenth century. For commercial her for a voyage. loans, the rate of interest differed from one region to another. Our sources generally refer to interest Insurance (Inland and Marine) rates per month. Irfan Habib says that the rate of Another important commercial practise interest expressed for the month suggests that the prevalent in India on a limited scale was that of

loans were generally for short periods. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru insurance or bima. In many cases, the sarrafs used to | 308 |

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ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES take responsibility for the safe delivery of goods. The took their help in matters of confl icts and disputes English factory records also refer to the insurance or to seek support for administrative policies. The of goods, both inland and overseas. At sea, both the merchant organisation were strong and fought ship and the goods aboard were insured. The rate against high-handedness or repressive measures of insurance are also quoted in factory records. By of the offi cers of towns and ports. We get a number the 18th century, the practice was well-established of references where traders organisations gave and widely practiced. The rates are also available calls of hartal (closing business establishments for different goods for different destinations. The ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA and shops) against administrative measures. The rates for sea voyages were higher than goods going huge loss of revenue made administrators respond through land. to the protest. One such serious confl ict arose in Surat, in 1669. Here, a large number of businessmen Merchants, Trading Organisations and the along with their families (a total of 8000 people) State left Surat to protest against the tyranny of the new The taxes were charged by the state on trading governor. They settled at Broach and sent petitions activities. The merchants were also charged customs to Emperor Aurangzeb. The trading activities in the and toll taxes on movements of goods. However, town came to a halt. The Emperor quickly intervened the income from these sources was very small as and the problem was resolved. In 1639, Shah Jahan compared to land revenue. invited Virji Vohra, one of the biggest merchants of Since towns were the centers of commercial Surat, to enquire into the grievances of merchants activities, the administrative offi cers there looked against the governor of Surat. During the war of

after the smooth conduct of trade. The maintenance succession among Shah Jahan’s sons, Murad raised  of law and order and providing peace and security 5,50,000 through Shantidas, the nagar seth of were important for better business environment. Ahmedabad. After Murad’s death, Aurangzeb owned This was the responsibility of the kotwal and his the responsibility for paying it. staff in the towns. The merchants in spite of huge resources (Virji

The rules and laws governing the day-to-day Vohra is said to have left an estate of  8,00,000 at business were generally framed by the business his death) did not take much interest in politics. community itself. Merchants had their own guilds While merchants kept away from court politics, and organisations which framed rules. We get the nobles did venture into trading. Many big nobles references to such organisations in our sources. used their offi cial position to corner the profi ts In Gujarat, these were called mahajan. In the fi rst from trade. quarter of the 18th century, we get evidence of Shaista Khan tried to monopolise a number 53 mahajans at Ahmedabad. The Mahajan was of commodities, especially saltpetres. Mir Jumla, the organisation of traders dealing in a specifi c another prominent noble, was diamond merchant. commodity in a particular area irrespective of their A number of subordinate offi cers at local level castes. The term mahajan was at times used for big also indulged in business activities using coercive merchants also probably because they were the methods. heads of their organisation. There were separate The Banjaras played their role at regional and caste based organisation also. Success inter-regional levels. They, with a large number of The most infl uential and wealthy merchant of pack animals, moved in groups buying and selling of the town was called nagar seth. Sometimes it mainly grain, salt and sugar etc. was treated as hereditary title. Nagar seth was a In different regions of the country various link between the state and the trading community. merchants groups and castes operated. Prominent If there were certain disputes among the Indian merchants groups were the baniyas, bohras, merchants, the mahajans resolved them. Generally khatris, chettis, komattis, etc. The English, Dutch, their decisions were respected by all. The Mughal French, Portuguese, Armenians, Khurasanis and

administration also recognised these mahajans and Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Iraqis were important foreign merchants. | 309 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Brokers, sarrafs and moneylenders was the peasantry. Due to this, the burden fell more specialised groups. System of bills of exchange heavily on the poor peasants. The village community and moneylending was very well-developed. The further perpetuated their divisions by levying lower interest rates were quite high. revenue rates on khudkasht peasantry and calling Merchant guilds and organisation were upon the Rexa raiya to meet the defi cit thus arising well-established. They generally made rules and in the total revenue claim. regulations for trading and commercial activities. Economic inequalities were not the only CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA basis of division within the peasantry. They were Condition of Peasants and Famines also between permanent residents of the village Peasantry consistuted the primary class in (khudkasht) and the temporary residents (pahikasht), rural society and the revenue collected from them caste associations and kingship ties (bhaichara), sustained the whole state apparatus. Bulk of them even as they served as linkages that afforded supra- levied at the subsistence level. They had all the local affi nities were also source of divisiveness. rights over the land as long as he cultivated the Below the peasantry existed a large population land. Zamindar or the state had no right to evict of menial workers (balahars)—cheap source of the peasant as long as he cultivated the land and labour—reduced the cost of production which paid revenue. It seems that proprietary rights in enhanced the surplus produce of the peasantry land were not quite developed during the Mughal and thus allowed a greater exploitation of land period. Peasant mobility was another feature of the revenue by the ruling power. In the suppression of agricultural structure (due to oppression, natural the menial workers, the state, the zamindars and calamities). peasants were equal collaborators. It was not a homogenous class and stratifi cation was due to inequalities in wealth Agrarian Relations and social status. Peasantry with larger resources Both the Jagirdar and the zamindar fed upon could acquire headship of a village (muqaddam) the surplus produce of the peasantry and both and enjoy a superior share in the produce of other acted as each other collaborates in the exploitation peasants. The divisions were so well-established of peasantry. Yet, the zamindar being permanently that they are differently designated even in offi cial based would not allow exploitation that went account books and records. Richer peasants were beyond the alienation of the surplus produce, for called ‘khudkasht’/gharuhalas (Raj)/mirasdars that would lead to exodus of peasantry the desertion (Maharashtra) poor peasants were “Reza Raiya”/ of agricultural operations which would, in turn affect Kunbis (Maharashtra). his own fi scal claims during the following years. One major reason of this can be found in Jamindars attitude is best refl ected in Bernier’s the wide prevalence of the cash nexus. Since land account (mid 17th century)—because of their revenue in the larger part of India had to be paid in frequent transfers, they were not bothered about cash, peasantry was forced to carry their produce to the deplorable state of the peasantry. They were the markets or sell it to merchants/moneylenders only interested in exploiting the peasantry to the on the eve of harvests. In such a situation, those maximum even at the cost of then desertion. peasants who could shift to cash crops would be Success Irfan Habib writes that “as for the peasants, the of placed in a better position because of the higher Jagirdar claimed powers to detain them on the land prices they fetched in the market than those who like serfs, and bring them back, if they ran away.” owing to their scarce resources, could only cultivate In the second half of the 17th century, due to the food crops which fetched a relatively low price. uncertainity of holding a jagir for a stipulated period, Not all peasantry could shift to cash corps since the jagirdars oppressed the peasantry having no it involved much expenses. The regressive nature regard for their welfare. They resorted to short term of the land revenue demand was another major maximisation of revenue ‘such pressure not only

factor that caused and intensifi ed divisions within Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru inhibited extension of cultivation, but also envolved | 310 |

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ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES the Mughal ruling class in a deepening confl ict with powdered bones with fl our. The fl esh of dogs was the two major agrarian classes—zamindar and the taken for meat by the ignorant people. Abdul Hamid peasantry.’ Lahori says “Destitution at length reached such a The divisions within the peasantry, as also pitch that men began to devour each other and the deep contractions that existed between the the fl esh of a son was preferred to his love. The peasantry and agricultural workers, acted as severe number of the dying caused obstructions in the constraints and weakened the capabilities of this roads and every man whose dire sufferings did not class. Disjointed and truncated, this class was quite ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA terminated in death and who retained the power incapable of confronting medieval despotic states. to move wandered off to the towns and villages It did, however, revolt for two reasons: one when of other countries. Those lands which had been the revenue demand appropriated more than the famous for fertility and plenty now retained no surplus produce of the peasantry, thereby cutting trace of productiveness.” Peter Mandy, the European into their subsistence basket. Peasants revolts in traveller, has described the condition in these words: these circumstances never went beyond asking “The highways were strewn with corpses which for a reduction in revenue demand. Peasantry also emitted intolerable stench. In the towns, especially, revolted as follower of a zamindar who was revolting they drag them (dead bodies) out by the heels stark- against the state or jagirdar mostly on the question naked, of all the ages and sexes, till they are out of of his claim to the produce of the soil, either in the gates and there they are left, so that the way is the hope that the end of the revolt would lead to half-bared up.” The condition was so serious that better conditions of living for them or simply as crowds of people shouted: “Give us food or kill us.” rendering a service to their overlord. Peasantry The famine had disastrous effect on trade. Indigo revolts of this nature were actually zamindari revolts became scarce. The price of cotton cloth went up. (led by zamindars). All business came to a standstill. Roads were full of robbers. It became diffi cult to take goods from one Famines place to another. There were many famines during the Mughal Between 1635 and 1643, general scarcity period. Badaoni tells us that a famine broke out in was felt by the people. There was famine also in the neighbourhood of Agra and Biyana in 1555-56. certain parts of India. However in 1645-46, there He writes thus about that famine: “Men ate their own was an intense famine on the Coromandal Coast. kind and the appearance of the famished sufferers The situation was so serious that the people were was so hideous that one could scarcely look upon willing to become slaves in order to save their lives. them. The whole country was a desert.” There was There was great misery on the Madras Coast as a another serious famine, in 1573-74 in Gujarat. The result of the failure of rains in 1646. In 1650 again, prices shot up and the people suffered terribly. there was defi ciency of rains in all parts of India. Another famine lasted for four years, from 1595 In 1658, the prices of provisions doubled at Surat. to 1598. On that occasion, “Men ate their own kind Famine and disease swept away a large number and streets were blocked up with dead bodies and of people. There was great distress in Sindh. Khafi no assistance could be rendered for the removal.” Khan wrote in 1659 that prices had gone up on The famine was followed by epidemic and fl oods. account of the failure of rains and movement of the

It is pointed out that Akbar was the fi rst ruler who Success

of armies. It is true that there was no serious famine provided relief to those who had suffered from in the reign of Aurangzeb but the people suffered famines. terribly on account of perpetual wars. Cultivation There was no serious famine in the reign was neglected. Industries suffered. The lot of the of Jahangir. However, a terrible famine broke out people became miserable. in the reign of Shahjahan, in 1630. The territories affected were the Deccan, Gujarat and Khandesh. Condition of Women Mira Amin Qazwini tells us that great distress Women occupied a high position in the family.

prevailed everywhere. The grocers and traders mixed Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru They commanded respect. Most of them led a life of | 311 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 dignity and respect. They lived devoted lives. They a storekeeper and he performed his duties very lived a life of sacrifi ce. The welfare of the family honestly. In 1949, he got enlightenment in the River depended upon their care, love, benevolence and Baen near Sultanpur. After sometime, he gave up dedication. Polygamy was very common among his job and became an ascetic. the Muslims. In some cases the Hindus also married For about 30 years, Nanak wandered about many wives. Talaq or divorce and remarriages were learning and teaching on the way. His fi rst tour lasted common among the Muslims. There was no Talaq for about 12 years. He visited Eminabad, Kurukshetra, CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA among the Hindus. Hardwar, Banaras, and Kamrup or Assam. During his Sati was common among the Hindus. Here is second tour, he visited the Deccan and Ceylon. His an eyewitness account of sati left by a European third tour was to Kashmir and the Kailash Mountain. traveller. “The husband of a girl of eighteen died. He is said to have visited Baghdad, Mecca and She announced that she would burn with the body Medina. His last tour was confi ned to the Punjab. of her husband. Dressed like a bride she proceeded He visited Pakpattan, Depalpur, Kasur, Patti, Variowal, to the governor’s house with a musical band to Pasrur and Dera Baba Nanak. His last days were spent obtain his permission. The governor took great at Kartarpur near Dera Baba Nanak. He died in 1538. pains to explain to her, it was futile to die as sati; It is stated that once upon a time Guru Nanak and he even went so far as to offer her an annuity of Mardana, his disciple, were arrested and thrown  500 only if she abandoned the idea of peishing into prison by Babur. However, they were released with her dead husband. When she remained fi rm, when Babur came to know that the person arrested the governor permitted her according to the royal was a saintly man. Farman. Then she proceeded towards the funeral Reformer or Revolutionary pyre. She removed her ornaments as she came near There are two views regarding the work of the pyre, she handed them over to her relations. Guru Nanak. According to one school of thought, She kissed her child, after which she mounted the Nanak was a reformer of Hinduism. This view is held pyre and was burnt to death along with her dead by writers like Dr. G.C. Narang and Payne. According husband.” to the other view, Nanak was a revolutionary and the EVOLUTION OF SIKH COMMUNITY advocates of this view are Teja Singh, Khan Singh and Macauliffe. Guru Nanak (1469-1538) According to the first view. Guru Nanak Guru Nanak was the founder of Sikhism. He belongs to the bhakti school of thought in India. was born, in 1469, at a village called Talwandi, now His teachings are practically the same as those of called Nankana Sahib, in West Punjab. The name of the other Bhakti reformers such as Kabir. Nanak his father was Mehta Kalu and that of his mother did not attack the fundamentals of Hinduism but was Tripta. The name of his sister was Nanki. When merely those bad practices,which had crept into the he was seven, he was sent to the village school but Hindu society in the course of centuries. He did not it is stated that the child was always contemplating show any disrespect to Hindu avtars and divinities. and consequently, neither the Hindu nor the Muslim He merely challenged the high position given to teacher were able to teach him much. His father the Hindu gods. He put more emphasis on God asked him to look after his cattle and land, but he Success than his incarnations. He attacked the Vedas and of failed. He tried to put him in some trade but the the Puranas but did not question the wisdom and son was more after Sacha Sauda or true bargaining philosophy found in them. He wanted the people that after making money. Instead of doing any to incorporate into their lives of teachings of the business, he distributed the money among the scriptures rather than merely make a show of them. needy persons. With a view to taking his son away To quote Banerjee, “One must realize the difference from his unworldly tendencies, his marriage had no between an attack on scripturalism and one of effect on him and he was sent to Sultanpur where the scriptures themselves”. Most of the teachings

his brother-in-law was working. He got the job of Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru of Nanak were identical with those of the Bhakti | 312 |

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ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES reformers. The teachings of Hindu reformers like Punjab and improved the moral and spiritual one of Namdev and Kabir were incorporated into the Adi the whole people.” According to John Clark Archer, Granth itself. According to Payne, the aim of Guru “He was a historic person. He is also a theological Nanak “was not to sweep away Hinduism but to construction. He is what India and the world, in restore it to its ancient purity. Like Luther, he came to general think he is, also what Sikhs think of him. He is protest against the idolatry, the blind superstitions a historical theological fi gure to them, a real person and the empty rituals, which had so long estranged and also a creature of religious fancy”. Guru Nanak religion from morality and the hearts of men from ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA has been compared to Luther. So far as spiritualism their creator.” was concerned, Guru Nanak was far ahead of Luther, According to the other view, Guru Nanak was but it cannot be denied that the infl uence of Luther a revolutionary who “aimed upsetting the cherished was much greater than that of Guru Nanak. While the institutions of the society in which he was born, teaching of Luther spread all over the Europe those bringing about social cataclysm and building a of Nanak infl uenced mainly the Punjab. According new order on the ruins of the old”. He condemned to Sewa Ram Singh, “The legend of Guru Nanak’s life the caste system which was the very basis of will always bring into activity the tender feelings of Hindu society. He also suggested positive steps to human soul, and all men will proclaim that among ignore the caste system altogether. He started the sons of men, none was born greater than Nanak”. institution of Langar or common kitchen in which Cunningham sums up Nanak’s achievements all the persons, irrespective of the castes, were to sit in these words: “Thus, Nanak extricated his followers together and eat together. Guru Nanak condemned from the accumulated errors of ages and enjoined asceticism, which was the basic feature of the upon them devotion of thought and excellence Hindu religion. He did not attach any importance of conduct as the fi rst of duties. He left them erect to penance and fasting. He repudiated the Hindu and free, unbiased in mind and unfettered by mythology and questioned the utility of idol worship rules, to become an increasing body of truthful and the custom of going on pilgrimages. worshippers. His reform was in its immediate effect It is not possible to accept completely either of religious and moral only; believers were regarded as the two views. It must be conceded that Guru Nanak ‘Sikhs’ or disciples, not as subjects; and it is neither did not deliberately set up a new religion. However, probable, nor is it necessary to suppose, that he his preaching and the work of his successors possessed any clear and sagacious views of social amelioration of political advancement. He left the ultimately led to the rise of a new religion in the progress of his people to the operation of time: for form of Sikhism. his congregation was too limited, and the state of Nanak’s Place in History society too artifi cial to render it either requisite or It goes without saying that Guru Nanak possible for him to become a municipal law-giver, occupies a place of pride not only in the history to subvert the legislation of Manu, or to change the of the Punjab or India but also of the whole world. immemorial usages of tribes on races. His care was Guru Nanak was one of the prophets of the world. He rather to prevent his followers contracting into a gave to the world the gospel of love, goodwill and sect, and his comprehensive principles narrowing reconciliation. He profoundly infl uenced the history into monastic distinctions.” of the Punjab. According to Dr. Gokul Chand Narang, Success According to Dr. Tara Chand, “The religious of “Nanak left the Hindus of the Punjab immensely movement started by Guru Nanak continued to better than he had found them. Their belief had gather momentum under his successors. Its stern been ennobled, their worship purifi ed, the rigidity ethical tone and its definite Puritanism were of caste considerably relaxed, their minds greatly elements, which distinguished it from similar emancipated; and they have now become more fi t movements in India. Its spirit of non-compromise to enter on the career of natural progress to which carries within its possibilities of martyrdoms and the Nanak’s successors were destined to lead them.” seeds of an organised church. The unsettled political

Again, “It leavened the whole Hindu thought in the Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru conditions of the latter period of the Mughal Empire | 313 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 gave these possibilities their opportunity, and the more pronounced and the Sikhs began gradually to seed bore fruit. The later Gurus were inevitably drift away from the orthodox Hindu society and form drawn into the whirl of politics and they transformed a class, a sort of new brotherhood by themselves”. the church into a militant society. But although Guru Ram Das (1575-81) the Sikhs changed their organisation their religion retained almost unaltered the impress of Guru Guru Amar Das was succeeded by his son-in- Nanak’s teachings.” law called Ram Das. He had very cordial relations CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA with Akbar, who granted 500 Bighas of land in Guru Angad (1538-52) the neighbourhood of modern Amritsar at a very Guru Angad was nominated as his successor nominal price. The Emperor also remitted the by Guru Nanak. It is stated that if Nanak had not revenues of the Punjab for one year. Guru Ram Das appointed his successor, the Nanak panthis or Sikhs built a new town called Chak Guru of Ramdaspura would have been absorbed into Hinduism in due which later on came to be known as Amritsar. He course of time. Angad popularised the Gurumukhi started the excavation of two tanks, Amritsar and alphabet. A biography of Nanak was complied. Its Santokhsar. He sent his agents everywhere to collect sayings were also collected at one place. The Udasis money for the above purposes. Sikhism gained were turned out from the Sikh fold. Strict discipline popularity during his period. was maintained among the disciples and those who Guru Arjan Dev (1581-1606) were rebellious were severely dealt with. It is stated Guru Arjan Dev was the head of Sikhism for that Humayun came to Angad to get his blessings. a quarter of a century and he accomplished a lot Guru Amar Das (1552-74) during his regime. He completed that construction of Amritsar and founded other cities like Taran and Guru Angad was succeeded by Amar Das. Kartarpur. He constructed a Baoli at Lahore. Before his conversion to Sikhism, Amar Das was a devotee of Vishnu. His succession was disputed The most important work of Guru Arjan Dev by the sons of Nanak and Angad. However, the was the compilation of the Adi Granth, the Bible of opposition died out in course of time on account the Sikhs. He collected together all the available of the patient sufferings of Guru Amar Das. The new material and dictated the whole thing in the form of Guru constructed a Baoli at Goindwal, which became verses. This work was completed in 1604. It includes an important place pilgrimage for the Sikhs. He the hymns and teachings of the fi ve Sikh Gurus, 16 reformed the institution of Langar and gave more Hindu Bhakts and saints like Kabir, Farib, Nad Dev, importance to it. He divided his spiritual empire Rai Das, etc. the verses of Bhats, etc. According to into 22 parts called Manjlis. Each Manji was put Khushwant Singh, “The Granth is a unique historical under the charge of a Sikh. Separate ceremonies to document. It is perhaps, the only kind of writing be performed at the time of birth and death of the of the religious literatures. It has saved the literary Sikhs were prescribed. These were different from works of other poets the time from the vagaries of those of the Hindus. He prohibited the customs human memory. The Granth Sahib is the central of Sati. He asked his followers not to take wine. object of Sikh worship and ritual.” Again, “The Granth He condemned purdah for women. According to Sahib is not like the idol in a Hindu temple or the

Indu Bhushan Banerjee, Sikhism, “forged its own Success cross in a Catholic Chruch. It is the source and not the of weapon, hedged itself’ behind newer forms and object of prayer or worship. Sikhs revere it because customs, in short, developed individuality of its it contains the teachings of their Gurus. It is more a own. It was under his auspices that the rudiments book of divine wisdom than the word of God”. of a separate organisation were given to the Sikhs, Guru Arjan introduced the Masand system. and new forms and practices were introduced to The Sikhs were asked to pay one-tenth of their supersede the old and bind the neophytes more income to the Guru in future. The Guru appointed closely together.” Again, “It was under Amar Das that his representatives to collect the money. All this

the difference between a Hindu and a Sikh became Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru money was sent to Amritsar on the Baisakhi day. | 314 |

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ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES The Guru also encouraged the Sikhs to engage volunteers and even Pathans were welcomed to themselves in horse trade. join. Guru Hargobind’s policy of armed resistance, Relation between Guru Arjan and Akbar were has been criticised by certain writers. It is that the cordial but the things changed after the accession lure of politics and glamour of arms led the Guru of Jahangir. Ultimately, the Guru was tortured to away from the true path of religion and spiritualism. death in 1605. Many reasons have been given for However, according to Banerjee, “Both externally and this tragedy. It is stated that Jahangir was annoyed internally, the situation was changing and the policy CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA because Guru Arjan gave his blessings to his rebel of the Guru had perforce to be adjusted to the new son. Prince Khusru, Jahangir also did not like the environment. The organisational development of growing popularity of Sikhism. He took strong Sikhism had mostly taken place during the tolerant objection to the conversion of Hindus and Muslims days of Akbar who had never interfered with it. to Sikhism. To quote Jahangir, “They called him Guru He had, on the contrary, even helped the Gurus in and from all sides, stupid people crowed to worship various ways. But the execution of Guru Arjan and and manifest complete faith in him. For three or Hargobind’s imprisonment defi nitely showed that four generations of spiritual successors, they kept sterner days were ahead and that the policy of mere their shop warm. Many times, it occurred to me to peaceful organisation no longer suffi ced. Guru Arjan put a stop to this vain affair or to bring into the had foreseen and Guru Hargobind also clearly saw assembly of the people of Islam.” It is also stated that it would no longer be possible to protect the that Chandu, the Diwan of Lahore, wanted to marry Sikh community and its organisation without the his daughter to the son of Guru Arjan but the latter aid of arms; and the way in which he proceeded to refused. Chandu could not put up with the insult secure this end speaks a good deal for sagacity and and poisoned the ears of Jahangir who ordered Guru his shrewd political sense”.

Arjan to pay a fi ne of  2 lakhs and to erase from the Jahangir could not tolerate the militant policy of Granth all those hymns, which were objectionable Hargobind and consequently the latter was arrested to the Muslims and Hindus. The Guru refused to do and imprisoned in the fort of Gwalior. The Guru was so and hence was tortured to death. released after a few years on the intervention of According to Teja Singh, the manner in which Mian Mir and Wazir Khan. The relations between the Guru Arjan was put to death “convinced the Sikhs Guru and Jahangir became friendly afterwards, and that they must arm themselves and fi ght, if they continued to be so. During the region of Shahjahan, wanted to live”. The martyrdom of Arjan gave the relations became bitter once again Shahjahan strength to the Panth. It was the turning point in was intolerant. He destroyed the Sikh, Baoli at Lahore. the history of Sikhism. They were not to be merely The quarrels which originally started over hawks or devotees but were also to become warriors. horses between the Mughal offi cials and the Sikhs, subsequently, led to risings on a large scale and were Guru Hargobind (1606-44) responsible for death of thousands of persons on Guru Arjan was succeeded by his son, both sides. Battles were fought at Amritsar, Kartarpur Hargobind. From the very beginning, he was the and other places. Ultimately, Guru Hargobind retired deadly enemy of the Mughals. He asked his followers to the hills where he spent the rest of his life. to keep arms and fi ght against the Mughal tyranny. Guru Hargobind was a teacher and protector of He himself took up the title of Sachcha Padshah. He Success of his disciples. He realised the gravity of the situation adopted the emblems of royalty, viz. an umbrella and prepared his followers for the coming struggle. sword and a hawk. He put on the dress of a soldier. He He created a war-like spirit among his followers. put on two swords one of which indicated his spiritual authority and the other his temporal authority. Guru Har Rai (1644-61) Instead of accepting money from his followers, he Guru Hargobind was succeeded by his asked them to offer horses and weapons to him. He grandson, Har Rai. The new Guru followed a policy of fortifi ed Lohgarh. He built the Akal Takht, the throne peaceful propaganda. His relations with the Mughal

of Almighty. He enrolled a large number of armed Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru emperor were all right. However, Prince Dara asked | 315 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 for military aid and the blessings of the Guru and the Another version is that the orders for the arrest of Guru obliged him doing the same. The result was Guru Teg Bahadur were issued because he had laid that when Dara was defeated, Aurangzeb became waste the whole of the Punjab. According to Indu his bitter enemy. He summoned the Guru to his court Bhusha Banerjee, the Guru suffered not because but the Guru excused himself and sent his eldest son. of political reasons but because of his religious Aurangzeb asked him to explain certain passages activities. The Guru was of a peaceful disposition in the Sikh scriptures, which were against Islam. The and he led the life of a saint. It is too much to believe Guru’s son satisfi ed the Emperor by changing certain ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA that he was responsible for laying waste the whole words in the Granth Sahib. This was resented by the of the Punjab and action had to be taken against Guru, who, disinherited his son and appointed Har him on account of that. Krishan, a minor, as his successor. According to Dr. G.C. Narang, “His execution Guru Har Krishan (1661-64) was universally regarded by the Hindus as a sacrifi ce for their faith. The whole of the Punjab began to Har Krishan was only fi ve when he became burn with indignation and revenge.” The execution Guru. He died three years after. He was called by of Guru Teg Bahadur revolutionised the life of his the Emperor to Delhi, where he was attacked by son, Guru Gobind Singh. small pox and died. Guru Gobind Singh (1675-1708) Guru Teg Bahadur (1664-75) Guru Gobind Singh was the 10th and the Guru Teg Bahadur was the 9th Guru. He last Guru. He was given thorough training in arts of inherited the hostility of Aurangzeb and it was peace and war by his father. When he became Guru, mainly on account of the intervention of Mirza he found that his followers were divided and had Raja Ram Sing that Aurangzeb did not take any not the capacity and courage to fi ght against the serious action against him. Different accounts are Mughals. He began to give them training in the art given regarding the reasons, which were ultimately of warfare and even recruited Pathans in his army. responsible for the action taken against him by He came into confl ict with the hill Rajas and fought Aurangzeb. One view is that the Guru became the the famous battle of Bhangani. Gobind Singh did target because he took up the cause of the Kashmiri not do well in the beginning but he ultimately came Brahmins who approached him to save them from out victorious. He made Anandpur his headquarter. religious persecution. Many attempts were made to subdue him but they It is stated that Mughal Governor of Kashmir failed as the adviser of the Mughals, Prince Muazzam, had converted a large number of Hindus to Islam and who was in charge of the operations, admired the murdered those who had resisted. Consequently, Guru. the Kashmiri Brahmins approached Guru Teg In 1699, on the Baisakhi day, Gobind Singh Bahadur for protection. After a lot of thinking, the created the Khalsa. He is stated to have sought the Guru asked the Kashmiri Brahmins to go to Delhi blessings of Durga for strength, but Sikhs do not and tell Aurangzeb that Guru Teg Bahadur was the believe in the story. He summoned a big assembly protector of the Hindus and if he became a Muslim, of the Sikhs at Anandpur and selected fi ve persons the other Hindus would also follow him. The Kashmiri who came to be known as Panj Piaras. They took the

Brahmins did as they were asked to do. Aurangzeb Success water of immortality. After baptising them the Guru of sent his messengers to bring the Guru to Delhi. The asked them to initiate him. In this way, the Guru was Guru took sometime to reach Delhi as he met his merged into the Khalsa and the Khalsa was merged followers on the way. This created suspicion in the into Guru. The followers of Nanak were turned into mind of the Mughals. A search was made for him soldier-saints. The Sikhs were given a distinct dress and he was arrested at Agra and brought to Delhi and they were required to keep on their person fi ve where he was put in prison. Aurangzeb asked him things beginning with K, viz. Kesh, Kripan, Kachha, either to embrace Islam or show some miracle. On Kangha and Kara. The Sikhs followed a policy of

his refusing to do so, the Guru was put to death. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru fi ghting Muslim fanaticism with Sikh fanaticism. | 316 |

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ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES The hill chiefs took strong objection to the a hundred times also! For thy sovereignty! Strange, activities of Guru Gobind Singh and they all joined strange, is the decree! Smite not any one mercilessly hands against him. The result was that, in 1701, he with thy sword. Or a sword from on high shall smite fought the fi rst Battle of Anandpur in which the hill you. O man, be not reckless, fear God. He is the chiefs were defeated and the Guru was successful. emperor of earth and heaven. He is the creator of However, they appealed to Aurangzeb for help. The all animals from the feeble to the strong elephant. latter sent instructions to the Mughal offi cials in He is the protector of the miserable, and destroyer the Punjab to take action against the Guru. Wazir ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA of the reckless. What though my four sons were Khan the Governor of Sirhind, sent his forces against killed? I remain behind like a coiled snake. What the Guru. In 1703-04, he fought the second Battle bravery is it to quench a few sparks of life? Thou of Anandpur. The Sikhs put up a stiff resistance art merely exciting a raging fi re. I will not enter thy but ultimately, they had to surrender Anandpur. presence, nor travel on the same road with thee, Two of the sons of the Guru were captured and but if God so will it, I will proceed against thee. bricked up at Sirhind. Another battle was fought at When though looks to thin army and wealth. I look Chamkaru, where two more sons of the Guru were to God’s praises. Though are proud of thin Empire, killed. Another battle was fought at Khidrana or while I am proud of the kingdom of the Immortal Muktsar in 1706. After this battle, the Guru settled God be not heedless; this caravan serai is only for a few days. People leave it at all times. Even though at Talwandi Sabo or Dam Dama. thou at strong, annoy not the weak. Lay not the axe Aurangzeb died in 1707 and was succeeded to the kingdom.” by his son, Bahadur Shah. Guru Gobind Singh had cordial relations with the new Emperor and agreed Estimate to accompany him to the Deccan. A Pathan stabbed Guru Gobind Singh was a builder par the Guru in October 1708. The last words of the excellence. “He bought a new belief into being and Guru were: “I have entrusted you to immortal God. released a new dynamic force into arena of Indian Ever remain under his protection and trust none History”. He was the saviour of Hinduism. He came besides. Wherever there are Sikhs assembled know to the help of the Hindus when Aurangzeb was that I am in the midst of them. Henceforth, the Guru determined to convert Dur-ul-Harb (Land of Infi dels) shall be in the Khalsa and the Khalsa in the Guru. I into Dar-ul-Islam (Land of the Faithful). He infused have infused my mental and bodily spirit into the a new spirit among his followers and but for that Granth Sahib and the Khalsa.” spirit, most of the Hindus in northern India might It is interesting to reproduce the last letter have embraced Islam. It is true that he protected addressed by Guru Gobind Singh to Aurangzeb. Hinduism from Islam but this does not mean that he This is known as Zafar Nama and read thus: “I have hated the Muslims. He was merely opposed to the not a particle of confi dence in these. I was focused tyranny of the Mughal Emperors and not to Islam to engage in the combat and fought to the utmost as such. He had his friends among the Muslims who of my ability. When an affair passed beyond the actually saved his life when he was being hunted region of diplomacy, it is lawful to have recourse by the Mughals. to the sword. If thou come to the village of Kangar, Guru Gobind Singh was not a military or we shall have an interview. Thou shalt not run the Success political leader. He was essentially a man of God. of slightest danger on the way, for the whole tribes He was made to infuse a militant spirit into his of Bairars are under me. I am a slave and servant of followers on account of the force of circumstances. the King of Kings and ready to obey his order with The Guru was a scholar and a poet. He composed a my life. If though have any belief in God, delay not large number of verses in Punjabi, Hindi and Persian. in this matter. It is thy duty to know God. He never He was a patron of learning. He composed a large ordered thee to annoy others. Thou art seated on number of verses in Punjabi, Hindi and Persian. He an Emperor’s throne; yet how strange are thy justice, was a true democrat. He did not appoint any person

thane attributes and they regard for religion! Alas, Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru who was to succeed him as a Guru of the Sikhs. He | 317 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 asked the Sikhs to have general meetings and make and Kapuri were looted. At Shadhura, Banda won a their decision by Gurumata on the deliberations decisive victory. In 1710 A.D., he conquered Sirhind. and resolutions of the council. The Battle of Sirhind was bloody one. Banda was According to Cunningham, “The last apostle helped by thousands of Sikhs from Malwa and Majha of the Sikhs did not live to see his own ends as they wanted to punish the Governor of Sirhind accomplished, but he effectually roused the who was regarded as the murder of the sons of Guru dormant energies of a vanquished people, and Gobind Singh. Wazir Khan himself was cut to pieces. CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA fi lled them with a lofty although fi tful longing for Thousands of Muslims were butchered. The city was social freedom and national ascendancy, the proper plundered. According to Lafi f, the Sikhs “butchered, adjuncts of the purity of worship which had been bayoneted, strangled, hanged, shot down, hacked to preached by Nanak. Gobind saw what was yet vital, pieces and burnt alive every Mohammedan in the and he resumed it with Promethean fi re. A living place”. Even “the mosques were polluted and burnt spirit possesses the whole Sikh people and the down and the Mullas Maulvis and Hafi sed were impress of Gobind has not only elevated and altered subjected to the greatest indignities and tortures”. the constitution of their minds, but has operated The dead body of Wazir Khan “was hanged on a materially and given amplitude to their physical tree and left to the tender mercy of the crows and vultures”. fames.” After the conquest of Sirhind, Banda Bahadur Again “Gobind was equally bold, systematic and sanguine, but it is not necessary to suppose him appointed Baj Singhs as the Governor of Sirhind. either an unscrupulous impostor or a self-deluded Coins were struck in the name of the Guru in 1710. enthusiast. He thought that the minds of men might He abolished zamindari system. The Sikhs revolted be wrought upon the great purposes, he deplored at Saharanpur, Behat and Jalalabad and the Mughals the corruption of the world, he resented the tyranny cound not subdue them. The same was the case with which endangered his own life, and he believed the the Sikhs of the Doab who could not be crushed by time had come for another teacher to arouse the the Faujdar of Jullundar. The Sikhs captured, Amritsar, latent energies of the human will. His memory was Kasur, Batala, Kalanaur and Pathankot. fi lled with the deeds of primeval seers and heroes The above activities of the Sikhs forced his imagination dwelt on successive dispensations Bahadur Shah to take action against them. All the for the instruction of the world, and his mind was Muslim Faujdars and Nazims were ordered to join not perhaps untinged with a superstitious belief in hands to take a concerted action against them. his own earthly destiny.” More than 60,000 soldiers were sent under Amin Khan against Banda who was ultimately besieged in Banda Bahadur (1670-1716 A.D.) Lohgarh. There was bitter fi ghting and ultimately the Banda Bahadur was a Dogra Rajput. He was fort had to be surrendered in December 1710. Banda born in 1670 A.D. His original name was Lachhman escaped and retired to the hills. Farrukh Siyar sent Das and he was very fond of hunting. Later on, the Abdul Samad to crush Banda. Elaborate preparations became a Bairagi and went away to the Deccan. were made in 1716 and ultimately was fought the It was in the Deccan that Guru Gobind Singh met famous Battle of Gurdas Nangal. him in 1708 and made him his own Banda or slave. Success The Sikhs put up a stiff resistance. Their rations of He asked him to go back to the north and wreck were exhausted. They ultimately surrendered when vengeance on the enemies of the Khalsa. The Guru they were in great distress. Banda was arrested and also sent instructions to the Sikhs of the Punjab to he along with other Sikhs sent to Delhi where they rally under his banner. were all paraded in the bazars. For the Muslims of When Banda Bahadur entered the Punjab, the Delhi, it was a great Tamasha but the Hindus and Sikhs from all quarters fl ocked under his banner. A Sikhs felt it as a great humiliation. The other Sikhs large number of persons also joined him in the hope and Banda were executed in June 1716. To begin

of getting booty. Kaithal, Samana, Shahabad, Ambala Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru with, the son of Banda was cut to pieces. After that, | 318 |

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ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES the fl esh of Banda was torn with red-hot pincers. more zealous Sikhs, and they may have caused the Thus ended the career of a great man. memory of an able and enterprising leader to be generally neglected”. Estimate To the Hindus and Sikhs, Banda Bahadur The Sikhs after the Death of Banda Bahadur appeared as a great champion of their faith. He took There was a division among the Sikhs after the up the cudgels against the tyranny of the Muslims. death of Banda Bahadur in 1716. They were divided

He took revenge for the murder of the sons of Guru ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA into two parts known as the Bandais and the Takht Gobind Singh at Sirhind. The Muslim writers describe Khalsa. The former were the followers of Banda and him as “one of the most sanguinary of monsters” or the latter were the orthodox Sikhs. Through the “ruthless blood-sucker”. It is pointed out that Banda efforts of Bhai Mani Singh, the differences between was neither a free-bootee nor a tyrant like Attila the two were composed in 1721. and Chingiz Khan. To begin with, he led the life of Zakriaya Khan, Governor of the Punjab, from a saint, but it was the force of circumstances that 1726 to 1745, followed a policy of persecution of made him fi ght against the tyranny of the Mughals the Sikhs. Tara Singh Van and his 21 followers were in the Punjab. According to Dr. G.C. Narang, “Guru killed by the Mughal troops. The Mughal Governor Gobind Singh had diverted the attention of the appealed to Muslim fanaticism and the Haidari fl ag followers from the plough to the sword. He had was hoisted. However, the Sikhs were able to defeat sown the seed. Banda reaped the harvest. The Guru the Mughal forces at a place near Bhilowal. After this, had enumerated principles; Banda carried them the Mughal Governor tried to placate the Sikhs, but into practice. Gobind Singh had destroyed the awe the latter organised themselves into the Dal Khalsa. inspired by Mughal despotism; Banda completely There were two main divisions of the Dal Khalsa broke the charm of its invincibility.” known as the Budha dal and the Taruna Dal. The Banda Bahadur was a great organizer. Budha Dal consisted of the army of the elders and According to Dr. Ganda Singh, “It was through the Taruna Dal consisted of the army of the young. him that the path of conquest and freedom was The Taruna Dal was divided into 5 Jathas, each under discovered by the people of the Punjab. He was the a separate Sardar. Each Jatha had 1,300 to 2,000 men. fi rst man to deal a severe blow at the intolerant rule Both the Dals worked under the common leadership of the Mughals in the Punjab and to break the fi rst of Nawab Kapur Singh. The members of the Taruna sod in the conquest of that province by the Sikhs”. Dal were a source of nuisance to the Mughal forces. The exploits of Banda Bahadur created a will in the They overran the whole of the Bari Doab and some ordinary masses of the Punjab to resist tyranny and of them crossed the Sutlej and helped Ala Singh to to live and die for a national cause. Banda failed set up a small state in Malwa. on account of his desertion by the Sikhs and the In 1739, the Sikhs fell upon the rear of the superior forces of the enemy. army of Nadir Shah when he was retreating from According to Cunningham, “The memory of Delhi along with his booty. They were able to snatch Banda is not held in much esteem by the Sikhs away a lot from the Afghans. Nadir Shah is stated to he appears to have been of a gloomy disposition, have remarked thus to the Mughal Governor: “Take and he was obeyed as an energetic and daring care, the day is not distant when these rebels will leader without being able to engage the personal Success take possession of the country”. The result was that of sympathies of his followers. He did not perhaps Zakriaya Khan decided to destroy the Sikhs root and comprehend the general nature of Nanak’s and branch. Prised were offered too those who helped Gobind’s reforms, the spirit of sectarianism possessed him in his work. He who cut off the hair of a Sikh him, and he endeavoured to introduce changes was given a blanket and a bedding. He who supplied

into the modes and practices enjoined by these information about the whereabouts of Sikhs was  teachers, which should be more in accordance with given  10. He who caught or killed a Sikh got 50. his own ascetic and Hindu notions. These unwise The Sikhs were hunted like wild beasts and they

innovations and restrictions were resisted by the Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru retired to the hills and the jungles. In 1742, Haqigat | 319 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Rai was put to death. Mehtab Singh, Buta Singh, and Punjab in 1764. Instead of facing him, the Sikhs ran Bhai Taru Singh were executed. The Sikhs hit back. away to the hills and jungles and consequently no They attacked Sialkot and murdered all those Qazis harm could be done to them. Abdali invaded Punjab and Mullahs who had a hand in the execution of again, in 1766-67, but the Sikhs were not crushed. Haquiqat Rai. They plundered Gondlanwala and its There were many reasons why the Sikhs could Faujdar was killed. They were given a crushing defeat not be crushed. Between 1748 and 1766, there near Basoli hills and about 7,000 of them were killed was going on a struggle for power in the Punjab CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA and 3,000 were taken prisoners. This is known as the between the Mughals, the Afghans, the Marathas fi rst Ghalughara and it happened in 1746. and the Sikhs. After the Battle of Panipat in 1761, There was a civil war in the Punjab, in 1746-47 the Marathas and the Mughals were eliminated. and ultimately, Shah Nawaz became the Governor The struggle remained only between the Sikhs and of the Punjab. Mir Mannu as Governor of the Punjab Afghans. Ultimately the Sikhs emerged triumphant succeeded him soon after. He also followed a policy from their deadly struggle of the past 30 years and of persecuting the Sikhs. the long drawn agony of their subjections came In spite of the persecutions of Mir Mannu, Sikhs to an end and the dream of their independence remained unsubdued. The greater the persecution, was realised. The tenacity of purpose of the Sikhs the greater became their fanaticism. “The common helped them to fi ght successfully against their rivals. danger and their strong religious feelings kept them Moreover, Ahmad Shah Abdali did not come to under discipline and made every Sikh obey his India to establish an empire in this country. He was leader in order to work for the cause of the Panth”. merely interested in plunder and the result was that Since all of them were suffering, they were brought after his withdrawal the Punjab was left in a chaotic together against the Muslim tyrant. There were also condition and the Sikhs took full advantage of the prospects of getting money if the Muslims were same. The Sikhs also took advantage of the vacuum turned out from the Punjab. Diwan Kaura Mal who created in the Punjab politics after the withdrawal was trusted by Mir Mannu, was also a Sikh by faith. of the Afghans. The dual policy of Adina Beg also He exerted his infl uence to save the Sikhs. helped the Sikhs. Adina Beg sometimes played After the death of Mir Mannu in 1753, his the Afghans against the Sikhs and sometimes the widow, Mughlani Begum, captured all the power Sikhs against the Afghans. The result was that the in Punjab. She was a woman of loose character and Sikhs were saved. It is pointed out that Ahmad Shah resulted in chaos in Punjab. She was imprisoned Adbali became overconfi dent after the Third Battle and Adina Beg was appointed the Governor of the of Panipat in 1761 and underestimated the power Punjab. Adina Beg made an alliance with the Sikhs and strength of the Sikhs. The result was that no and invited the Marathas. However, he died in 1758. adequate action was taken against the Sikhs. The guerilla tactics of the Sikhs also helped them. They Ahmad Shah Abdali attacked India many times. were wise enough to avoid the blunder committed In 1761, he defeated the Marathas in the Third Battle by the Marathas in 1761. There is every reason to of Panipat. However, when he was going back, the Sikhs who also gave a lot of trouble to the Afghan believe that they would have been completely Faujdar harassed him. The Sikhs won a victory at crushed if they had fought pitched battles against Gujranwala and occupied Lahore. Abdali came back Success Ahmad Shah Abdali. of in 1762 and infl icted a crushing defeat on the Sikhs. Reference may be made to some of the effects He ordered a wholesale massacre of the Sikhs and of the invasions of Abdali on the history of the this is known as the second Ghalughara in Sikh Punjab. It is pointed out that his invasions paved History. The Hari Mandir (Amritsar) was destroyed. the way for the rise of the Sikhs in the Punjab. The However, the Sikhs recovered their prestige by frequent invasions of the Afghans added to the defeating Abdali in the Battle of Amritsar and confusion and anarchy in the Punjab and thus the the latter was obliged to run away. As the Sikhs Sikhs were able to set up their Misls. Life became

continued to harass the Afghans, Abdali attacked the Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru insecure in the Punjab and there was a population | 320 |

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ECONOMY AND SOCIETY, 16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES Punjabi saying to this effect: “Khada pita lahe da, dependents agreeably to the general custom to rahnda Ahmed Shah da”. (the only property that we sub-infeudation”. However, Banerjee does not accept hold is what we eat and drink, the rest belong to this view. According to him, the Misls “really formed Ahmad Shah). Another effect of Abdali’s invasions a confederacy which was democratic in composition was that the Punjabis became war-like. They learnt and religious in its cohesive principle”. The Misls to take up arms to defend their hearths and homes. were associations of warriors united by ties of religion. According to Ibbetson, the organisation The Sikh Misls ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA of the Misls was “a curious mixture of theocracy, The term Misl is Arabic word which means democracy and absolutism”. The Sikh Sardars and equal or alike. According to Payne. “As membership the soldiers all fought for the Guru, and when they in such a Jatha or group conferred political, religious assembled at Amritsar before the Guru Granth, they and social equality on all its members. They began to did what that religious gathering decided. It was be designated as Misls.” The Misls came into existence demarcation because every soldier or member of at a time when there was complete anarchy in the Misl enjoyed social and political equality. But as Punjab and Sikhs grouped themselves under certain there was no regular machinery to check the Sardar, leaders and each one of them came to be known it was virtually absolutism. as a Misl. Ordinarily, reference is made to 12 Misls, Gurmatta viz. Singhapuria or Faizapuria Ahluwalia, Ramgarhia, The central organisation of the Misl was the Bhangi, Kanheyia, Sukarchakya, Pulkian, Dallewalia, Gurmatta. The literal meaning of this term is, “advice Karorshinghia or Panjagarhia, Naishanwalia, Nakkai of the spiritual Guru”. It is stated that after the death and Shahid. However, according to Sir Lepel Griffi n, it of the tenth Guru, the Sikhs assembled at Amritsar is not proper to say that there were 12 Misls because on such occasions as Diwali, Dussehra or Baisakhi some of the confederacies were insignificant, and in the presence of the Adi Granth, they discussed e.g. Nishanwalias, Nakkais, the Karorshinghia or their common plans of action at Akal Takhat. Their Panigarhias and the Shahids. Ibbetson also does decisions were put in the form of resolution or not put them in the category of Misls and calls Gurmattas. The Gurmatta performed political, judicial them merely Dehras or camps. According to him, and deliberative functions. According to Maleolm. there were only 8 Misls and 4 Dehras. The Dheras “When the chiefs met on this solemn occasion, it had small tracts of land in the Malwa region of the is concluded that all private animosities cease and Punjab. It is to be observed that all the Misls did not that every man sacrifi ces his personal feelings at come into existence at the same time and also did the shrine of the general good; and actuated by not fl ourish at the same time. Sometimes, one Misl principles of power patriotism, think of nothing but gave birth to another Misl. Jassa Singh Ahluwalia the interests of religion and the commonwealth to served under Nawab Kapur Singh of the Singhapuria which he belongs”. The last Gurmatta was held in Misl but later on set up his own Misl known as the 1805. After that it ceased to be a political institution, Ahuwalia Misl. Likewise the Bhangi Sardars and the there was no regular machinery to enforce the Sukerchakya Chiefs who worked under Jassa Singh, decisions of the Gurmatta except that of religion. set up their separate Misl later on. For the sake of the honour of the Panth, the Sikhs According to Cunningham, the Misls were were determined to enforce those decisions. “theocratic feudalism”. The Misls were loosely knit Success of together by the institution of gurmatta, which met Misl Organisation in times of danger. “The obvious feudal or military Every Misl had a Sardar or Misldar at its head. notion of chain of dependence was acknowledged He was practically supreme in his affairs. However, as the law and the federated Chiefs partitioned he did not interfere in the day-to-day affairs of his then joint conquests among themselves and followers. According to Griffi n, “All that a Sikh Chief divided their respective shares in the same manner demanded in those days from a follower was a horse among them own leaders of bands, while these and a matchlock. All that a follower sought was

again subdivided their portions among their own Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru protection and permission to plunder in the name | 321 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 of God and the Guru under the banner of the chief. increased under Ranjit Singh. The backbone of the There was little question of pay”. According to George armies of the Misls was the cavalry. There was no Thomas, “Within his own dominion each chief is regular training for the soldiers. There was regular lord paramount. He exerts an exclusive authority organisation of the forces of these Misls. The over his vassals, even the power of life and death weapons commonly used by them were swords, and to increase the population of his districts, he spears, matchlocks, sabers, etc. The soldiers of the proffers a ready and hospitable asylum to fugitives Misls believed more in guerrilla warfare than in from all parts of India”. The Misl administration was ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA pitched battles. essentially village administration. Every village was a small republic. There was a panchayat in every THE TWELVE MISLS village. “The Panchayats of council of elders restrain Faizalpuria or Singhpuria Misl the stronger and the weaker against any aggression”. Ahluwalia Misl The common plea was that God acted through The Bhangi Misl Panchayats (Panchayat men Parmishwar). Villages were of two kinds, those directly administered and Ramgarhia Misl those under Rakhi of protection only. From the Kanheyia Misl former, one-fi fth of the produce was taken. A similar Sukarchakya Misl charge was made from the village under the Rakhi Phulkian Misl system. The Rakhi system of the Sikhs was similar to the Chauth system of the Marathas. Dallewalia Misl It is diffi cult to calculate the exact fi ghting Nishanwalia Misl strength of the Sikh Misls. Different writers have Karorshingha Misl made various estimates but it is generally believed Shahids’ Misl or Nihangs’ Misl that their total strength was about one lakh. It Nakai Misl Success of Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru | 322 |

Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com by Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan. Babur also wrote wrote also Babur Khanan. Khan Rahim Abdur by Court. Apart from Faizi, there was Ghazali Mashnadi number of Persian poets. The major influx of Persian to the exponents of this particular school continued Mughal Court. Babur, the fi rst Mughal ruler, was ruler,was fi Babur,the Mughal Court. rst Mughal synthesis in a new genre of Persian literature known Indian and Persian writers like Faizi, Urfi, Naziri, Talib had planned to write a Khamsah according to the toaccording Khamsah a write to planned had Ruba’is.Qasidas,and He Ghazals,of Elegies, Qit’as Akbar’s at resided poets of thousands that writes Amuli, Kalim, andBedil. Kashmiri Ghani from Akbar to Shah Jahan, which included notable rich a created centuries 17th and 16th the during and writers with those of the talented immigrants. was he court,own his up set later he India.When artists,and poets of number a met Iran,he in that literature in India lies in having brought with him a Persian of development the to contribution chief memoirs his wrote he and poet accomplished an LITERATURE PERSIAN HISTORIES ANDOTHER a didactic work known as Mathnavi Mubin. His His Mubin. Mathnavi as known work didactic a Ghazali Mashhadi. His principal work included a included work principal His Mashhadi. Ghazali some of whom he persuaded to accompany him to as (Sabaq Hindi) (‘Indian style’). The patronage given in Turki, which was later, translated into Persian Persian into later,translated was which Turki, in Humayun composed a Persian diwan. Abul Fazl Abul diwan. Persian a composed Humayun themselves composed poetry in Persian; for example, able to coordinate the works of the indigenous poets writers into India started with the return of Humayun from his exile in Iran. It was at Shah Tahmasp’s court, who was known to have been an extremely talented man. He wrote many mathnavis. Faizi succeeded succeeded Faizimathnavis. many wrote He man. diwan named Tabashir al Subh, which consisted consisted which Subh, al Tabashir named diwan Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com The Mughal Emperors and princes often often princes and Emperors Mughal The the of language official the was Persian The stream of Persian poets who visited India, a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt CULTURE INTHEMUGHALEMPIRE CHAPTER-11 | 323

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success court pet and completed, beside his own diwan, own his beside completed, and pet court of Tabriz, who was known to have created a new new a created have to known was Tabriz, of who Shah Jhan’s achievements. The greatest Persian Persian greatest The achievements. Jhan’s Shah 1627) attracted a large number of poets and and poets of number large a attracted 1627) the to according who patrons, greatest the of on chieflrests fame y His reigns. Akbar Jahangir’s and during lived poet, talented and scholar of India. inflhis was it uence,which and Turkey in prestige epistles and Persian translations of Hindu religious works included a Persian adaptation of Lilavati, his writers—both from North India as well as Central as well as India North from writers—both of rulers Shahi Adil the from patronage generous in prose writings. genre new a created only not class ruling Mughal her calling by India to indebtedness his recorded Persianin poetry.style Isfahan,toreturn his On he Ali Saib Muhammad was Mirza period this of poet Urfi Shirazi Abdul Nihawandi. Baqi andMulla patronage his for books.known wasthousand He only a few; for example, Nal Daman. Faizi’s prose Daman. Nal example, for few; a only Asia. Malik Qummi (d. 1640) was one of the best- the of one was (d. 1640) Qummi Asia.Malik as epic poem entitled Padshahnama describing describing Padshahnama entitled poem epic as books. According to some critics, Faizi enjoyed great literary fashion of the time, but could complete complete could but time, the of fashion literary of Persian literature, it also increased the excellence contemporary Persian poet, Ali Quli Salem, enabled known known poets patronised by the Adil Shahi Dynasty. carried the Indo-Persian poetry beyond the borders Bijapur. The court of Ibrahim Adil Shah II (1580- II Shah Adil Ibrahim of court Bijapur. The as a second paradise. Thus, the patronage of the the of patronage paradise. the Thus, second a as the full flowering of Persian poetry in India. Abu Talib maintaining a library that contained more than four Kalim Kalim of Hamadan succeeded Qudsi as Shah Jhan’s extended to numerous writers like Naziri Nishapuri, In the South, Persian literature received received literature Persian South, the In one as acclaimed been has Jahan Shah Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan, an accomplished Downloaded from KnowledgePhilic.com

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 His contemporary Mulla Zuhuri was decidedly the cultivated by the Muslims, the greatest innovation greatest of the Persian poets who fl ourished in the being the evolution of literary Urdu language. Other Deccan. Known to possess a distinct style in both languages modeled on Persian tradition are Punjabi, poetry and prose, he wrote a book called Saginama- Pushtu, Sindhi, Baluchi and Kashmiri. All these share based on the model of the Gulistan of Sadi. a written script with Persian. The Qutab Shahis of Golconda were also Hindi and other Religious Literatures known as great patrons of Persian scholarship and CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Hindi language as known today developed literature under whose patronage varied works over a long period of time. A number of dialects were executed in Persian. In 1651, Muhammad spoken in various regions of northern India Hussain Tabrezi’s Persian dictionary Burhan Qati contributed to its development. The main dialects was compiled under the patronage of Abdulla Qutab from which Hindi emerged are Brajbhasa, Awadhi, Shah. Bustami’s Hadiqal Salatin—a collection of the Rajasthani, Maithili, Bhojpuri, Malwi, etc. Khari Boli, lives of eminent Persian poets—was completed in a mixed form of Hindi, also came into existence in 1681. the 15th-16th centuries. Four historical chronicles of the Qutab Shahi The origins of Hindi date back to 7th and 10th dynasty were rendered into verse during the reign centuries. It was during this period that Hindu was of Muhammad Quli Qutab Shah. An encyclopedic evolving out of Apabharansha. The early period of work of considerable merit (Abu Imad’s Khiraqatul Hindi poetry is called Virgatha Kala (age of heroic ‘Alam) in six volumes testifi es to the interest in and poetry). During this period, the exploits of Rajput contact with Persian culture that was maintained Kings and chieftains were narrated in poetic form. through the warm hospitality that the Qutub Shahi Some of the famous poems are Prithiviraja Raso, rulers offered to the Persian scholars visiting their Hamir Raso, etc. kingdom. As a result, Persian as the regional court The form of poetry, which developed during language at Bijapur and Golconda gained a niche the subsequent period, was devotional (Bhakti). in the South. Kabir was the most famous exponent of this form. Another category of literary works mostly The same tradition continues during the 16th and written in Persian is mystical or Sufi literature. Under 17th centuries. this category come; the treatises written by the Sufi s Derived from a broken form of Sanskrit known on mysticism; collection of letters written by Sufi s; as “Maghadi-Prakrti”, the Hindi literary language Malfuzat (discourses by sufi saints); biographic of bloomed under the pervasive infl uence of the Bhakit Sufi s and collection of sufi poetry. Movement. The new poetry found its best creative Sakinatul Uliya written by Prince Dara Shukoh expression in the writings of Goswami Tulsidas. The is a biographical account of the sufi Miya Mir and poet born in eastern U.P., around 1523, became a his disciples. The Majm’aul Bahrain (Mingling of two mendicant and began to write his masterpiece. oceans) is his other work related to Sufi sm. In this Ramcharita-Manasa in 1574. The popularity work, he has compared the Islamic sufi concepts of this work rested on its language, which closely with Hindu philosophical outlook. resembled Tulsidas’ native Awadhi dialect. Tulsidas

During the period, the Mughal Emperors Success took up the life of Rama as that of an ideal man enriched Persian literature by getting classical Indian of and built around it this philosophy of ‘Bhakti’. His texts translated into Persian. During Akbar’s period observations touched the lives of common men. Singhasan Batisi, Ramayana and Rajtaringni of Among the many works that Tulsidas wrote, Kalhan were also translated. Badauni was associated Vinaya-Patrika or a prayer book brings out his with all these translations. philosophy best. Though he preached pure devotion The Persian literature produced at the Mughal to an almighty God, in his personal life he clung to court exercised a tremendous infl uence in the a single deity investing him with all the necessary

formation of regional literature, especially those Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru attributes of a culf fi gure. | 324 |

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CULTURE IN THE MUGHAL EMPIRE Tulsidas inspired a number of other writers— foundation of a new style of architecture in India like Agradas and Nabhajidas—who composed the had already been laid in the thirteenth century with Bhakta—a well-known account of the Vaisnava the introduction of the arcuate technique where saints dating back to the ancient period. Devotion to spaces were covered with domes and entrances Krishna rather than Rama as the highest incarnation were made with the help of arches. The Mughal of the Supreme Being was propagated by another carried this tradition and created a synthesis of the set of poets who were known as Ashtachapa. These pre-Turkish technique, viz., trabeate with the arcuate. eight men were all disciples of Vallabhacharya, ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA The fi nal result, however, of all this blending was the among whom Surdas, who wrote between 1503- emergence of a distinct style of their own. 1563, was considered the best. The exceptional Babur did not have enough to devote to big personality who brought a new appeal to the architectural projects. He, nevertheless, laid out Krishna hymns was Mirabai. several gardens in India of the pattern of his culture- A Rajput princes turned into a mendicant, area. In his memoirs (Baburnama), he claims the Mira herself became the heroine of many romantic credit for some pavilions also. Unfortunately, very legends. Her songs addressed Krishna as a lover and few of his buildings survive today. portrayed the fi nal subjugation of a ‘Bhakta’ to the Humayun, Babur’s successor was plagued by Supreme Being. These songs originally composed continuously eroding political authority. Within a in the Marwari dialect of Rajasthan were altered decade of his assuming power, he was dethroned through the usage of Brajabhasha, which was and sent into exile in Persia. The buildings dating popular mainly in Gujarat and parts of Northern from this period, therefore, do not show any India. distinctiveness. Humayun survived for only one year after his return to India, in 1555. However, the The Awadhi dialect of Hindi was enriched by impact of a long contact with the Persian culture a number of Sufi poets who used popular tales to can be seen in the designing and execution of explain their mystic messages. Mostly, these dealt his mausoleum; under the supervision of his wife, with the themes of love. Among the writers in this Hamida Banu Begum. genre was Maulana Daud the author of Chandayan, and Kutaban the composer or Mrigavati. The greatest The fl owering of the Mughal architecture in was, however, Malik Muhammad Jayasi whose reality took place under Akbar. He encouraged a famous work Padmavati was composed between hybrid style, containing foreign as well as indigenous A.D. 1520-1540. It is a detailed mystic analysis of the elements. Akbar particularly appreciated the popular legend of queen padmini of Chittor and resources of the indigenous artisans and got them Alauaddin Khilji. The work though better known translated in the buildings of Fatehpur Sikri. for its theme, should also be acclaimed for the Akbar’s son, Jahangir, was not a notable excellence of the Awadhi language in which it was builder, but Jahangir’s son, Shah Jahan, was one of composed. Some Muslim poets belonging to the the greatest patrons of the building art. Some of 17th and 18th centuries are Osman Shaikh Nabi, India’s fi nest monumental heritage dates from Shah Kasim and Mir Muhammad. Jahan’s reign. Marble replaced red sandstone as the principal building material, and the decorative art of Literature in Brajabhasa fl ourished under the

Success inlaying achieved distinction with the introduction

patronage of Akbar and was enriched by poets of of semiprecious stones as only material, called pietra and musicians and his court including Tansen and dura (prachin kari). Shah Jahan also introduced Abdur Rahim- Khan-i-Khana who composed lyrics the bulbous domes and convoluted arches in his on the ‘leela’ of Krishna. buildings. Mughal Architecture Aurangzeb’s temperament did not respond The Mughal rulers were men of acute aesthetic to the style prevailing from his father’s reign. His awareness and, as patron of art and culture, they buildings, therefore, show a change: they are austere

built beautiful cities and buildings in India. The Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru in both material and style. | 325 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Beginning of Mughal Architecture Humayun’s return to Delhi, in 1555, was short The history of architecture, during the 16th- lived. There are in fact no notable buildings of this 18th centuries, is in fact an account of the building time. Mention may; however, be made of Humayun’s activities of Mughal Emperors, except for a bride tomb as a structure which was inspired by the Persian interregnum of a decade and a half when Surs ruled culture imbibed by Humayun during his exile. This in Delhi. building is in fact a landmark in the development of It is true that the Mughal style of architecture the Mughal style of architecture. The construction CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA took a concrete form during the reign of Akbar, began, in 1564, after Humayun’s death under the yet the basic principles of Mughal architecture patronage of his widow, Hamida Bano Begum. The were provided by Babur and Humayun, the two architect of the building was Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, a predecessors of Akbar. native of Persia. He brought many Persian craftsmen to Delhi to work on the structure and their skills Buildings of Babur and techniques were liberally employed. The tomb Babur had a short reign of fi ve years, most has, thus, become the representative of an Indian of which was spent in fighting battles for the rendition of a Persian concept. It may be noted that consolidation of the newly born Mughal state. He Humayun’s tomb, strictly speaking, is a building of is, however, known to have taken considerable Akbar’s reign. But because of peculiar features, it interest in building secular works. It is unfortunate has been treated separately. that very little of this work is extant today. The Humayun’s tomb is one of the earliest only standing structures of Babur’s reign are two specimens of the garden enclosure and is raised mosques, built in 1526, at Panipat and Sambhal. high on an arcaded sandstone platform. The tomb But both these structures are commonplace, and is octagonal in plan and is crowned by a high dome, possess no architectural merit. which is actually a double dome. It has two shells, Babur’s secular works mainly comprise the with an appreciable space in between. The inner laying of gardens and pavilions. In one of the shell forms the vaulted ceiling to the inner chambers, miniatures, he has been depicted inspecting the and the outer shell rises like a bulb in a proportion layout plan of a garden of Dholpur. Today, only with the elevation of the main building. To the center the excavated ruins of this garden are visible. Two of each side of the tomb is a porch with a pointed more gardens, Ram Bagh and Zahara Bagh at Agra, arch providing entrance to the main chamber. The are also attributed to him. But the present layout interior of this building is a group of compartments, of these gardens seems to have undergone many the largest in the centre containing the grave of the alterations. None of Babur’s pavilions have been Emperor. The smaller ones in each angle were meant noticed as surviving today. to house the graves of his family member. Each Buildings of Humayun room is octagonal in plan and they are connected The surviving buildings of Humayun’s reign by diagonal passages. have the same inconsequential character as that Interregnum: The Sur Architecture of Babur. The Mughal domination over India was The Mughal rule is India was interrupted by too unsettled for the production of any great Sher Shah Suri in 1540. For the next fi fteen years work of architecture. Moreover, Humayun had to Success the Empire came under the sway of the Surs who spend fi fteen long years of his life in exile, in Persia, of during the ascendance of the Sur dynasty in Delhi. embarked on profound architectural projects. Their However, two mosques from among several other building, in fact, laid the groundwork on which the buildings erected during the fi rst phase of his reign Mughals built. survive. One of these lies in ruinous conditions at The architectural heritage produced under Agra. The other is at Fatehabad (Hissar). But both diverse conditions and in two separate localities these structures are devoid of any architectural of the Surs may be divided into two separate and distinctiveness much in the same manner as the distinct periods. The fi rst phase emerged at Sasaram

mosques of Babur. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru (Bihar), under Sher Shah, between 1530 and 1540. | 326 |

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CULTURE IN THE MUGHAL EMPIRE Here, a group of tombs was built illustrating the other, each with an open archway recessed within it. fi nal fulfi lment of the Lodi Style by which it has The façade is richly craved in black and white marble been inspired. The second phase lasted from 1540 and red sandstone, and the central arch is fl anked to 1545, when Sher Shah had wrested control of the by narrow, fl uted pilasters. The rear carriers of the Empire from Humayun. Under his patronage, several mosque have fi ve stair turrets with rich windows architectural innovations were adopted which got carried on brackets. refl ected in mature form in the consequent Mughal One notable feature in this building is the shape CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA style. of the arches—there is a slight drop, or fl atness, in the The fi rst phase is represented by a group of curve towards the crown. It is indicative of the last tombs, three belonging to the ruling family and one stage before the development of the four-centred to Aliwal Khan who was the architect of these tombs. “Tudor” arch of the Mughals. The buildings refl ect the ambition of Sher Shah Architecture Under Akbar to create the monuments grander than anything found in Delhi. The fi rst project of this scheme was Akbar’s reign can be taken as the formative the construction of the tomb of Hasan Khan, Sher period of Mughal architecture. It represents the fi nest Shah’s father, in 1525. But this was a conventional example of the fusion of Indo-Islamic architecture. exercise in Lodi design. The major representative Structural Form of this group was the tomb of Sher Shah (Sasaram), The architecture of the reign of Akbar an architectural masterpiece. Here, the architect represents encouragement of the indigenous considerably enlarged the normal proportions of techniques and a selective use of the experiences the earlier building and set it in a beautiful tank of other countries. The chief elements of the style of approached by a causeway. In addition to this, he architecture that evolved under Akbar’s patronage increased the number of stories, thus, producing can be listed thus: a beautiful pyramid cal structure in fi ve distinct stages. This monument was constructed of the fi nest 1. The buildings mainly used red sandstone as Chunar Sandstone. the building material; Sher Shah’s tomb stands on a stepped square 2. A widespread use of the trabeated plinth on a terrace appreciated through a gateway construction; via a bridge place across the tank. There is an error 3. The arches used mainly in decorative form in orienting the lower platform of the tomb on the rather than in structural form; main axis. But it is corrected by skewing the axis of 4. The dome was of the ‘Lodi’ type, sometimes the super-structure built over the lower platform. built hollow but never technically of the true The main building comprises an octagonal chamber double order; surrounded by an arcade. There are domed canopies 5. The shafts of the pillars were multifaceted and in each corner of the platform. The proportions of the capitals of these pillars invariably took the diminishing stages and the harmonious transition form of bracket supports; and from square to octagon and to sphere are elements 6. The decoration comprised of boldly carved which speak highly of the capabilities of the Indian or inlaid patterns complemented by brightly architect. Success

of colored patterns on the interiors. The second phase of development took place in Delhi. Sher Shah built the Purana Quila intended Building Projects to be the sixth city of Delhi. Today, only two isolated Akbar’s building projects can be divided into gateways survive. Far more important, however, was two main groups each representing a different the Qilai Kuhana masjid, built about 1542, inside the phase. The fi rst group comprised buildings of forts citadel. In the architectural scheme of and a few places mainly at Agra, Allahabad and this mosque, the façade of the prayer hall is divided Lahore. The second group related basically to the

into fi ve arched bays, the central one larger than the Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru construction of his new capital at Fateh-pur Sikri. | 327 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 1. The First Phase: One of the earliest The same style is manifested in the other building projects of Akbar’s reign was the place-fortresses at Lahore and Allahabad. Only construction of a fort at Agra, conceived the fort at Ajmer represents a different class. actually as a fortress-place. Its massive walls Since it spearheaded the advancing frontier and battlements convey an effect of great of the Empire, the walls of the fort were thickly power. Inside the fort, Akbar had built many doubled. structure in the styles of Bengal and Gujarat. 2. The Second Phase: The second phase of Except the Jahangiri Mahal, however, all the ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Akbar’s architectural scheme coincides with other structures were demolished by Shah the conception and creation of a ceremonial Jahan as part of a later phase of remodeling. Today, the Delhi Gate of the fort and Jahangiri capital for the Empire at Sikri, nearly forty Mahal are the only representative buildings kilometers west of Agra. The new capital was of Akbar’s reign. named Fatehpur. The Delhi Gate of Agra Fort probably It is one of the most remarkable monuments represents Akbar’s earlier architectural effort. in India. In its design and layout, Fatehpur It formed the principal entrance to the fort. The Sikri is a city where the public areas like the architecture of the gate shows an originality courtyards, Diwan-i-Am and jami Masjid form signifying the start of a new era in the building a coherent group around the private palace art of India. The gate follows a simple plan; the apartments. The city was built in a very short different components are: span of time (1571-1585) and as such does (a) A front consisting of two broad octagonal not follow any conscious overall plan. The lower by the sides of a central archway; buildings were sited to relate to each other (b) A back having arcaded terraces topped and to their surroundings. An asymmetry by kiosks and pinnacles; and seems to have been deliberately incorporated into the setting-out and design of the (c) An ornamentation consisting of patterns complex. All the buildings are in characteristic in white marble inlaid against the red sandstone background. rich red sandstone, using traditional trabeate construction. The pillars, lintels, brackets, The Jahangiri Mahal was built by Akbar tiles and posts were cut from local rocks and and is conceived as a robust building in red assembled without the use of mortar. sandstone. It is the only surviving example in the fort of the domestic requirements of the The buildings in Fatehpur Sikri may be resolved ruler and is a fi ne specimen of the fusion of into two categories; religious and secular the Hindu and Islamic building designs. It is character. The religious buildings comprise planned in the form of an asymmetrical range (a) the Jami Masjid; of apartments. The facade on the eastern side (b) the Buland Darwaza; and has an entrance gateway leading to a domed (c) the tomb of Shaikh Salim Chisti. hall with elaborately caved ceiling. As one crosses this hall, one reaches a central open The buildings of secular nature are more varied courtyard. On the north side of this courtyard and thus numerous. These can be grouped is a pillared hall with a roof supported on piers Success under of and cross beams with serpentine brackets. (a) places; The southern side, too, has a similar hall. (b) administrative buildings; and This symmetry is, however, broken on the east side by a set of chambers that lead to a (c) structures of miscellaneous order. portico facing the river Yamuna. The entire It is a curious fact that the religious building construction is mainly in red sandstone with are invariably built in the arcuate style while the combination of beam and bracket forming in secular buildings dominates the trabeate

its principal structural system. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru order. | 328 |

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CULTURE IN THE MUGHAL EMPIRE The Jami Masjid uses the typical plan of a were originally enclosed by screens of red mosque—a central courtyard, arcades on three sandstone. But none remain intact now. An sides and domed skyline. The western side has interesting feature is that the columns on the prayer hall with three separate enclosed which the fi ve storeys have been raised are sanctuaries, each surmounted by a dome all dissimilar in design. Of the administrative and linked by arcades. The usual entrance to buildings, undoubtedly the most distinctive the masjid is form the east where stands the is the Diwani Khas. The plan of this building structure of a big gateway projected in the ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA is in the form of a rectangle and is in two form of a half hexagonal porch. stories from outsides. It has fl at terraced roof In 1596, the southern gateway was replaced with pillared domed kiosks rising above each by Akbar with a victory gate, "The Buland corner. Inside, there is a magnifi cent carved Darwaza". It is constructed in red and yellow column in the centre, having a huge bracket sandstone with white marble inlay outlining capital supporting a circular stone platform. the span of the arches. The loftiness of the Form this platform radiate four railed ‘bridges’ structure is enhanced by a fl ight of steps on along each diagonal of the hall to connect the outside. The entrance has been formed by the galleries surrounding the upper portion a piercing huge central arch which is crowned of the hall. The main architectural object in by an array of domed kiosks. The Buland- this interior is the central column. The shaft Darwaza was built to commemorate Akbar’s is variously patterned and branches out, at conquest of Gujarat in 1573. the top, into a series of closely set volute and pendulous brackets which support the central The tomb of Salim Chisti stands in the courtyard platform. of the Jami Masjid in the northwestern quarter. It is an architectural masterpiece as it exhibits Architecture under Jahangir and Shah Jahan one of the fi nest specimens of marble work Akbar’s death, in 1605, did in not way hamper in India. The structure was completed in 1581 the development of a distinctive Mughal architecture and was originally faced only partly in marble. under his successors. A secure Empire and enormous The serpentine brackets supporting the eaves wealth in ligeancy in fact permitted both Jahangir and the carved lattice screens are remarkable and Shah Jahan to pursue interest in the visual arts. features of this structure. The palace complex in Fatehpur Sikri comprises New Features a number of apartments and chambers. The In the sphere of the building art, Jahangir and largest of these buildings is known as the Shah Jahan’s reigns were an age of marble. The place Jodha Bai Palace. The palace is massive and of red sandstones was soon taken over by marble austere in character. The wall outside is plain in its most refi ned form. This dictated signifi cant with principal buildings attached to inner side, stylistic changes which have been listed below: all facing an interior courtyard. On the north 1. The arch adopted a distinctive form with side is an arcaded passage and a balcony. foliated curves, usually with nine cusps; There are rooms in the upper storey in the 2. Marble arcades of engrailed arches became

north and south wings. They have ribbed roofs Success

of a common feature; covered with bright blue glased tiles from Multan. 3. The dome developed a bulbous form with stifl ed neck. Double domes became very A unique building of the palace complex common; is the Panch mahal, a fi ve storeys structure, located south-east of the Diwani Khas. The 4. Inlaid patterns in coloured stones became size of the fi ve stores successively diminishes the dominant decorative form; and as one goes upwards. At the top is a small 5. In the buildings, form the latter half of

domed kiosk. Some of the sides in this building Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru the Jahangir’s reign, a new device of inlay | 329 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 decoration called pietra dura was adopted. of this structure to varying degree. Particular In this method, semi-precious stones such as mention may be made of the tomb of Jahangir at lapis lazuli, onyx, jasper, topaz and cornelian Shahadara near Lahore and of Nur Jahan’s father were embedded in the marble in graceful Mirza Ghiyas Bet at Agra. foliations. The tomb of Itimadud Daula, built in 1522-8, by Major Buildings Nur Jahan, on the grave of the father Mirza Ghiyas Beg marks a change in architectural style from Akbar The account of the major buildings of this ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA to Jahangir and Shah Jahan. The transition from the period begins with a remarkable structure, that robustness of Akbar’s buildings to more sensuous is, the tomb of Akbar, located at Sikandra, eight architecture of the later period is evident in the kilometers from the Agra on Delhi road. It was conception of this structure. designed by Akbar himself and begun in his own lifetime but remained incomplete at the time of his The tomb is square structure raised on a low platform. There are four octagonal minarets, at each death. Subsequently, it was completed by Jahangir corner, with domed roofs. The central chamber is with modifi cations in the original design. As it stands surrounded by a verandah enclosed with beautiful today, the entire complex is a curious mix of the marble tracery. The main tomb is built in white architectural schemes of both Akbar and Jahangir. marble and is embellished with mosaics and pietra The scheme of this complex envisages the dura. The central chamber contains the yellow location of tomb in the midst of an enclosed garden marble tomb of Itimadaud Daula and his wife. The with gateway in the centre of each side of the side rooms are decorated with painted fl oral motifs. enclosing wall. Four red sandstone gateways enclosing a square The tomb building in the centre is a square garden provide splendid foil for the white marble structure built up in three stories. The fi rst storey is tomb at its centre. in fact an arcaded platform making the basement. It should be noted here that Jahangir was a Within the platform vaulted cells surrounded the much greater patron of the art of painting. His love mortuary chamber and a narrow inclined corridor of fl owers and animals as refl ected in the miniature in the south leads to the grave. The middle portion painting of his period, made him a great lover of the is in three tiers of red sandstone pavilions trabeated art of laying out gardens rather than building huge throughout. The two storey, of white marble in monuments. Some of the famous Mughal gardens of contrast to the red sandstone elsewhere, had an Kashmir such as the Shalimar Bagh and the Nishat open court surrounded by colonnades with screens. Bagh stand as testimony to Jahangir’s passion. The tomb is linked by causeways and canals to the In contrast to Jahangir, his son and successor, gateways in the enclosure wall. But it is the one in the Shah Jahan, was a prolifi c builder. His reign was south which provides the only entrance, the other marked by an extensive architectural works in his three being false gateways added for symmetry. favourite building material, the marble. Some of The southern gateway is a two-storey structure these were: with circular minarets of white marble rising above 1. The palace-forts, e.g. the Lal Quila at Delhi; the corners. The entire structure of the gateway is 2. The mosques, e.g. the Moti Masjid in the Agra ornamented with painted stucco-colored stone Success and marble only. Interestingly, the decorative of Fort and the Jami Masjid at Delhi; and motifs include, besides the traditional fl oral designs, 3. The garden-tombs, e.g. the Taj mahal. arabesques and calligraphy, gaja (the elephant), We shall describe here only the more important hamsa (the swan), padma (the lotus), swastika and and representative buildings of Shah Jahan’s reign. chakra. The Lal Quila is a regular rectangle with the The architectural importance of Akbar’s tomb north wall following the old course of the Yamuna at Sikandra can be gauged from the fact that several River. There are two gateways—the Delhi and

mausoleums built subsequently refl ect the infl uence Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Lahore Gates, and massive round bastions at regular | 330 |

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CULTURE IN THE MUGHAL EMPIRE intervals along the wall. The gates are fl anked by lofty entrance gateway in the middle of the southern octagonal towers with blind arcades and topped by side. There are octagonal pavilions, six in all, at the cupolas. A moat runs all along the fort wall except the corners and in the eastern and western sides. The riverside. Inside, there are several notable buildings main building of the Taj Stands on a large marble of which particular mention may be of Diwani-Am, platform. To the west of this structure is a mosque Diwani-Khas and Rang Mahal. The Diwani-Am and with a replica on the east side retaining the effect Rang Mahal are arcaded pavilions with sandstone of symmetry. CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA columns is pairs, plastered with powdered marble. In We are told that prominent artisans were the eastern wall of the Diwani-Am is built the throne invited from various countries to help in designing platform for the Emperor having curved corniced and constructing the Taj. The fi nal plan of the Taj roof in the style of the Bengal architecture. Behind was prepared after a lot of discussion and many this structure on the eastern side in located the Rang variations. To begin with, a model of the Taj was Mahal fronted by an open courtyard. Further north, prepared in wood and this was followed by the in alignment with the Rang Mahal is the Diwani- artisans. The Taj was constructed under the guidance Khas. All of these buildings have fl oral decorations of Ustad Isa and he was paid a salary of  1,000 per on the walls, columns and piers. month. In the Moti Masjid, in the Agra Fort, Shah Jahan On the authority of Father Manrique of Spain, it made experiment with an alternative scheme—an is contended that the Taj was designed by Geronimo open arcaded prayer hall. Moreover, in this mosque Veroneo, a Venetian. There is nothing impossible the designer has also dispensed with the minarets. or surprising in Shah Jahan’s taking the advice In their place, chhatris have been used on all four from a Venetian architect. However, it is strange to corners of the prayer hall. There are three bulbous maintain that the Taj was designed by a foreigner. domes rising over a cusped arcades. The entire Father Manrique did not get his information directly building has been built in white marble with black from the Venetian. No other European writer of the marble calligraphy, heightening the elegance of Mughal period mentions the fact that the Taj was the structure. designed by a foreigner. Even Peter Mundy does not The Jami Masjid, at Delhi, is an extended and make a mention of this. The same is the case with larger version of the Jami Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri Travernier and Bernier. None of them maintains that and thus becomes the largest building of its kind the designer of the Taj was a venetian. Thevenot, a in India. It is built on a raised platform surrounded French traveller, who visited the Taj in 1660, wrote by arcades that have been left open on both sides. thus: “This superb monument is suffi cient to show The main entrance is on the eastern side with an that the Indians are not ignorant of architecture, and ascending fl ight of steps increasing the effect of thought the style may appear curious to Europeans, loftiness. There are two smaller gateways in the it is good taste and one could only say that it is very middle of the northern and southern wings. Within fi ne”. Likewise, no contemporary Indian writer says the mosque follows a plan similar to the Jami Masjid that the Taj was designed by a foreigner. According at Fatehpur Sikri—colonnade running along the to Abdul Hamid Lahori, “It may be observed that three sides and sanctuary on the fourth side. Three bands of sculptors, lapidaries, inlayers and fresco- bulbous domes made of marble rise above the Success makers came from the different parts of His Majesty’s sanctuary. The building material used here is red of dominions. The experts of each art together with sandstone with white marble for revetments and their assistants busied themselves in the task”. It is for inlaying the frames of panels. pointed out that even a critical examination of the The Taj Mahal is undoubtedly Shah Jahan’s building itself shows that it is in Asiatic style. As a grandest and most well known project. The matter of fact, there is more of Persian infl uence than construction work began in 1632, and most of it of European infl uence. Havell was of the opinion that was completed by the year 1648. The plan of the there was nothing to support the view that the Taj

complex is rectangle with high enclosure will and Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru was designed by a Venetian. | 331 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 It took 22 years to complete the work of designed in the form of three cupolas in the same construction of the Taj. There are writers who give alignment. a different duration. It was estimated to have cost The mausoleum of his wife at Aurangabad, is about  3 crore. According to Abdul Hamid Lahori an attempt at emulating the Taj Mahal. But a serious “The cost of building several edifi ces which are miscalculation on the part of Aurangzeb’s architects detailed above, and which were completed in nearly in providing the corners of the mausoleum, too, with 12 years under the supervision of Makramat Khan minarets upsets the harmony of the entire building. CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA and Mir Abdul Karim amounted to  50 lakhs". It may These minarets, which are superfl uous in the overall be pointed out that the inscription at the entrance of scheme of the building, are the only major deviation the Taj is dated A.D. 1647. This also comes to about in copy from the original scheme of the Taj Mahal. 17 years. The period of 22 years is given by Travernier. The Safdar Jang’s Tomb We are told that Shah Jahan assigned to the Taj landed property which was expected to give After Aurangzeb’s death, in 1707, the collapse of the Empire was only a matter of time. The few an annual income of  1 lakh. An equal amount was to be got from the rents of the shops, inns and buildings that were built during the fi rst half of bazaars, graceful arches, columns and minerals, the eighteenth century amply testify the decadent high and well-shaped domes, elegant and chaste conditions that ensued. ornamental designs, cubic inscriptions of a high The Safdar Jang’s tomb, at Delhi, is the most order and sparing use of Hindu motifs. important building of this period. It is located amidst a large garden and copies the plan of the Taj Mahal Buildings of Aurangzeb in the same manner as was done in the Rabia ud Aurangzeb had none of his father’s passion Dauran’s tomb. One major change in the design, for architecture. Under him, the generous however, is that the minarets rise as an adjunct to the encouragement given by his predecessors to main building and not as independent structures. the arts was almost withdrawn. The architectural The main building stands on an arcaded platform. works during the reign of Aurangzeb were less It is double storeyed and is covered by a large and numerous and a lower standard than those executed almost spherical dome. The minarets rise as turrets under any previous Mughal ruler. In Delhi itself, and are topped by domed kiosks. The building is in the capital city of the Empire, very few buildings red sandstone with marble paneling. The cusps of are associated with his name. The major buildings the arches are less curved, but synchronise well with include the mausoleum of his wife Rabia ud Dauran the overall dimensions of the building. in Aurangabad, the Badshahi Masjid is comparable to the Delhi one is size and architectural composition. MUGHAL PAINTING It has a vast court, a freestanding prayer fall and The emergence of the Mughal School of minarets at each corner of the hall. There are four painting as distinct from all other styles was mainly smaller minarets at each angle of the sanctuary. The due to the deep interest Akbar took in the promotion cloisters run on the both sides with arched entrances of this art. at regular intervals. There is only one portal. The building material is red sandstone with the use of Akbar’s views on the Art of Painting white marble as a relief to the red sandstone. Atop Success Drawing the likeness of anything is called of the prayer hall, three bulbous domes in white marble tasvir. His majesty, from his earliest youth, has rise beautifully. shown a great predilection for this art, and gives The other important building of this period is it every encouragement, as he looks upon it as a the Moti Masjid in the Lal Qila, Delhi. The marble used means, both of study and amusement. Hence the in its construction is of a very fi ne quality. The plan art fl ourishes, and many painters have obtained is similar to the Moti Masjid built by Shah Jahan in great reputation. The works of all painters are Agra fort; only the curves are more prominent. The weekly laid before His Majesty by the Daroghas

three bulbous domes cover the prayer hall which is Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru and the clerks; the then confers rewards according | 332 |

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CULTURE IN THE MUGHAL EMPIRE to excellence of workmanship, or increases the four artists have worked. The painting was, thus, a monthly salaries. Much progress was made in the collaborative team work. The sketching of fi gures commodities required for painters, and the correct and colouring were done by a team of two different prices of such articles were carefully ascertained. The artists. In cases where three artists have worked the mixture of colors has especially been improved. The outlining was done by one artist, the other artist pictures thus received a hitherto unknown fi nish. coloured the faces and a third one coloured the Most excellent painters are now to be found, and remaining fi gure. It is however not known to us as masterpieces, worthy of a Bihzad, may be placed at ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA to how was such a complex arrangement worked the side of the wonderful works of the European out. Probably in such a team work the sketching painters who have attained worldwide fame. The and colouring were done by separate artists. (Cf. minuteness in detail, the general fi nish, the boldness S.P. Verma, op. cit.) of execution, etc., now observed in pictures, are As has been noted above, the atelier was incomparable; even inanimate objects look as if they supervised by daroghas with the assistance of had life. More than a hundred painters have become clerks. They were responsible for making materials of famous masters of the art, whilst the number of painting easily available to the artists and to oversee those who approach perfection, or of those who the progress of their work. They also arranged for are middling, is very large. This is especially true of periodical presentation of the artists’ works before the Hindus; their pictures surpass our conception the Emperor. of things. Few, indeed, in the whole world are found equal to them. — Ain-i-Akbari (Abul Fazal) Style and Technique The illustration done at Akbar’s court are Establishment of Royal Atelier considered as representative works of the Mughal art. The fi rst major project undertaken during Notably, however, in these paintings, there is evident Akbar’s regime was that of illustrating the Hamza a gradual evolution in the style and technique. The Nama. It began, in 1562, for which several artists illustrations of the early phase are clearly infl uenced were employed at the court. by the Persian tradition, the identifying of which The place where the painters worked was are listed below: known as Tasvir Khana. Although Abul Fazal 1. Symmetrical compositions; enumerates the names of only seventeen artists, we 2. Restricted movement of fi gures; now know that the number was very large. S.P. Verma 3. Fineness of the lines of drawings; (Art, Material Culture in the Paintings of Akbar’s 4. Flat depiction of architectural columns; and Court, Vikas, New Delhi, 1978) has prepared a list 5. Profuse embellishment of buildings in the of 225 artists who worked at Akbar’s atelier. These manner of jewels. artists belonged to different places, but among them Later, the paintings acquired a distinctive the majority were Hindus. Interestingly, several low character of their own. They assumed a more eclectic caste people, due primarily to their artistic skill, were character composed mainly of the Persian and also raised to the status of royal artist. The case of Indian traditions with touches of European infl uence. Daswant, who was the son of a Kahar (palki-bearer), may be especially cited. The painters were assisted Distinctive Features Success by a set of gilders, line-drawers and pagers. The of The Mughal style became recognizable within artists were salaried employees. S.P. Verma opines a span of fi fteen years since the setting up of royal that the lowest paid worker in the atelier received atelier under Akbar. In the next decade or so, i.e. an amount between 600 to 1200 dams. (40 dams by about 1590 it acquired a distinctive form which = one rupaya). was marked by: There are paintings which bear the names of 1. Naturalism and rhythm two artists. Sometimes even three artists worked on 2. Clothing objects of daily use assuming Indian

a single painting. On one painting from Akbarnama Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru forms | 333 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993

3. Picture space having subsidiary scenes set in Tutinama c. 1570-1580 background Tarikh-I Khandan-I c.1570-1590 4. Extraordinary vigor of action and violent Timuriya movement Baburnama c. 1570-1590 5. Luxuriant depiction of foliage & brilliant blossoms Akbarnama c. 1570-1600

It should be emphasised here that the identity ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Tarikh-I Alfi c. 1570-1600 of the Mughal paintings under Akbar was as much Razmnama 1582 made of an original style as a fusion of the Persian and Indian traditions. Specifi c mention may be made Developments under Jahangir and here of the depiction of action and movement which Shahjahan is not be found in either the pre-Mughal art of India During Jahangir and Shahjahan, Mughal or the art of Persia. (S.P. Verma in Art & Culture, eds. painting achieved its zenith. Jahangir took a deep A.J. Qaiser & S.P. Verma, Jaipur, 1993). interest in painting even as a prince. He maintained Painting under Akbar’s period distinguishes his own studio apart from Akbar’s large atelier. itself as a tradition from Persian painting as well as Jahangir’s preference was for paintings of hunting from Indian styles particularly by the presence of scenes, birds and fl owers. He also continued the historical subject matter. The most commonly used tradition of portraiture. Under Shahjahan the colors themes are: of the paintings became more decorative and gold 1. Daily events of the court, and was more frequently used for embellishment. In 2. Portraits of leading personalities. the following sub-sections, we shall study the introduction of new styles and thematic variations in While portrait painting was known in Persia, Mughal paintings during Jahangir and Shahjahan’s painting as a chronicle of actual events was certainly reign. a new emphasis. Painters used familiar formulas for hunting or battle scenes regardless of the fact that Introduction of New Styles the literary reference for the scene was historical or In the period of Jahangir’s rule (1605-07), purely imaginary. Moreover specifi c events in the manuscript became less important than individual earliest known historical manuscript of this period, pictures. Milo Cleveland Beach (Mughal and Rajput ‘recording’ quite different events in the earliest Painting, Cambridge University Press, 1992) is of the known historical manuscript of this period, the opinion that Jahangir, with his personal involvement, Timur Nama of about A.D.1580. Possibly, painters may have functioned effectively as the head of conceived scenes according to a repertoire of the royal studio. Therefore, the artistic decisions types e.g. the seize of a fortress, crossing a river, an were made by the Emperor himself consequently audience or battle scene. In the working of whole introducing his own stylistic preferences in the volumes such as the Akbar Nama, the artists seem paintings. Two important new elements in the to have reworked or adapted these compositional style of Mughal painting during the fi rst half of the types. Painters usually created new compositions seventeenth century have been identifi ed as below: Success

only when no prototypes existed, and only a few of 1. Jahangir’s paintings seem to accentuate a artists were capable of such invention. formalist style, i.e., making the work realistic We have listed below, in chronological order and preferring the precise recording of famous illustrated manuscripts of this period: contemporary reality. Manuscript Date 2. The paintings of this period have broad Hamzanama c. 1562-1580 margins which are gorgeously decorated with Anwar-I Suhaili 1570 the depiction of fl ora and faces of human

Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru fi gures, etc. designs from plant motifs. | 334 |

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CULTURE IN THE MUGHAL EMPIRE Thematic Variations reinterpreted, sometimes, by Mughal painters. At the Jahangir was a keen naturalist. Whenever he same time, many original prints from Europe were came across a strange animal or bird, his artists collected and preserved in the albums of Jahangir painted the same immediately. We have paintings and Dara Shikoh and several Mughal nobles. (A.J. of birds and animals in the most realistic fashion. Qaisar, Indian Response to European Technology & Culture, Oxford, 1982). Shah Jahan was a great patron of architecture, The contact Mughal court painters had with but he did not neglect the painting. Under him, the ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA previous tradition of doing portraits, preparing European paintings prompted them initially to make albums, and, illustrating books, was continued. exact copies in their own hands. Such imitations, Additionally, we find the paintings depicting as noted by contemporary European travellers, charming love scenes and portraits of female were impeccably done. But Mughal painter also members. Another important theme chosen for made experiments by making new paintings on the painting was super imposition of animals and the subjects chosen from European paintings. scenes of performing acrobats. One important feature that becomes noticeable in some Mughal paintings is the attempt to make Final Phase them three-dimensional. Clearly it speaks of the Aurangzeb, who succeeded Shahjahan, had impact of European technique. Another European begun his rule on a bitter note by executing his convention acceptable to Mughal painters was the brothers and imprisoning his father. The arts were effect of light and shade, mostly utilised in fi ght ignored during his regime. Painting did not stop scenes. The depiction of motifs like ‘hals’, winged altogether, though it lists the patronage of the angles and roaring clouds in Mughal paintings was emperor and became confi ned to the studios of again under the infl uence of European paintings. the nobles. There exist some commissioned portraits One important technique that of oil painting from of the nobles and their relations from the courts of Europe, somwwhat did not attract the Mughals. the Rajput principalities. Large number of karkhana There is no work from this period that was executed records (on paintings) are located in the Rajasthan in oil. State Archives, Bikaner. There also exist a few interesting pictures of the emperor himself during PROVINCIAL ARCHITECTURE AND his campaigns. The skill of the painters is evident, PAINTING though the paintings are more formal and seem to have lost their earlier liveliness. Painting in the Deccan Later, under Muhammed Shah (1719-48), A distinct style of painting emerged in the interest got renewed in depicting pleasure-loving kingdoms of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda in scenes. But this time, many of the painters of imperial the Deccan, in the late 15th century and predates studio had begun migrating to provincial courts. the Mughal painting. But the greatest patronage The loss of the Mughals, thus, was the gain of the to painting in these kingdoms was given in the provincial styles. sixteenth century under the impact of the Mughal tradition. Here we shall trace the developments in European Impact on Mughal Painting the Deccan painting, during the 16th-17th centuries. The elastic nature of the Mughal School of Success of Painting has been discussed in the Unit earlier. In Court Patronage its later phases, especially during the Seventeenth Ali Adil Shah who had several painters working Century, the Mughal painting was infl uenced by the at his court. But the greatest of the Bijapur line, and European art. Some of the themes of European art perhaps of all the rulers of the successor states, were incorporated by Mughal painters and they also was Ibrahim Adil Shah (1580-1627) who was an adopted a few of the techniques of European artists. accomplished painter and a calligraphist. Towards According to A.J. Qaisar, a large number of European the close of the 16th century, there had emerged

paintings were either copied or adapted or even Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru a new tradition of painting in Ahmadnagar and | 335 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Bijapur, known as the Ragamala painting. Under 4. Exaggerated swirl of the girdle and stole, Ibrahim’s patronage this tradition reached the especially in the case of feminine fi gures, and highest point of its growth. 5 Intersection of diagonals so as to form an arch There is another category of paintings in the around the principal fi gures. Deccan style which depict the pomp and grandeur Rajasthani Painting of the royal processions. Several paintings of this type have come down to us from the reign of The Rajasthani paintings have a distinct CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Abdulla Qutb Shah (1626-72) of Golkonda. aesthetic quality. The emergence of this style, in the opinion of Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, from the earlier In the 18th Century patronage of painting pre-Turkish traditions reached its consummation in the Deccan passed to the Asf Jahi dynasty of around 1600. In its early phase, it showed a great Hyderabad. The painting of Azam Shah returning vigour, though it absorbed Mughal infl uence later. from bird-shooting and approaching his pleasure After the collapse of the Mughal power, it reemerged garden at the foot of the Golconda fort, and the and fl ourished under the patronage of different album of Himmatyar Khan, a noble of the Nizam’s Rajput kingdoms. In the following sub-sections, court, are some of important surviving examples of we shall discuss the main style and themes of the the Deccani painting from Hyderabad. Rajasthani schools as also the main centers where Style and Themes the art fl ourished in the 17th and 18th centuries. Numerous infl uences seem to have affected Style and Themes the formation of the Deccani tradition. Many of the Rajasthani painting, since its beginning, rulers of Deccan kingdoms were connoisseurs of adopted nature as the main theme. The illustrations Persian painting and built up good collections of are almost like landscape paintings where human miniatures and manuscripts. The infl uence of the fi gures seem to play only subordinate roles. Some Persian tradition is thus evident in the paintings of the main elements of nature depicted in these done at their courts. It should, however, be noted paintings are: that this assimilations is not precise and disciplined. Consequently, many of the features have been 1. A variety of tree forms; taken over without the refi nement of the Persian 2. A dense foliage; paintings. Another signifi cant infl uence on the 3. Singing birds and frolicking animals; Deccan paintings is that of the Mughal school. 4. Rivers full of lotus blossoms; and Contacts between Deccani and Mughal traditions developed in many ways. There were exchanges 5. Drops of rain falling from deep blue clouds. of artists between the two courts as also gifts of The Rajasthani miniatures are also known for paintings. the intensity of colors used. Deep blue for clouds, But the Deccan paintings cannot be analysed streaks of gold showing fl ashes of lightening, and primarily on the basis of various derivative infl uences. emerald green for foliage are some of the most The best specimens of Deccan paintings creatively prominently used colors. The major themes selected reshape extraneous suggestions and become by painters of this genre are: Success 1. Hunting scenes; aesthetically original. Thus, the features typical of of Deccan paintings are: 2. Portraits; and 1. Hierarchical scaling, i.e. the principal fi gure 3. Musical seasons. being bigger than the subordinate fi gures; Another characteristic of the Rajasthani 2. Richness of the palette, in which white and paintings, particularly of the 17th century, is the gold are used as they are in no other Indian use of compartmental pictures in which space is miniatures; divided into bends and rectangles and used as

3. Typical jewellery, e.g. plaque of the necklace; Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru frames for fi gures and groups. | 336 |

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CULTURE IN THE MUGHAL EMPIRE Main Centres in the Mughal state. However, historical information 1. Mewar School: The house of Nisar Din (1606) on the development of fi ne arts is scanty, and the stands out as the earliest known group of following narrative is based on piecemeal records. Rajasthani painters. Subsequently the same Classical Music tradition was carried further by Shaib Din, Centres of musical study and practice, as stated who worked from 1627 to 1648. This phase above, were located in regional kingdoms. In the represents the Mewar School at its height. CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA South, a system of parent and derivative modes, The illustrated series ran into hundreds i.e., Janaka and Janya ragas, existed around the covering a very wide range of life, including middle of the 16th century. The earliest treatise mythology. Under the patronage of Jagat which deals with this system is titled Swaramela Sing I (1628-52), a long series of illustrations kalanidhi. It was written by Ramamatya of Kondavidu called Nayakabheda was executed by a (Andhra Pradesh), in 1550. It describes 20 janak number of painters in a poetic and sentimental and 64 janya ragas. Later, in 1609, one Somanatha style. However, in the subsequent half-a- wrote Ragavibodha in which he incorporated some century period, the infl uence of the Mughal concepts of the North Indian style. It was sometime style gradually weekend the vitality of the in the middle of the 17th century that a famous Mewar school, and it gradually became more treatise on music, called Caturdandi-prakasika was and more subdued. composed by Venkatamakhin in Thanjavur (c. 1650). 2. Bundi School: It has an almost parallel history, The system propounded in the text has come to except that there seem to have been two form the bedrock of the Carnatic system of music. important periods in it, viz., 1620-35 and The development of music in North India 1680-1700. During the 18th century, the Bundi was largely inspired and sustained by the bhakti School took a new turn. While retaining its movement. The compositions of the 16th and 17th originality of expressions, it followed the century saint poets were invariably set to music. Mughal School in subject matter and technical In Vrindavan, Swami Haridas promoted music in details. The main emphasis now was on the a big way. He is also considered to be the teacher display of feminine grace in which it seemed of the famous Tansen of Akbar’s court. Tansen to excel. himself is considered one of the great exponents 3. Kishangarh School: The Kishangarh style of North Indian system of music. He is given credit was lyrical and sometimes sensuous. It was for introducing some famous ragas viz., Miyan ki encouraged by Maharaja Sawant Singh, Malhar, Miyan ki Todi and Darbari. Raja Mansingh of popularly known as Nagari Das at the turn Gawalior (1486-1517) played a distinguished part in of the 18th century (1699-1764). Although the growth and perfection of Dharupad, a variant Mughal secular infl uence in painting affected style of the North Indian music. every court in Rajasthan, in Kishangarh deep In the 18th century, music in North Indian Hindu devotionalism seems to have survived. style received great encouragement at the court of Under Sawant Singh’s patronage, there was a the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah. Sadaranga spurt in the art of painting based on the love- and Adaranga were two great composers of khayal lore of Radha and Krishna. The Kishangarh

Success gayaki at his court. Several new forms of music

paintings are mostly the work of the talented of such as Tarana, Dadra and Ghazal also came into artist Nihal Chand. The elegant forms of the existence at this time. Moreover, some folk forms of Kishangarh females, with their sharp noses, music were also incorporated in the courtly music. almond eyes and arched mouths, set up a In this category mention may be made of Thumri, new tradition in Rajasthani painting. employing folk scales, and to Tappa developed from Fine Arts the songs of camel drivers of Punjab. Fine arts, during the 16th-18th century seem to In passing, it should be noted that while in the

have developed more in the regional kingdoms than Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru South the texts of music enforced a stricter science, | 337 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 in the North the absence of texts permitted greater treasures in exchange for him, I should gladly have liberty. There were, thus, several experiments in entered upon such profi table traffi c and bought that mixing the ragas carried out in the North. A loose precious jewel cheap.” He is credited with having code of North Indian style of music is a feature that invented some mechanical devices and also the has continued to the present day. introduction of a ‘true’ solar calendar (called Ilant) at Akbar’s order in 1584. But he did not propound Dance and Drama any new scientifi c theory or formula distinct from Evidence of dance and drama in the medieval ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA the traditional ones in India at that time. period is scattered. The more important sources Indians were exposed to European learning. are the texts on music, dance and drama, and the Abul Fazl was aware of the discovery of America by creative works of literature in the different languages Europeans; he gives the Persian term alam nau for of India. the “New World”. But this knowledge does not appear The textual material is mainly from Orissa, to have become a normal part of the teaching of south India and from the court of the Mughal geography in India. Galileo’s discovery (in contrast to Emperor Muhammad Shah. Abhinaya Chandrika Ptolemy’s world-view) that it is the Earth that moves by Mahesvara Mahapatra and Sangit Damodara round the sun did not reach the Indian scientist. by Raghunatha are the two 17th century texts on Similarly, Newton’s three Laws of Motion as well dance and drama from Orissa. From south India as his law of Gravity were unknown in India at this we have Adi Bharatam, Bharatarnava, Tuljaraja’s time. Bernier, a French physician, who came to India (1729-1735) Natyavedagama and Balaravarman’s during the second half of the seventeenth century, (1753-1798) balaramabharatam. There is the Sangita claims to have been in the company of Mughal Malika treatise on dance and music from the court noble Agha Danishmand Khan for fi ve or six years, of Muhammad Shah. to whom he used to explain the new discoveries of Science and Technology Harvey and Pecquet concerning circulation of the blood. Bernier held a very poor opinion of the ’ No breakthrough was made in scientific knowledge of anatomy. Our hakims and vaids did studies concerning physics, chemistry medicine, not show any interest in Harvey’s discovery. geography and mathematics. The traditional knowledge continued to be taught, discussed and Agricultural Technology re-written in the form of commentaries without We do not fi nd any radical change during adding anything worthwhile. The Indian and the the Mughal period insofar as the plough, iron Greco-Arabic views on scientifi c issues held sway. A ploughshare, irrigational devices, methods of sowing, French traveller, Careri, observes about the Muslim harvesting, threshing and winnowing are concerned scholars in India. However, for sowing appear from broadcasting “As for sciences, they can make no progress in and seed-drill, we get evidence for dibbling also. them for want of Books; for they have none but some This method was employed especially for cotton small manuscript works of Aristotle and Avicenue cultivation; a whole was made into the ground with in Arabic.” a pointed leg, the seed was put into it and covered But we should not deny the fact that there with earth. As for threshing, besides using oxen,

Success corn ears were also beaten with stocks. were some very learned and able scientists during of the period of our study. One of them was Mir One remarkable development during Fathuallah Shirazi who joined Akbar’s court at Agra this period was the introduction of some new in 1583 (d. 1588). Abdul Fazl opines, “If the old books crops, plants and fruits. Europeans, especially the of wisdom had diappeared, he could have laid a new Portuguese, brought many of these. The Mughal foundation (of knowledge) and would not have elite had started growing Central Asian fruits in wished for what had gone”. Akbar mourned his death India from the days of Babur. in these words: “Had he fallen in the hands of the Tobacco, pineapple, cashew nuts and potato

Franks (Europeans), and they had demanded all my Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru were the most important crops and fruits that | 338 |

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CULTURE IN THE MUGHAL EMPIRE came from America. Tobacco led to huqqa-smoking like Gujarat, Malwa and Deccan. But fi re-arms on a (Hubble-bubble). Besides, tomato, guava and red regular basis developed through the agency of the chillies were also brought from outside. Maize is Portuguese, from A.D. 1498, in south India, and by not listed in Abul Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbar. It seems that Babur, in the North, in A.D. 1526. Babur used guns and Europeans, too, introduced this, from Latin America. cannons in battles against the Rajputs and Afgans. The seeds of numerous varieties of melons and These guns were actually matchlocks. Europe grapes were grown around Agra, were brought from knew of two more devices to fi re a gun: wheel- CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Central Asia. Cherries were introduced in Kashmir lock (1520s) and fl int-lock (1620s) in which match during Akbar’s reign. cord was dispensed with. Abul Fazl claims the Fruits of better quality were grown by seed manufacture of handguns without match cord in propagation. It is doubtful whether the art of Akbar’s arsenal, but he is silent on the alternative grafting in horticulture was extensively practiced mechanism. This could be a fl intlock because wheel during the Delhi Sultanate. P.K. Gode thinks that lock even in Europe was employed for pistols. At any grafting became prevalent in India only after A.D. rate, these handguns (fl int-locks) were produced on 1550. This skill was well known in Persia and Central a limited scale, most probably for Akbar’s personal Asia. However, mangoes of the best quality were use only because we are told that Indians in North exclusively produced in Goa through grafting by India were scarcely familiar with this technique the Portuguese. Some European travellers to India during the early decades of the seventeenth century. paid glowing tributes to the delicious mangoes In fact, Mughal paintings regularly depict matchlocks of Goa called Alfonso, Our Lady, Joani Perreria, etc. down to Aurangzeb’s times. Alfonso is still a celebrated variety in India. European pistols were available at Burhanpur Among the Mughal Emperors, Shah Jahan for sale as early as A.D. 1609. Sometimes Europeans alone takes the credit for getting two canals dug gave pistols in gifts to Indians. But the Indians did not (Nahr Faiz and Shah Nahr) learn the art of wheel lock. Cannons of various sised were manufactured in India for the Indian rulers. Textile Technology We need not go into details about the The Turks brought,spinning wheel to India. In numerous traditional weapon—offensive and fact, no radical addition or improvement seems to defensive—like swords, spears, daggers, bows and have been made during the seventeenth century. arrows, shields and armours, etc. It is interesting to However, two developments must be highlighted; know that the Indians in general preferred curved first, carpet weaving under Akbar’s patronage swords, in contrast to the European’s straight double- at Lahore, Agra and Fatehpur-Sikri; and second, edged rapiers. The Marathas, however, late in the production of silk and silk fabrics on a large scale. seventeenth century took a liking to European The Europeans did not bring their own textile swords. techniques to India, at any rate during the fi rst For cleaning gun-barrels, Abul Fazl writes: half of the seventeenth century. Actually, they did “Formerly a strong man had to work a long time not possess any superior technology in this area with iron instruments in order to clean matchlocks. during this period, except perhaps to the English

Success His Majesty (Akbar), from his practical knowledge,

Company to send silk dyers, thrusters and weavers of has invented a wheel, by the motion of which sixteen to Qasimbazar in Bengal. Italian silk fi latures were barrels may be cleaned in a very short time. A bullock introduced into Indian in the 1770s. turns the wheel. Military Technology At another place, once again, Abul Fazl credits Stirrup, horseshoe and gunpowder were Akbar with the invention of a mechanism by which introduced into India by the Turks. Fire-arms were seventeen guns were joined in such a manner as used sporadically for the fi rst time, during the second to be able to fi re them simultaneously with one

half of the 15th century in some regions of India Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru matchcord. | 339 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Shipbuilding was generally carried out at places, which were The entire vessel in medieval times everywhere near the source of wood supply. was constructed of wood. Various methods were 2. The smelters used small furnaces, which employed to join the planks. One of these was perhaps did not have refractory or heat- rabbeting which was widely practiced in India. This resistant clay. was basically on the tongue-and-groove principle: 3. The bellows were rubles and small which did the ‘tongue’ of one plank was fi tted into the ‘groove’

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA allow effi cient air-blast to generate very high of another. The next step was to smear the planks temperature in the fi nances to reduce the ore with indigenous pitch or tar, and lime with the double to a totally liquefi ed state. purpose of stopping up any fi ssures and preserving 4. In case of iron and bronze, the metal was the timber from sea worms. Fish-oil was also used melted in diverse small furnaces (sometimes for duding the planks. The Indians did not adopt eight in number) wherefrom the molten the European method of caulking–a technique for making joints or seams of the planks tight or leak material went to the mould. Since the quality proof by forcing oakum (made of loose fi ber or of the molten metal in each furnace was not untwisted old ropes, etc. mixed with melted pitch) necessarily the same, the fabricated object between parts that did not fi t tightly. The reason was could not have always been of high quality. caulking did not have any technical superiority over Abul Fazl describes the technique of making the indigenous method for performing the same iron cannons and handgun barrels at Akbar’s arsenal. task. Moreover, caulking was more expensive than Perhaps, these techniques were newly invented. We the Indian practice. do not know whether improvements were made Prior to the European advent, the planks of during the subsequent period. Cannons were made ships and boats were joined together by stitching or of bronze, brass and iron. sewing them with ropes made of coir, or sometimes Zinc metallurgy seems to have started in India with wooden nails. The Europeans were using iron somewhere around twelfth century A.D. Abul Fazl nails and clamps, which made their vessels stronger mentions Jawar (modern Zawar) in Rajasthan where and durable. The Indians lost no time in adopting the zinc was procurable. new technique. Around A.D. 1510, Varthema noticed Archaeological studies near Zawar have “an immense quantity of iron nails” in Indian ships at revealed the presence of sealed clay retorts for Calicut. Abul Fazl (A.D. 1593-94) informs us that for a zinc distillation (which, condensed/cooled, yielded ship of Akbar 468 mans (maund) of iron were used. the metal). Some Mughal paintings establish the presence of Copper mines were located at Khetri in iron nails, strips and clamps for constructing vessels. Rajasthan. Tin was not a natural product of a country: Similar positive response to European iron It was imported from other Asian regions. Bronze anchors is evidenced during the seventeenth was in use right from the days of the Indus valley century. Earlier, anchors were made of big stones. culture. Alloys like brass (coper and zinc or tin) were The Indians used buckets to bail out the leaked fabricated in India. water in the ships. However, the European iron chain- One must mention here the production of the pumps started to be used in India, though not widely, true “wootz” iron in India from c. 400 B.C., especially Success during the second half of the seventeenth century. of in Andhra Pradesh. Probably, “wootz” is a corruption But these were not manufactured in India: they were of Telugu word “ukku”. It was exported to centers purchased or borrowed from Europeans. of sword making like Damascus in Syria (called Metallurgy Damascene swords). We give below the main features of Glass Technology metallurgical practices in India: Glass is a complex artificial industrial 1. The fuel for smelting consisted of wood substance. We should not confuse it with crystal,

charcoal (coal was not known). Thus, smelting Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru quartz, obsidian glass, glaze and faience. That glass | 340 |

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CULTURE IN THE MUGHAL EMPIRE was not scare in India has been ably shown by or Arabic scripts during a discussion with the Jesuits, M.G. Dikshit (History of Glass), but he admits that whereupon the latter promptly showed him a copy Indian glass objects “did not range or of beyond of the Arabic version of the gospel, probably printed the manufacture of tit-bits like beads and bangles.” at Vatican in A.D. 1591. Jahangir did not bring up With the arrival of Muslims, pharmaceutical this topic again. phials, jars and vessels of glass came to India from In 1670s A.D., Bhimji Parak, the chief broker of the Islamic countries, but there is no evidence to the English Company at Surat, took a keen interest CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA show that Indians had started fabricating these in this technology. A printer was sent to India in A.D. objects in imitation. 1674, at Bhimji’s request, along with a press at the During the 16th and 17th centuries, the latter’s expense. Bhimji intended to contrive types Europeans brought a variety of glass articles to in “banian characters after our English manner”, but India. All these were new for us: for example, looking- it could not be feasible since the English printer did glasses (mirrors made of glass). We know how to not know type cutting and founding. No type cutter make mirrors of metals (bronze and copper) but was sent from England to assist Bhimji. Nevertheless, not of glass. Another object was a spectacle made Bhimji persisted in this endeavour to realize his dream of a printing press with Devanagri fonts. of glass lenses. The Europeans gave these things He employed his own men; obviously Indian’s to to Indians as gift and, sometimes, they also sold do the job. The English factors at Surat testify (A.D. them (but the market was very limited). Thus, the 1676/77) that, “we have seen some paper printed in Indians started using European glass articles without the banian character by the persons employed by manufacturing them during the period under study. Bhimji which look very well and legible and shows It seems that the technique of fabricating sand the work feasible”. But then, at that crucial moment, or hourglass was known in India during the 15th Bhimji lost hear and abandoned the midway. century, but the Mughal paintings exhibit European- made sandglasses only, which were brought to India Time-Reckoning Devices by the Europeans. However, the positive evidence The history of horology unfolds a variety of for its manufacture in India comes from the second devices adopted by mankind in different countries. half of the seventeenth century. Among them, gnomons, sundials, clepsydras (water- Apart from these, we got from Europe clocks), sand-glasses, mechanical clocks and watches drinking-glasses, magnifying or burning glasses stand out as the most signifi cant contrivances for and prospective glasses (telescopes). Since the latter time-reckoning with varying degrees of accuracy. were made of glass lenses like the spectacles, there In India, during the sixteenth and seventeenth was no question of their indigenous manufacture centuries, clepsydras of the sinking-bowl variety during the seventeenth century. appear to have been the most commonly used device for measuring time, at any rate, in urban Printing Press centers. The Persian term for the bowl was tas, while It is amasing that the Chinese knowledge tas gharial – denoted the whole mechanism (bowl of wooden-block printing did not evoke even a and gong). The Indian word gharial is derived from ripple of response in India in spite of frequent the gong that was struck with a mallet to announce communication between the two countries in the Success the time indicated by the sinking-bowl. Water-clock past. The Portuguese brought European movable of is mentioned during the Delhi Sultanate in Afi f’s metal types to Goa, around A.D. 1550. The latter Tarikh-I Firuze Shahi which related the installation started printing books of Christian saints, sermons, of a tas gharial by Sultan Firuze Shah Tughlug at grammars and vocabularies in the Marathi and Firuzabad during the second half of the fourteenth Konkani languages and dialects, but in Roman script century. Babur also describes the mechanism in the rather than in the Devnagari script. Baburnama. Abul Fazl, too, takes note of the details. Emperor Jahangir is once reported to have Much before the Mughals, the Europeans

expressed doubt about types being cast in Persian Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru had invented the two most essential features of an | 341 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 ordinary mechanical clock – the weight-drive and Horse-drawn carriages were very rare: they escapement. Europeans’ clocks and watches were were meant only for passengers. Sir Thomas often given gift to Indians, especially the elite groups Roe presented to Jahangir an English coach (Jahangir was presented a watch by Sir Thomas Roe, drawn by four horses. The Emperor enjoyed but the Emperor’s memoirs does not mention this a ride in it (he called it rath farangi). The fact). The Jesuit church at Agra had a public clock- sovereign, and some nobles got such coaches face with a bell whose “sound was heard in every built by Indian carpenters for their use. But part of the city”. Notwithstanding the exposure of ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA this interest was short-lived; it did not catch a substantial cross-section of Indians to European on during the seventeenth century. mechanical clocks and watches for a long time, there 4. One chemical discovery was made in the is no evidence to indicate its acceptance among early years of Jahangir’s regin. It was the rose- any social group of Indian society for general use. scent (‘itr Jahangir). The Emperor records in These were mere toys, and novelties for the Indians his Memoirs (Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri): who received them “diplomatic” or ordinary gifts. The one important reason for non-acceptance was – This ‘itr is a discovery which was made the incompatibility of the Indian time-reckoning during my reign through the efforts of system with that of Europe at that time. In Europe, the mother Nur Jahan Begum. When the system of twelve equal double-hours prevailed, she was making rose water was poured while the Indian system consisted of 4 quarters from the jugs. She collected this scum (pahr) in the day from sunrise to sunset, and another little by little; when much rose water was 4 quarters in the night from sunset to sunrise. obtained a sensible portion of the scum was collected. There is no other scent of Further, each pahr was divided into gharis equal excellence to it. In reward for that of 24 minutes each. Thus, the Indian system had invention, I presented a string of pearls 60 “hours” (of 24 minutes) to the full day, and the to the inventress Salima Sultan Begum… European consisted of 24 hours of 60 minutes each. gave this oil (roghan) the name of ‘itr Miscellaneous Jahangiri. 1. True Arch, dome and lime-mortar were 5. Another chemical discovery was the use of already introduced into India by the Turks. salpetre for cooling water. Abul Fazl comments No signifi cant development took place in that saltpeter, which in gunpowder produces building technology during the seventeenth the explosive heats, is used as a means for century. However, we may take note of one cooling water. He also gives the details of how practice, that is, preparation of sort of “blue to do so. print” of the building to be constructed. 6. Emperor Akbar is reported to have invented This was called (outline) in Persian, which an oxen-drawn cart which, when used for consisted of drawing on a thick sheet of traveling or for carrying loads, could grind paper by employing “grid of squares” (graph corn also. For the latter purpose, however, sheet) for indicating proportions. We may watermill was scarcely used in India under the also mention that Indian buildings did not Success Mughal rule. One Mughal painting (A.D. 1603) have windowpanes and chimneys, which of depicts an undershot watermill to illustrate a Europeans used back home. story set outside India proper. Even windmill 2. The Indians did not employ metallic (copper) (asiya-I bad; pawan chakki) for grinding corn boilers to refi ne saltpeter like the Europeans; was very rare; one was erected at Ahmedabad the former continued with earthen pots to do in the seventeenth century whose partial the job. remains could be seen there. Ordinarily, hand 3. Oxen-drawn carts were in common use, mills made of two stones were used for this

especially for transporting commercial goods. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru purpose. It was a very old practice. | 342 |

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CULTURE IN THE MUGHAL EMPIRE MYSTIC ECLECTICISM: DARA SIKOH had to exert himself to win the grace of God, Mysticism is an offshoot of religion. All while the Tenkalai held that God’s grace by itself the Islamic religious movements arose out of conferred salvation on the soul that entered the controversies about GOD’s attributes and decrees path of surrender. The position of the fi rst school and their impact on the universe. Religious and is commonly summed up in the phrase Markata spiritual movements in Islam contain an element of kisoranyaya, the rule that the young monkey clings political implication. Various founders of religious to its mother with an effort. The position of the other CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA movements, therefore, sought state support school is called Marjarakisoranyaya, the rule of the to strengthen their ideologies. There had been kitten which is carried by its mother in her mouth. from the very early days a close combat between There are other differences between the two schools. the upholders of Ilm-ul-Kalam (the science of The Tenkalai have a decided preference for Tamil as defending orthodoxy by rational arguments) and against Sanskrit. the philosophers, who absorbed a lot from the Generally the Tenkalai sect is more liberal than Greek philosophy and laid more emphasis upon the Vadakalai. It provides for the teaching of the the identification of the Being. The orthodox eight-syllabled formula om namo Narayanaya to theologians in spite of all their efforts neither could all classes of people, while the Vadakalai sect omits stop studies in philosophy nor could persuade the the syllable om from the formula when taught to rulers to abstain from extending patronage to the non-Brahmanas. The Tenkalai sect favours equal philosophers. Sufi doctrine was the third element treatment of all castes. Varadacharya or Nadadur which presented yet another viewpoint of Islamic Ammal was the leader of the Sri Vaishnavas for philosophy. the fi rst three quarters of the thirteenth century. The Quadiri order found a great devotee in Vedantadesika (1269-1370 A.D.) is the most Prince Dara Sikoh who visited a saint of this order, important of the northern school of Sri Vaishnavas Miyan Mir (1550-1635), at Lahore along with Shah belonging to this period. The southern school took Jahan and was much impressed by his saintly upon Pillai Lokacharya as its founder. personality. After the Shaikh’s death, Dara became Nimbarka was the founder of the school of the disciple of his successor, Mulla Shah Badakhshi. Vaishnavism supporting the cult of Bhakti against The infl uence of the Wahdat-ul Wujud concept is the doctrine of Maya. He is said to be a Telugu evident in the mystic works of the prince, namely Brahmana residing at a village of Nimba, which has the Safi nat-ul Auliya, Sakinat-ul Auliya, Risala-i-Haq been identifi ed with Nimbapuri in the Bellary district. Numa, Majma-ul Bahrain, etc. His father was a Bhagavata by name Jagannatha. The doctrines of the Nimbarka school of Vaishnavism VAISHNAV BHAKTI AND MAHARASHTRA resemble in some respects those of Ramanuja’s DHARMA school. But Nimbarka preached bhakti in its original sense of love and gave exclusive prominence to the Sri Vaishnavas conception of Krishna attended by the cowherdesses We have seen earlier that Ramanuja had headed by Radha. For him, Radha is not merely built up a philosophy which reconciled devotion the favourite mistress of Krishna but his eternal to a personal god (bhakti) with the philosophy of consort who lives with him for ever in the Goloka, the Vedanta and took steps to spread the doctrine of Success highest heaven. Nimbarkan school has not accepted of bhakti among Hindus and other outcastes. After Ramanuja’s theory about the Supreme Soul being his death, the Sri Vaishnavas were divided into two a composite personality and developing into the schools. Vedakalai (the schools of northern learning) animate and the inanimate world. Instead it regards and Tenkalai (The school of southern learning). Both the Supreme soul, the individual soul and the world agreed as to the necessity of Prapatti or Saranagati as identical and at the same time from one another. (self surrender into God). They are identical in the sense that the individual But they differed in their interpretation of soul and the inanimate soul are dependent on God

prapatti. The Vadagalai held that the devotee Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru and have no independent existence. Nimbarka’s | 343 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 theory is thus monistic and pluralistic. His views was due to his connection with the Varkari sect, are expressed in a commentary on the Brahma- a sect that has an important place in the history sutras called Vedantaparijatasaurabha and in of Maharashtrian devotionalism. The main cult of Siddhantartna or Dasa loka. the Varkari-Panth is the twice-a-year pilgrimage to Pandharpur. Vittobha of Pandharpur is the God Madhva’s School of this Panth. The Varkari Panth differed from most Bhakti is the centre of the religion taught by other sects in several ways. Its members cut across Madhva, born in a Brahmana family at Kalyanapura ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA the whole caste structure and their most important in the Udipi talum of South Kanara district, some aid to religion was the society of saints by which term 64 km west of Sringeri. Madhva became a sanyasi was meant their brothers and sisters in the faith and while he was still quite young. Like Ramanuja, he the saints who had died but had left their immortal had his early training in the system of Sankara. But songs behind. The name Jnaneswara is associated before his training was over, he broke away from with the spread of this intensely devotional cult. the system and evolved a system of his own based Another great name connected with the chiefl y on the Bhagavatapurana. He claimed to be Bhagavata school, in Maharashtra, is Namadeva the incarnation of Vayu. He taught that the universe (1270-1350). He was a tailor by caste who had is governed by god as two persons—Vishnu and taken to wandering before becoming a saint. But Lakshmi and that the souls in the world are eternally he was a gifted poet. He authored several simple distinct from him. The relation between God and the and passionate lyrics or kirtanas as ‘fl owers’ to the individual souls is like that between the master and Lord of Pandharpur and took a vow that he and his the servant. By serving and worshipping God, the associates would compose a hundred crore abhangs. individual souls become like God in most respects. One of his pungent but well meaning statements The centre of his religion is bhakti to Lord Krishna was, “Hindu is blind and so is Mussalman, the Hindu as taught in the Bhagavata. Radha has no place in worships in temple and Muslim in the mosque. But it. All avatars are revered. Siva is also worshipped. Namadeva offers his worship to Him, who needs Maharashtra Dharma neither temple nor mosque.” His personal attendant The development of Vaishnavism based on was Janabai, a Sudra woman. She too was well- the Bhagavata led to the rise of a number of poet- versed in the art of composing abhangs. She spend saints towards the close of the 13th century. The her life in the service of Namadeva and also of Lord popular songs of these poet-saints stirred the life of Vitthala. Her dedication is seen in her poems. Her Maharashtra as those of the nayanmars and alvars abhangs are known for their simplicity, depth of had stirred the Tamil country centuries before. The feeling and all-absorbing devotion. earliest of them was Jnaneswara popularly called Namadeva’s fame spread far and wide and in his Dnyandeve Dnanoba (1271-96). Jnaneswara wrote a own days he had the great, privilege of being quoted long commentary in Marathi on the Bhagavad Gita, in the Granthsaheb of Guru Nanak. Namadeva’s tours called Bhavarthadipika and more commonly as the to propagate the cause of Bhagavata dharma and Jnaneswari, the fountain head of Maharashtrian his melodious kirtanas were responsible, for the bhakti. More than a commentary, Jnaneswari creation of a school of poetry in Maharashtra and constitutes a religious sermon in the form of a song the poet saint, Tukaram, belonged to this school. Success composed in a rhythmic prose which should be of Namadeva lived to a ripe old age of 80 and chanted. Though initiated in the Natha sect, which his remains were buried at the great door of the explains his learning towards monism, his bhakti Pandharpur temple—a great honour indeed. Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru | 344 |

Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com (W. Irvine, The Later Mughals, reprint, New Delhi, New reprint,Mughals, Later The Irvine,(W. Jahan. In the wake of the collapse of the Mughal Mughal the of collapse the of wake the In Jahan. rulers and their policies. William Irvine and Jadunath Sarkar wrote the first detailed histories of this period turmoil or instability in different part of the Empire. Empire itself. Secondly, the region-centric approach decline in its power and prestige came about by the first half of the eighteenth century. Not only did the decline to deterioration in the characters of the the of characters the in deterioration to decline emergence of regional polities have been intensely historians attempts to identify the causes of the the of causes the identify to attempts historians on which scholarly opinion is more sharply divided decline within the structure and functioning of the I. Calcutta, 1938; of History Aurangzeb, I-V, Calcutta Empire, Mughal Fallof Sarkar;The1871; Jadunath stages.individual Initially,the on focused theories different through progressed has decline Mughal Empire-Centric Approach where the perspective goes out of the precincts of history. ofMughal than onany other aspect oftheEmpire.emerged inallparts Shah and Akbar like rulers by built assiduously so OF THE MUGHALEMPIRE sections. First, the Mughal-centric approach, i.e. approach, Mughal-centric the First, sections. broad two into divided be can decline Mughal principalities independent of number a power debated among historians. It has also been a subject political boundaries of the Empire shrink, the decline the Empire into the regions to look for the causes of FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE DECLINE part part of India for nearly three centuries, but a drastic 1912, 1916, 1919 and 1924). They attributed the the attributed They 1924). and 1919 1916, 1912, also saw the collapse of the administrative structure Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com The Empire-centric approach for explaining explaining for approach Empire-centric The The historiographical perspective on the the on perspective historiographical The The Mughal Empire held sway over a large large a over sway held Empire Mughal The However, the processes of the decline and the a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of ' s success rt THE 18THCENTURY CHAPTER-12 | 345 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success were paid and maintained out of the revenue of of revenue the of out maintained and paid were Emperors and their nobles. Sarkar had analysed analysed had Sarkar nobles. their and Emperors assignments of land revenue (jagir). Among the the Among (jagir). revenue land of assignments the Empire. The two institutions scrutinised were scrutinised institutions two Empire.The the to understand the nature of the Empire and the the and Empire the of nature the understand to working of the system. According to Chandra, Chandra, to According system. the of working holder of mansab, called mansabdar, was paid in in paid mansabdar, was mansab, called of holder became two crucial prerequisites for an effective an for prerequisites crucial two became archculprit. According toSarkar, Aurangzeb a was of context the in period this of developments the and the ability of the Mughals to collect them thus the jagir. They formed the base of the mansabdar’s a requisite contingent of troopers. troopers ‘These offithe Mughal cial hierarchy. in status their to corresponding ranks given were offistate core the cials.were They Empire Mughal of institutions key certain of working the studied reasons for its subsequent decline. Satish Chandra examined were plans its and functioning its Both Jagirdari Crisis legacy. Parties and Politics at the Mughal Court, 1707-40 1707-40 Court, Mughal the at Politics and Parties (Delhi, 1982, 3rd edition) marked the fi the serious marked rst edition) 3rd 1982,(Delhi, argued that Aurangzeb’s successors and their nobles attempt to study the structure of the Mughal Empire. power, and assisted him in the collection of land land of collection the in him assisted power, and mansabdari and the jagirdari. The nobles in the the in nobles The jagirdari. the and mansabdari revenue. Availability of the revenues to be assigned religious fanatic. He discriminated against sections of thus unable to set right the evils of Aurangzeb’s of evils the right set to unable thus led to wide scale resentment among the nobility. He Mughal decline has to be seen in the Mughal failure, were mere shadows of their predecessors and were the nobles and officials on the basis of religion. This law and order. He, therefore, held Aurangzeb as the various obligations, the mansabdar had to maintain In 1959, the publication of Satish Chandra’s Satish of publication the 1959, In These ranks were called mansab. Each Each mansab. called were ranks These Downloaded from KnowledgePhilic.com

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 towards the end of Aurangzeb’s reign, to maintain Agrarian Crisis the system of the mansabdar-jagirdar. As this system After the pioneering work of Satish Chandra, went into disarray, the Empire was bound to collapse. historians continued to address themselves to Athar Ali’s work on nobility and their politics various aspects of the functioning of the Empire in in the late seventeenth century appeared in 1966 order to identify the reasons for its political collapse. (M. Athar Ali, The Mughal Nobility under Aurangzeb, The focus had evidently shifted from personalities Bombay, 1966 reprint, 1970). In this work the problems and policies of individual rulers to larger and CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA attending the annexation of the Deccan states, the broader developments that were weakening the absorption of the Marathas and Deccanis into the very structure on which the Mughal edifi ce had been Mughal nobility, and the subsequent shortage of built. Irfan Habib attempted an in-depth analysis of jagirs have been emphasised. The sudden increase in the collapse of the Empire in his seminal work. (The the number of nobles, caused due to the expansion Agrarian System of Mughal India, New Delhi, 1963). of the Empire into the Deccan and Maratha territory, According to Habib, the mechanism of created a crisis in the functioning of the jagir system. collection of revenue that the Mughals had evolved According to Athar Ali, the nobles competed for was inherently fl awed. The imperial policy was to set better jagirs, which were increasingly becoming the revenue at the highest rate possible to secure the rare due to the infl ux of nobles from the south. greatest military strength for the Empire, the nobles. The logical consequence was the erosion in the On the other hand, tended to squeeze the maximum political structure which was based on jagirdari to from their jagirs, even if it ruined the peasantry and a large extent. destroyed the revenue paying capacity of the area. In an important paper published in 1969, S. Since, the nobles’ jagirs were liable to be transferred Nurul Hassan puts forward the argument that the frequently, they did not fi nd it necessary to follow agrarian relations as they developed during the a far-sighted policy of agricultural development. Mughal rule gave rise to an authority structure which As the burden on the peasantry increased, they worked like a pyramid. In this form, the rights of were often deprived of their very means of survival. various kinds came to be superimposed upon each In reaction to this excessive exploitation of the other. As a result, bulk of the revenue demand of the peasantry, the latter had no option but to protest. state was transferred on to the cultivators. In the The forms of rural protest in Medieval India were eighteenth century, with the decline of the Mughal varied in nature. In many areas the peasants took authority, and with pressure on jagirs, agricultural to fl ight. Entire villages were let deserted due to economy began to face a crisis. the large-scale migration of peasants to the towns The zamindars as a class were quite loyal to or other villages. Very often the peasants protested the state. But in the kind of agrarian situation that against the state by refusing to pay the revenue and obtained in the Mughal empire, confl ict between were up in arms against the Mughals. Habib argued them and the state as also among themselves could that these peasant protests weakened the political not be checked. This often resulted in law and order and social fabric of the Empire. problems and decimated the authority of the state. After the death of Aurangzeb and weakening of the Re-examination of ‘Crisis’ imperial authority, this equilibrium got disturbed. J.F. Richards, M.N. Pearson and P. Hardy also The zamindars in this situation could be contained Success give a pivotal position to the Mughal involvement of only a group which would be independent of the in the Deccan and the affairs of the Marathas in their support of the zamindars. Since such a class had explanation of the decline of the Empire. (Journal of not emerged by this time, the pattern of agrarian Asian Studies, Vol. XXXV No. 2, Feb, 1976, pp. 221-63. relations could not be changed. The collapse of However, they differ from the Aligarh historians in the system became inevitable (S. Nurul Hassan, their understanding of the nature of the Empire. “Zamindars Under the Mughals”, Land Control and For instance, according to Pearson, Mughal rule was Social structure in Indian History, ed. R.E. Frykenberg, indirect. It was not state control but local ties and

Madison, 1969.) Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru norms which governed the lives of people. It was only | 346 |

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THE 18TH CENTURY for the nobles that the concept of the Mughal Empire A tripolar relationship between the peasants, outweighed other “primordial attachments”. The the zamindars and the mansabdar/jagirdar formed nobles were bound to the Empire only by patronage, the base on which the Mughal edifi ce rested. The which depended on the “constant military success” ability of the mansabdar/jagirdar to collect land of the Emperor. Pearson emphasised the absence revenue from the zamindars and keep the raiyat of an impersonalised bureaucracy, and its not too engaged in agricultural production was the key to optimistic consequences for the Mughal state. Once successful working of the jagir system. The jagirdar Mughal patronage slackened due to the lack of any ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA could perform his functions properly if he could further military expansion, and, a shortage of fertile maintain his military might. This of course was areas to be allotted as jagirs arose, the “personalised based on his ability to muster enough revenue bureaucracy” of the Mughal Empire showed signs and resources from his jagir in order to maintain of distress. This indeed sounded the death-knell for the requisite contingent of troopers. Any factor the Mughal system. which could disturb this neat balancing of jagirdar- In the 1970s, J.F. Richards added a new zamindar-peasant parameter would ultimately dimension to the theories of Mughal decline cause the decline of the Empire. which looked at bejagiri (the absence of jagirs) as Satish Chandra argues that in the 17th century, a major cause of the decline of the Mughal Empire. the social confl icts which the Mughals were unable Using archival material from Golkonda, Richards to resolve within the broad framework of the class questioned the long held belief that the Deccan alliance forged by them, were refl ected in fi nancial was a defi cit area which generated bejagiri leading crisis and in the crisis of the jagir system, the two to the Mughal decline. being interrelated. The crisis of the jagir system had made its appearance fairly early in the history of the According to Richards, the jagirdari crisis Empire. The problem re-surfaced under Jahangir was of an administrative and managerial nature. and Shah Jahan when the Empire had expanded He argued that the augmentation of the revenue to fringe areas beyond the fertile tracts of the resources of the Empire following the annexation Ganga-Yamuna doab. Towards the end of Shah of the Deccan state roughly kept pace with the Jahan reign, the difference between jama (assessed expansion of the nobility during the second half revenue) and hasil (revenue actually collected) in of Aurangzeb’s reign. The lack of pal baqi land was jagir lands became too glaring. A mansabdar was due to a deliberate decision on Aurangzeb’s part lucky if the realisation from his jagir was more than to keep the most lucrative jagirs under khalisa in fi ve-monthly (i.e., revenue equivalent to fi ve month’s order to provide for a continued campaigning in revenue only in a year). The number of sawars he the Karnataka and against the Marathas. Thus, the maintained had to be reduced proportionally. In crisis was an administrative one and not caused Deccan, the realisation was even less—about three- by bejagiri. monthly, and the power and infl uence of the jagirdar In the 1980s, Satish Chandra’s researches proportionally lower. Once the military power of the resolved the problem of bejagiri to some extent. jagirdar was eroded, the tripolar relationship which He made use of newly discovered archival sources sustained the Empire fell apart. to make a clear distinction between bejagiri and According to Satish Chandra, perhaps the the crisis in jagirdari. In his opinion, the crisis of the Success only manner in which the crisis of the jagirdari of jagir system did not occur because of the growth in system could have been deferred for a longer the size of the ruling class and the corresponding period was a rapid development of the economy, decline in the revenues earmarked to be assigned both in agricultural and non-agricultural sectors. in jagir. In fact, jagir system was in crisis because of Trade was a supplementary source of income for its non-functionality. According to Satish Chandra, rulers and nobles. Indeed, what we need to know is it is important to understand the structure of the whether the money saved by the nobles was used Medieval Indian society before one can talk about for investment in trade on a regular basis, or was

the background of the non-functionality of jagirdari. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru trade made to yield money for the ostentatious | 347 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 living of the nobles? Some regional studies of “Great Firm” Theory of the Decline of the Mughal traders and politics in Mughal India suggest that Empire’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, as a class, on an all India basis, the merchants were Vol. 21 No. 2, April, 1979, pp.161-7). not rich or powerful enough to claim a share in state The assumptions of Leonard conclusions do power. Trade and politics, by and large, remained not get adequate support from the existing studies segregated in Mughal India. of Mughal polity and economy. Philip Calkins and Developments in the agricultural sector were M.N. Pearson, researching on Bengal and Gujarat CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA no less different. For a number of reasons, the state respectively, give some evidence of merchants, policies were aimed at preserving the small peasant participation in politics (Philip Calkins, ‘The economy. Thus, the khud-kasht (the rich peasants) Formation of a Regionally Oriented Ruling Group were not allowed to cultivate their lands with the in Bengal’, Journal of Asian Studies. Vol. XXIX No. 4, help of hired labour, or to extend their cultivation Aug, 1970; M.N. Pearson, Merchants and Rulers in at the expense of the land held by pahis (middle Gujarat, California, 1976). However, Pearson refrains level peasants who did not own land and moved from suggesting that the Mughal fi nance system was with their implements of production from village to dependent on merchants’ credit. Calkins also limits village). Some of the rich peasants used their wealth his generalisation to the period and the region he to lend money on interest, or mortgaged the lands examines. Leonard’s source material is the same as of the poor peasants, reducing them to the position that used by Calkins and Pearson. However, Leonard’s of sharecroppers. Thus, the only lines on which they conclusions remain unconvincing because no fresh could grow were to become intermediary zamindars evidence has been adduced. or mahajans (grain dealers-cum-money-lenders). Region-Centric Approach This, perhaps explains the slow development of Muzaffar Alam and Chetan Singh have used the agricultural economy, and its inability to avoid in their works region-centric approach to explain a precipitation of the jagirdari crisis. Satish Chandra Mughal decline (M. Alam, The Crisis of Empire further argues that the fundamental basis for the in Mughal North India, Awadh and the Punjab, jagirdari crisis was the medieval social system which 1707-1748, New Delhi, 986; Chetan Singh, Region limited agricultural growth. The administrative and Empire. Punjab in the Seventeenth Century, system was reared on this structure, the two acting New Delhi, 1991). While Muzaffar Alam has made and reacting on each other. All the other factors like comparative study of the developments in the the growth in the size of the ruling class, the growing Mughal Subas of Awadh and Punjab, Chetan Singh ostentatious life style of the nobles which limited has made an in-depth study of the regional history the surplus available for expanding production and of the 17th century Punjab. resulted in slow economic growth were contributory Their studies are signifi cant in that they throw factors to the growth of the crisis. new light on both the nature of the Mughal Empire The Mughal decline has also been explained as well as the process of its weakening and eventual in terms of participation in the eighteenth century decline in the 17th and early 18th century. politics of groups conventionally regarded as non- political. Karen Leonard argues that “indigenous Centre-Region Relationship banking fi rms were indispensable allies of the Success Viewing the Mughal State from the perspective of Mughal State”, and that the great nobles “were more of the regional literature of the Mughal suba of than likely to be directly dependent upon these Awadh, Alam suggests that the Mughal Empire fi rms”. When, in the period 1650-1750, these banking signifi ed a coordinating agency between confl icting fi rms began “the redirection of their economic and communities and the various indigenous socio- political support” towards regional politics and rulers, political systems at different levels. The basis of the including the English East India Company in Bengal, Empire in a measure had been negative; its strength this led to bankruptcy, a series of political crises and lay in the inability of the local communities and

the down fall of the Empire (Karen Leonard, ‘The Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru their systems to mobilize beyond relatively narrow | 348 |

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THE 18TH CENTURY bounds. Political integration in Mughal India was, up madad-I ma’ash holders, etc.) to encroach on each to a point, inherently fl awed. It was to a large extent other’s rights and territorial jurisdictions. These conditional on the coordination of the interests and developments were not entirely incompatible with the political activities of the various social groups what happened earlier. But in the hey-day of the led by local magnates. Empire these tensions had been contained. This was This, in turn, was dependent on the latter achieved at times by the use of military force and realising that they could not amass fortunes by at other times by balancing out the power of one CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA themselves. For it was very evident that the nobles social group by settling another in the vicinity (e.g. were dependent for their position and power directly the distribution of the madad-I ma’ash grantees in on the Emperor who appointed them. They had and around the zamindaris of Awadh). no heredity estates to consolidate or bequeath to Alam’s major concern is to analyze what their descendants. Their resources were scrutinised triggered off the imbalancing of the social and and regulated by the Empire. They were in a way political equilibrium in the early 18th century. In representatives of the Mughal Emperor. Yet the other words, what caused the Mughal edifi ce to nobility also had its tensions. The policy of jagir collapse in the early 18th century? He is of the transfer, by checking the noble’s ambition to build a view that the late 17th and early 18th century, at personal base, was meant to strengthen the imperial least in the Awadh and Punjab regions, registered organisation. But it inconvenienced the nobles unmistakable economic growth. This is in sharp who opposed and resisted its implementation. In contrast to the more generalised argument about many regions of the Mughal Empire, it was left the early 18th century being in the throes of a unimplemented in the 17th century. Alongside the fi nancial crisis that was postulated by Satish Chandra local elities (zamindars) and the nobles, the village and others. Social groups that had hitherto shared and qasba based madad-I ma’ash holders (men Mughal power and contributed to the political of learning, who were given revenue free grants stability of the Empire now began to take advantage of land by the Mughal Emperors) and a very large of the economic boom in their regions. Many of them numbers of lower level offi cials drawn from various amassed wealth which helped them to increase their regional and local communities, were all integrated power to encroach on the rights and privileges of intimately into the framework of the Empire. The others. The political edifi ce of the Empire was bound madad-I ma’ash holdings were scattered in the to suffer in the face of these developments. zamindaris. They were meant to establish pockets Muzaffar Alam concludes that the decline of of infl uence for the Empire in the far-fl ung regions the Mughal Empire was manifested both in Awadh of the countryside. The emperors were of the view and the Punjab in a kind of political transformation that the madad-I ma’ash grantees would keep in and in the emergence and confi guration of the check the power of the recalcitrant zamindars and elements of a new subadari. The genesis for the thereby aid in balancing the social and political emergence of independent regional units was groups that constituted the base of the Empire. present in both the provinces. But in Punjab it ended in chaos, while Awadh witnessed a stable dynastic According to Alam, the Mughal decline in the rule. early 18th century has to be seen in the inability of the state to maintain its policy of checks and Success Contours of Regional Polities of balances between the zamindars, jagirdars, Muzaffar Alam’s plea to understand the madad-I ma’ash holders and the local indigenous complexities of Mughal decline by looking at the elements, like the shaikhazadas in Awadh. In the regional development, in the early 18th century, India early 18th century, there was a thrust of the nobles has been followed up by Chetan Singh. His book towards independent political alignments with the Region and Empire takes a new look at the regional zamindars in order to carve out their own fortunes. history of the Mughal North India. The history of Alongside there was an attempt between the the Mughal suba of Punjab is reconstructed in the

various co-sharrers of Mughal power (the zamindars, Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru context of both the Mughal politics as well as the | 349 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 wider political changes that swept through the the political weakening of Empire had gained contemporary West Asian world. He argues that momentum in the 18th century. the Mughal administrative infrastructure no doubt It is here that Singh’s study adds a new linked the region to the Mughal administrative dimension to the already mooted question of the core. Yet, this conventional form of integration ‘crisis of Empire’. For contrary to Muzaffar Alam’s had its limitations. For the local society and polity study of Mughal Awadh and Punjab, which traces were subjected to a variety of stresses and the the dissociation of these regions from the Mughal CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA administrative system responded by transgressing Empire from the early 18th century, Singh sees the the formal administrative divisions and sub-divisions process at work in the hey day of the Empire. Thus, of the Mughal governmental system. looking at the disintegration of the Empire from This was true both of the general administration the point of view of the regional where pragmatic considerations led to fl exibility in different reasons, but very often the dissociations the creation of local offi ces and the kind of function were caused by political, social and economic they performed, as well as of revenue administration. developments beyond the purview of the Mughal In the revenue administration, with the passage of Empire. time, creation norms and conventions evolved which An Overview along with formal rules and regulations contributed It is difficult to find a single explanation to the stability of the Mughal Empire. commonly applicable to the problem of the However, by the late 17th century, the silting Mughal Empire in all its regions and provinces. of the river Indus had adversely affected the riverine For similar reasons, it is diffi cult to accept a view traffi c of Punjab. Its most serious implication was the of Mughal decline which applies uniformly to all gradual erosion of the highly commercialised Punjab parts of the Mughal Empire. The Mughal Empire at economy. The political upheavals in contemporary best represented a consensus of both the centre Turkey, fall of Qandahar to the Shah of Iran and and the peripheries. In the early 18th century, it the Mughal attempt to recover it virtually brought was this consensus which was disturbed. Different overland trafi ic to a standstill. This development peripheries that had constituted the Empire followed coincided with the Yusufazai uprising (1667) in their own different paths of developments. The North-West Punjab and the Afridi rebellion in 1678. eighteenth century, regional histories thus indicate Singh argues that these political disturbances had the endeavor to make use of the possibilities for grave social and economic consequences for Punjab: growth within existing social structures. they disrupted trade and thereby gradually eroded Evidently, the regional history perspective the economy which was based on a commercialised on Mughal decline negates the application of one agrarian sector. general theory to explain Mughal collapse all over The loosening of Punjab’s socio-economic India. For the Mughal Empire, at best, represented a structure led to social unrest in Punjab. However, consensus between the centre and the peripheries. Singh contends that since the benefi ts of trade and The peripheries were integrated to the Mughal commerce had been unequally distributed in the core not merely administratively. For there was an region, the discomforts caused by the decline of economic and cultural assimilation between the trade varied in different areas of the Punjab. Thus, Success conqueror and the vanquished. It was on certain of the areas most closely associated with the Sikh shared economic and cultural spaces that the rebellion were those that were also among the most Mughal state structure rested. commercialised and therefore most easily affected Regions, held together by these heterogeneous by economic regression. Thus, he concludes, the linkages to the Mughal core, were bound to be social unrest which eventually led to the dissociation vulnerable to the kinds of social, economic and of Punjab from the Empire was the product of long cultural changes that swept through 17th century term processes. These processes had silently and Mughal India. Different regions were affected in

steadily been at work in the region even before Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru different ways. While in some regions links with | 350 |

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THE 18TH CENTURY the Mughal core were severed, in others they were retained. It was logical that the different regions followed different paths of dissociation from the Mughal Empire. Mughal decline was thus much more complex than what the historians subscribing to the Mughal-centric approach would have us believe.

THE REGIONAL PRINCIPALITIES ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Nizam’s Hyderabad, Awadh and Bengal As regards Bengal, it became an independent state within a few years of the death of Aurangzeb. Although Murshid Quli Khan was made the Governor of Bengal as late as 1717, he had been its effective ruler since 1700 when he was appointed its Dewan. Murshid Quli Khan was the Deputy Governor (Naib Nazim) and Dewan of Bengal and Orissa under prince Azim. Shortly before the death of Aurangzeb Azim left the province in the hands of Murshid Quli Khan and after the coronation of his father, he stayed away at the capital. During that period, all power rested in the hands of Murshid Quli Khan. In 1717, Farrukh Siyar appointed Murshid Quli Khan as permanent Nazim or Governor of Bengal. In 1719, he was appointed the Nazim of India in 1780 Orissa, also. He freed himself from central control Murshid Quli Khan had no male issue and but continued to send regularly his tribute to the hence he was succeeded by Shujauddin. Muhammad Mughal Emperor. He established peace by freeing Khan, his son-in-law, Shujauddin divided Bengal into Bengal of internal and external danger. Bengal was four administrative units, improved its fi nances relatively free of uprisings by Zamindars. The only looked after the welfare of his subjects and gave three major uprisings during his rule were by Sitaram them justice impartially. Towards the close of his Ray, Uday Narayan and Ghulam Muhammad and reign, power fell in the hands of a clique of self- then by Shujat Khan and fi nally by Najat Khan. After seeking advisers consisting of Hazi Ahmad, Alam defeating them, he gave their jagirs to Ramjivan, his Chand and Jagat Seth Fateh Chand. He died in 1739. own favourite. He was a good administrator and he Shujauddin was succeeded by his son, Sarfaraz improved the fi nances of the state. He converted all Khan. He neglected the work of administration jagir lands into Khalisa land directly administered by power was enjoyed by those very people who had the Crown and appointed contractors to collect the formed a clique during the reign of his father. Success revenue. Those contractors became the landlords of Alivardi Khan the Deputy Governor of Bihar or Zamindars who, later on, were and brother of Hazi Ahmad, tried to capture power. confirmed and made hereditary by Lord He marched with his army towards Murshidabad. Cornwallis. He also helped the growth of trade and Sarfaraz Khan was defeated and killed in a battle gave all possible help and incentives to traders. He on 10th April, 1740. Alivardi Khan captured the was a man of puritan character and he despised all Mansad of Bengal. He secured confi rmation of his kinds of luxury. He succeeded in bringing prosperity new position from the Mughal Emperor.

to the province of Bengal. He died in June, 1727. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Alivardi Khan was a competent ruler. He looked | 351 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 after the welfare of his subjects and administered and Chandernagar. However, they made a mistake in Bengal well. He was troubled by the Afghan rebels not fi rmly putting down the increasing tendency of in Bihar and Maratha invasions. He suppressed the the English East India Company to use military force Afghans in 1748 but was forced to conclude a treaty or to threaten its use to get its demands accepted. with the Marathas by which he agreed to pay `12 They had the power to deal with the threats of the lacs per annum as Chauth to the Marathas. He died Company but did not take timely action against on 10th April, 1756. the English Company. The Nawabs of Bengal also CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA neglected to build a strong army and had to pay a Alivardi Khan was succeeded by his grandson very heavy price for this negligence. It is pointed out Siraj-ud-Daulah. The latter showed vigor and energy that the army of Murshid Quli Khan consisted of only in administration and succeeded in suppressing his 2000 cavalry and 4000 infantry. Alvardi Khan was enemies and rivals of the Mansad. He came into constantly troubled by the Marathas and was forced confl ict with the British who gave shelter to the to give them his own territory, but he did not raise a enemies of the Nawab, misused their trading rights big army which could stand against the English East and strengthened their fortifi cations at Calcutta. India Company. They failed to check the growing The Nawab tried to check them. A conspiracy was corruption among the offi cials. Judicial offi cials like hatched against him. The Nawab was defeated in the Qazis and Muftis took bribes. Their enemies took the battle of Plassey in June, 1957 A.D. and killed. full advantage of these weaknesses and succeeded Mir Jafar was placed on the Masnad of Bengal by in establishing their hold over Bengal. the English East India Company. He was replaced by Mir Qasim by the English in 1760. Mir Qasim fought Avadh the battle of Buxar in 1764. Thus, the Government Burhan-ul-Mulk Saadat Khan founded an of Bengal passed into the hands of the English East independent Muslim Kingdom in Avadh. His India Company. original name was Mir Muhammad Amin. He was It is maintained that the Nawabs of Bengal a member of the personal retainers of the Emperor gave Bengal a long period of peace and orderly called balashahi. He was given the Mansab of 5,000 administration and promoted trade and industry. and later of 7,000. The title of Burhan-ul-Mulk was They gave equal opportunities for employment to confi rmed on him. He was appointed the Governor the Hindus and Muslims. They fi lled the highest civil of Agra. In 1723, he was driven out of the capital as a posts and many of the military posts with Bengalis, sort of punishment and was given the Governorship most of who were Hindus. While appointing revenue of Avadh. Saadat Khan was in favour of strong farmers, Murshid Quli Khan gave preference to local measures against the Marathas. He fought against Zamindars and moneylenders who were mainly Nadir Shah on behalf of the Mughal Emperor in Hindus. In this way, he laid the foundations of a the battle of Karnal. In order to discredit the Nizam, new landed aristocracy in Bengal. The Nawabs gave he brought Nadir Shah to Delhi and was partly encouragement to all merchants, Indian or foreign. responsible for the massacre of the people of Delhi They provided for the safety of roads and rivers and destruction of their wealth. He poisoned himself from thieves and robbers by establishing regular to death, as he could not fulfi l the promises made Thanas and Chowkies. They checked private trade to Nadir Shah. He ruled Avadh from 1723 to 1739. by offi cials. They prevented abuses in the customs Success Saadat Khan was succeeded by his nephew of administration. They maintained strict control over and son-in-law Safdar Jang (1739-54). He was a the foreign trading companies and their servants capable man who provided peace and prosperity to and prevented them abusing their privileges. They Avadh. He was appointed the wazir of the Mughal compelled the servants of the English East India Emperor, in 1748 and was also granted the province Company to obey the laws of the land and pay the of Allahabad. Safdar Jang gave a long period of same customs duties as were being paid by the other peace to the people of Avadh and Allahabad before merchants. Alvardi Khan did not allow the English his death in 1754. He suppressed the rebellious

and the French to forty their factories at Calcutta Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru zamindars. He made an alliance with the Marathas | 352 |

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THE 18TH CENTURY in order to save his kingdom from their invasions. 26th January, 1775. He carried on warfare against the Rohillas and the Shuja-ud-Daulah was succeeded by his son bangash Pathans. In his war against the bangash Asaf-ud-Daulah (1775-1797 A.D.). With the passage Nawabs in 1750-51, he got military help from the of time, the Nawab began to depend more and more

Marathas by paying a daily allowance of  25,000. upon the British. In 1801, Nawab Saadat Ali accepted

He also paid  15,000 a day for getting support the subsidiary system. Avadh was annexed in 1856. from the Jats. He entered into an agreement with the Peshwas by which the latter agreed to help the ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Rohilkhand Mughal Emperor against Ahmad Shah Abdali and to Katehar was a stronghold of the Afghans. It was protect him from such internal rebels as the Indian populated mainly by the Rohillas and hence it came Pathans and Rajput Rajas. In return, the Peshwa was to be known as Rohilkhand. The Rohillas fi rst came

to be paid  50 lacs, granted the Chauth of the Punjab, into prominence under Daud, who continued to be a Sindhi and several districts of Northern India and petty Jagirdar. His adopted son, Ali Muhammad Khan made the Governor of Ajmer and Agra. Rohila became the leader of the Rohillas, in 1721 and The agreement failed as the Peshwa went over he laid the foundations of an independent kingdom to the enemies of Safdar Jang who promised him the of the Rohillas. He was able to raise an army of his own. He started conquering district after district. In Governorship of Avadh and Allahabad. Safdar Jang 1727, he defeated a Khawajasara of the Emperor and organised an equitable system of justice. He adopted seised all his property. That raised his prestige and a policy of impartiality in the employment of Hindus he took up the title of Nawab. He started living in and Muslims. The highest post in his Government royal style and held his court like an independent was held by Maharaja Nawab Rai. The long period of prince. He was able to get the right of collecting peace given by the Nawabs to the people resulted taxes from the region under his authority. In 1737, he in the growth of a distinct Lucknow culture around got the title of Nawab from the Emperor. When Nadir the Avadh court. Lucknow began to rival Delhi in its Shah attacked India in 1739, Ali Muhammad Khan patronage of arts and literature and also became extended his infl uence to Muradabad and occupied an important centre of handicrafts. Safdar Jang most of the region. His authority extended to the maintained a high standard of morality. He was whole of Bareilly and Muradabad and portions of devoted to his wife alone. Hardoi and Badaun. He was appointed the Governor Safdar Jang was appointed the Wazir of the of Katehar by the Emperor. In due course, he was Mughal Emperor in 1748 and called to Delhi. He able to occupy Pilibhit, Bijnor and Kumaon. In 1745, failed to achieve much on account of his rivals. He the Mughal Emperor personally led an army against returned to Avadh in 1753 and died in October, 1754. him and the latter submitted. He was given a Mansab

Safdar Jang was succeeded by his son Shuja- of  4,000 and he agreed to exchange Sirhind for ud-Dulah. He provided shelter to the fugitive Prince, Katehar. When Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded the Ali Gauhar who later on became Mughal Emperor. Punjab, in 1749, Ali Muhammad Khan went back to He fought assan ally of Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Katehar and drove out the local jagirdars. third battle of Panipat and was appointed Wazir of After his death, his possessions were divided the Emperor when Ali Gauhar became the Emperor into three parts, to one of which Hafi z Rahmat Khan with the title of Shah Alam II. He provided shelter to Success succeeded as the leader. The Rohillas helped Ahmad of Mir Qasim, who was the fugitive Nawab of Bengal. Shah Abdali in the third battle of Panipat in 1761 He fought the Battle of Buxar, in 1764, as an ally of and got many concessions from him. After that, Mir Qasim. He was defeated. The whole of Awadh the Rohillas became independent. For some time, lay at the mercy of the British. However, Avadh they were able to capture Delhi also but had to was restored to Shuja-ud-Daulah by the British on vacate the same on account of opposition from the

payment of  50 lacs and the surrender of some Marathas and Nawab of Avadh. In the time of Warren territory to the Mughal Emperor. He conquered Hastings, British troops were sent to Rohilkhand to

Rohilkhand, in 1774, with British help. He died on Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru help the Nawab wazir of Avadh. Rohilkhand was | 353 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 conquered. Hafi z Rahmat Khan was killed. About use of Logarithms was also translated into Sanskrit. 20,000 Rohillas were turned out from the country. He was also a social reformer. He tried to reduce The soldiers of the Nawab committed atrocities on the expenditure incurred in connection with the the innocent people of Rohilkhand and the country marriages of daughters. He ruled from 1699 to 1743. was annexed to Avadh. However, the rulers of the Rajput states were Farrukhabad divided among themselves. Bigger Rajput states tried to expand themselves at the cost of their Muhammad Khan Bangash, an Afghan ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA weaker neighbours. Most of them were constantly adventurer, established his control over the territory involved in petty quarrels and civil wars. In most around Farrukhabad between Aligarh and Kanpur, of the Rajput states, there was corruption intrigue during the reigns of Farrukh Siyar and Muhammad and treachery, Ajit Singh of Marwar was killed by Shah. Muhammad Khan raised a band of Afghans his own son. whom he employed in plundering raids and fi ghting the battle of local Jagirdars on payment. In 1713, he At one stage, the Rajputs controlled the entire was appointed a courtier by Farrukh Siyar. In 1714, territory extending from some 600 miles South of he founded the town of Farrukhabad. He was able to Delhi to Surat on the Western coast. However, they acquire a large Jagir whose area was about 75,000 failed to consolidate their position on account of square miles. His infl uence became so great that their internal dissensions. he was appointed the Governor of Allahabad and The Jats Malwa. He was so faithful to the Emperor that he The Jats lived in the region around Delhi, Agra never thought of independence. When he died in and Mathura. The Jat peasants around Mathura 1743, he was succeeded by his son, Qayam Khan. revolted on account of oppression by Muhal offi cial. The Rajput States They revolted in 1669 and 1688. Their revolts were crushed but there was no peace. After the death of The Rajput states took advantage of the Aurangzeb, the Jats created disturbances all around growing weakness of the Mughal Empire and freed Delhi. The Jats plundered all and Sundry, the rich and themselves from the central control and increased the poor, the Jagirdars and peasants. The Hindus their infl uence in the rest of the Empire. During the and Muslims. They took active part in the intrigues reigns of Farrukh Siyar and Muhammad Shah, the at the Mughal court and joined whichever party rulers of Amber and Marwar were appointed the suited them. Governors of the Mughal provinces like Gujarat, Malwa and Agra. The Jat state of Bharatpur was set up by Churaman (1660-1721) and Badan Singh. Churaman The most important Rajput ruler of this time built a strong fort at Thun and challenged the was Raja Swai Jai Singh of Amber (1681-1743). He Mughal authority in the region. The Mughal army was a statesman, a lawmaker and a reformer. He under Jai Singh II, the Governor of Agra, marched was also a man of science He founded the city against Churaman, in 1721 and captured his fort. of Jaipur and made it a seat of science and art. Churaman committed suicide. The city of Jaipur was built strictly on scientifi c principles and according to a regular plan. Its Badan Singh (1685-1756) was a nephew of streets are interested at right angles. He was a Success Churaman. He became the leader of the Jats. He of great astronomer. He erected observatories at strengthened his army and built four forts of Dig, Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi and Mathura. The Kumber, Ver and Bharatpur. He took full advantage instruments put in these observatories were very of the weakness of the Mughal Empire after the accurate. His own astronomical observations were invasion of Nadir Shah and established his sway remarkably accurate. He prepared a set of tables to over the districts of Mathura and Agra and laid the enable people to make astronomical observations. foundation of the Bharatpur kingdom. Ahmad Shah He got translated into Sanskrit Euclid’s Elements of Abdali conferred on Badan Singh the title of Raja

Geometry. Napier’s work on the construction and Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru with the additional epithet of Mahendra. | 354 |

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THE 18TH CENTURY Badan Singh was succeeded by Suraj Mal, inside the fort, the Guru was forced to open the gate who ruled from 1756 to 1763. He was an able apparently on a promise of safe conduct by Wazir administrator, a soldier and a statesman. He extended Khan. However, when the forces of the Guru were his authority over a large area which extended from crossing a swollen stream, the forces of Wazir Khan the Ganges in the East to Chambal in the south, the suddenly attacked. Two of the sons of Guru Gobind province of Agra in the West and to the province of Singh were captured. On their refusal to embrace Delhi in the North. His state included among other, Islam, they were beheaded at Sirhind. The Guru lost the districts of Agra, Mathura, Meerut and Aligarh. ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA two of his remaining sons in another battle. After For his political sagacity, steady intellect and clean that, he retired to Talwandi. vision, he is remembered as “the Jat Ulysses.” A It is contended that Aurangzeb was not keen contemporary historian described Suraj Mal in these to destroy the Guru and wrote to the Governor of words: “Through he wore the dress of a farmer and Lahore to “conciliate the Guru”. When the Guru wrote could speak only his brij dialect, he was the Plato to Aurangzeb in the Deccan apprising him of the of the Jat tribe. In prudence and skill and ability to events, Aurangzeb invited him to meet him. Towards manage the revenue and civil affairs, he had no the end of 1706, the Guru set out for the Deccan equal among the grandees of Hindustan except and was on the way when Aurangzeb died in 1707. Asaf Jah Bahadur.” After the death of Aurangzeb, Guru Gobind After the death of Suraj Mal in 1763, the Jat Singh joined Bahadur Shah’s camp as a noble of the kingdom gradually sank into insignifi cance. However, rank of 5000 Zat and 5000 sawar and accompanied Lord Lake failed to capture Bharatpur, in 1805. him to the Deccan where he treacherously murdered, The Sikhs in 1708, by one of his Pathan employees. The Sikhs were transformed into a militant After the death of Guru Gobind Singh, Banda and fi ghting community under Guru Har Gobind Bahadur became the leader of the Sikhs. He rallied (1606-1645). The execution of Guru Teg Bahadur the Sikh peasants of the Punjab under his leadership forced the Sikhs to fi ght against the Mughals. Guru and carried on a vigorous struggle for 8 years. He Govind Singh (1664-1708) showed considerable was captured in 1715 and put to death. His death organisational ability and founded the military gave a setback to the territorial ambitions of the brotherhood called the Khalsa, in 1699. Before that, Sikhs and their power declined. he had made his headquarters, at Makhowal, on The invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Anandpur, in the foothills of the Punjab. A series of Abdali gave the Sikhs an opportunity to rise once clashes took place between Guru Govind Singh and again. In the wake of the marches of the armies of the Hill Rajas in which the Guru generally came out the invaders, the Sikhs plundered all the sundry and successful. The organisation of the Khalsa further gained wealth and military power. They began to strengthened the hands of the Guru. An open breach fi ll the political vacuum created in Punjab after the between the Guru and the Hill Rajas took place only withdrawal of Ahmad Shah Abdali. Between 1765 in 1704, when the combined forces of a number of and 1800, the Sikhs brought the Punjab and Jammu Hill Rajas attacked the Guru at Anandpur. The Rajas under their control. They were organised into 12 retreated and pressed the Mughal Government Misls or confederacies which operated in different against the Guru on their behalf. Success parts of the Punjab. They full cooperated with one of Aurangzeb was concerned with the growing another. Gradually, the democratic character of the power of the Guru and had asked the Mughal Misls disappeared and powerful chiefs dominated Faujadar earlier “to admonish the Guru”. Now, the Misls. All the Misls were brought under their Aurangzeb wrote to the Governor of Lahore and control by Ranjit Singh, who set-up an independent the faujdar of Sirhind, Wazir Khan, to help the Hill Sikh state in the Punjab. Rajas against Guru Govind Singh. The Mughal forces The state of Hyderabad was founded by Nizam- assaulted Anandpur but the Sikhs fought bravely ul-Mulk Asaf Jah in 1724. It was Zulfi qar Khan who

and beat off all assaults. When starvation began Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru had fi rst conceived of the plan of an independent | 355 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 state in the Deccan after the conquest of the fort Government. He followed a policy of toleration of Jinji. Through the generosity of Bahadur Shah, towards the Hindus. He appointed Puran Chand as Zulfi qar Khan was appointed the Viceroy of the his Dewan. He established an orderly administration Deccan. He was allowed to stay at the capital while in the Deccan. He tried to remove corruption from Daud Khan was to act as his Deputy. When Farrukh the revenue department. Siya came to power, the position of Zulfi qar Khan The Nizam had to face the challenge of the became shaky and ultimately he was killed in 1713. Marathas who under the leadership of Peshwa Chin Qilich Khan was appointed the Viceroy of the ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Baji Rao I was determined to collect Chauth and Deccan with the title of Nizam-ul-Mulk through Sardeshmukhi from the six Subahs of the Deccan the good offi ces of the Sayyid Brothers. He acted and limit the power of the Nizam. The Nizam was an as Viceroy of the Deccan from 1713 to 1715. He astute diplomat and a capable commander. He tried consolidated his position by diplomacy and war. to divide the Marathas. He aroused the ambition He was displaced by Hussain Ali, one of the Sayyid of Senapati Trimabak Rao against Peshwa Baji Rao brothers who were appointed the Viceroy of the and refused to pay Chauth and Sardeshmukhi. Baji Deccan. In 1720, the Nizam returned to the Deccan Rao proved more than a match for him. He defeated and seised the viceroyalty by defeating the nephew the Nizam twice, fi rst at Phalkhed, in 1728 A.D. and of Hussain Ali. As Emperor Muhammad Shah was next time near Bhopal, in 1738. Both times, he had himself eager to break the hold of the Sayyids, he to purchase peace from the Peshwa and agreed to won over the Nizam to his side and confi rmed him pay Chauth and Sardeshmukhi besides other terms. as the Viceroy of the Deccan. The Nizam had to go to When the Marathas occupied Malwa, the North because the Emperor wanted to stabilise Bundelkhand and Gujarat, the Nuzam stayed in his position by appointing his as the Wazir in 1722 the North, from 1737 to 1740, at the request of the and he remained as wazir upto 1724. The Nizam Mughal Emperor. He failed to settle anything with tried to put things in order but he was unsuccessful Nadir Shah, in 1739 and sent back to the Deccan. on account of opposition from the Emperor and his After that, he did not take part in the politics of Delhi. fl atterers. His strict discipline provoked dislike the He died in 1748 A.D., at the age of 77. The Nizam was jealously. The Nizam was extremely unhappy. As the fi rst independence ruler of Hyderabad and he wazir, he added Malwa and Gujarat to the Subedari was also the most competent ruler of the Deccan. of the Deccan. When the Nizam found that he was After the death of the Nizam, in 1748, there was not liked in the court, he marched away to the confusion in the Deccan. Nasir Jang and Muzaffar Deccan without the permission of the Emperor. Jang contested the throne and took the help of the That was not liked by the Emperor who appointed English and French Companies. The interference of Mubariz Khan as the Viceroy of the Deccan and the Marathas in the politics of the Deccan and the directed him to send the Nizam to the court, dead rise of the State of Mysore under Haider Ali created or alive. Mubariz Khan was defeated and killed by more complications for the rulers of Hyderabad. In the Nizam, who was sent by his head to the Emperor. the time of Lord Wellesley, the Nizam entered into The Mughal Emperor was obliged to confer on the a subsidiary alliance with the English East India Nizam the title of Asaf Jah and he also confi rmed Company and virtually became their subordinate him in the Viceroyalty of the Deccan, in spite of the ally. fact that the Nizam was very strong in the Deccan, he Success maintained a show of respect towards the Emperor. of Carnatic The Nizam laid the foundations of the state of Carnatic was one of the Subhas of the Mughals Hyderabad which he ruled with a strong hand. He in the Deccan and was under the authority of the never openly declared his independence from the Nizam. As the Nizam became independent of Delhi, Central Government but for all practical purposes, the Deputy Governor of Carnatic, known as the he acted like an independent ruler. He waged Nawab of Carnatic, freed himself from the control wars, concluded peace, conferred titles and gave of the Viceroy of the Deccan and made his offi ce

Jagirs and offi ces without reference to the Central Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru hereditary Nawab Saadatullah Khan of Carnatic | 356 |

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THE 18TH CENTURY made his nephew Dost Ali his successor without the dissensions in the Maratha camp. Both situations approval of his superior, the Nizam. After 1740, the were advantageous to the Mughals and they were affairs of the Carnatic deteriorated on account of the not disappointed. Sahu’s released was followed by repeated struggles for its Nawabship. That gave the a civil war between the forces of Tarabai and Ashu, British an opportunity to interfere in Indian politics. which lasted up to 1714. Mysore When Sahu reached Satara after his release, Tarabai called him an impostor and ordered her The preserved its ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA generals to destroy him. But common people and precarious independence since the end of the soldiers were on Sahu’s side. The support of the Vijaynagar Empire. Early in the 18th century, two Maratha Dhanaji jadhav and diwan Balaji Vishwanath ministers Nanjaraj and Devaraj seised power in helped Sahu triumph over odds. In the ensuing Mysore and reduced the King Chikka Krishna Raj to a battle of Khed (October 12, 1707), between the mere puppet. Haider Ali started his career as a petty forces of Sahu and Tarabai, the latter’s forces were offi cer in the Mysore army. Though uneducated, defeated and in January 1708. Sahu occupied Satara. he possessed a keen intellect. He was a man of Now the Maratha kingdom was split-up into two great energy, daring and determination. He set up antagonistic substates with Sahu as the head of one a modern arsenal in Dindigul, in 1715, with the help at Satara and Shivaji II, or really Tarabai, as the head of French experts. In 1761, he overthrew Nanjaraj of the other at Kolhapur. When Shivaji II died, another and established his authority over the Mysore son of Rajaram from Rajasbai Sambhaji II, ascended state. He extended full control over the rebellious the gaddi of Kolhapur. The feud between these two Zamindars and conquered the territories of Bidnur, rival forces was fi nally settled by the treaty of Warna, Sunda, Sera, Canara and Malabar. He was an effi cient in 1731, which provided that Sambhaji I should rule administrator. over the southern division of the Maratha kingdom He practiced religious toleration and many of with Kolhapur as its capital and the northern part his offi cers were Hindus. Almost from the beginning, with the capital at Satara should be considered as he was engaged in wars with the Maratha chiefs, the preserve of Sahu. the Nizam and the British. In 1769, he defeated the During all these diffi cult times which Sahu British forces and reached the walls of Madras. He had to face, none proved a more loyal, reliable and died in 1782. He was succeeded by his son, Sultan capable offi cer on his side than Balaji Vishwanath. Tipu, who ruled Mysore till his death in 1799. Some At his coronation in January 1708, Sahu conferred historians describe Tipu as a religious fanatic but upon him the title of Sena-Karte (Maker of the Army) that does not seem to be correct. and eventually elevated him to the post of Peshwa Rise of Maratha Ascendancy under the in 1713. With Balaji’s appointment as the Peshwa, the offi ce of the Peshwa became hereditary and Peshwas Balaji and his successors became the de facto rulers Nearly three months after Aurangzeb’s death, of the Maratha kingdom. From now onwards, the Sambhaji’s son, Sahu (born May 18, 1682), who Chhatrapati became just a fi gurehead. had been in Mughal captivity since November 3, 1689, was liberated on May 8, 1707 by aurangzeb’s Balaji Vishwanath (1713-20 A.D.) second son, Azam Shah, who ascended the throne Success Balaji’s character and capacity and the peculiar of as Bhadur Shah I. Sahu was recognised as the king circumstances of the country favoured the rise of of the Marathas and his right to the maratha Swaraj the Peshwas to power and renown. One of the fi rst and to chauth and sardeshmukhi of the Deccani things Balaji was called upon to do was to secure the subahs of the Mughals was also probably recognised. restoration of Sahu’s mother to him from the custody The Mughal suzerainty was protected through of the Mughals, who had detained her at Delhi as the arrangement that he would rule as a vassal of hostage for the good behaviour of her son Sahu. the empire. The intention of the Mughals was to Balaji opened direct negotiations with the Sayyid

end long-drawn wars in the Deccan or to create Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Brothers and in February, 1719, all his demands were | 357 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 accepted. Accordingly, Sahu’s mother and family the territory, maintained the local army, and were released, he was recognised as the ruler of contributed only a small share of their income to Shivaji’s home dominions and was allowed to collect the royal exchequer. They were the primary rulers, chauth and sardeshmukhi from the six subahs of and the king’s control over them was nominal. the Deccan as also in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. In Sometimes revenue offi cers (darrackdars) were return for all this, the Marathas were expected to sent to their domains from the central government, keep a contingent on 15,000 horses in the service but there was no real curb on their power. Thus, of the Mughals and to maintain order in the Deccan. ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA the Maratha territories were divided into virtually Balaji’s success in Delhi greatly increased his power semi-independent principalities. Although the and prestige. chieftains were expected not to encroach on Balaji Vishwanath has been rightly called one another’s sphere or fi eld of operation, their the second founder of the Maratha state. He ambition and vanity often degenerated into selfi sh perceived that the revival of Maratha power in its exclusiveness or dangerous rivalry. In retrospect, old monarchical form was no longer possible and Balaji’s appointment as Peshwa in 1713, marks the it would be diffi cult to harness the nation’s military end of the ‘royal phase’ in Maratha history. resources to the common cause unless concessions The New Maratha ‘Mandala’ or Confederacy were made to the great war-lords who had won under Sahu an important place for themselves. He made them The Maratha administration founded by Shivaji subordinate allies or confederates of the sovereign, had radically changed by then. During the period of granting them a free hand in administering their Rajaram, the offi ce of pratinidhi was created and the conquests and called from them no greater sacrifi ce offi ce of the Peshwa was next to it in hierarchy. Thus than uniting on matters of common polity. This in place of astha pradhan of Shivaji, Sahu had nine arrangement, however, left too much authority in the ministers including the pratinidhi. The new system hands of these chiefs, without providing for checks had become feudal as also hereditary. In order to to call them to account, which was responsible for attract powerful and able men to serve the king and the speedy expansion of the Maratha power and its to retain their services and loyalty, the jagir system rapid dissolution. The term of Balaji’s Peshwaship was introduced. This system founded the feudal marks the transition from the royal period to the hierarchy of hereditary offi cers and jagirdars who age of the Peshwas. not only became revenue collectors and military Balaji has been credited with “a mastery of offi cers but also civil administrators of the newly fi nance”. Though constantly engaged in war and occupied territories. ‘Conquer and rule’ was the diplomacy, he took fi rm measures to put a stop to keynote of the new politics of the Marathas. anarchy in the kingdom. He suppressed freebooters Some capable and ambitious military leaders and restored civil government. Solid foundations and offi cers were assigned ‘spheres of infl uence’ were laid for a well-organised revenue system in which they were expected to bring under their the swaraj territory, which was under direct royal control by their own military strength without any administration. Here Balaji adopted the assessments support from the central government. Thus, Malwa made by Malik Amber in Ahmadnagar. was assigned to Nemaji Sindhia, Gujarat and Baglana

Outside swaraj the collection of revenue, Success to the Debhades (the Gaekwads of Vadodra were of including chauth and sardeshmukhi, was in charge their successors), Khanadesh and Balaghat to the of chieftains who had carved out areas of authority Peshwa berar and Gondwana to the Bhonsles, the and infl uence in particular regions. For instance, Konkan to the Angrias, Karnataka to Fateh singh Gujarat was earmarked for the senapati, Berar and Bhonsle etc. These Maratha sardars established Gondwana for the Bhonsle of Nagpur, the Konkan their hold on their territories. Their conquests for Kanhoji Angria, Karnataka for Fatch Bhonsle, led to the strengthening of the Maratha military and Khandesh-Baglana and Central Indian for the feudalism. They were not expected to encroach

Peshwa. They collected the revenue, administered Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru on one another’s sphere or area of operation. They | 358 |

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THE 18TH CENTURY were the primary rulers of their areas, maintained The Nizam-ul-Mulk was one of the greatest their own armies. Administered their territories and hurdles in the realisation of these grand designers. collected revenues. Thus, outside the swaraj territory Initially the Nizam and Sahu adopted a conciliatory there was no direct rule of the king and his ministers. policy towards each other and the former even In the new Maratha mandala under Sahu, the sought active help of the Marathas against his rivals ruler, the ministers and the sardars were all jagir at the Mughal court. But later, he not only started holders, possessing military, political and civil powers. asserting his independent authority in the Deccan CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA The new Maratha state was neither centralised nor but also began repudiating the terms of the Treaty unitary, in which the bond and relations between of Delhi (February 1719), which Balaji Vishwanath the monarch and the feudatories were loose and had entered into with the Mughals. The Nuzam also seek. “Its military power and fi nancial organisation started perpetually intriguing with the Maratha were not integrated and unifi ed. The power came enemies of the Peshwa and Sahu and creating a from the above in theory and fl owed form below in division in the ranks of the Marathas. Bajirao, after practice.” Hence, its administrative organisation and setting his own house in order, fi nally defeated its foreign policy had no coordinated strength. Both the Nizam near Bhopal and by the convention of power and revenues were shared amongst the four Durai Sarai (January 1738), compelled the Nizam pillars of the Marathas state: (a) the Chhatrapathi, (b) to agree to surrender to the Peshwa and whole of the ministers in the swaraj territory, (c) the sardars in Malva, together with the complete sovereignty of the newly conquered areas and spheres of infl uence, the territory between the Narmada and the Chambal

and (d) the local units. rivers and to pay  50 lakh as war indemnity. “The Certain features in the new system, however, Victory of Bhopal marks the zenith of the Peshwa’s kept the different warring elements tied to the triumphant career”. central authority. They were expected to remain During his two decades long militant and loyal to the king and to send regularly the fi xed eventful career, he conquered Malwa, Bundelkhand, amount of revenue payable to him. They were also Bassein Gujarat and reached up to Delhi in 1737. not allowed to make war and peace without the The fall of Bassein marked the end of Portuguese sanction of the central authority. Thus, the Maratha rule in the north Konkan. He also severely crippled confederacy, under Sahu, was military feudalism-in the power of the Siddis of Janjira. He made Pune which Sahu was dependent on the Maratha leaders the centre of his activities and it soon came to be for money as well as military strength. known as the seat of the Peshwas. His attitude Peshwa Bajirao (1720-40 A.D.) towards the Marathas Confederacy was stern and dominating and he wanted that the members of the After the death of Balaji Vishwanath, his eldest son Bajirao, a young man hardly twenty, was Confederacy should be controlled and guided by appointed the Peshwa by Sahu. Under him, the the Peshwa. As a result of this policy, there was deep Maratha power reached its zenith. He formulated resentment against him amongst the confederate the policy of northward expansion of the Marathas, members. There is no doubt that he was the greatest so that “the Maratha fl ag shall fl y from the Krishna Maratha leader after Shivaji. His policy of northward to Attock”. Bajirao was aware of the fast decline and expansion, however, landed the Marathas into the disintegration of the Mughal Empire and wanted Success ruinous Third Battle of Panipat. of to take full advantage of the situation “to acquire The two decades long peshwaship of Bajirao immortal renown”. Announcing his policy towards saw the beginnings of the regional dynasties the Mughal empire he said: “Let us strike at the which played an important role in the days of his trunk of the withering tree and the branches will successors. During this period, Ranoji Sindhia was fall off themselves”. In pursuance of this policy, he the founder of the Sindhia dynasty of Malwa, with his led numerous expeditions, one after other, into headquarters at Ujjain. Malhar Rao Holkar was also the heart of the Mughal Empire, which made the given a part of Malwa, who became the founder of

Marathas “the supreme power” in India. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru the Holkar house of Indore. The Gaikwars established | 359 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 themselves in Gujarat with headquarters at Baroda. 1742, marched northward to consolidate the Maratha Two other regional kingdoms Kolhapur was ruled authority in Bundelkhand. In 1743, he undertook the by the junior branch of Shivaji’s family and Bhonsles second expedition to the north to help Alivardi Khan of Nagpur claimed close kingship with the Maratha (in Bengal), whose territories had been ravaged by king Sahu. Raghuji Bhonsle. The Peshwa reached Murshidabad Bajirao founded the Maratha empire through and met Alvardi Khan who agreed to pay Sahu the his conquests, but he did not consolidate it Chauth for Bengal and 22 lakh to the Peshwa for CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA through administrative organisation. “The very the expenses of his expedition. By this arrangement idea of remodeling the political institutions of the the Peshwa freed Alvardi Khan’s territories from the Marathas and setting up schools for training, the ravages of Raghuji’s troops. During the fi rst half of new types of captains and civil servants required by his Peshwaship, he established Maratha supremacy the altered conditions of the Maratha state, never in Karnatak and sent expeditions to Rajputana. entered Bajirao’s head”. Instead of trying to check the On December 15, 1749, Sahu died childless. progress of feudalisation which had begun during Before his death, he had nominated Ramaraja, a the war of independence, he actually promoted it grandson of Tarabai, as his successor. Ramaraja was by conferring large powers on chiefs like Sindhia crowned as Chhatrapati in January, 1750. Since and Holkar. Although handicapped by chronic want he was weak and incompetent, Tarabai tried to of money for the heavy expenditure on his large make him a puppet in her own hands, which caused armies, he made no arrangement for the effi cient utter confusion and crisis in the maratha kingdom; management of the fi nances of the state. it deepened further when the Peshwa learnt the His policy of confi rming incapable assignees Ramaraja was not the grandson of Tarabai but and other useless offi cers in their holdings weakened an impostor. When this fact came to knowledge, the basis of internal administration and the Peshwa the Chhatrapati was virtually confined in the was unable to prevent it. In spite of these diffi culties, fort at Satara and lost all contacts with political Bajirao—a great man of action—gave the young development. Henceforth, Pune (Poona) became Maratha state stability and secured its freedom the real capital of the Maratha confederacy, and and opened before it a wide prospect of expansion”. the Peshwa its virtual ruler. Peshwa Balaji Bajirao or Nana Saheb During the second period of Balaji’s regime (1740-61) (1751-61), four campaigns were organised in Peshwa Bajirao died at the young age of 40 and the north. The Punjab politics was at the time in was succeeded by his son Balaji Bajirao (popularly a confused state and as a result of the fi rst two called Nana Saheb), who, throughout his Peshwaship, invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali, the subahs of remained dependent on the advice and guidance Lahore, Multan and Kashmir were annexed by of his cousin Sadashiva Rao Bhau. He, like his father, Abdali to his dominions. After the third invasion, the became the Peshwa at the young age of 20. With Mughal wazir, Safdarjang, persuaded the emperor regard to the future policy of his government, Bahu to enter into an agreement with the Marathas, asked him to continue the policies of his father and in May 1752, for undertaking the defence of the said: “The elder bajirao achieved great deeds in the empire against its internal and external foes. In devoted service of the king. But his life was cut short. Success turn, the Marathas were to get the chauth of the of You are his son, and you ought to consummate his north-western provinces usurped and occupied policy of conquering the whole of Hindustan and by the Afghans. However, that chauth could only establish an empire and lead your horses beyond be secured by actual conquest. The Marathas were Attock:. One of the earliest achievements of Nana also given the subahs of Agra and Ajmer. As a result Saheb was better fi nancial management of the of this agreement, the Maratha military force was empire by exercising careful supervision over all posted at Delhi and they repeatedly interfered in fi nancial transactions. He later discussed the affairs of the politics of North India and established their

northern India with Holdar and Sindhia and in April, Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru supremacy at Delhi. | 360 |

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THE 18TH CENTURY This arrangement would have marked the paramountcy (Hindu-padpadshahi) up to Attock”. It fulfi lment of Sahu’s dream of “a Mughal-Maratha is doubtful if the Maratha army actually advanced alliance for the governance of India as a whole”. But as far as Attock; and the collection of revenue in Safdarjang lost his wazirship and retired to Awadh the trans-chenab district was a purely temporary in 1753, and power in the imperial court passed affair. The Peshwa did not realize that the Punjab to Imad-ul-Mulk, a grandson of Nizam-ul-Mulk. He could not be retained without keeping a large well- terrorised the helpless emperor with Maratha help equipped force constantly on the spot. This was and secured the offi ce of wazir, dethroned Ahmad ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA not possible because the necessary funds were not Shah and placed Alamgir II, a grandson of Bahadur available and no Maratha soldier could stand the Shah, on the imperial throne (1754). winter of Lahore. No fi rst-rate Maratha general was There was never a wazir of Delhi whose rule posted in the Punjab as warden of the North-west was so barren of good result and so full of misery frontier. The Peshwa sanctioned “a provocatively to himself and to the empire, to his friends and advanced frontier” which made a war with Abdali foes alike, as Imad-ul-Mulk’s. At fi rst he “clung like inevitable, but he made no adequate arrangement a helpless infant to the breast of the Marathas”; for its defence. but being unable to pay the cash nexus on which North India: Bhau’s Expedition (1760). On alone Maratha friendship depended:, he agreed to return towards Delhi (May, 1759) after the re- Ahmad Shah Abdali’s project of ousting the Maratha conquest of the Punjab, Dattaji Sindhia was involved from the Doab and Shuja-ud-daula of Awadh, in hostilities with Janib-ud-daula in Rohilkhand. He son and successor of Safdarjang, from provincial suffered defeats and retreated towards Panipat governorship (1757). This drew Shuja-ud-daula, Suraj (December, 1759), and heard that Abdali forces, mal Jat and the Marathas together, and left Imad-ul- advancing from Sirhind, had occupied Ambala. Mulk utterly friendless during the absence of Abdali His resistance failed; he was killed in a battle with Abdali at Barai, some 16 km north of Delhi (January, from India. As per the above arrangement early 1760). Malhar Rao Holkar was routed by the Afghans in 1758; Raghunath Rao, accompanied by Malhar at Sikandrabad. Thereafter, the Maratha army in Rao Holkar, entered the Punjab. He was joined by Hindustan ceased to exist. Adina Beg Khan and the Sikhs. Sirhind fell, Lahore was occupied and the Afghans were expelled (April When the news of these disasters reached 1758). Timur Shah fl ed, pursued by the Marathas up the Peshwa at Poona, he realised that “all his gains to the Chenab. They did not cross the river because it in North India had been wiped out, and he must was too deep for fordoing and the districts beyond again fi ght for the Maratha control over the Delhi it were inhabited mostly by the Afghans. Empire and build up his supremacy in Hindustan from the very foundations”. This crisis could be Raghunath Rao returned from the Punjab after met only by sending a strong army to the North. leaving the province in charge of Adina Beg Khan. Soon the Peshwa dispatched the Maratha troops Confusion followed the latter’s death a few months under his cousin Sadashiv Rao Bhau and his eldest later (October 1758). The Peshwa sent a large army son, Vishwas Rao. The Maratha artillery was to be under Dattaji Sindhia, who reached the eastern bank commanded by Ibrahim Khan Gardi. In July, 1760, the of the Sutlej (April 1759), and sent Sabaji Sindhia to Maratha occupied Delhi. This small success added to

Lahore to take over the governorship of the province. Success the prestige of the Marathas, but they were friendless of Within a few months, a strong army sent by Abdali in the whole of North India. Even the Jat king, Suraj crossed the Indus. Sabaji fell back precipitately, Mal, deserted them at the last moment. On the other abandoning the entire province of the Punjab to hand, Ahmad Shah Abdali, who had been able to the Afghans. Abdali established his government secure the support of the Ruhela Chief Najib-ud- at Lahore, resumed his march and entered Sirhind daula, Nawab Shuja-ud-daula of Awadh etc. During (November 1759). this period, some futile attempts were made for The Maratha adventure in the Punjab has been peace between Ahmad Shah Abdali and the Peshwa,

acclaimed by some historians as “carrying the Hindu Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru but they could not succeed due to the exorbitant | 361 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 demands of the Marathas and self-interest of the point of view not a sovereign state; it was a vassal Muslim rulers. This culminated in the unfortunate state owing allegiance to the Mughal empire. The and disastrous battle of Panipat. nominal head of this state was the Chhatrapati, a descendant of Shivaji, who appointed the principal Peshwa Madhav Rao I (1761-72) offi cers. Sahu exercised some control over policy After the death of Balaji Bajirao, his younger and administrational his successors were prisoners son, Madhav Rao, was placed on the Peshwa’s gaddi. in the fort of Satara, but they continued to exercise Since the new Peshwa was only 17 years old, his ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA the function of appointing the Peshwas even though uncle, Raghunath Rao, the eldest surviving member it was a mere formality. The royal prisoner, though of the Peshwa’s family, became his regent and the slighted in private, was honoured in public. de facto ruler of the state. During this period, serious The de facto ruler of the Maratha empire was differences broke out between the Peshwa and his the Peshwa. Originally, the Peshwa was the chief uncle, leading to war between the two in 1762, in among the eight ministers constituting Shivaji’s which the Peshwa’s army was defeated. For some council (astha pradhan); but he came to occupy time a reconciliation was arrived at between the the second rank when Rajaram created the offi ce Peshwa and his uncle, but soon serious differences of pratinidhi in 1698. The Peshwa’s offi ce became again erupted. In 1765, Raghunath Rao demanded hereditary. The principle of hereditary emerged in the the partition of the Maratha state between himself reign of Sahu; Balaji Vishwanath and his descendant and the Peshwa. In the meantime, when the Maratha held the offi ce from 1713, till its extinction in 1818. state was paralysed by internal strife, Haider Ali of The transfer of power from the Raja to the Peshwa Mysore ravaged the Maratha territories in Karnatakas was completed by Sahu’s grant of plenary authority but the Anglo-Mysore war involved Haider Ali in to Balaji Bajirao before his death. a greater crisis. During this period, the Marathas The rise of the Peshwas to the predominant tried to restore their lost position in North India. position in the state was gradual. It was due partly In January 1771, Mahadji Sindhia occupied Delhi to Sahu’s love of ease, and largely to the ability and succeeded in exacting money from the leading of Balaji Vishwanath, Bajirao and Balaji Baji who Rajput princes; but the premature death of Madhav built up the Maratha Empire. Its fi rst important Rao in November 1772 place the Maratha dominion consequence was the destruction of the solidarity in a deep crisis. Madhav Rao was the last great of the constitution which Shivaji’s astha pradhan Peshwa had he survived longer, the Maratha empire council was designed to maintain. The other ministers could have been saved from disaster. became subordinates of the Peshwa who controlled After Madhav Rao’s death, the fortunes of the them as the vice-regent of the Chhatrapati. Another Maratha kingdom and the prestige of the Peshwas important consequence of the rise of the Peshwas under Narain Rao (1772-74), Madhav Rao Narayan to the supreme power was the division of the (1774-95), and Bajirao II (1796-1818) rapidly declined, Maratha feudal nobles (sardars) into two distinct owing to their internal feuds and prolong wars with categories. The old nobles the Angrias, the Bhonsles, the English. The last Peshwa surrendered to the the Gaikwars regarded the Peshwa as their equal and English and the Peshwaship was abolished. obeyed him only as the deputy of the Chhatrapati. The new nobles who rose into prominence under Maratha Administration under the Peshwas Success

of the Peshwa’s patronage the Sindhias, the Holkars, Chhatrapti and Peshwa: During the the Rastias regarded themselves as his servants. eighteenth century, the political organisation of the Marathas at the highest level was marked by Maratha Fiscal or Financial System curious contradictions. Sahu formally acknowledged Feudalisation: During the Peshwa period, the supremacy of the Mughal emperor and did not the feudal nobles—both new and old-exercised repudiate the legitimacy of the Mughal claim to virtually independent authority within their estates suzerainty even when he was in a position to do or fi efs (saranjams). The Peshwa’s control over them

so. Thus, the Maratha Empire was from the Maratha Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru was symbolised by his prerogative of appointing | 362 |

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THE 18TH CENTURY their chief offi cers. The diwans of the Gaikwar, the Village Communities: The old self-contained Holkar and the Sindhia were always appointed and self-supporting village community did not lose by the Peshwa; but his right of interference in the its importance during the rule of the Peshwas. The management of their estates was not acknowledged. chief man in the village was the Patil. He was the The nobles were expected to provide troops and chief revenue offi cer, the chief police magistrate as render military service in return for their estates. also the chief judicial offi cer. He was the intermediary The Peshwa had his own estates. Thus “he was the between the villagers and the Kulkarni, the village CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA head of the feudal nobles and one of them at the clerk and record-keeper. The potdar tested the same time.” coins to see whether they really had the prescribed To protect themselves, they “divided the weight and proportion of metal. The industrial revenues of any one district between several Maratha requirements of the village were met by twelve chiefs, who generally considered it beneath their artisans (balutas), who received a share of the crops dignity as fi ghting men to learn the art of reading and other perquisite in return for their services to and writing and were at the same time exceedingly the community. resentful of any supposed infringement of their fi nancial proprietary rights.” This application of the District and Provincial Administration, Different principle of divide and rule to revenue administration terms (taraf, paragonsa, sarkar, subah) were used involved the Maratha chiefs in perpetual jealousies indiscriminately to indicate administrative divisions. and feuds which minimised the chances of their The offi cers in charge of the bigger divisions were united action against the Peshwas. But the long- called mamlatdars; over the small division were term effect of this system was disastrous, for it placed the kamavisdars were subordinate to prevented combination against a common enemy sarsubahadars. They were the in charge of all the and contributed in no small measure to the downfall branches of the district administration, such as of the Maratha Empire. agriculture, revenue assessment, industries, civil The Peshwa’s primacy became nominal after and criminal justice, the control of the local militia the death of Madhav Rao I (1772 A.D.). During the (sihbandis) and the police, as also the investigation First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82) and the long of social and religious disputes. minority of Peshwa Madhav Rao Narayan (1774-96), Some restraint was put on the mamlatdar’s not only the great Maratha chiefs Sindhia, Holkar, opportunities for peculation and maladministration Bhonsle, Gaikwar but also many lesser nobles, by the deshmukh and the deshpande. They were followed their own interests and acted on their the descendants of the zamindars whom Shivaji had own. “All the evils inherent in the feudal system now turned out of their hereditary offi ce, leaving them in came to the surface”; the result was “the conversion the enjoyment of their customary dues. They were of the organic whole into an inorganic mass”. deprived of powers but assured of fair incomes. Huzur Daftar: The focus of the Peshwa’s This system was continued by the Peshwas. The administration was his secretariat at Poona, styled deshmukh maintained records relating to estates; the huzur daftar. Divided into several departments alienations and transfer of properties, and these and bureaus, it employed a large staff, preserved the were called for in all disputes connected with lands. records of all the branches of the administration, In practice, these safeguards against the mamlatdar’s Success and dealt with matters relating to revenues and of malpractices not infrequently proved illusory. expenditure, alienations of public revenue (in the form of imams, saranjams, etc.), and the budgets of The functions of the Deshmukhs and the the civil, military and religious establishments. As the Deshpandes as agents for controlling corruption de facto head of state, the Peshwa decided a large were supplemented by those entrusted to the variety of issues affecting religion and social custom, provincial hereditary offi cers called Darakhdars. such as the remarriage of widows, arrangements for They were used as a check on the chief offi cers of dowry and adoption, the appointments of offi ciating every department, the army and the navy included.

priests for non-Hindu congregations, etc. Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru They could not be dismissed by the mamlatdars. | 363 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Sources of Income: The principal sources of with the permission and under the supervision of state revenue during the Peshwa period were: (a) the Peshwa’s district offi cers. land revenue; (b) miscellaneous taxes (such as a The assessment on village lands was based on tax of one year’s rent in ten on the lands held by survey of the cultivated area. The lands were divided the Deshmukh and the Deshpande, a tax on land for revenue purposes into three classes: superior, irrigated from well, a house tax, an annual fee for the ordinary and inferior. Lenient assessment was the testing of weights and measures, a succession duty,

CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA incentive offered for bringing wastelands under a tax on marriage and the remarriage of widows, cultivation. Payment was made both in kind and extraordinary levy on the landholders known as cash. In the lands which were the private property of karja or jasti patti, etc.; (c) customs duties (mohatarfa the Peshwa (pastures, gardens, orchards, cultivated or taxes on trades and profession, and zakat or duties lands), leases were generally granted to the upris on purchase and sale); and (d) income drawn from under the authority of the mamlatdar or kamavisdar forests, private mints and fees for administration who recovered the dues from the tenants. They of justice. revenue policy of the Peswas was based on the These sources were substantially supplemented principle of securingh the prosperity of the taxpayer. by the chauth and sardeshmukhi which were originally the payments made by territories under EMERGENCE OF AFGHAN POWER the government of other powers desiring protection Nadir Shah’s Invasion (1739) from plunder. The proceeds of the sardeshmukhi were originally reserved for the state. The proceeds One of the most important events of the reign of the chauth were divided into four shares: of Muhammad Shah was the invasion of Nadir Shah, in 1739. Nadir Shah had become the ruler of Iran, in 1. 25 percent (babti) reserved for the head of 1736. He was ambitious and sought the extension state; of his dominions at the expense of his neighbours. 2. 66 percent (mokasa) granted to the feudal He conquered Qandhar in March, 1738. He entered chiefs for the maintenance of troops; Northern Afghanistan in May, 1738. Ghazni was 3. 6 percent (sahotra) granted to the sachiv; and captured in the same month. Kabul was occupied 4. 3 percent (nadgaunda) granted to various in June. Jalalabad was captured in September and persons at the pleasure of the head of state. Peshawar surrendered in November, 1738. Lahore fell in January, 1739. A battle was fought in February, When the territories paying chauth were 1939 between the Mughal troops and those of Nadir brought under the Maratha rule, the remaining Shah near Karnal and the latter was successful. Khan- three-fourths of their revenues (known as jagir) i-Dauran died fi ghting. Before his death, he gave the were assigned in various proportions to different following warning: “Never take the Emperor to Nadir, individuals. The entire system involved “a multiplicity nor conduct Nadir to Delhi, but send away that evil of individual claims upon the revenues of a from this point by any means that you can devise.” single tract or village”. Leading not only to great About the battle of Karnal, Dr. Satish Chandra says complication of the accounts, but also to jealousies that the disaster which befell the Mughal army at and feuds among the claimants. Karnal was not the result of any organised treachery

Land Revenue: Agricultural lands in the Success but was due to the want of daring, imagination and of villages were generally divided between two unity on the part of the Mughal nobles. No attempts classes of holders. The mirasdars represented were made by the Mughal court to aid and assist the descendants of original settlers who cleared the Governor of Kabul to withstand Nadir Shah. The the forest and introduced cultivation. They had passes into India were not defended. The Delhi court permanent proprietary rights. Their lands were seems to have imagined that Nadir Shah would turn heritable and saleable. They were immune from back after the conquest of Kabul, Khan-i-Dauran eviction as long as they paid rent. The upris were was among those who pooled most vigorously

strangers and tenants-at-will. They cultivated lands Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru the alleged threat of a Persian invasion. Perhaps, a | 364 |

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THE 18TH CENTURY more plausible explanation is that the Mughal court felicitate Shah Tahamsp II on the occasions of his was watching the outcome of the confl ict between restoration. Some put emphasis on the failure of the Nizam-ul-Mulk and the Marathas awaiting the return Mughal Emperor to drive out the Afghans beyond of the armies of Nizam-i-Mulk to Delhi. the Indian borders in spite of his promises. Another Although Nizam-ul-Mulk was able to persuade view is that the invitations of Saadat Khan and Nizam-ul-Mulk to Nadir Shah were responsible for Nadir Shah to go back after receiving 50 lacs Saadat Khan who was the enemy of Nizam-ul-Mulk and the invasion. Those writers, who accuse the Mughal CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA also jealous of him, prevailed upon Nadir Shah to Emperor of lack of polite disposition and breach of capture the Mughal Emperor and Nizam-ul-Mulk faith, try to justify Nadir Shah’s act of unprovoked and secure a bigger booty by going to Delhi. The aggression. Some of the Afghans who had been result was that Nadir Shah marched to Delhi, where defeated by Nadir Shah made their way into India the Khutba was read in his name in the mosques through diffi cult passes and unknown roads, and of Delhi. Unfortunately, a rumour was spread that came into contact with those sections of the people Nadir Shah was dead and the inhabitants of Delhi who were sympathetic towards them for their attacked and murdered a few Iranian soldiers. The sufferings. It is possible that some of the fl eeing result was that on 11th March, 1739, an order went columns of Afghans might have eluded the frontier guards and entered Indian Territory. forth from Nadir Shah for the wholesale slaughter of the inhabitants of Delhi, Chandni Chowk, the fruit The Iran in offi cers could not pursue them market, the Dariba bazaar and the buildings around beyond their own frontiers and Nadir Shah asked the Jama Masjid were set on fi re and reduced to the Mughal Government to take effective steps ashes. The inhabitants, one and all, were slaughtered. to drive out the Afghan fugitives from India. The There was opposition at some place but most of Mughal Emperor received Nadir Shah’s embassies the people were butchered without any resistance. with every mark of respect, provided them with The Iranians laid their hands on everything and princely comforts and gave them lacs of rupees in everybody. All the royal jewels and property and the form of gifts. He also promised to take necessary contents of the treasury were seised by him. The action against the enemies of Nadir Shah. He never Peacock Throne of Shah Jahan was also seised. asserted his claim over Qandhar. He did not oppose Elephants, horses and precious stuffs were seised. Iranian attempts for its conquest. He gave no encouragement to Afghan resistance in Qandhar. No Nadir Shah left Delhi after a stay of 57 days. offi cial support was given for their entry into India. Before his departure, he put the Crown on the head However, any effort to chastise the Afghans means of Muhammad Shah, that Mughal Emperor who the launching of a military expedition which he offered to Nadir Shah the provinces of the Mughal could not afford at a time when his own diffi culties Empire West of the river Indus from Kashmir to Sind were on the increase. On account of his continued and in addition, the Subahs of Thatta and the forts warfare against the Marathas, the Mughal Emperor subordinate to it. The view of Sir Wolseley Haig is confessed his inability to meet the demands of Nadir that the departure of Nadir left the Mughal Emperor Shah. The truth is that the obligation of repelling and his courtiers stupefi ed with the blow which had the Afghans was “beyond the capacity of his power fallen on them. For two months, nothing was done and Government”. The insistence of Nadir Shah on or proposed in regard to the state of affairs in the Success the expulsion of the Afghans creates doubts about of Empire. Even this blow did not change the attitude his real intentions in invading India. It appears that of the Mughal Emperor and his courtiers. Nadir Shah was merely using this as a pretext to There is a difference of opinion among prepare the ground for an attack on India. He was historians regarding the factors which were obviously aware of the limited resources of the responsible for the invasion of India by Nadir Shah. Mughal Government and the serious crisis it was Some attribute it to the non-observance of the facing. That situation encouraged him “to invade accepted standards of diplomatic niceties on the India and pave the way for another military success.”

part of Emperor Muhammad Shah who failed to Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru It is diffi cult to determine the number of Afghans | 365 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 who had taken shelter in India. Moreover, they were demonstrated the weakness of the Mughal Empire scattered and stripped of their resources and hence, and encouraged the future invaders to come to could not be a source of danger to Nadir Shah. There India. The complete political chaos and confusion could not be any apprehension that the Mughal which prevailed in North-West frontier after the Emperor in collusion with Afghan fugitives would invasion also ruined the country fi nancially. Nadir be able to defy the might of Nadir Shah. Shah not only caused invasion that ruined the There is no truth in the contention that the country fi nancially, large-scale destruction of life CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Mughal Emperor did not want to risk a break with and prosperity but also carried with him a booty the Afghans and hence, kept himself aloof from of over 70 crores of rupees. That made the bad the war between Nadir Shah and the Afghans. His fi nancial condition worse. V.A. Smith writes. “Nadir active participation was not called for as it had Shah proceeded systematically and remorselessly to no direct bearing on his fortunes. In the light of collect from all classes of population the wealth of these facts, it is clear that there is no element of Delhi, the accumulation of nearly three centuries and truth in the charges of breach of faith and lack of a half. After a stay of fi fty-eight days, he departed for courtesy levelled against Muhammad Shah. Lockhart his own country laden with treasure of incalculable rightly observes that Nadir Shah’s “express desire richness, including the world-famed peacock throne to punish the Afghans was only a pretext and that of Shah Jahan.” he had for some time harboured the design of The view of Dr. Bisheshwar Prasad is that “the conquering India.” The real cause of invasion of India defeat at the hands of Nadir Shah exposed the was that he was attracted to India by the fabulous incapacity and lustful luxuriousness of the nobles wealth of the country. Continual campaigns had who commanded the army. It showed the inanity made Persia virtually bankrupt. Money was needed of the central authority with its factious jealousies desperately to maintain his mercenary army. Spoils in the court circles. This exposure was a death knell from India could help him to solve the problems. of the Empire, the central edifi ce which had kept the centrifugal forces in restraint. The consequence The visible seekness of the Mughal Empire made was the disintegration of the Mughal Empire into such spoliation possible. a large number of provincial or local states, which, As regard the impact of Nadir Shah’s invasion, while maintaining the facade of obedience to the it left a deep impact on the course of Indian history. Crown, strengthened their autonomy. The Central It gave a severe blow to the already tottering government was soon reduced to a mere shadow, Mughal Empire and expedited the processes of its authority scarcely prevailing beyond the suburbs its disintegration. The quick victory of Nadir Shah of Delhi in time to come.” demonstrated the hollowness of the authority of Dr. Satish Chandra writes that the effects of the Mughal Emperor and encouraged the Governors the invasion continued to be felt long after the of far off provinces to assert their independence. departure of Nadir Shah. The invasion proclaimed As a result of the invasion, the Mughal Emperor the real weakness of the Mughal Empire to the entire surrendered the territories lying to the West of world, particularly to the European adventurers the river Indus which was a permanent loss to the who were gradually increasing their commercial Mughal Empire. The Mughal Emperor lost only the activities and were watching the political situation provinces of Western Punjab and Sind but also Success in the country with keen interest. The invasion of of lost permanently Kabul which was annexed to Nadir Shah demonstrated forcefully that a new Afghanistan. political situation had been created in Northern The invasion paved the way for future invasions India. The loss of Kabul and the areas to the West of on India from the North-West. As a result of the the Indus deprived India of an advance post for the loss of the territories to the West of the river Indus, country’s defence and a vantagepoint for following the natural defence boundaries of the Mughal West Asian affairs. All the Indian powers including empire were weakened and that made the job of the Marathas, were made aware that a new force

the future invaders of India easy. The invasion also Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru had arisen in West, Asia and the Indians could not | 366 |

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THE 18TH CENTURY longer bank on her North West regions being safe of a composite culture and society in the country from recurrent foreign invasions. Whether those were strengthened in the long run.” invasions would be in the nature of plundering raids Invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali only or would also aim at the creation of a dynastic empire, remained to be seen. Ahmad Shah Abdali or Durrani was an important general of Nadir Shah. When after the The parties at the Mughal court were also affected by the invasion of Nadir Shah. Among the conquest of Qandhar, Nadir Shah decided to settle old leaders Saadat Khan and Khan-i-Dauran were ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA all his Abdali subjects there, the relatives of Ahmad dead, Nizam-ul-Mulk and Qamaruddin had forfeited Shah also settled there. After the murder of Nadir the confi dence of the Emperor for their sorry part Shah, in 1747, all the Afghans proceeded towards in the battle of Karnal. Nizam-ul-Mulk decided Qandhar and chose Ahmad Shah Abdali as their once again to leave the Mughal court and sought leader. On reaching Qandhar, they had to fi ght an agreement with the Marathas for maintaining against the local garrison which was captured. his position in the Deccan. Safdarjang, Amir Khan Ahmad Shah Abdali was declared Emperor and and a number of other nobles gradually rose into coins were struck in his name. After Qandhar, Ahmad prominence. The decline in the imperial prestige led Shah Abdali occupied Ghazni, Kabul and Peshawar. to a resumption of the old struggle for Wizart. The All that added to his personal glory and the moral wealth extorted by Nadir Shah from the Emperor, of his troops. his nobles, the commercial classes and the citizens Ahmad Shah Abdali led as many as seven of Delhi represented a big drain on the resources expeditions against India, between 1748 and of the country. It not only death crippling blow to 1767. He undertook those invasions mainly with the power and authority of the Emperor who was a view to establish Afghan's supremacy over left with no cash reserves for an emergency, but India. There were many factors which encouraged also affected the position of Delhi as one prime him to undertake those invasions. The weak commercial mart of Northern India. and precarious condition of the Mughal Empire The general impoverishment of the nobles led encouraged him in his invasion. He had seen the to a sharpening of the struggle for the possession weakness of the Mughal Empire when he came to of Jagirdars. The tendency towards rack-renting of India along with Nadir Shah. In subsequent years, the peasantry became more marked. The realisation the Mughal Empire became weaker all the more. of land revenue became more and more a kind of Ahmad Shah Abdali wanted to take advantage of military operation and a large number of peasants that position. The neglect of the North Western were massacred. The invasion of Nadir Shah also led borders, by the later Mughals, encouraged him to the introduction of the quick fi ring musket and to launch so many invasions. The Mughal rulers improved light artillery in India. The Rohilla Afghans completely neglected the roads, passes etc., on were the fi rst to adopt them but the Marathas the border. They did not enjoy any intelligence to continued with very light cavalry warfare. The rise keep the court informed about the developments of Nadir Shah and his invasion of India ended the on the border. This indifferent attitude of the later close cultural contact between India and Persia Mughal rulers towards the defence of their border which had subsisted between the two preceding was fully exploited by Ahmad Shah Abdali. The centuries. The Indian frontier no longer marched Success view of Elphinstone is that Ahmad Shah Abdali of with Iran and Turan, so that the adventurers from invaded India so many times with a view to made these countries into India fi nally stopped. It had an fi nancial gains and realize his political ambitions. indirect bearing on India and its social and cultural He carried with him a lot of money and gifts from development. The Irani and Turani immigrants who India which were utilised by him for increasing his had settle down in India found it diffi cult to stand military strength and improving its organisation. The aside as a separate cultural and social group or to immediate cause of his invasion of India was that he adopt an attitude of social and cultural superiority. was invited by Shah Nawaz Khan, the Governor of

The result was that the forces making for the creation Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru the Punjab, to undertake an invasion of India. That | 367 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 invitation fi tted very well into the ambitious plans and desolation. Crushing the Jats on the way, of Ahmad Shah Abdali. the proceeded to Mathura, Brindban and Gokul. Ahmad Shah Abdali crossed the Indus and the The carnage and destruction that visited these Jhelum to invade Punjab, in 1748. Lahore and Sirhind sacred towns beggars description. For seven days were occupied but he was defeated by the Mughal following the general slaughter, “the water (of the army near Sirhind and he was forced to withdraw. Jammuna) fl owed of a blood-red color”. Temples were desecrated, priests and Sadhus were put to

Ahmad Shah Abdali was not prepared to put ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA the sword, women were dishonoured and children up with the insult and he led another attack on India were cut to pieces. There was no atrocity which was in 1749. Mun Khan, Governor of the Punjab, resisted not perpetrated. the advance of Abdali and asked for reinforcement. The cry of anguish which arose from Delhi, As he did not get any help, he agreed to pay ! 14000 as annual tribute to Abdali. Mathura, Agra and a thousand towns and villages in Northern India remained unheard. However, the Ahmad Shah Abdali led the third invasion of outbreak of cholera halted the Afghan army. The India towards the close of 1751, as the promised soldiers clamoured for returning home. Abdali was tribute was not paid to him. After defeating the forced to retire but not before he had collected a Governor of the Punjab, Abdali advanced towards Delhi. The Mughal Emperor offered to transfer botty estimated at 3 to 12 crores of rupees and Multan and Punjab to Abdali. The view of some infl icted unspeakable indignity upon the Mughal scholars is that Ahmad Shah Abdali also conquered Emperor. Kashmir during his third invasion and appointed his Before his departure from Delhi, Abdali own Governor. He had to go back because there compelled the Mughal Emperor to cede to him was a possibility of opposition at home at that time. Kashmir, Lahore, Sirhind and Multan. He appointed Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India for the fourth his son Timur to look after the Government of those time to punish Imad-u-Mulk who had appointed his regions. Mughlani Begum was not given Kashmir or own man as the Governor of the Punjab. Ahmad Jullunder Doab which had been promised to her. Shah Abdali had appointed Mir Mannu as his agent She was imprisoned, caned and disgraced. Abdali and Governor of the Punjab. In 1753, after the death appointed Najib Khan Rohilla as Mir Bakshi and of Mir Mannu, his infant son, under the Regency of he remained in Delhi as the agent of Ahmad Shah. his mother Mughlani Begum, succeeded him. In After the departure of Abdali, the situation in May, 1754, even this successor of Mr Mannu died. India became critical. Najib Khan was forced to leave After that, there was a chaos and confusion in the Delhi along with all his men and Ahmad Bangash Punjab. Mughlani Begum invited Imad-ul-Mulk, the was appointed as Mir Bakshi in his place. Najib Khan Wazir of Delhi and he appointed Mir Munim as the complained to Abdali and asked for a fresh invasion Governor of the Punjab after imprisoning Mughlani by him. Sirhind and Lahore fell into the hands of Begum When Ahmad Shah Abdali came to know the Marathas in 1758. Abdali sent Jahan Khan to of these developments, he decided to attack India. Punjab but he was defeated. When that happened, He came to India in November, 1756. As soon as he Abdali himself attacked India. The Marathas could reached Lahore, Mir Munim ran away to Delhi. After not stand against him and were forced to withdraw capturing the Punjab, Ahmad Shah Abdali marched Success from Lahore, Multan and Sirhind. Before the end of towards Delhi. He reached Delhi on 23rd January, of 1759, the Punjab was once again brought under his 1757 and captured the city. He stayed in Delhi for control by Abdali. about a month and repeated the carnage and arson Abdali was full of anger against all those of the type of Nadir Shah’s invasion. The rich and who had dared to defy his authority. He rushed poor, noblemen and commoners, men and women to Doab. He fought against Dattaji, and defeated all suffered torture and disgrace indiscriminately. and killed him. Malharrao was able to escape with After pillaging Delhi, the Afghan army marched great diffi culty. The Peshwa took-up the challenge

out leaving a trail of burning villages, rotting corpses Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru of Abdali and sent Sadasiva Rao Bhau to the North, | 368 |

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THE 18TH CENTURY in 1760. Many other Maratha generals were sent was to punish the Sikhs. He stayed in India only for to fi ght against Abdali. The Marathas had not a about a fortnight. He had to go back to Afghanistan single friend or ally in the North on account of their as there was trouble in his absence. previous treatment of the Rajputs, Jats and others. The seventh invasion of Ahmad Shah Abdali There were differences within their own ranks in took place in March, 1767. However, this invasion was regard to the tactics to be employed against Abdali. not a success. He failed to crush the Sikhs. He had to The only success of their army was their entry into retreat in view of the possibility of a revolt among CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Delhi because Ahmad Shah Abdali was campaigning his soldiers. As soon as Ahmad Shah Abdali left India, in the Doab. The Marathas were forced to leave Delhi the Sikhs captured Lahore. They also captured Majha on account of scarcity of food for men and horses. and Central Punjab. However, Abdali was able to It was under these circumstances that the third retain his control over Peshawar and the country battle of Panipat was fought on 14th January, 1761, West of Attock. between the Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali. As regards the effect of the invasions of Ahmad In spite of their best efforts, the Marathas were Shah Abdali, they hastened the downfall of the defeated. Holkar fl ed and the contingents of Sindhia Mughal Empire. The frequency of the invasions followed him. The defeat turned into a rout and expose the rottenness of the Mughal Empire and terrifi c slaughter ensued. On the battlefi eld, there created anarchy and confusion in all directions. So lay the corpses of 28,000 men. Most of the offi cers weak was the position of the Mughal Empire that were killed. Both Vishwas Rao, the son of the Peshwa Shah Alam II, the new Mughal Emperor, was not and Sadasiva Rao Bhau, died fi ghting heroically. able to enter Delhi for 12 years and was escorted to The defeat at Panipat was a disaster of the his throne, only in 1772, by the Marathas. However, fi rst magnitude but it was by no means decisive. For Ahmad Shah Abdali acted as a check against the Abdali, it was an empty victory. As soon as his back fast expanding empire of the Marathas by defeating was turned, his conquests fell to pieces. He and his them in the third battle of Panipat. His invasions successors were pestered by rebellions at home. contributed a great deal to the rise of the Sikhs in They were not able to give adequate support to the Punjab. It is rightly pointed out that the career their agents in India. The Sikhs drove out the Afghan of Ahmad Shah Abdali in the sikh India “is very offi cers and plundered their baggages. In a few years, intimately a part of struggle for independence. not a trace of Abdali’s conquest was left on this side Third Battle of Panipat (1761) of the Indus. The Marathas received a server’s blow At Panipat, the two rival armies stood but within ten years they were back in the North, entrenched, face to face, for more than two months. acting as the guardians of the Mughal Emperor Shah There were skirmishes and minor battles. The Afghan Alam whom they escorted from Allahabad to Delhi, cavalry patrols dominated the environs of the in 1771. The defeat of Panipat was not conclusive. Maratha cap and cut off its communications as also The battle which was really decisive was the battle food supply. Gradually despair and terror seised the of Plassey which was fought in 1757. straying Marathas. They decided to launch a direct After the battle of Panipat, Ahmad Shah Abdali attack on the Afghans when there was no food for recognised Shah Alam II as the Emperor of Delhi. men and no grass for horses, and when fi lth and

Munir-ud-Daulah and Najib-ud-Daulah promised Success stench “made the confi nes of the entrenchment a of to pay a tribute of " 40 lacs per annum to Ahmad living hell”. Shah Abdali on behalf of the Mughal Emperor. After The Bhau’s army marched out to battle on that, Ahmad Shah Abdali left India. January 15, 1761. The battle actually began about Ahmad Shah Abdali came to India for the sixth four hours after daybreak. Vishwas Rao was shot time in March, 1764. The Sikhs had increased their dead at quarter past two. Soon after the Bhau was power in the Punjab. They had captured considerable also killed. Among the leading chiefs who met death property and also killed Khawaja Abid, the Afghan were Jankoji Sindhia, Tukoji Sindhia and Ibrahim

Governor of Lahore. The object of Abdali’s invasion Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru Khan Gardi. Mahadji Sindhia received wounds, which | 369 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 lamed him for life. “It was a nationwide disaster like battle did not destroy the Maratha power in North Flodden fi eld; there was not a home in Maharashtra India nor did it essentially shake the Maratha Empire that had not to mourn the loss of a member and as a whole. Abdali made unsuccessful efforts to several houses their very heads. An entire generation conclude peace with the Peshwa and Surajmal, and of leaders was cut off at one stroke.” Apart from in the following years, he failed to crush the Sikhs those who fell on the fi eld, many fugitives lost their in the Punjab. There was a revival of the Maratha lives during their long fl ight without food or rest. power in North India, under Peshwa Madhav Rao About 50,000 men and women were saved by the ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA (1761-72). After the death of Najib-ud-daula (1770), kindness and hospitality of Surajmal. who administered Delhi as Abdali’s agent after The crushing defeat of the Marathas is easily Panipat, the Marathas restored the exiled Mughal explained. Numerically the Afghans had considerable emperor Shah Alam II to the capital of his ancestors superiority. Against 60,000 Afghans and their Indian (1772). Mahadji Sindhia occupied Delhi in 1788, and allies actually present in the fi eld, supported by it was from his successor, Daulat Rao Sindhia, that 80,000 behind the fi ghting line, the Bhau had 45,000 the English wrested the imperial capital in 1803. In troops in the fi eld and 15,000 Pindaris in the rear. south India, the Marathas secured victories against The Afghan army had better training and discipline, Haider Ali and the Nizam. S.G. Sardesai maintains and it was better organised. Moreover, a famished that “the disaster at Panipat was indeed like a natural army on less than half-dead country mares met visitation destroying life, but leading to no decisive the fi nest Afghan cavalry. Abdali had superiority political consequences”. But the views of sardesai and in artillery; he employed “the most effi cient than others are too simplistic. Undoubtedly, the disaster those of the Afghans, they could not be dragged to Panipat was the greatest loss to the Marathas in manpower and personal prestige both. forward with the advancing troops and became useless as the battle developed. The Bhau had no The Maratha dream of being successors to the worthy and dependable lieutenants comparable great Mughals was lost forever. Certainly, Panipat to Abdali’s front rank offi cers. Malhar Rao Holkar paved the way for the rise of the British power which did not exchange fi re till after the contest at the became a paramount power in India by the close centre had been decided in Abdali’s favour; and at of the eighteenth century. the last stage he fl ed away. Abdali was a far greater Peshwa Balaji Bajirao could not bear the shock military leader and strategist than the Bhau. The of the awful catastrophe at Panipat and died six defeat became virtually inevitable after the Bhau’s months after the battle (June, 1761). During the postponement of battle for two and a half months. post-Panipat era, the links of the Peshwa with the He kept his army on the defensive in a besieged Maratha confederacy also grew very loose. In the camp until starvation compelled him to make the words of Kashiraj pandit, who was an eyewitness to last desperate effort for escape. the third battle of Panipat, “it was verily doomsday From the political point of view, the defeat was for the Maratha people”. due largely to the alienation of the Rajputs and the Jats, and the failure to neutralise Shuja-ud-daula STATE OF POLITICS, CULTURE AND and Najib-ud-daula. While half of Abdali’s army was ECONOMY ON EVE OF THE BRITISH composed of troops furnished by his Indian allies, Success

of CONQUEST the valiant Rajputs and the Jats did not fi ght on the Maratha side. The clue to this situation lies in “the Social and Economic Conditions of the People total diplomatic failure on the part of the Peshwa India of the 18th century failed to make who dictated, and the Bhau who carried out, his progress economically, socially or culturally at an North Indian policy.” adequate pace. Consequences of Panipat: Some modern The increasing revenue demands of the state, Maratha writers argue that although the Marathas the oppression of the offi cials, the greed and rapacity

suffered terrible losses in manpower at Panipat, the Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru of the nobles, revenue-farmers and zamindars, the | 370 |

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THE 18TH CENTURY marches and counter-marches of the rival armies, opium, rice, wheat, sugar, pepper and other spices, and the depredations of the numerous adventurers precious stones, and drugs. roaming the land made the life of the people quite Since India was on the whole self-suffi cient wretched. in handicrafts and agricultural products, it did not India of those days was also a land of contrasts. import foreign goods on a large scale. On the other Extreme poverty existed side by side with extreme hand, its industrial and agricultural products had a riches and luxury. On one hand, there were the rich steady market abroad. Consequently, it exported CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA and powerful nobles steeped in luxury and comfort, more than it imported and its trade was balanced on the other, backward oppressed and impoverished by import of silver and gold. In fact, India was known peasants living at the bare subsistence level and as a sink of precious metals. having to bear all sorts of injustices and inequities. Historians differ on the state of internal and Even so, the life of the Indian masses was by and foreign trade during the pre-colonial period of large better at this time than it was after over 100 the 18th century. According to the dominant view, years of British rule at the end of the 19th century. constant warfare and disruption of law and order Indian agriculture during the 18th century in many areas, during the 18th century, harmed the was technically backward and stagnant. The country’s internal trade. Many trading centres were techniques of production had remained stationary looted by the contestants for power and by foreign for centuries. The peasant tried to make up for invaders. Many of the trade routes were infested technical backwardness by working very hard. He, with organised bands of robbers, and traders and in fact, performed miracles of production; moreover, their caravans were regularly looted. Even the road he did not usually suffer from shortage of land. between the two imperial cities, Delhi and Agra, But, unfortunately, he seldom reaped the fruits was made unsafe by the marauders. Moreover, with of his labour. Even tough it was his produce that the rise of autonomous provincial regimes and supported the rest of the society, his own reward was innumerable local chiefs, the number of custom miserably inadequate. The state, the zamindars, the houses or chowkies grew by leaps and bounds. jagirdars, and the revenue-farmers tried to extract Every petty or large ruler tried to increase his income the maximum amount from him. This was as true by imposing heavy custom duties on the goods of the Mughal state as of the Maratha or Sikh chiefs entering or passing through his territories. All these or other successors of the Mughal state. factors had an injurious effect on long-distance Even though Indian villages were largely self- trade. The impoverishment of the nobles, who were suffi cient and imported little from outside and the the largest consumers of luxury products in which means of communication were backward, extensive trade was conducted, also injured internal trade. trade within the country and between India and Other historians believe that the effect of political other countries of Asia and Europe was carried on changes and warfare on internal trade has generally under the Mughals. India imported pearls, raw silk, been exaggerated. The impact on foreign trade wool, dates, dried fruits, and rose water from the was also complex and differential. While sea trade Persian Gulf region; coffee, gold, drugs, and honey expanded, overland trade through Afghanistan and from Arabia; tea, sugar, porcelain, and silk from China; Persia was disrupted. gold, musk and woolen cloth from Tibet; tin from Success Political factors which hurt trade also adversely of Singapore; spices, perfumes, arrack, and sugar from affected urban industries. Many prosperous cities, the Indonesian islands; ivory, and drugs from Africa; centres of fl ourishing industry, were sacked and and woolen cloth, metals such as copper, iron, and devastated. Delhi was plundered by Nadir Shah; lead, and paper from Europe. India’s most important Lahore, Delhi and Mathura by Ahmad Shah Abdali; article of export was cotton textiles which were Agra by the Jats; Surat and other cities of Gujarat and famous all over the world for their excellence and the Deccan by Maratha chiefs; Sarhind by the Sikhs, were in demand everywhere. India also exported and so on. Similarly, in some areas artisans catering to

raw silk and silk fabrics, hardware, indigo, saltpeter, Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru the needs of the feudal class and the court suffered | 371 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 as the fortunes of their patrons declined, leading with overall trade and production not suffering any the decline of cities like Agra and Delhi. The decline sharp decline. But, in fact, the question is not of some of internal and foreign trade also hit them hard progress here and some decline there but of basic in some parts of the country. Nevertheless, some economic stagnation. While the Indian economy was industries in other parts of the country gained as a quite resilient and there was a certain continuity in result of expansion in trade with Europe owing to economic life, there was no greater effervescence or the activities of the European trading companies. buoyancy in economic activities in the 18th century Moreover, emergence of new courts and local ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA than in the 17th century. On the other hand, there nobility and zamindars led to the emergence of was defi nitely declining trend. At the same time, new cities such as Faizabad, Lucknow, Varanasi and it is true that there was less economic distress or Patna and recovery, to some extent, of artisanal decline in agricultural and handicraft production production. in the Indian states of the 18th century than was Even so India remained a land of extensive to result from the impact of British colonialism, in manufactures. Indian artisans still enjoyed fame the 18th and 19th centuries. all over the world for their skill. India was still a Education large-scale manufacturer of cotton and silk fabrics, Education was not completely neglected in sugar, jute, dye-stuffs, mineral and metallic products 18th century India. But it was on the whole defective. like arms, metal wares, and saltpeter and oils. The It was traditional and out of touch with the rapid important centres of textile industry were Dacca developments in the West. The knowledge which and Murshidabad in Bengal, Patna in Bihar, Surat, it imparted was confi ned to literature, law, religion, Ahmedabad and Broach in Gujarat, Chanderi in philosophy, and logic and excluded the study of Madhya Pradesh, Burhanpjur in Maharashtra, physical and natural sciences, technology and Jaunpur, Varanasi, Lucknow, and Agra in U.P., Multan geography. Nor did it concern itself with a factual and Lahore in the Punjab, Masulipatam, Aurangabad, and rational study of society. In all the fi elds, original Chicacole and Vishakhapatnam in Andhra, Bangalore thought was discouraged and reliance placed on in Karnataka, and Coimbatore and Madurai in Tamil ancient learning. Nadu. Kashmir was a center of woolen manufactures. The centres of higher education were spread Ship-building industry fl ourished in Maharashtra, all over the country and were usually fi nanced by Andhra and Bengal. Writing about the great skill of nawabs, rajas and rich zamindars. Among the Hindus, Indians in this respect, an English observer wrote: higher education was based on Sanskrit learning and “in ship-building they probably taught the English was mostly confi ned to Brahmins. Persian education far more than they learnt from them”. The European being based on the offi cial language of the time was companies bought many Indian-made ships for equally popular among the Hindus and the Muslims. their use. Elementary education was quite widespread. In fact, at the dawn of the 18th century, Among the Hindus, it was imparted through town India was one of the main centres of world trade and village schools while among the Muslims and industry. Peter the Great of Russia was led to through the Maulvis in maktabs situated in mosques. exclaim: “Bear in mind that the commerce of India In these schools, the young students were taught is the commerce of the world and …… he who can Success reading, writing, and arithmetic. Though elementary of exclusively command it is the dictator of Europe”. education was mostly confined to the higher Once again, historians disagree whether castes, like Brahmins, Rajputs, and Vaishyas, may there was overall economic decline as a result of persons from the lower castes also often received it. the decay of the Mughal Empire and the rise of a Interestingly enough, the average literacy was not large number of autonomous states or whether less than what it was under the British later. Warren trade and agricultural and handicraft production Hastings even wrote, in 1813, that Indians had in continued to grow in some parts of India, while general “superior endowments in reading, writing

they were disrupted and declined in other parts, Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru and arithmetic than the common people of any | 372 |

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THE 18TH CENTURY nation in Europe”. Though the standard of primary higher social status by the acquisition of high offi ce education, then, was that the teachers enjoyed or power, as did the Holkar family in the 18th century. high prestige in the community. A bad feature Sometimes, though not often, an entire caste would of it was that girls were seldom given education, succeed in raising itself in the caste hierarchy. thoughtsome women of the higher classes were Muslims were no less divided by consideration an exception. of caste, race, tribe and status, even though their religion enjoined social equality on them. The Shia Social and Cultural Life ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA and Sunni nobles were sometimes at loggerheads Social life and culture, in the 18th century, were on account of their religious differences. The Irani, marked by stagnation and dependence on the past. Afghan, Turani, and Hindustani Muslim nobles and Despite certain broad cultural unity developed over offi cials often stood apart from one another. A the centuries, there was no uniformity of culture large number of Hindus converted to Islam carried and social patterns all over the country. Nor did all their caste into the new religion and observed the Hindus and all the Muslims form two distinct its distinctions, though not as rigidly as before. societies. People were divided by religion, region, Moreover, the sharif Muslims consisting of nobles, tribe, language and caste. Moreover, the social life scholars, priest and army offi cers, looked down upon and culture of the upper classes, who formed a the ajlaf Muslims or the lower-class Muslims in a tiny minority of the total population, was in many manner similar to that adopted by the higher-caste respects different from the life and culture of the Hindus towards the lower-caste Hindus. lower classes. The family system in 18th century India Caste was the central feature of the social life of was primarily patriarchal, that is, the family was the Hindus. Apart from the four varnas, Hindus were dominated by the senior male member and divided into numerous castes (jatis) which differed in their nature from place to place. The caste system inheritance was through the male line. In Kerala, rigidly divided people and permanently fi xed their however, the family was matrilineal. Outside Kerala, place in the social scale. The higher castes, headed women were subjected to nearly complete male by the Brahmins, monopolised all social prestige control. They were expected to live as mothers and and privileges. Caste rules were extremely rigid. wives only, though in these roles they were shown a Inter-caste marriages were forbidden. There were great deal of respect and honour. Even during war restrictions on inter-dining among members of and anarchy women were seldom molested and different castes. In some cases persons belonging to were treated with respect. A European traveller, Abbe the higher castes would not take food touched by J.A. Dubois, commented at the beginning of the 19th persons of the lower castes. Castes often determined century: “A Hindu woman can go anywhere alone, the choice of profession, though exceptions even in the most crowded places, and she need occurred on a large scale. For example, Brahmins never fear the impertinent looks and jokes of idle were involved in trade and government service and loungers. …. A house inhabited solely by women held zamindaris. Similarly, many shudras achieved is a sanctuary which the most shameless libertine worldly success and wealth and used them to seek would not dream of violating”. But the women of the higher ritual and caste ranking in society. Similarly, time possessed little individuality of their own. This in many parts of the country, caste status had Success does not mean that there were no exceptions to of become quite fl uid. Caste regulations were strictly this rule. Ahilya Bai administered Indore with great enforced by caste councils and panchayats and success from 1766 to 1796. Many other Hindu and caste chiefs through fi nes, penances (prayaschitya) Muslim ladies played important roles in the 18th and expulsion from the caste. Caste was a major century politics. While women of the upper classes divisive force and element of disintegration in the were not supposed to work outside their homes 18th century India. It often split Hindus living in to supplement the family income. The purdah was the same village or region into many social atoms. common mostly among the higher classes in the

It was, of course, possible for a person to acquire a Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru North. It was not practiced in South. | 373 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 Boys and girls were not permitted to mix with time, culture remained wholly traditionalist. Cultural each other. All marriages were arranged by the activities of the time were mostly fi nanced by the heads of the families. Men were permitted to have Royal Court, rulers and nobles, chiefs and zamindars more than one wife but, except the well-off, they whose impoverishment led to their gradual neglect. normally had only one. On the other hand, a woman The most rapid decline occurred precisely in those was expected to marry only once in her lifetime. branches of the arts which depended on the The custom of early marriage prevailed all over the patronage of kings, princes, and nobles. This was country. Sometimes, children were married when ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA true that most of all of the Mughal architecture they were only three or four years of age. and painting. Many of the painters of the Mughal Among the upper classes, the evil customs of school migrated to provincial courts and fl ourished incurring heavy expenses on marriages and of giving at Hyderabad, Lucknow, Kashmir and Patna. At the dowry to the bride prevailed. The evil of dowry was same time, new schools of painting were born and especially widespread in Bengal and Rajputana. achieved distinction. The paintings of the Kangra In Maharashtra, it was curbed to some extent by and Rajputana Schools revealed new vitality and energetic steps taken by the Peshwa. taste. In the fi eld of architecture, the Imambara of Lucknow reveals profi ciency in technique but a Two great social evils of 18th century India, decadence in architectural taste. On the other hand, apart from the caste system, were the customs of the city of Jaipur and its buildings are an example sati and the condition of the widows. Sati involved of continuing vigour. Music continued to develop the rite of a Hindu widow burning herself along and fl ourish, in the 18th century, both in the North with the body of her dead husband. It was mostly and the South. Signifi cant progress was made in prevalent in Rajputana, Bengal and other parts of this fi eld in the reign of Muhammad Shah. northern India. In the South, it was uncommon; and the Marathas did not encourage it. Even in Rajputana Poetry in nearly all the Indian languages and Bengal, it was practiced only by the families of tended to lose its touch with life and become rajas, chiefs, big zamindars and upper castes. Widows decorative, artifi cial, mechanical and traditional. belonging to the higher classes and higher castes Its pessimism refl ected the prevailing sense of could not remarry, tough in some regions and in despair and cynicism, while its content refl ected some castes, for example, among non-brahmins in the impoverishment of the spiritual life of its patrons, Maharashtra, the Jats and people of the hill-regions the feudal nobles and kings. of the North, widow remarriage was quite common. A noteworthy feature of the literary life, of the The lot of the Hindu widow was usually pitiable. 18th century, was the spread of Urdu language and There were all sorts of restrictions on her clothing, the vigorous growth of Urdu poetry. Urdu, gradually, diet, movements, etc. In general, she was expected became the medium of social intercourse among to renounce all the pleasures of the earth and to the upper classes of northern India. While Urdu serve selfl essly the members of her husband’s or poetry shared the weaknesses of the contemporary her brother’s family, depending on where she spent literature in other Indian languages, it produced the remaining years of her life. Sensitive Indians brilliant poets like Mir, Sauda, Nazir and, in the 19th were often touched by the hard and harsh life of century, that great genius Mirza Gahlib. Hindi too the widows. Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber and the Success was developing throughout the century. of Maratha General Prashuram Bahu tried to promote Similarly, there was a revival of Malayalam widow remarriage but failed. literature, especially under the patronage of the Culturally, India showed some signs of Travancore rulers, Martanda Varma and Rama Varma. exhaustion during the 18th century; but the 18th One of the great poets of Kerala, Kunchan Nambiar, century was no Dark Age. Creativity of the people who wrote popular poetry in the language of daily continued to fi nd expression, cultural continuity usage, lived at this time. The 18th century Kerala with the preceding centuries was maintained and also witnessed the full development of Kathakali

local traditions continued to evolve. At the same Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru literature, drama, and dance. The Padmanabhapuram | 374 |

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THE 18TH CENTURY Palace with its remarkable architecture and mural very slow and their scope severely limited so that paintings was also constructed in the 18th century. overall they were negligible compared to advances Tayaumanavar (1706-44) was one of the best in Western Europe. This weakness in the realm of exponents of sittar poetry in Tamil. In line with other science was to a large extent responsible for the sittar poets, he protested against the abuses of total subjugation of India by the most advanced temple-rule and the caste system. Music, poetry country of the time. and dance fl ourished under the patronage of the Struggle for power and wealth, economic CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA Tanjore court in the fi rst half of the 18th century. In decline, social backwardness and cultural stagnation Assam, literature developed under the patronage of had a deep and harmful impact on the morals of a the Ahom kings. Dayaram, one of the great lyricists section of the Indian people. The nobles, in particular, of Gujarat, wrote during the second half of the 28th degenerated in their private and public life. The century. Heer Ranjha, the famous romantic epic virtues of loyalty, gratitude and faithfulness to their in Punjabi, was composed at this time by Warris pledged word tended to disappear in the single- Shah. For , the 18th century was a minded pursuit of selfi sh aims. Many of the nobles period of enormous achievement. Shah Abdul Latif were a prey to degrading vices and excessive luxury. composed his famous collection of poems, Risalo. Most of them took bribes when in offi ce. Surprisingly Sachal and Sami were the other great Sindhi poets enough, the common people were not debased of the century. to any marked extent. They continued to exhibit a high degree of personal integrity and morality. The main weakness of Indian culture lay in For example, the well-known British offi cials, John the fi eld of science. Throughout the 18th century, Malcolm, remarked in 1821: India remained far behind the West in science and technology. For the last 200 years Western Europe I do not know the example of any great had been undergoing a scientifi c and economic population, in similar circumstances preserving revolution that was leading to a spate of inventions through such a period of changes and tyrannical and discoveries. The scientifi c outlook was gradually rule, so much virtue and so many qualities as are to pervading the Western mind and revolutionising be found in a great proportion of the inhabitants of this country. the philosophic, political, and economic outlook of the Europeans and their institutions. On the other In particular, he praised “the absence of the hand, the Indians who had in earlier ages made common vices of theft, drunkenness, and violence.” vital contributions to the fi elds of mathematics and Similarly, Cranford, another European writer, natural sciences, had been neglecting the sciences observed: for several centuries. Their rules of morality are most benevolent: The Indian mind was still tied to tradition; and hospitality and charity are not only strongly both the nobles and the common people were inculcated but I believe nowhere more universally superstitious to a high degree. The Indians remained practiced than amongst Hindus. almost wholly ignorant of the scientifi c, cultural, Friendly relations between the Hindus and political and economic achievements of the West; the Muslims were a very healthy feature of life in they failed to respond to the European challenge. 18th century India. Even though the nobles and

The 18th century Indian rulers showed little interest Success chiefs of the time fought one another incessantly, of in things Western except in the weapons of war and their fi ghts and their alliances were seldom based in the techniques of military training. Except Tipu, on distinctions of religion. In other words, their they were content with the ideological apparatus politics were essentially secular. In fact, there was they had inherited from the Mughals and other 16th little communal bitterness or religious intolerance and 17th century rulers. There were, of course, some in the country. All people, high or low, respected intellectual stirrings—no people or culture can be one another’s religion and a spirit of tolerance, even totally stagnant. Some changes and advances in harmony, prevailed. ‘The mutual relations of Hindus

technology were being made, but their peace was Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru and Muslims were those of brothers among brother’. | 375 |

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 This was particularly true of the common people such as Holi, Diwali, and Durga Puja, just as Hindus in the villages and towns who fully shared one participated in the Muharram processions and another’s joys and sorrows, irrespective of religious Hindu offi cials and zamindars presided at other affi liations. Muslim festivals. The Marathas supported the shrine The Hindus and the Muslims cooperated in of Shaikh Muinuddin Chisti in Ajmer and the Raja non-religious spheres such as social life and cultural of Tanjore supported the shrine of Shaikh Shahul affairs. The evolution of a composite Hindu-Muslim Hamid of Nagore. We have already seen show Tipu CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA culture, or of common ways and attitudes, continued gave fi nancial support to the Shringeri Temple unchecked. Hindu writers often wrote in Persian as also other temples. It is noteworthy that Raja while Muslim writers wrote in Hindi, Bengali and Rammohan Roy, the greatest Indian of the fi rst half other vernaculars, often dealing with subjects of of the 19th century, was infl uenced in an equal Hindu social life and religion, such as Radha and measure by the Hindu and the Islamic philosophical Krishna, Sita and Ram, and Nal and Damyanti. The and religious systems. development of Urdu language and literature It may also be noted that religious affi liation provided a new meeting ground between Hindus was not the main point of departure in cultural and and Muslims. social life. The ways of the life of the upper-class Even in the religious sphere, the mutual Hindus and Muslims converged much more than the infl uence and respect that had been developing ways of life of upper-class and lower-class Hindus in the last few centuries as a result of the spread of or of upper-class and lower-class Muslims. Similarly, the Bhakti Movement among Hindus and Sufi sm regions or areas provided points of departure. People among Muslims, continued to grow. A large number of one region had far greater cultural synthesis, of Hindus worshipped Muslims saints and many irrespective of religion, than people following the Muslims showed equal veneration for Hindu gods same religion spread over different regions. People and saints. Many local cults and shrines had both living in the villages also tended to have a different Hindu and Muslim followers. Muslim rulers, nobles, pattern of social and cultural life than that of the and commoners joyfully joined in the Hindu festivals town dwellers. Success of Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru | 376 |

Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com 1. Identify the following places marked on the map supplied to you and write a short note of about 30 about of note short a write and youto supplied map the on followingmarked placesthe Identify 1. i rhsoi aepitn’ ie i) ANeolithic-Chalcolithic site (ii) APrehistoric cave-painting’s site (i) 2. (a) Art Art and culture are refl (a) ected to a far greater extent than political history in the epigraphic sources. 2. xx aaoihcst (x An ancient city capital (xx) The second urbanisation gave rise to the An ancient templeorganised site corporate (b) activities that reached their zenith (xviii) An ancient temple site An ancient city capital fortifi An early ed city (xvi) (xiv) (xii) inscriptions Asite ofAshokan (viii) APalaeolithic site (xix) APainted grey ware site An ancient city capital (xvii) AHarappan Site (vi) temple ARock-cut site AHarappan site (xv) (x) cave ARock-cut site (iv) (xiii) AChalcolithic site (xi) andtrade centre An ancient port (ix) A Neolithic site (vii) An ancient site capital (v) Harappan An Early site (iii) Downloaded fromKnowledgePhilic.com marked onthemapare givenmarked below seriatim. words on each of them in your Question-cum-Answer Booklet. Locational hints for each of the places a Railway Exam Guide Visit Https://RRBrailway.com Mishra of during the Gupta period. theGupta during Discuss. Comment. ' s success rt UPSC (MAIN)EXAMINATION, 2017 QUESTION PAPER I SECTION-A | 377 CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art of Success Downloaded from KnowledgePhilic.com

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HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SINCE-1993 (c) The emergence of Non-Harappan Chalcolithic cultures in Central India and the Deccan mark a change not only in the subsistence pattern of people but an overall transition from pre to proto historic period. Critically analyse. 3. (a) Critically examine various views regarding the Vedic-Harappan relationship in light of the latest discoveries. (b) “The concept of Ashoka’s Dhamma as found through his inscriptions had its roots in Vedic-

Upanishadic literature.” Discuss. ACADEMY IAS CHANAKYA (c) The period of Indian History from 3rd century B.C.E. to 5th century C.E. was the period of innovation and interaction. How will you react? 4. (a) Trace the origin and development of temple architecture in India with reference to regional styles and variations. (b) Buddhism and Jainism were social movements under the umbrella of religion. Comment. (c) The accurate picture of the complex socio-cultural milieu of Peninsular India is presented in the early Sangam literature. Delineate.

SECTION-B 5. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each: (a) The 11th–12th centuries C.E. saw eventful progression in the cultural history of India. Discuss. (b) Evaluate the accounts of foreign travellers about Vijayanagar Empire. (c) Critically examine the ‘blood and iron’ policy of Balban. (d) Do you consider the Rajatarangini of Kalhana to be a reliable source of the political history of Kashmir? Why? (e) The religion of Sikhs was the main force of their unity. Comment. 6. (a) To what extent was the Caliphate the source and sanction to the legal authority of the Sultans of Delhi? (b) “Bhakti and Sufi movements served the same social purpose.” Discuss. (c) Delineate non-agricultural production and urban economy in the 13th and 14th centuries C.E. 7. (a) Do you agree that the schemes of Muhammad bin Tughluq were correctly conceived, badly executed and disastrously abandoned? Discuss. (b) Do you think that Akbar’s Rajput policy was conscious attempt to incorporate the Indian ruling elite with Mughal Imperial System? (c) “The political disintegration was responsible for the socio-economic decline in India during the 18th century.” Comment.

8. (a) “Mughal paintings refl ect social harmony in Success contemporary society.” Discuss. (b) Assess the condition of peasantry during 13th of to 17th centuries C.E. (c) How will you view the Maratha policy of expansion? Delineate. Success Guru A K Mishra’s Art A K Mishra’s Success Guru | 378 |

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