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Home , Ajitanatha, Aranatha, Chandradeva, Chaukhandi Stupa, Death in Jainism, History of Uttar Pradesh

Module 1a: History

Uttar Pradesh State Information .. The Gangetic Plain occupies three quarters of the state. The entire Capital : state, except for the northern region, has a tropical monsoon climate. In the Districts :70 plains, January temperatures range from 12.5°C-17.5°C and May records Languages: , Urdu, English 27.5°-32.5°C, with a maximum of 45°C. Rainfall varies from 1,000-2,000 mm in Introduction to Uttar Pradesh the east to 600-1,000 mm in the west.

Uttar Pradesh has multicultural, multiracial, fabulous wealth of nature- Brief hills, valleys, rivers, forests, and vast plains. Viewed as the largest tourist The epics of , the destination in India, Uttar Pradesh and the , were written in boasts of 35 million domestic tourists. Uttar Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh also had More than half of the foreign tourists, the glory of being home to Lord Buddha. who visit India every year, make it a It has now been established that point to visit this state of Taj and Ganga. spent most of his life itself receives around one million in eastern Uttar Pradesh, wandering foreign tourists a year coupled with from place to place preaching his around twenty million domestic tourists. sermons. The of Chandra Gupta Uttar Pradesh is studded with places of Maurya extended nearly over the whole tourist attractions across a wide of Uttar Pradesh. Edicts of this period spectrum of interest to people of diverse have been found at and interests. The seventh most populated . After the fall of the Mauryas, state of the world, Uttar Pradesh can lay the present state of Uttar Pradesh was claim to be the oldest seat of India's divided into four parts: Surseva, North culture and civilization. It has been Panchal, Kosal, and Kaushambi. characterized as the cradle of Indian civilization and culture because it is The western part of Uttar Pradesh saw around the Ganga that the ancient cities the advent of the Shaks in the second and towns sprang up. Uttar Pradesh century BC. Not much is known of the played the most important part in India's history of the state during the times of freedom struggle and after Kanishka and his successors. The independence it remained the strongest ruled over nearly the state politically. whole of Uttar Pradesh, and it was during this time that culture and architecture reached its peak. The decline of the Guptas coincided with the Geography of Uttar Pradesh attacks of from Central Asia who succeeded establishing their influence Uttar Pradesh is between latitude 24°- right up to in Madhya Pradesh. 31°N and longitude 77°-84°E. Area wise, it is the fourth largest state of

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History

The seventh century witnessed the significant role in India's freedom taking over of by movement and also rose to become the Harshavardhana. In 1526, laid prime ministers of this great nation. the foundation of the Mughal dynasty. He defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the battle of Panipat. Babar carried out extensive campaign in various parts of Uttar Districts of Uttar Pradesh Pradesh. He defeated the near while his son Humayun Uttar Pradesh is made up of 70 conquered Jaunpur and Ghazipur, after administrative districts, which are having brought the whole of grouped into 17 divisions. under his control. After Babur's death (1530), his son Humayun forfeited the  -Agra, , Etah, empire after being defeated at the Firozabad, Mainpuri, Mahamaya hands of Sher Suri at Kannauj. Nagar (Hathras) and -Allahabad, After the death of in Kaushambi, Fatehpur and 1545, Humayun once again regained his Pratapgarh, empire but died soon after. His son  -Azamgarh, proved to be the greatest of , Mau, Mughals. His established a unified  Division-Bareilly, Badaun, empire over nearly the whole of the Pilibhit, Shahjahanpur India. During his period, Agra became  Basti Division-Basti, the capital of India and became Siddharthnagar, Sant Kabir heartland of culture and arts. Akbar Nagar constructed huge forts in Agra and  -Banda, Allahabad. The period of (after Chitrakoot, Hamirpur, Mahoba 1605) saw arts and culture reach a new  -Gonda, high. In 1627, after the death of Bahraich, Shravasti, Balrampur Jahangir, his son Shahjahan ascended  Division-Faizabad, the throne. The period of Shahjahan is Ambedkar Nagar, Barabanki, known as the golden period of India in Sultanpur art, culture, and architecture. It was Division-Gorakhpur, during his reign that the classical  (Padrauna), Devaria, wonder was built in memory Maharajganj, of his wife . The régime of saw the peak of Mughal  Division-Jalaun, Jhansi, Empire in terms of geographic Lalitpur, expansion.  Division-Kanpur Nagar, Kanpur Dehat (Akbarpur District), Modern-day Uttar Pradesh saw the rise Etawah, Farrukhabad, Kannauj, of important freedom fighters on the Auraiya national scenario. Lal Bahadur Shastri,  -Lucknow, , Smt. Indira Gandhi, Hardoi, Lakhimpur Kheri, and Charan Singh were only a few of Raebareli, Sitapur, Unnao the important names who played a

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Division-Meerut, Uttar Pradesh Travel Information Bulandshahr, Gautam Buddha Nagar, , Bagpat, Uttar Pradesh can be easily considered  -Mirzapur, Sant as the nerve center of India and all the Ravidas Nagar (), images of India can be experienced Sonbhadra here. This is the state that gave the  Division-Moradabad, world Taj Mahal, the mascot for India; Bijnor, Rampur, Jyotiba Phule Varanasi, the spiritual hot spot; , Nagar where Buddha preached for the first  Division-Saharanpur, time, and Mathura, the place so much Muzaffarnagar synonymous with the life and times of  -Varanasi, Lord . There are many Tourist Chandauli, Ghazipur, Jaunpur Attraction of Uttar Pradesh, which include Agra, Allahabad, , Deogarh, Dudhwa Tiger Reserve, Business & Economy of Uttar Kushinagar, Lucknow, Mathura, Pradesh Sarnath, Sravasti, Varanasi, Vrindavan, Bithoor, Kalinjar and Kannauj Uttar Pradesh provides employment to nearly one-third of the state's total workforce in its textiles and sugar- refining industries. Other prominent Rivers of Uttar Pradesh industries in Uttar Pradesh include vegetable oil, jute, and cement. Main rivers in Uttar Prdaesh are The Union Government has established Alaknanda, Ramganga, Bhagirathi, a number of large factories that & Ganga manufacture heavy equipment, machinery, steel, aircraft, telephone, electronics equipment, and fertilizers. An oil refinery at Mathura and the Education in Uttar Pradesh development of coalfields in the southeastern district of Mirzapur are The female literacy situation in Uttar also major Union Government projects. Pradesh is dismal at 42.98%. However, the male literacy rate is reasonably The state government promotes better at 70.23%. The overall literacy medium- and small-scale industries. rate is still poor at 57.36% and much Agriculture is the mainstay of the state's lower than the all India average. The economy. The chief crops are rice, State government has taken steps to wheat, millet, barley, and sugarcane. make the population totally literate. Since the late 1960s, with the introduction of high-yielding varieties of There are special programs like the seed for wheat and rice, greater World Bank aided DPEP. Steps are availability of fertilizers, and increased being taken with the help of NGOs and use of irrigation, the state has become other organizations to raise the largest producer of food grains in the participation. At the level of higher country. education and technical education Uttar

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Pradesh has 16 general universities, percent, and other religious famous among those are Lucknow communities include Sikhs, Christians, University, Uttar Pradesh Technical Jains, and Buddhists. University (UPTU), Allahabad University, The handicrafts of Uttar Pradesh have Engineering College, Agra University, earned a reputation for themselves over , Chaudhary the centuries. The traditional handicrafts Charan Singh University (Meerut), are of a vast variety such as textiles, Aligarh Muslim University, prestigious metal ware, woodwork, ceramics, Indian Institute of Technology (Kanpur), stonework, dolls, leather products, ivory Indian Institute of Management articles, papier-mâché, articles made of (Lucknow), Dayalbagh Educational horns, bone, cane and bamboo, Institute, Indian Institute of Information perfume, and musical instrument. These Technology (Allahabad), National cottage crafts are spread all over the Institute of Technology (Allahabad) and state but the more important centers are large number of polytechnics, located at Varanasi, Aamgarh, Maunath engineering institutes and industrial Bhanjan, Ghazipur, Meerut, Muradabad, training institutes. and Agra.

Carpets from Bhadohi and Mirzapur are Food of Uttar Pradesh prized worldwide. Silks and brocades of Varanasi, ornamental brassware from Uttar Pradesh is a gourmet's paradise. Muradabad, chickan (a type of The cuisine consists of simple, embroidery) work from Lucknow, ebony vegetables curries of all kinds. However, work from Nagina, glassware from a whole lot of fried foods like the kachori Firozabad, and carved woodwork from and puri, which are necessary during Saharanpur also are important. The festivities, and the meat delicacies of traditional pottery centers are located at Awadh are world famous. A lot of Khurja, Chunar, Lucknow, Rampur, emphasis is placed on savories and Bulandshahr, Aligarh, and Azamgarh. sweetmeats in this state. Khurja's dishes, pitchers, and flower The range could be anything from bowls in blazed ceramic in blue, green, mathris to jalebis. Lucknow is also brown and orange colors are the most known worldwide for its biryanis and attractive. meat preparations. Muradabad produces exquisite brass utility articles. Besides, minakari on silver, gold, and diamond-cut silver Arts & Culture of Uttar Pradesh ornaments have made Varanasi and Lucknow world famous. The population mostly comprises of an Indo-Dravidian ethnic group. Only a small population, in the Himalayan region, displays Asiatic origins. Music & Dance of Uttar Pradesh constitute more than 80 percent of the population, Muslims more than 15

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The state is known for pioneering the several places simultaneously while development of musical instruments, others have only local importance. which find mention in ancient literature. Music is also known to have Festivals and feasts are linked with the flourished in the Gupta Period (c. 320- golden harvest - the sensuous spring, 540), and much of the musical tradition the reverence for mythology, religion or in Uttar Pradesh was developed during in honor of the past great men. These the period. are zestfully celebrated with song, dance, and merriment; others with The musicians Tansen and Baiju Bawra, solemnity, fervor, fast, or feast. These two of the Navaratnas (Nine Jewels) of fairs and festivals help the people keep the court of the Mughal emperor Akbar, the culture vibrant and promote artistic are still immortal for their contribution in activities. the field of music. Facts related to Uttar Pradesh The sitar (a stringed instrument of the lute family) and the tabla (consisting of  Shakas had set up their two small drums), the two most popular Kshsatraps in Mathura. instruments of Indian music, were  The brahmi inscription s of developed in the region during this Mora(Mathura ) is associated period. with Sakas. The Kathak style of classical dance,  The Sakas conquered the area of which originated in Uttar Pradesh in the Mathura over Indian kings around 18th century as a devotional dance in 60BCE. Some of their satraps the temples of Vrindavan and Mathura, were Hangamasha and Hagana, is the most popular form of classical who were in turn followed by the dance in northern India. Saka Great Satrap Rajuvula. There are also local songs and dances  The Mathura Lion Capital of the countryside, and the most popular inscriptions attest that Mathura of the folksongs are seasonal. The fell under the control of the songs and dances of the countryside Sakas. The inscriptions contain are significant features of local culture. references to Kharaosta Kamuio They include the kajari of Mirzapur and and Aiyasi Kamuia. Yuvaraja Varanasi; the Alha Udal, a folk epic; and various village dances. Kharostes (Kshatrapa) was the son of Arta, as is attested by his own coins.  Arta is stated to be brother of Festivals of Uttar Pradesh King Moga or Maues. Princess Aiyasi Kambojaka, also called Uttar Pradesh has a long list of fairs and Kambojika, was the chief queen festivals. More than 2,230 festivals are held annually. Some are organized at of Shaka Mahakshatrapa Rajuvula. Kamboja presence in

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Mathura is also verified from the Sakas towards India. some verses of the epic, the Mahabharata, which are believed to have been composed around this period. Maues (80-65 BC)  The Indo-Scythian satraps of Mathura are sometimes called  Maues or Moga was the earliest the "Northern Satraps", as Shaka ruler. opposed to the "Western  He established Shaka power in Satraps" ruling in and and ruled around 80- . After Rajuvula, several 60BC successors are known to have  His capital was ”” and he ruled as vassals to the Kushans, issued a large number of copper such as the "Great Satrap" coins and few silver coins. Kharapallana and the "Satrap"  Some sources indicate that he Vanaspara, who are known from assumed the title of ” an inscription discovered in mahatma ” and his coins are Sarnath, and dated to the 3rd bearing the images of Indian year of Kanishka (c 130 CE), in deities’ viz. Shiva, and Buddha. which they were paying  He used Greek and Kharoshthi in allegiance to the Kushans. coin legends.

The Sakas Moga inscription

The indo-Greek rule in India was Moga inscription refers to the primarily destroyed by the Sakas. copper plate. Taxila copper plate was found in area of Taxila in modern  Sakas were the Scythians, which Pakistan. Taxila copper plate bears a refer to ancient Iranian people of precise data and it is written in horse-riding nomadic Kharoshthi. This inscription is ascribed pastoralists. to Shaka king Moga.

 In Sanskrit they are referred as  It was the Taxila Copper Plate Sakas. which has mentioned about the  The 2nd century BC saw an dedication of a relic of the upheaval in the Central Asia. The Buddha Shakyamuni to a invasion by the Central Asian Buddhist monastery by the Shaka nomadic tribes and tribes from ruler Patika Kusulaka. the Chinese region was  Patika Kusulaka is also responsible for the migration of mentioned in Mathura lion capital.

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Azes-I & Azes II

 Maues and his successors were able to conquer large the areas of Gandhara, they were unsuccessful against the indo-Greek kings remaining behind the Jhelum river in eastern .  But it was Azes-I who put an end to the remnant of the Greek rule in India.  Azes-I annexed the kingdom of the Indo-Greek after a long resistance.  In 58 BC, Azes-I founded the Azes Era, which coincides with the Vikram Era in India.  Azes-I was succeeded by Azilises, who was succeeded by Azes II.  There are some coins issued jointly be Azes-I and Azilises and jointly issued by Azilises and Azes II.  Azes II reigned between the 35 and 12 BC and he is considered to be the last Shaka ruler and was lost to Kushanas.  Kushanas led to the foundation of Kushana Empire in North West India.

Bimaran casket

Bimaran casket was found in Jalalabad, Pakistan between 1833 to 1838. This casket is important because it was found having the coins of Azes II.

 It features the representations of Buddha surrounded by India deities Brahma and Indra as bodhisattvas.  The Buddha is standing posture with bundled hair and wears a dhoti.  It was found in a steatite which was having some inscriptions.  The Bimaran casket is the First & Earliest known image of the Standing Buddha.

Introduction to

Uttar Pradesh for its strategic position, in ancient times was known the Madhya Desh. Due to is position, most invaders crossed it in the course of their invasions. Stretching from the north-west

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History territories to the eastern states its history is almost synonymous to the history of .

The discovery of arms and implements in areas like Mirzapur, Sonebhadra, Bundelkhand and Sarai Nahar area of Pratapgarh reveal that civilization dates back to the neo-Paleolithic age. There have also been objects discovered in Alamgirpur, a suburban locality of Meerut which belonged to the Harappan culture. Such evidences clearly stand as a proof to the historical significance of this vast stretch of land.

This has also been proved by anthropologists. The finding of skeletons in Sarainahar Rai and Mehdaha in Pratapgarh have revealed microlyths dating back to 8000 years before Christ. There are also enough indicators, which come from the .

Historians have still not been satiated by what has been so far discovered from the state of Uttar Pradesh. Today here is enoughand more for them to find out in the regions of Jajmau (Kanpur), Fazilnagar (Deoria), Hulaskhera (Lucknow), Bheetargaon (Kanpur), Rajghat (Varanasi). These experts believe that a lot more is still to be unravelled in terms of Uttar Pradesh's glorious past from these sites.

Aryan Age

It is only from the Rigvedic age that some coherent historical account is found. Initially, the centre of colonization in India was Sapta Sindhu or the region irrigated by seven rivers (undivided Punjab). The seven rivers were Sindhu (Indus), Vitasta (Jhelum), Askini (Chenab),Purushni(Ravi), Vipasa (Beas) Shatudri (Sutlej) and (now lost in the desert). More important of the Aryan clans were Puru, Turvasu, Yadu, Anu, and Druh. These five clans were known as Panchjan. Besides, there was one more prominent clan known as Bharat. Gradually, the extended their territory towards the east. The Shatpath Brahman gives an interesting account of the victory of Kosal (Awadh) and Videh (north ) by the Brahmans and the . Expansion of territory saw the creation of new States (Janpadas) and emergence of new people and new centres. The Sapta Sindhu gradually lost importance and the centre of culture shifted to the plains between Saraswati and Ganga ruled by the kingdoms of Kuru, Fanchal, Kashi and Kosal.

The entire region extending up to Prayag in the east bore the name of Madhya Desh. Modern Uttar Pradesh corresponds to this region. It was considered sacred in Hindu mythology as Gods and heroes, whose deeds are recorded in the Ramayana and Mahabharata, lived here. Its inhabitants were considered to be the most cultured Aryans as their speech formed the norm and their conduct was prescribed as the model. They were fully conversant with rituals and could worship and

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History sacrifice without any flaw or fault. The rulers of these States, especially King Pravahna Jaivali of Panchal, became immortal due to their noble deeds. Subsequent history got mingled for a long time with the and Hindu scriptures, snapping the link with historical records. When this dark period of history comes to an end and outlines of a proper history take shape again in sixth century B.C., we find the 16 Mahajanpadas engaged in a state of serious competition for supremacy. These States () and their capitals were:

1.Kuru (Meerut, and Thaneshwar)

Capital-Indraprasth(Indropal near Delhi)

2.Panchal (Bareilly, Budaun and Farrukhabad)

Capitals Ahichhatra (Ramnagar near Bareilly) and Kampilya (Farrukhabad)

3.Vats (Area around Mathura)

Capital-Mathura

4.Vats (Allahabad and nearby area)

Capital-Kaushambi (Kosam near Allahabad)

5.Kosal (Awadh)

Capital Saket (Ayodhya) and Shravasti (Sahet-Mahet in )

6. (District Deoria)

Capitals-Kushinagar (Kasia) and Pawa (Padrauna)

7. Kashi (Varanasi)

Capital-Varanasi

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8. Ang ()

Capital-Champa

9.Magadh (South Bihar)

Capital-Girivraj (Rajgraha-Rajgiri near Bihar-sharif)

10. (District and )

Capitals , Janakpur, (on border) and Vaishali

11. Chedi (Bundelkhand)

Capital-Shuktimati (Probably near Banda)

12. Matsya ()

Capital-Virat (near Jaipur)

13.Ashmak (Godawari valley)

Capital-Pandanya (place not known)

14. (Malva)

Capital Ujjaini ()

15.Gandhar (north-west region, now in Pakistan)

Capital- Taxshila (near Rawalpindi)

16. Kamboj Capital-Rajapur (place not known)

Out of the above 16 States, eight (at serial number 1-7 and 11) were in present Uttar Pradesh. More known among them were Kashi, Kosal and . Besides these, certain republic states were also within the boundries of present Uttar Pradesh e.g. Shakya state of Kapilvastu, Bhagga state of Samsumergiri and Malla state of and Kushingar.

Vedic Period

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There is hardly any mention of the area comprising present Uttar Pradesh in Vedic hymns. Even the sacred rivers, the Ganga and Yamuna, appear only on the distant horizon of the land of the Aryans. In the later Vedic age, the importance of Sapta Sindhu recedes and Brahmarshi Desh or Madhya Desh assumes significance. The region comprising Uttar Pradesh at that time became a holy place of India and foremost centre of Vedic culture and knowledge.

The new States of Kuru-Panchal, Kashi and Kosal find mention in Vedic texts as prominent centres of Vedic culture. The people of Kuru-Fanchcii were regarded as the best representatives of Vedic culture. They enjoyed great respect as outstanding orators of Sanskrit. The conduct of schools and institutions by them was laudable. The life of their kings was a model for other kings and their were held in high esteem for their piety and scholarship. The Upanishads prominently mention the Panchal Parishad. The scholars from Kuru-Panchal were specially visited by the Videh king on the occasion of Ashwamedh Yajna. The Panchal king Pravahan Jaivali himself was a great thinker, who was praised even by scholars like Shilik, Dalabhya, Shvetketu and his father Uddalak Aruni. Ajatshatru of Kashi was another great philosopher king whose superiority was acknowledged by Brahmin scholars like Dripti, Valhaki, Gargya etc.

Literature in various disciplines was authored on an extensive scale during this age culminating in the Upanishads. They signify the highest reach of human imagination. The Upanishad literature was the product of meditation in the Ashrams of the sages, several of which were in Uttar Pradesh.Eminent sages like Bharadwaj, Yajnavalkya1 Vashishta, Vishwamitra, Valmiki and Atri had either their Ashrams here or were otherwise connected with this State. Some Aranyaks and Upanishads were written in the Ashrams located in this State.

Post

The cultural heritage of Uttar Pradesh was maintained in the period of the Ramayana and Mahabharata i.e. the epic period. The story of Ramayan revolves round the 'Ikshwaku' dyanasty of Kosal. The Mahabharata portrays the 'Kuru' dynasty of . Local people firmly believe that the Ashram of Valmiki, the author of Ramayana, was in Brahmavart (Bithoor in Kanpur District). It was in the surroundings of Naimisharany (Nimsar-Misrikh in ) where Suta narrated the story of Mahabharata, which he had heard from Ved Vyas himself. Some of the Smritis and Puranas were also written in this State.

Gautam Buddha, Mahavir, Makkhaliputta Goshal and great thinkers brought about a revolution in Uttar Pradesh in 6th century B.C. Out of these, Makkhaliputta Goshal, who was born at Shravan near Shravasti, was the founder of Ajivika sect.

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Mahavir, the 24th Trithankar of Jains was born in Bihar but had a large number of followers in Uttar Pradesh. He is said to have lived twice during rainy season in this State - once in Shravasti and the second time in Padrauna near Deoria. Pawa proved to be his last resting place. In fact, had entrenched itself in this State even before the arrival of Mahavir. Several Tirthankars such as Parshwanath, Sambharnath and were born in different cities in this State and attained 'Kaivalya' here. Jainism must have retained its popularity in this State in subsequent centuries also. This fact is borne by the ruins of several ancient temples, buildings, etc. The remains of a magnificient Jain have been dug out near in Mathura, while Jain shrines built in early Middle Age are still preserved in Deogarh, Chanderi and other places.

Pre-Christ Era

All the States were perpetually at war with each other. Kosal annexed Kashi and Avanti grabbed Vatsa. Kosal and Avanti, in turn, were subjugated one by one by , which became powerful in the entire region. Magadh was ruled in succession by Haryank, Shishunag and Nand dynasties. The Nands ruled from 343 B.C. to 321 B.C. The Nand empire extended almost to the whole of India except Punjab and probably . It was during their reign that Alexander invaded India in 326 B.C. Several historians are of the view that the apprehension, that they will not be able to face the forces of the powerful Magadh state, was at the root of Alexander's forces not advancing beyond , which compelled him to go back.

With Alexander's retreat, India witnessed a great revolution. As a result the Nand rulers had to give reins of power to Chandragupta, a scion of the clan "Moriya" of Pippalivana. The whole of Uttar Pradesh enjoyed peace and prospeity during the reigns of Chandragupta, his son and grandson Ashok. The as the State Emblem has adopted the Lion Capital, inscribed in the Ashokan Pillar at Sarnath. The Ashokan Pillars have been found at Sarnath, Allahabad, Meerut, Kaushambi, Sankisa, Kalsi, Siddharthnagar and Mirzapur, all of which are in Uttar Pradesh. The Chinese Travellers Fa-Hien and Yuan-Chawang* have seen several rock edicts as well. Ashok also built the Dharmrajika Stupa at Sarnath.

The downfall of the Magadhan empire began with the death of Ashok in 232 b.C. His grandsons, Dashrath and Samprathi divided the whole empire among themselves. The entire area south of Narmada became independent and in 210 B.C. Punjab passed into other hands. the last ruler of this dynasty was Brihdrath, who was assassinated by his commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Shung in 185 B.C. Pushyamitra kept Magadhan empire intact. 's commertary refers to the seize of Saket (Ayodhya) by the Greeks. Menander and his brother mounted a heavy attack in about 182 B.C. The invading accupied Kathiawad in far off south-west, Sagal (Sialkot in Punjab) and Mathura. Later on the invaders laid a seize on Saket (Ayodhya) and advanced far in the Ganga valley. Ultimately, Pushyamitra and his grandson Vasumitra challenged the invaders on the banks of the Sindhu and defeated the Greeks. The invaders retreated and made Sagal (Sialkot) their

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History capital. For long, Mathura remained a prominent city of Menander's empire. Menander or Milind ruled up to about 145 B.c. Later on, small Indo-Greek and Greek states flourished in Punjab up to the first century of Chistain era. During this period the Shung dynasty was replaced by the danasty in Magadh. It is said that the last king of Shung dynasty was of bad character and he was killed by his minister Vasudev.Vasudev established Kanva dnasty in 75B.C. This dynasty continued to rule for 45 years and its was brought to an end in 28 B.C. by Simuk, the founder of the Satavahana or the Andhra Dynasty.

It was at this time that the attention of Central Asian rules was drawn towards India for the first time. By 60 B.C. they had set up their Kashatraps in Mathura. The first Saka king was Maues who died around 38 B.C. Mter the Sakas, the Parthians attecked north India and by the beginning of first century A.D. they started defeating the Sakas. The Kushanas also mounted an attack around 40 A.D. The Kushanas too were one of the five Yueh-Chih castes of Central Asia. Soon the Kushana rulers established their empire right fom Central Asia up to the Indus iver. Gradually, they occupied the whole of north India.

Magadh with reference to Uttar Pradesh

All the states were perpetually at war with each other. Kaushal annexed Kashi and Avanti grabbed Vats. Later on Kausha and Vats in turn were subjugated one by one by Magadh, which became most powerful in the entire region. Magadh was ruled in succession by Haryank, Shishunag and Nand Dynasty. The Nandas ruled from 343 BC to 321 BC. The was extended to whole of India except Punjab and Bengal. It was during their regime that Alexander invaded India in 326 BC. According to the great historians, could not even face the forceful Magadh and had to return.

In the year 323 BC became the new emperor of Magadh. His grandson the great created the statue of four lions in Sarnath. The Lion Capitol inscribed in the Ashoka pillar at Sarnath has been adopted by the government of India as the State Emblem. The Ashoka pillars petrography are found in Sarnath, Allahabad, Meerut, Kaushambi, Sakinssa, Basti and Mirzapur. All the cities are in Uttar Pradesh. In the year of 232 BC, the death of Ashoka led to the downfall of Magadh dynasty.

His whole empire was divided among his five sons. The Mauryan dynasty ruled over 137 years. According to Vayu Purana the Mauryan dynasty ruled for 134 years.

The later ruler of Magadh dynasty was Brihdratha, who was assassinated by his chief commander Pushyamitra.

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Detailed Political History of Magadha

Of all the , Magadha eventually emerged as most powerful mainly because of its peculiar geographical location. It was bordered by Ganga River in North, Son River in West, Vindhya ranges in south and Champa in East. The natural barriers protected Magadha from three sides and it was not easy to invade such a territory. Here is a brief account of the poltical history of Magadha since Rig-Vedic period accounts.

Earliest known king of Magadha was Brihadrath whose name appears in Rig-Veda as well as Puranas. His son Jarasandha was killed by Bhima in Mahabharata war.

The Brihadrath dynasty was followed by Pradyotas. By that time, the practice of killing one’s father to usurp the throne had crept in. The Pradyotas were notorious for patricide and irked people overthrew them in a civil revolt. Next in the line was Haranyaka dynasty, whose great King Bimbisara is remembered as most powerful King of Magadha before Mauryas. Bimbisara was a contemporary of Buddha as well as . Bimbisara used matrimonial alliances and sending envoys to expand his power. Since patricide was in vogue those days, Bimbisara also became a victim of it. His son Ajatshatru starved him to death.

Ajatshatru was also a valorous king who expanded his empire by fighting war with Kashi, Licchhavis and others. During his reign, Mahavira, Buddha and also Makkhali Gosala or Gosala Maskariputta, the founder of Ajivikas path attained .

Ajatshatru was a devout Buddhist as well as Jain. He enshrined the relics of Buddha in a stupa and also renovated many monasteries. Under his sponsorship, the first Buddhist Council was organized at Sattapani caves in . By that time, Rajgir served as capital of Magadha. Ajatshatru built a fort at and his son Udayin developed Pataliputra as a city.

Ajatshatru was also a victim of patricide by his son Udayin. Same fate was shared by almost all kings of Haranyaka dynasty. Again there was a civil revolt and public placed Shishunaga on throne of Magadha. Shishunaga was amatya (minister) of last Haranyaka king Nagadasaka. Kalasoka, the son of Shishunaga made Pataliputra as new capital of Magadha. He may be of dark complexion as the contemporary Sri Lankan texts mention his name as Kakavarna (of color like a crow). Kalsoka sponsored second Buddhist council in 383 BC under monk Sabakami. His ten sons ruled simultaneously before Magadha slipped into hands of Nandas.

The founder of Nanda dynasty was Mahapadmananda. Since he had one of the largest standing armies in the history of world {2 Lakh infantry, 8000 war chariots, 6000 !}, he is also called . His army was so large that he could arrange it in a lotus shape {Padmavyuh} and he was so wealthy that his wealth could be counted in Padma (One quadrillion). He subdued all the

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History contemporary powers and consolidated power of Magadha.

Mahapadmananda, who is thought to be from humble origin {son of a barber} was the first non- kshatriya ruler in the . Nandas were also the first empire builders of India.

The Nadas ruled for around 100 years. During the reign of last Nanda ruler Dhananada, Alexander invaded from west. Alexander was able to cross Beas but before he could cross Ganga, he heard that Dhananda’s 2 Lakh strong army is waiting for his men for a bloody massacre. He lost the confidence and moved back. While moving back, he died on the way probably due to Malaria.

However, this invasion along with several other such invasions from west had put the North-West on boil. In Magadha, the popularity of Dhananda had went down because of his lavishness and greed that led to extortion and corruption. The situation was such that any brave heart could seize the opportunity to topple the Nandas. This opportunity was cashed by Kautilya, who was once thrown out of Nanda’s court. To seek revenge, he groomed Chandragupta Maurya, the brave young man, who is thought to be the son of Dhananda’s concubine Mura.

Chandragupta first gave a death blow to Greeks in north-west and then attacked and dethroned the Nandas. Nandas life was spared and they were asked to run with as much treasure as much their chariot could carry. The most important implication of rise of Chandragupta Maurya was that India was, for the first time perhaps, united politically. The below map shows the extent of at that time.

Meanwhile, Alexander was succeeded by his one of his generals Seleucus, who launched a campaign to get back the Greek territories lost to Mauryas. He was able to cross Indus, but could not succeed to defeat Chandragupta. An alliance was made in which Seleucus returned some of the won areas to Chandragupta. Chandragupta gifted some 500 war elephants to Seleucus and also some kind of matrimonial alliance was made in which son / daughter of one was married to the daughter / son of other. Seleucus also sent to court of Chandragupta.

In the old age, Chandragupta abdicated the throne in favour of his son Bindusara and became a disciple of Jain Monk . He spent his last days at Sharavanbelgola and supposed to have died practicing Santhara there.

Chandragupta’s successor Bindusara (also known as Amitraghata- destroyer of enemies) carried on the legacy of Mauryas and cemented good alliances with Greek King Antiochus-I. He ruled for some 25 years and was successes by Ashoka after a bloody battle of succession among his sons.

During the time of Ashoka, the boundaries of Maurya empire extended to maximum by that time. He invaded and annexed Kalinga mainly because Kalinga controlled land and sea routes to . However, this battle changed his mind and introduced a new element in the politics of India in the form of cultural coherence based on the moral values of and a norm of benignity, civility and humanity in matters of governance.

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However, such a policy was bound to have its side effects on polity after Ashoka’s death. Asoka died in 232 BC after ruling for four decades. His sons could not survive the waves of changes. His six successors including Jaluka, Samprati and Dasaratha could rule for only 52 years.

The life of last Maurya ruler Brihadrath was troubled. By this time, there were repeated attacks of Yavanas / Greeks from western side. His brave commander Pushyamitra Shunga was able to repel two attacks of Greeks but was not happy with the attitude of his master. He killed Brihadrath in 185- 184 BC and thus closed the chapter of Mauryas from Indian history, thus founding Sunga dynasty.

Pushyamitra and his son Agnimitra ruled from Pataliputra. The later Shungas made Vidisha as their capital. However, by the time of Shungas, many independent rulers had appeared in west as well as south. The most remarkable was rise of Satavahanas in south and Indo-Greeks, Kushanas, and many others in west and Kharvela in Kalinga (east). Thus, the boundaries of Magadh by the time of Shunga had narrowed down to some parts of Central India.

The last Shunga ruler Devabhuti was killed by his own amatya (minister) Vasudeva Kanva around 73BC. Thus, Magadha slipped into hands of Kanvas, who were Brahmins by caste. Only few rulers of this are known on the basis of numismatics. This dynasty was finally overthrown by Satavahanas in 30BC and thus once mighty Magadha was broken into many small parts ruled by different dynasties at different periods.

The age of Buddha- Important cites in Uttar Pradesh

Sarnath

About 10 km. from the holy city of Varanasi, Sarnath is the place where more than 2,500 years ago Buddha delivered his first sermon after attaining enlightenment. An imposing conical structure, 34 meters in height, called signifies the "seat of the holy Buddha." There are also the ruins of Dharmarajika Stupa, besides the original Mulgandhakuti Temple, which according to Hieun Tsang was about 61 mtr. high. That's the place where Buddha rested and meditated in Sarnath. After converting to Buddhism, Emperor Ashoka visited Sarnath in 273-232 B.C. and erected a smooth glistening stone pillar here, to mark the foundation of the Buddhist . The Lion Capital on top of this pillar is now India's National Emblem. Then there is the Chaukhandi Stupa, which was a terraced temple during the Gupta period (4th to 6th century) All three -- Dharmarajika, Chaukhandi and Dhamek are outstanding in their architectural features. A journey to Sarnath would be incomplete without a visit to the library at Mugandh Kuti Vihara, which houses some amazing frescoes done by Koset Nosu. The Sarnath Museum, not far from the site, also houses some of the finest specimens of Buddhist sculpture.

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Sravasti

After attaining Enlightenment Lord Buddha was constantly mobile spreading his message of humanity, Universal brotherhood and salvation amongst the different segments of the society. This service to humanity would stop for a brief period in the monsoons. This period too, however, would be used by Lord Buddha to meditate and preach, on choosing an ambient place. It was during this process that Lord Buddha turned towards Shravasti, 134km. from Lucknow. The town played host to Lord Buddha for 27 years and was his annual rainy season retreat. Believed to be founded by the mythological King Sravast (hence names after him), the site holds ruins of many ancient Stupas, majestic monasteries and beautiful temples. This place also has an Anand Bodhi tree, an offspring of the original bodhi tree, planted by Buddha's main disciple Anand.

The site of Mahet is spread over an area of 400 acres. The two main attractions here are the Pakki Kuti and the Kachchi Kuti while Sahet, spread over an area of 32 acres and a little distance away from Mahet, it was here that Anathpindak, a wealthy merchant, constructed the Jetavana Vihar. The remants of several temples, Stupas and Viharas have been found here. Like wise the huge World Peace Bell is another attraction, which was established with the help of the Japanese. The motive was to convey the message of humanity of Lord Buddha through the bell's toll. There are also the Thai-Sri Lankan-MyanmarChinese-Korean Buddhist Temples, the Shobhnath Temple, Swarna Gandha Kuti, the Ananda Bodhi Tree and the Angulimal Cave here.

Sankisa

Sankisa is identified with the present village of Basantpur in of Uttar Pradesh. Situated on the banks of river Kali, Sankisa is most easily accessible from Agra which is 175 km away on the Agra-Mainpuri road. The nearest railhead is Pakhna which is 11.5 km away. Sankisa is the place where the Buddha descended from heaven along with Lord Brahma and Devraj Indra after giving a discourse to his mother, Mayadevi. Emperor Ashoka erected an pillar here to mark this holy spot.

Kaushambi

In his bid to spread his message Lord Buddha also visited Kaushambi, 60km. from Allahabad, counted one amongst the most prosperous cities of those times. It was the Capital city of the then Vatsa Janpada, with Udayan as the king. This place is believed to have been visited by Lord Buddha in the 6th and 9th year after attaining enlightenment. He delivered several sermons here, elevating it to a centre of higher learning for the Buddhists. Excavations have revealed ruins of an Ashokan Pillar, an old fort and the Ghositaram Monastery, besides a huge number of sculptures and figurines, cast coins and terracotta, objects.

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Kushinagar

Kushinagar, is one of the principal centre of Buddhist pilgrimage, is the place where Lord Buddha left his corporeal self and attained Mahaparinirvana. The credit for bringing this ancient site to light goes to General A. Cunningham and A.C.I. Carlyl, who, after excavating the site in 1861, Later, between 1904 and 1912, several excavations conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India at Kushinagar confirmed its identity. The monuments of Kushinagar are situated in three distinct groups comprising the main site of the Nirvana Temple, the central stupa and surrounding monasteries, the Mathakuar shrine to the southwest, and the Ramabhar Stupa a kilometer to the east.

Nirvana Stupa is a huge brickwork stupa, exposed by Carlyl in 1876, which stands at a height of 2.74 mtr. A copper vessel was unearthed at this site. It bore an inscription in ancient Brahmi, which stated that Lord Buddha's remains had been deposited here. Mathakuar shrine lies about 400 yards from the Parinirvana stupa. A black stone image of the Buddha in the bhumi sparsha mudra was recovered here. The last sermon by Lord Buddha was given here. Ramabhar Stupa is a large stupa which rises to a height of 49 ft. It marks the site where the Lord Buddha was cremated. In ancient Buddhist texts this stupa has been referred to as Mukut-Bandhan Vihar.

The age of Buddha- Introduction with reference to Uttar Pradesh

There are numerous sites in Uttar Pradesh that are associated with Lord Buddha and Buddhism. In fact Uttar Pradesh along with modern Bihar form the hub of early Buddhism. It was from these parts that the religion spread to the rest of the world.

Kapilvastu - The capital city of Shakya clan whose ruler was King Suddhodana, father of the ‘Enlightened One’

Sarnath - Where the Buddha after attaining enlightenment delivered his first historical sermon

Sravasti - Where he spent 27 monsoons and showed his divine prowess

Sankisa - It is said that Gautam Buddha descended here after giving a sermon to his mother in heaven

Kaushambi - Where Buddha visited in the sixth and ninth years after attaining enlightenment

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Kushinagar - Lord Buddha achieved his Mahaparinirvana, freedom from cycle of birth and rebirth

Uttar Pradesh is a cradle of Buddhism where all significant aspects of Buddha’s life can be seen and experienced.

The Buddha

Buddhism is a world religion and is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, who is known as the Buddha (literally the Enlightened One or Awakened One). Siddhrtha Gautama was the historical founder of Buddhism. After asceticism and meditation, he discovered the Buddhist Middle Way—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition.

Siddhartha was born in a royal Hindu Kshatriya family. The Buddha's father was King uddhodana, the leader of Shakya clan, whose capital was Kapilavastu, Uttar Pradesh. Queen Maya, his mother, on her way to her father's kingdom gave birth to her son at Lumbini, Nepal, in a garden beneath a sal tree. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pli: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man.

When he reached the age of 16, his father arranged his marriage to a cousin Yaodhar They had a son, named Rahul. Siddhartha is then said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.

At the age of 29, Siddhartha left his palace to meet his subjects. Despite his father's efforts to hide from him the sick, aged and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man. When his charioteer Channa explained to him that all people grew old, the prince went on further trips beyond the palace. On these he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. These depressed him, and he initially strove to overcome ageing, sickness, and death by living the life of an ascetic and hence left his princely abode for the life of a mendicant.

Gautama initially went to Rajagaha and began his ascetic life by begging for alms in the street. After King Bimbisara's men recognised Siddhartha and the king learned of his

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History quest, Bimisara offered Siddhartha the throne. Siddhartha rejected the offer, but promised to visit his kingdom of Magadha first, upon attaining enlightenment. He left Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers. After mastering the teachings of Alara Kalama (Skr. rda Klma), he was asked by Kalama to succeed him.

Siddhartha and a group of five companions led by are then said to have set out to take their austerities even further. They tried to find enlightenment through deprivation of worldly goods, including food, practicing self-mortification. After nearly starving himself to death by restricting his food intake to around a leaf or nut per day, he collapsed in a river while bathing and almost drowned. Siddhartha began to reconsider his path. Then, he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing. He attained a concentrated and focused state that was blissful and refreshing, the jhna.

According to the , after realizing that meditative jhana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self- indulgence and self-mortification.

Gautama was famously seated under a banyan tree - now known as the Bodhi tree - in , India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth. Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, he is said to have attained Enlightenment. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One"). He is often referred to in Buddhism as Shakyamuni Buddha, or "The Awakened One of the Shakya Clan."

According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became known as the "Four Noble Truths", which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha described Nirvna as the perfect peace of a mind that's free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states, or "defilements" (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha.

After his awakening, the Buddha met two merchants, named Tapussa and Bhallika, who became his first lay disciples. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died. He then travelled to the Deer Park near Vrnasī (Benares) in northern

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India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first Sangha: the company of Buddhist monks. All five become Arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of such Arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the Sangha to more than 1000.

For the remaining years of his life, the Buddha is said to have travelled in the Gangetic Plain, in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to outcaste street sweepers, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. From the outset, Buddhism was equally open to all races and classes, and had no caste structure. The Sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the Dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the Vassana rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely travelled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the Sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them.

The first Vassana was spent at Varanasi when the Sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha.

Upon hearing of his son's awakening, King Suddhodana sent, over a period of time, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the Sangha to become Arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an Arahant), however, delivered the message.

Two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the Dharma as he went. Buddhist texts say that King Suddhodana invited the Sangha into the palace for a meal, followed by a Dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a Sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the Sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahul also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an Arahant.

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Of the Buddha's disciples , Sariputta , Maudgalyayana , Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna. In the fifth Vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to King Suddhodana and taught the Dharma, after which his father became an Arahant.

The king's death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the Sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the Sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the Sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.

Buddha found patronage in the ruler of Magadha, emperor Bimbisara. The emperor accepted Buddhism as personal faith and allowed the establishment of many Buddhist "Viharas." This eventually led to the renaming of the entire region as Bihar.

The Maurya empire reached its peak at the time of Emperor Asoka, who himself converted to Buddhism after the Battle of Kalinga. This heralded a long period of stability under the Buddhist emperor. The power of the empire was vast - ambassadors were sent to other countries to propagate Buddhism. The Buddha did not appoint any successor and asked his followers to work for personal salvation. The teachings of the Buddha existed only in oral traditions. The Sangha held a number of Buddhist councils in order to reach consensus on matters of Buddhist doctrine and practice. Buddha attained Parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of Kuinra, modern Kushinagar in Uttar Pradesh.

Jainism with reference to Hinduism and Buddhism. The religion Uttar Pradesh centres on the progress of one’s soul towards a divine consciousness through Jainism self-reformation, wisdom and self- control and pacifism towards all living Originated in India thousands of years creatures. There are two main sects of ago and is thought to have heavily Jains today; the and influenced the two other main belief the Svetambara. There are thought to systems of the region at that time: be 10 million Jains worldwide, the

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History majority of them in India and amongst hero). He spent the rest of his life Indian expatriate communities in North teaching others how to fulfil the purpose America, Asia and East Africa. of their existence and to achieve complete liberation from the shackles of Origins modern life. He is widely accredited with Jainism grew in India many thousands establishing the present ‘Jain’ belief of years ago. As with Hinduism, some system. Mahavira passed away in 527 Jains believe that the origins are millions BCE at the age of 72 years leaving of years ago, although obviously it is behind 14,000 monks and 36,000 nuns. impossible to verify the exact origins. The 24 in order are: The more realistic assessment is that the religion dates back to the second or Rushabha, Ajitnath, Sambhavanath, third millennium BCE, and there are Abhinandan Swami, Sumatinath, archaeological remnants found among Padmaprabhu, Suparshvanath, the Indus Valley civilisations (sites such Chandraprabhu, , as Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro in Sheetalnath, Shreyansanath, modern Pakistan) from around 1500 Swami, Vimalnath, Anantnath, BCE that appear to mention Dharmanath, Shantinath, Kunthananth, Jain Tirthankaras. Aranath, Mallinath, Swami, Nami Nath, Neminath, Parshavnath and Jains believe that there had been 24 Mahavira. great teachers known as ‘Tirthan-karas’ (‘those who have discovered and then As mentioned earlier, through various shown the way to eternal salvation’) who interactions in India, Jainism had an taught people how to live in harmony influence on Hinduism and Buddhism, with the universe and ultimately to and they share concepts such as the achieve spiritual liberation through their seeking of freedom from worldly life and own example. The first of reincarnation of the soul. Some scholars these Tirthankaras was Rushabha. The suggest that Hinduism adopted 23rd was Parsva who lived from 872- vegetarianism through strong Jain 772 BCE according to some sources. influence across India.

The last of these teachers born in northern India in 599 BCE was Virdhamana, the son of King Sacred Texts Siddhartha. At the age of 30, he went Jains believe that the knowledge of the into seclusion as an ascetic and true path (dharma) reaches a zenith and following twelve years of intense prayer then wanes several times through the and contemplation, claimed to reach cycle of history, and each time the enlightenment. It was at that point that knowledge is revived through he was given the title Mahavira (great a just as other monotheistic

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History faiths believe that prophets were sent by Not stealing (Asteya) or taking things a Creator to revive faith. that are not willingly handed over;

Mahavira is believed to have recorded Sexual restraint () his teachings in a series of texts known practised as celibacy by monks and as the Agamas, although the Jain texts nuns, and monogamy by normal society. are the major source of controversy between the sects. The Digambara sect They believe that all human, animal and believes that following a vast famine in plant life has a soul and therefore all of 350 BCE when many monks died, the these life forms must be treated equally original texts were also lost, whereas and fairly. the Svetambara sect (whilst Jains believe that the purpose of man acknowledging that the texts and creatures is to realise the soul’s true were lost) believes that the majority of nature through the triple gems of (1) true the texts survived in the form that we perception, (2) true knowledge and (3) have today. true conduct.

The most often cited book of the Jains is Unlike many other faiths, the Jains do the Tattvartha (Book of Reality) not believe in a creator God or in thought to date from the second spiritual beings such as angels, but do millennium BCE, but only recorded in focus on the concept of reincarnation written form in the 5th century CE by through which the soul evolves in life Umasvati, and it is at that point that cycles until it reaches enlightenment Jainism splintered into the two main when the soul is called jina (victorious). sects. Whereas the major monotheistic faiths also believe in a spiritual journey, in the case of those faiths (Judaism, Beliefs Christianity and Islam), their followers seek the help of the Creator God to The Jains have 5 great vows by which achieve spiritual liberation, whereas they try to live their lives: Jains believe that this journey is Non-violence (Ahimsa) towards all living undertaken purely through their own beings (human, animal or plant life) efforts to achieve inner peace. including a spectrum of harm from insult Moreover, the philosophy is that every and injury to death; soul is the architect of its own destiny. Not getting too attached (Aparigraha) to As a result of these beliefs, Jains also material possessions, people or places; believe in an infinite Universe that was never created and will never end, but Not telling lies (); goes through major cycles.

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The ultimate goal of self-reformation and Jains are recognised by their symbol the application of the Jain triple gems is which is the . Although this to break free from the cycle of birth and symbol was misused by the Nazis of death. In Jainism, a soul that frees itself Germany in the last century, the original () from the samsara cycle of life Jain symbol signifies peace and well- and death is called (liberated being. The Jain Swastika appears in all soul) whereas those souls which are still temples and holy books, and during attached to the wordly life are ceremonies, a swastika is created using called samsarin (mundane souls). A rice. liberated soul experiences boundless knowledge, power, perception and Jains do have some idols, but these happiness. represent souls that have conquered their passions rather than deities. As a result of these beliefs, they are vegetarians and aim to live in a manner Jains have several days of fasting on which minimises the use of natural which they abstain from all food but can resources so as to limit the impact upon take water. During the fast, they focus other life forms. Rigid followers will allow on worship, contemplation and reading head lice to survive on their head and scriptures. Although there are specific not shave their head or take any fast days, Jains also perform voluntary medicine. Even bacteria is not fasts at any time of the year to cleanse supposed to be killed. themselves.

Jains believe in soul reincarnation Their festivals include the following: through phases including hell-being, Mahavira Jayanti – a celebration of the sub-human (animal, plant and insects), birth of Mahavira human and super-human, and that there are an infinite number of souls in the – 8 days of fasting Universe, that like matter, pre-existed Divali – a festival of renewal and lights creation. also celebrated by Hindus, but Modern Jains significant for Jains as the day that Mahavira achieved enlightenment Modern Jain society has a concept of monks and nuns similar to Buddhism Kartak Purnima – an annual pilgrimage and Christianity, but has no priestly to the key Jain sites in India class. Monks and nuns live a celibate Mauna Agyaras – a single day of fasting and ascetic lifestyle and take on greater vows and responsibilities than normal Kshamavaani – a day to seek society. from everyone else

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Jains are renowned for the value that they place on education, and are recognised in India as the most literate The mahajanapadas community. Their libraries are well The literal meaning of Mahajanapadas respected and complement the zeal for is great kingdoms. They flourished in the knowledge to enrich the soul. north/north western parts of India before the rise of Buddhism. Aryans have migrated into India long time back and Jainism in Uttar Pradesh there were regular friction between them Uttar Pradesh, a state in north India has and the non aryan tribes concerning, a long association with Jainism. Today cattle, fodder, land etc. These tribes of the state is home to a number of Jain Aryans were called as Janas by many monuments, such as Jain Vedic texts. Later on there was a Temples and Jain Tirths. merger of the Vedic Janas into Janapadas. Different regions of , the twenty-third the Indian subcontinent were previously tirthankara, was born in Benaras (now divided into Janapadas, this was a clear Varanasi) in 872 BCE. According to Jain demarcation by boundaries. Many tradition, Kashi (now Varanasi) is the Janapadas by 600 BCE further birthplace of three more tithankaras, developed into bigger political bodies. namely Suparshvanatha, These kingdoms came to be known as Chandraprabha and Shreyansanatha. Mahajanapadas in the Buddhist According to Jain tradition, five traditions. tirthankaras were born at Ayodhya including , , Sixteen great kingdoms as they are Abhinandananatha, Sumatinatha and referrd to by buddhist and other texts. Anantanatha. The famous naked Jain The sixteen mahajanapadas include male torso found at Lohanipur, whether Kasi, , , Magadha, Vajji, Mauryan or, more likely Kushana, is Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, generally taken as indicative evidence of ,Machcha, , Assaka, some sort of representational cult in Avanti, Gandhara and Kamboja. early Jainism which reached an early height at Mathura, and certainly Out of the above 16 states Kuru, inscriptions from the many ayagapatas Panchal, Shursen, Vats, Kaushal, Malla, of the Mathura region make clear that Kashi and Chedi were present in Uttar puja to the tirthankaras with lay and Pradesh and are still in the state. More ascetic involvement was an important known among them were Kaushal, dimension to this. Kashi and Vats beides these certain republican states were also within the boundary of Uttar Pradesh.

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neighbouring state to Kosala, and there Kasi: were conflicts between them. Ajatshatru who was the king of Magadha and The name Kasi is the tribe who settled Prasenjit were in continuous struggle for in the region around Varanasi where power which finally came to an end with itself the capital was located. There is a the alignment of the confederation of belief that Varanasi got its name from Lichchavis with Magadha. After the rivers that surround the city, namely Prasenjit, Vidudabha rose into power Varuna and Asi. Kasi occupied a and Kosala ultimately amalgamated into predominant position among the sixteen Magadha. Mahajanapadas, before the rise of Buddha. We come to know a lot Anga: about Kasi from the Jatakas which were a voluminous body of myths and folklore India's earliest empire was evolving revolving about prvious births of the around the Gangetic plains, which buddha. This supremacy called for a included the Mahajanapadas. Anga was long drawn conflict for mastery between one of these evolving states, which is other cities, like Kosala, Anga and one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas that Magadha with Kasi. Kasi was no doubt prospered during that period. Malini, influencial that is the reason why we get , champa Malini, Kala Malini a mention of Kasi in the Vedic etc were the different names by which texts. Matsya Purana and Alberuni are this sate was called. The were the texts where we read Kasi as first referred to in the Atharva Veda as Kausika and Kaushika, others read it as the detested people. Atharva Veda Kasi. considers Anga an unholy place and some even condemned it as a place Kosala: where wives and children were sold. Mahabharata, testifies the people of Among the sixteen Mahajanapadas, Anga to be of noble birth or 'Sujati' Kosala is one, which comprised of proclaiming the sanctity of the place Shravasti, Kushavati, Saket and Champa as a pilgrimage. During the Ayodhya. Kosala constituted of the reign of Bimbisara, this Mahajanapada territories of modern Oudh or Awadh was usurped and taken over by which is located in Uttar pradesh. The Magadha. Champa was also a major state capital of Kosala seat for the spread of Jainism and was Ayodhya which was under the Buddhism. command of Prosenjit the Kosala King, a contemporary of Gautama Buddha. Magadha: The southern side it was bordered by the , the east had river Gandhak Magadha emerged as a powerful encircling it. Magadha was a kingdom in the reign of Bimbisara and

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History his son Ajatshatru. The earliest ruling of the democracy), but often he was dynasty according to Mahabharata addressed as the king.The other and Puranas seems to be founded by executives were Mahabaladhrikrit king Brihadratha. The Vedas have a (equivalent to the minister of internal mention of the as semi security), binishchayamatya (chief 'brahmanised' and this was a reason for justice), dandadhikrit (other justices) etc. the not so good impression of the Vajji had its capital at Vaishali. people. Kikata was a non Aryan country according to Yasaka and the king Malla: Pramaganda is said to be the ruler of Kikata. Kikata on the other hand was Malla was an ancient dynasty in India considered a synonym for Magadha in and is one of the sixteen later Vedic literature. mahajanapadas. Epics like Mahabharata mentions that the Mallas The city was known by many other were considered along with the tribes of names like Magadhapura, the Angas, Vangas and Kalingas. Brihadrathapura, Vasumati, Buddhist and Jain works have the Kushagrapura and Bimbisarapuri. mention of the Mallas who existed in a were in vogue in republic that consisted of nine teritories. the religious scenario during that time, In a more original context it is evident and Magadha became a dynamic center that they actually had a monarchical of Jainism along with the first Budhist form of government in the beginning but Council being held in Rajagriha in the later they transformed into the republic Vaibhara Hills. form{Samgha). The Mallas were very warlike and brave people and have Vajji or Vriji: been mentioned and referred as Vrtaya Kshatriyas by Manusmriti, as Vasishthas Sixteen Mahajanapadas of ancient Inida in the Mahapparnibbana Suttanta. includes Vajji as one of them. The Vajji Mallas have also suffered domination by was a confederation a many clans of the after Buddha's which the Licchhavis, the Vedehans, death. Jnatrikas and the were the most important. It was actually known as the Chedi or Cheti: Vajji Sangha or the union of Vajji, which comprised of many janapadas, gramas The Chedis were group of ancient (villages), gosthas (groups). The people of India living on the south of the eminent people were chosen from each river Yamuna. They are mentioned in khandas (districts) to represent on their the Rigveda, and city called Suktimati is behalf in Vajji gana parishad (people's mentioned as the capital of Chedi. council of Vajji). The chairman of the Chedi kingdom was one of the sixteen council was called Ganapramukh (head Mahajanapadas, and was ruled by

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Sisupala, an ally of Jarasandha of the kurus came from the . Magadha and Duryodhana of Kuru. Testified by the Vayu Purana, the Prominent Chedis during founder of Kurukshetra or kuru War included Damaghosha, Shishupala, was Kuru who was the son of Dhrishtaketu, Suketu, Sarabha, Bhima's Samvarsana of the Puru lineage. During wife and so on. Chedi was the place that sixth/fifth century BCE, the Kurus are was chosen for spending the 13th year believed to have shifted to republic form of exile by the . of government.

Vamsa: Panchala:

The Vamsa or the Vatsa was the Panchala was divided into Uttara- kingdom that followed the monarchical Panchala and Dakshina-Panchala. form of government. This kingdom is Counted among the sixteen one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, and Mahajanapadas, the northen Panchala the capital of this was located at had Chhatravati as its capital and the Kausambi. One very important aspect of south had its capital at Kampilya. In this city was that it formed the hub of all Panchala is situated the renouned city economic activitioes and had a of Kanyakubja. Like many other prosperous trade and business kingdoms it was seen that the Panchals relations. 6th century Bc has the tooo had shifted to a republican form of account of Udyana to be the ruler of the, government in sixth and fifth century kingdom at the time of Buddha. About BCE from being a monarchy. Udayana it is said that earlier there were resentments on his side regarding Machcha or Matsya: Budhism as he was very warlike and aggressive but in the later years The Kingdom of Matsya was again an became more tolerant and finnaly a important part of the sixten folower of Buddha. So much he was mahajanapadas. This lay south of the affected by his teachings that he made Kurus and west of the Yamuna which buddhism his state religion. separated them from the . The Machcha tribe inhabited this region Kuru: which had its capital at Viratanagara. The Matsyas are generally linked up The kuru janapada is one of the sixteen with the in literature. The mahajanapadas. Regarding the origin of Matsya tribe in comparison to the other the Kurus it has been said that they janapadas were of not much poolitical belong to the Puru-Bharata family. emminence during the age of Buddha. Kurus were the specific origin of people Matsyas and the chhedis have a living in the Kurukshetra and according connection here when we see that they to the Buddhist text Sumangavilasini, were once ruled by the same king

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Sujata, and Matsya was a part of the Avanti was an important kingdom of the kingdom ofn Chedi. sixteen mahajanapadas, and it lay in the western part of India. Buddhism rose to Surasena: its prominence in this kingdom and and this was one of the other kingdoms The kingdom of Surasena, underwent a which initiated Buddhism in a larger lot metamorphosis in terms of religion. manner. The kingdom was divided as The capital which was Mathura, was the north and south Avanti and the north centre of Krishna worship at the time of had its capital at Ujjaini. Mahissati was Megasthenes. Whereas Avantipura who the capital of Avanti in the beginning was the king of Surasena was one of which was integrated into Ujjaini during the first desciples of Buddha, and it the period of Mahavira and Buddha. gained prominence evr since then in Avanti in the later stages of historu was Mathura. The geographical locattion of amalgamated into the Magadha empire this kingdom among the sixteen under the reign of Shishunaga. mahajanapadas was south west of Matsya and west of the river Yamuna. Gandhara: There were various tribe that in habited the region and they were headed by a The Gandhara kingdom comprised of chief. the who were highly trained in the art of war and they have a Assaka or Ashmaka: mention in the Atharva Veda as well . though in the Vedas they are mentioned Kingdom of Assaka or Ashmaka was as the despised people along with some situated in the southern part of India and others due to their allegiance to non one of the sixteen mahajanapadas. The Aryan group. Puranic and Buuddhistic Ashmaka had its capital located at tradition included Gandharas in Potana or Potali which have Uttarapatha. The Gandhara kingdom of resemblences of Paudanya of the sixteen mahajanapadas was Mahabharatha. The Assakas are placed founded by Gandhara, son of Aruddha in the north-west in the Markendeya who was the son of Yayati. It was alos Purana and the Brhat Samhita. There believed once according to Gandhara are numerous associations regarding Jatakas that they they were a part of the identification of assakas. That is why Kashmir. Gandhara was an important we have different views on this. Like the seat of international commercial commentator of Akutilya's Arthashahstra activities, and provided communication identifies it with Maharashtra. with other countries like Iran and Central Asia. Avanti: Kamboja:

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Kamboja was believed to have military slaves. Read more about the composed of parts that were o the either history of the in India. side of the Hindukush. Whereas The extent of Delhi sultanate was till originally they were located somewhre Bengal in the east and Deccan in the else. The Kamboja Mahajanapada of south. Even such a big sultanate faced the Buddhist traditions refers to the 'cis- constant threats from the North West Hindukush branch' of ancient . and was also under pressure from The kamboja being one of the sixteen internal politics within independent mahajanapadas were a republic since nobles. There was instability and unrest ages. There are many evidence from in the kingdom as there five dynasties that rose and fell which includes Slave the Mahabharata, Kautiliya's dynasty, Khilji dynasty, Tughlaq and Ashoka's Edict No. dynasty, Sayyid dynasty and Lodhi XIII which affirms that the Kambojas dynasty. It was under the Khilji dynasty were a republic people. that most of South India was conquered. The territory was never fixed and Magadha emerged as a very powerful depended upon the ability of the ruler as mahajanapada with time and this to how much was he able to conquer and control. marked the annexation of sevaral janapadas of the 'Majjhimadesa'. The The effectiveness of a ruler during this Kasis, Kurus, Panchalas, Vatsyas etc time depended entirely upon his ability were certainly among the exterminated to conquer the places that fell near clans which had no trace in the folklore, military highways and trade routes, poetry and so on. The sixteen collect land tax for revenue of the state and have firm authority over military and Mahajanapadas were infact state governors. Agriculture and its distinguished as the ones belonging to related activities were the main source the Majjhimadesa or mid India, or of livelihood in the kingdom but due to Uttarpatha or the north-west region. continued political unrest and instability, thepeasants suffered greatly. During this Delhi sultanate time, Persian language developed to a great extent at the places where power The Delhi Sultanate basically refers to was concentrated. the Muslim rulers who ruled India through Delhi. This basically came into Mahmud of Ghazni existence after Mohammed Ghori captured Delhi after defeating Prithviraj.  Ghazni was a small kingdom in After Prithviraj was captured, the Delhi , which was founded Sultanate went into the hands of one of by a Turkish nobleman in the Ghori's generals known as Qutub-ud-din Aibak. During the end of the 12th tenth century. One of its century, he established a series of rulers successors, namely Mahmud and this dynasty was called as the slave wanted to make Ghazni into a dynasty since the rulers had been big and powerful kingdom;

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therefore, he decided to conquer builder of a beautiful mosque a part of Central Asia. and a large library.

 In order to make his large and  Mahmud was the patron of the powerful army, Mahmud had famous Persian poet, Firdausi, needed a huge property; hence, who wrote the epic poem ‘Shah he decided to attack India to rob Namah.’ Indian wealth (to accomplish his  Mahmud sent the Central Asian great ambition). scholar Alberuni to India, who  The first raid of Mahmud began lived here for many years and in A.D. 1,000. In a short period had written his experience, of twenty-five years, Mahmud describing the country and the made seventeen raids. condition of the people. Meanwhile, he fought battles in

Central Asia and in Afghanistan as well. Muhammad Ghori  Muhammad Ghori was the ruler  Between A.D. 1,010 and 1025, of the Ghor kingdom, a small Mahmud attacked only on the kingdom of Afghanistan. He was temple towns in northern India, the supreme ruler of Ghurid as he had heard that there were Empire. much gold and jewelry kept in the big temples in India.  Ghori was more ambitious than Mahmud, as he was not only  One of these attacks, which is interested in robbing wealth of frequently mentioned while India, but also intended in discussing Medieval History, conquering northern India and was the destruction of the adding it to his kingdom. Somnath temple located in western India.  Since Punjab had already been a part of the Ghazni kingdom;  In 1,030, Mahmud died and the therefore, it made easier to people of northern India get Ghori to plan India campaign. relieved. Though Mahmud was destructor for the Indians, but in  Muhammad's most important his own country, he was a campaign in India was against

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the Chauhan ruler, Prithviraj III.  The ruler of Ghazni tried to In 1191, Prithviraj defeated annex the territory held by Qutb- Ghori; this battle is popularly ud-din, but he failed. When known as the ‘first battle of lltutmish succeeded Qutbud-din Tarain.’ as Sultan, a separate kingdom was established in the northern  In 1192, Muhammad Ghori India, namely Delhi Sultanate. defeated Prithviraj in the second battle of Tarin. The defeat of  Over a period of time, the Prithviraj opened the Delhi area Sultans of Delhi extended their to Muhammad and he began to control up to Bengal in the east establish his power. and Sind in the west.

 In 1206, Ghori was murdered  During the Sultanate period, and his kingdom in northern there was the problem of the India was left in the control of his local Indian rulers who had been general Qutb-ud-din Aibak. conquered. Sultans had taken territories of some rulers and  After Muhammad Ghori’s death, some others were allowed to slave sultans were ruled India. keep it.

 The rulers who were allowed to The Slave Sultans (AD. 1206-1290) keep their territories paid a sum of money as a tribute and  Mamluks were the earliest rulers agreed to help the Sultan with of the Delhi Sultanate. They are military support when required. also known as the Slave Kings

because many of them were  Sultanate had also problems either slaves or were the sons of from the north-west, for slaves and became Sultans. example, the rulers of Afghanistan were quiet, but the  The first of the slave kings Mongol people of Central Asia, was Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who was led by Chenghiz Khan, made the general of Muhammad fresh conquests. Ghori. After the death of Ghori,

Qutb-ud-din stayed in India and  The Sultan Iltutmish had faced established his kingdom. the administrative problems.

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However, when he died, his  Sijdah, horrified the orthodox daughter Raziya became the Muslims. According to Muslims sultan and she had to face the belief, “all men are equal, and problems. therefore, no one should do the sijdah before anyone else  After Iltutmish, the next important except God.” Sultans was Balban, a strong and iron-willed Sultan. He was  Khilji dynasty came more successful in solving the after Mamluks and ruled until A. problems than his predecessors. D. 1320. He defended the Sultanate from the attacks of the . Khilji Dynasty (1290 1320)  Balban fought against the local – rulers who troubled him. His  In 1,290, the Slave Sultans were biggest problem was the nobles succeeded by a new dynasty, who had become very powerful known as Khiljis. Jalal ud din and were threatening the Firuz Khilji was the founder of position of the Sultan. Slowly but Khilji dynasty. firmly, Balban broke their power  Alauddin Khilji, who was the and finally the position of the nephew and son-in-law of Jalal- Sultan became all-important. ud-din was one of the most  Balban’s success was integrated ambitious and powerful sultans into his strategic administrative of Khilji dynasty. He wanted to policy. He successfully changed conquer the world (to become the organization of the army and second Alexander). curbed the revolt of the nobles.  Alauddin Khilji, when became

 Balban encouraged people to do sultan, gave presents (of gold) to the ‘sijdah’ in his the citizens. At the same time, presence. Sijdah means, people he also contended that he was a had to kneel and touch the strong and powerful ruler and ground with their forehead in hence, he would deal severely salutation to him (Balban). with anyone who showed signs of disloyalty.

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 Alauddin Khilji raised the land intention to conquer the taxes on the wealthier people of peninsula as well as obtain the (the fertile area money and wealth. between the Ganga and  Malik Kafur plundered in all Yamuna rivers). Further, he directions and collected a large strictly monitored the revenue, amount of gold from the various which the nobles got from their kingdoms of the south, including land and hence, did not allow the Yadavas (of Devagiri), them to keep anything, which the Kakatiyas (of Warangal), and was not their due. the Hoyasalas (of  The prices of goods were also Dvarasamudra). closely controlled so that  The defeated rulers were allowed everyone could afford to pay the to keep their throne provided price demanded as well as no they paid a tribute. Malik Kafur one could make a large profit. also conquered the city of  Alauddin Khilji made a new Madurai. By the time, no north policy i.e. he ordered a new Indian ruler attempted to assessment of the cultivated penetrate so far in the south land and the revenue. First, the India. land under cultivation (of his  In 1,315, Aladdin Khilji died. After kingdom) was measured. And his death, there was a chaotic the revenue of these lands was situation for the succession. assessed on the basis of the Ambitious Malik Kafur made measurement. himself as sultan, but lacked  Alauddin Khilji campaigned support from Muslim amirs and against the kingdoms of Gujarat hence, he was killed only after and Malwa. He tried to establish few months. his control over Rajasthan by  By 1,320, three more Khilji capturing the famous forts of successors assumed power, but Ranthambhor and Chittor. no one sustained rather killed  Under the command of Malik brutally. Likewise, a new dynasty Kafur, Ala-ud-din sent a large namely Tughlaq was founded. army towards the south with the

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came after the were from the Doab area). Khilji dynasty and ruled from However, a famine in the Doab A.D. 1320 to 1413. region made condition worse.

 As a result of famine, the people refused to pay the extra taxes Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 1413) – and rose in rebellion; therefore,  In 1,320, Ghazi Malik became finally, the Sultan had to cancel the king under the title his order. of Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq. Likewise, the ‘Tughlaq’ dynasty  Muhammad also moved the began. capital from Delhi to Devagiri (which he renamed Daulatabad). Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq As per his strategic plan,  Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325- Daulatabad (located nearby 51), the eldest son and modern Aurangabad in successor of Ghiyath al-Din Maharashtra) was a better place Tughlaq, was one of the most for controlling the Deccan. ambitious and powerful Sultans of Tughlaq dynasty.  The moving of the capital was, however, not successful, as it  Ibn Battutah, the North African was too far from northern India, Arab traveler, came India during and hence, the Sultan could not Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq’s keep a watch on the northern period and he had written the frontiers. Therefore, Muhammad detailed description of the returned the capital back to Muhammad’s kingdom. Delhi.

 Muhammad was a man of ideals  Muhammad decided to issue who attempted as far as 'token' coins on brass and possible, to rule on the principles copper, which could be of reason. He was a great exchanged for silver coins from knowledgeable mathematician the treasury. This scheme would and a logician. have worked, if he had monitored it carefully and  Muhammad increased the taxes allowed strictly only to the of the peasants (especially who government body to issue token

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coins. But it did not happen state policy in certain matters. rather many people started Thus Firoz improved his making brass and copper relationship with the powerful ‘tokens’ and the Sultan, groups at the court; however, in therefore, had no control over spite of all these, the power of the finances. The token coins the Sultan decreased. had to be withdrawn.  In the meantime, the governors  Unfortunately, Muhammad’s of certain provinces, including many administrative policies Bihar and Bengal, had rebelled failed; hence, gradually he lost against the Sultanate. Firoz tried the support not only of the to control them, but was not very people, but also many of the successful. nobles and the ulema.  Firoz was interested in improving  The ulema were the scholars of the general welfare of his Islamic learning who were subjects. He improved parts of generally orthodox in their the kingdom by starting new outlook. irrigation schemes. The Yamuna Canal was one of his schemes. Firoz Shah Tughlaq  In March, 1351, Muhammad  Firoz also established a few new died. After his death, his towns, such as Ferozpur, cousin Firoz Shah came to the Ferozabad, Hissar-Firoza, and throne who ruled till 1388. Jaunpur.

 Firoz realized that one of the  Firoz also constructed many reasons for the failure of educational centers and Muhammad was that he did not hospitals. He was interested in have the support of the nobles. the ancient culture of India. Firoz Therefore, Firoz first established order to translate a number of a friendly relation with them and Sanskrit books into Persian and made them happy by giving Arabic languages. them, grants or revenue.  Firoz also owned two of the  Firoz, further, allowed the pillars of the emperor Ashoka orthodox ulema to influence

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and one of them was placed on ud-Din Mubarak Shah’ on his the roof of his palace. coins.

 In September 1388, Firoz died,  Mubarrak Khan ruled till 1434 after which there was a civil war and he was succeeded by his among his descendants. nephew Muhammad Shah. Because of the political Muhammad Shah ruled till 1445. instability, the governors of many provinces became  Muhammad succeeded by Ala- independent kings and finally ud-din Alam Sham, who ruled till only a small area around Delhi 1451. In 1451, Bahlul Lodi remained in the hands of the became the Sultan and founded Tughluq Sultans. the .

 Lodi Dynasty came after Sayyid dynasty and ruled until A.D. Sayyid Dynasty (1413 – 1451) 1526.  By 1413, the Tughlaq dynasty ended completely and local governor occupied Delhi and given way to Sayyid Dynasty. Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526)  Lodi dynasty was originally from  In 1398, , the Turkish chief Afghan who ruled Delhi invaded India and robbed Indian Sultanate for about 75 years. wealth. While returning back, he appointed Khizr Khan as the Bahlul Lodi governor of Delhi.  Bahlul Lodi, who founded the dynasty and ruled Delhi from  Khizr Khan had taken Delhi from 1451 to 1489. After his death in Daulat Khan Lodi and founded 1489, his second son Sikandar Sayyid dynasty in 1414. Sayyid Lodi succeeded the throne. dynasty ruled Delhi until 1451. Sikandar Lodi  In 1421, Khizr Khan died, hence,  Sikandar Lodi took the title of his son Mubarrak Khan Sikandar Shah. It was Sikandar succeeded. Mubarrak Khan Lodi who founded Agra city in represented himself as ‘Muizz-

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1504 and moved capital from loyalty of the people by various Delhi to Agra. measures of public welfare.

 Sikandar Lodi, further, abolished The Nobles the corn duties and patronized  During the sultanate period, the trade and commerce in his nobles played a powerful role. kingdom. Sometimes, they even influenced state policy and Ibrahim Lodi sometimes (as governors), they  After Sikandar Lodi, Ibrahim Lodi revolted and became (the youngest son of Sikandar independent rulers or else Lodi) became sultan. Ibrahim usurped the throne of Delhi. Lodi was the last ruler of Lodi dynasty who ruled from 1517 to  Many of these nobles were 1526. Turkish or Afghani, who had settled in India.  Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur in 1526, in the first battle  Some of the nobles were men of Panipat and from now Mughal who came to India only in search Empire established. of their fortune and worked for the Sultan. Lodi Administration  The Lodi kings tried to  After Ala-ud-din Khilji, Indian consolidate the Sultanate and Muslims and Hindus were also attempted to curb the power of appointed as officers (nobles). rebellious governor.  The Sultan followed the earlier  Sikandar Lodi who ruled from system of granting the revenue 1489-1517, controlled the from a piece of land or a village Ganges valley up to western to the (noble) officer instead of Bengal. paying them salary.

 Sikandar Lodi moved capital  As the power of the Sultanate from Delhi to Agra, as he felt gradually declined, the number that he could control his of new kingdoms arose in kingdom better from A gra. He different parts of the also tried to strengthen the subcontinent. Most of them

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began as provinces of the and established his new capital Sultanate, but later became at Kannauj. independent province.  After the death of Mahendrapala, the succession is obscure. The power of the Pratiharas was apparently weakened by dynastic

strife. It was further diminished as a result of a great raid from the Deccan, led by the Rastrakuta king Indra III, who about 916 sacked Kannauj.

 Their last important Gurjar Prathihar king, Rajyapala, was driven from Kannauj by Maḥmūd of

Ghazna in 1018 and was later Facts related to Uttar Pradesh killed by the forces of  The line of Nagabhata ruled first the Chandela king Vidyadhara. at Ujjain and later For about a generation longer a at Kannauj during the 8th to 11th small Pratihara principality centuries. apparently survived in the area  In the complicated and badly of Allahabad. documented wars of the early 9th

century—involving Pratiharas,

Rastrakutas, and Palas— Nagabhata II played an important part. About 816 he invaded Sources of Gurjara Pratiharas’ History the Indo-Gangetic Plain and  Historians believe that after the captured Kannauj from the local Gupta period, Gurjara Pratiharas king Chakrayudha, who had the came to India from the central protection of the Pala Asian region and settled in ruler Dharmapala. Rajasthan. Gradually, they  With the power of the gained political importance. Rastrakutas weakened,  The bardic tradition of Rajasthan Nagabhata II became the most claims that the Gurjara powerful ruler of northern India Pratiharas, Chalukyas,

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Parmaras, and Chahmanas  During A.D. 775-800, Vatsaraja were born out of a yajna done at followed an aggressive imperial Mount Abu. Therefore, these policy. He defeated Pala king four dynasties are also known Dharmapala of Bengal. as agnikulas (fire-clans).  The Rashtrakuta king Dhruva  The four dynasties of Rajputs defeated Vatsaraja and took were created for the protection away the political benefit of the of the country from external defeat of Pala king. aggressions.  Dharmapala took advantage of  The literary meaning of Pratihara the defeat of Vatsaraja and is ‘door keeper.’ It is believed installed his own nominee that their ancestor Lakshmana Chakrayudba on the throne of served as a door keeper to his Kanauj. brother . Therefore, they  Vatsaraja s son, Nagabhatta II were called as Pratihara. ’ (A.D.815) made an alliance with  The geographical name of Andhra, Vidharbha, and Kalinga. Gujarat is supposed to be He made extensive preparation derived from Gurjara. to fight against his rivals.

Rulers of Gurjara Pratiharas  Nagabhatta II first defeated  The Gwalior inscription Chakrayudha and captured mentioned the early history of Kanauj. Then he defeated the family. The inscription was Dharmapala and fought with founded by King in the Govinda-III, the Rashtrakuta 7th century. He was the most king. famous king of the Gurjara  Nagabhatta also defeated Sultan Pratiharas dynasty. Vega who was the son of the  Nagabhatta-I was the real governor of Sind under the founder of the fame of family. He Caliph-l Mamun. defeated the Muslim forces from  Nagabhatta-II was succeeded by the Arabs. his son Ramabhadra.

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 Ramabhadra was succeeded by  Mahendrapala-I also extended his son Bhoja-I about A.D. 836. the boundaries of his empire. During his reign, the Pratihara  Bhoja-I restored the falling Empire stretched almost from prosperities and reputation of his the in the north to the dynasty. Vindhyas in the south and from Bengal in the east to Gujarat in  A golden opportunity to the king the west. Bhoja-I was provided by the death of Devapala of Bengal and  Mahendrapala-I was also known Rashtrakuta's invasion of Bengal as 'Mahendrayudha', thereafter. and 'Nirbhayanarendra.' He was a liberal patron of learned men.  The Rashtrakuta king, Krishna II was involved in the struggle with  Rajashehara was learned man of the . his court. He had written Karpuramanjari, Bala-  Bhoja-I defeated Krishna-II and Ramayana, Bala Bharata, captured the region of Malwa Kavyamimansa, Bhuvana and Gujarat. Kosha, and Haravilasa.  After victory over two great rivals,  The Pratiharas dynasty Bhoja-I founded his sovereignty dominated north India for over over the Punjab, Avadh, and two hundred years from the other territories of north India 8th century to the 10th century and consolidated his empire. A.D.  Bhoja-I was a devotee of ,  Arab scholar, Al-Masudi, visited and adopted the title India in A.D. 915-916. of ‘Adivaraha.’ It has been inscribed in some of his coins.  Al-Masudi mentioned about the He is also known by other great powers and prestige of the names as 'Mihir', 'Prabhasa,' etc. Pratihara rulers and the vastness of their empire.  Bhoja-I was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala-I about A.D.  Al-Masudi says that empire of AI- 885. Juzr (Gurjara) had 1,800,000

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villages, the cities and rural along with embassies. However, areas were about 2,000 km in the names of the Indian kings length and 2,000 km in breadth. are not known who sent these embassies.  The Rashtrakuta king, Indra-II again attacked Kanauj between  This interaction between India A.D. 915 and A.D. 918 and and Arab led to the spread of completely destroyed it. This Indian culture, literature, and weakened the Pratihara Empire. science, especially mathematics, algebra, and medicine to the  Krishna-III was other Arab world from where these Rashtrakuta ruler invaded north were further transmitted to India in about A.D. 963. He Europe. defeated the Pratihara rulers. This led to decline of Pratihara  Although the Pratiharas were Empire. well known for their aggression to the Arab rulers of Sindh.  The Pratiharas were patrons of learning and literature.  Despite all this, the movement of scholars and trade between  Rajashekhar (Sanskrit poet) lived India and west Asia remained at the court of Mahendrapala-I. uninterrupted.

 The Pratihara kings were followers of Hinduism. Important Jain sites in Uttar  They build with many fine Pradesh buildings and temples at Kanauj. Shri Ahichchhatra Tirth  The epigraphic records show that Geographic location: It is near the the building of temples and the Ramnagar village of district Bareilly. educational institutions attached Various Jain idols and inscriptions found with them, formed community during the land excavations tell us about projects, in which the entire the historical importance of this village community participated. place.This place is known for ages for the event that took place while  Many Indian scholars went to the BhagwanParshwanatha attained court of the Caliph at Baghdad ‘KevalGyan’ here through deep

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‘Tapashcharan’.In the ancient There are Tonks of Bhagwananantnath Parshvanath Temple, there are 5 Vedis Swami Bhagwan Abhinandan Nath, dedicated toTikhal Baba (black idol of Bhagwansheetalnath, Bhagwan Ajitnath Lord Parshvanath with engraved and Bhagwan Adinath at Ayodhya. footprints), Lord Parshvanath and Lord During a digging project undertaken Chandraprabhu (white statues of Lord twenty-five years age, broken idols of Mahavir), Lord Mahaveer, Lord Jains were found and it is considered Parshvanath (white Idol in khandagasan that these pertain to the Maurya period. posture) and a statue of Lord Sheetalnath.

Shri Kampilaji Tirth

Shri Ayodhya Tirth The tirthkampilaji (kampilapur) village is situated 10 kilometers away from the Ayodhya is a famous tirthkshetra in nearest railway station kyamganj. This Eastern Uttar Pradesh. It is located on comes under the district Farrukabad of Delhi-Luknow-Mughalsarai rail route. It Uttar Pradesh.There are literary is about 6 kilometers away from references in Jain scriptures of temples, Faizabad and 139 kilometers away from which existed even before 6th century Lucknow. There are very ancient B.C. in Mathura, Kampila and other temples belonging to different society places. Temple making appears to have and culture. For Jains the importance of its start from North India. , a this place is due to that small village that has been erased from BhagwanAdinathji adopted diksa at this the memory of the mankind, is actually a place. After diksa, many times he came very important place from historical and wandering here and his samavasranas mythological point of view. Two famous were set here. This holy land is the pilgrimage centers of Jains religion i.e. birthplace of Bhahubali, Brahmi, the Shwetambar Jains temple, Sundari, King Dashrath, dedicated to the 13th Teerthankar of the AcharyaPadaliptasurisvarji, King Jains & Digambar are also Harishchandra, ShriRamchandra, situated in Kampil. The idol is nearly 60 Achalbhrata, and the ninth Gandhara of centimeters in height and black – Mahavir Swami and others. colored. This marvelous idol of Bhagawan Vimlanath is in the There are four temples, two Padmasana Posture (a Digambar Svetambar’s and two Digambar’s temple) and the other one in Swetambar temples. During 1965 an idol of temple the idol is 45 centimeters in Bhagawan Rishabhdev 885 centimeters height having white color of Bhagawan or 31 feet high in posture in Vimalnath in the Padmasana posture. It RaiganjDigambar temple a really is believed that Draupadi, the daughter speculator was installed (Figure 2).

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History of Drupad, the king of Paanchaal, was Samudragupta had this Manastambh born in Kampil. The sacrificial alter erected in the year 460 A.D.The present (Yagyakund) from which Draupadi is name of this place is Khukkhundu. believed to have been born from the fire of knowledge, is situated in Kampil till date. Jain Shrines of Kaushambi

Two famous pilgrimage centers of Jains This shrine is located on the northern religion i.e., the Shwetambar Jain bank of the Yamuna River some 60 temple, dedicated to the 13th kilometers away from Allahabad in Uttar Teerthankar of the Jains & Digambar Pradesh. Ancient Jain scriptures reveal Jains temple are also situated in Kampil. that there had been 16 Mahajanpadas in Apart from these, there are many old the 6th century B.C. Vats Desh was one temples, which prove the historical & such Mahajanpada whose capital was religious importance of Kampil. The Kaushambi. With the end of the idols of this place belong to the Gupta legendary Hastinapur Kingdom, which is Age. believed to have been flooded and destroyed by the river Ganges, the Chandravanshi kings made Kaushambi Jain Shrines of Kakandi their capital, 22 of their descendants are said to have ruled from here. The town, The village is called Kuhukan (Kakandi) th however, got its due importance with the where this temple is situated.Jain’s 9 presence of the 6th Tirthankar Tirthankar Lord Pushpdantji was born Padmaprabhu, who was born here. His here and had his Kalynaka s of chayan, ’ Kalynaka’s of chayan, births, diksa and births, diksa here. He took his Diksha in 'The Kewal Gyan' took place here. Pushpak-van, meditated for 4 years and There is beautiful temple dedicated to went on a fast. Ultimately he attained Lord Bhagwan Padmaprabhuji. Apart the true light of knowledge, 'The Kewal from above many ancient idols were Gyan. The nearby villages Kukubh and found during excavation, which prove Kakandi stand in ruins today, with the historical and religious importance of several mounds in the vicinity. The local this place. people call them 'Dedara' which represent the Jain Devalaya. The place commands obeisance because four Kalyanaks of Bhagwan Suvidhinath, the Shri Chandrapuri Teerth 9thTirthankar of the set of 24 for the This holy place is on the bank of the present cycle of time occurred here. A river Ganga near the Chandravati grey colored Manastambh has also village. The nearest railway Kadipur is at been found in the forest is known as a distance of 5 kilometers and Varanasi Kukubh Van and it is 24 ft. high. King is at a distance of 23 kilometers. This is

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History the birthplace of Bhagwan The Indra along with many other dev Chandraprabhu the 8thTirthankar. At has organisedsamavasaran on this this holy place, four kalyanak, Chyavan, occasion. Many Sashtras & TeerthMalas Janam, Deeksha and Kevalgyan, took describe this teerth. place. Both Shwetambar and Digambar temples are situated at the bank of holy river Ganga. They are adjusent to each Shri Ratnapuri other and managed by single trust. Shri Chandraprabh Bhagwan, Swetvarn idol It is located on the Ayodhya- Lucknow in padmasan mudra about 45 national highway, to the west of centimeters in height is placed in each Ayodhya near village Ronahi. Ratnapuri temple. The pilgrim’s get enlighten in is the birthplace of Lord Dharamnath prayer to Bhagawan, and experience and the site of his sacred grove. spiritual peace here. Bhagwan Dharamnath had a Kalyanakas Chyavan, Janam, Tap History of this tirth starts from the period (Penance) and Gayan (Knowledge) here of 8thTeerthankar Shri Chandraprabh as such it is called a KalyanakKshetra. Bhagwan. Once upon a time, King There is only one small temple in a Mahasen was the ruler of this place. On village Rohini where the idol of a lucky day his wife Queen Laxmimati Tirthankara Dharamnath of about 25 has seen a miraculous nightmare giving Centimeters, a very antique one is indications of birth of Teerthankar. Right placed. There are Shwetambar and on that moment, the soul (jeev) of Digambar temples. The footprints of Padmanabh entered in the kukchhi Bhagwan Shri Dharmanath, blue (ovary) of Laxmimati. She gave birth to colored in Shwetambar temples. The a son on Poush Krishna 11 in white colored idol (90 centimeters) of Anuradhanakshatra. As she desired Bhagwan Shri Dharmanath in moon (Chandra) during her pregnancy, padmasanastha in Digambar Jain the newborn child was named As templeis the main attraction of this Chandraprabh. He was married in his place. younger days and after ruling many years he decided to take deeksha. Prabhu took Deeksha after performing Varanasi (Kashi Banaras) Varshidaan with eleven thousand kings on Poush Krishna Teras in According to the Jain traditions, Kashi Anuradhanakshatra at Sahasamra Van. has the honor of being the birth place of He came to same place after roaming four Tirthankars namely, Bhagwan for three years and started meditation Suparshavathji, Chandraprabhji, under a Punnag tree. It was here that Shreansnathji and Parshvanathji. Where Prabhu attained Kevalgyan on Falgun Parshavnathji and Suparshavnathji were Krishna Saptami in Anuradhanakshatra. born in Varansai, Bhagwan

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Chandraprabhji was born in Chandrapur sacred places of pilgrimage for the Jain about 15 km away from Varanasi. Shree devotees. There are number of other Shreansnathji was born in Singhpur temples belonging to both sects of village which is presently known as Jains. Sarnath.

Singhpuri Teerth Bhadaini Jain Pilgrimage Digambar temple is at a distance of 7 The birthplace of the 7thTirthankar Sri kilometers from Varanasi Chhavani Suparshavnathji was in 'Bhandani' station situated at Sarnath crossing. The Muhallah', situated near the banks of the shwetambar temple is at a distance of 8 river Ganga. The place is about 1.5 km. kilometers from the station situated in Away from Bhelupura and known s the Hiravanpur Village nearby Jainghat'. This place is believed to be Chandravatiteerth is only at a difference very sacred not only because it was of 15 kilometers. This is an ancient Lord Sri Suparshvanath's birth place, place widely known for 4 kalyanak of but he had his Kalyanakas Chyavan, Shri Shreyansnath Bhagwan 11th Janam, Tap (Penance) and Gayan Tirthankar. A huge ashtakod stoop (Knowledge) here at present, there is a (octagonal pillar) of 103 feet height is white coloured 68 cm high idol placed still present showing its historical here and worshipped by the establishment. It is considered to be shwetambars. On the other hand, a 2200 years old. The artistic work on it is black idol of 46 cm. height is placed unmatched. At present one Shwetambar here and is worshiped by the believers Jain temple, a Digambar Jain temple, of Digambar sect. one pillar exists there. The White colored idols of Shri Shreyanshnath Bhagwan in Padmasanastha 30 Bhelupura centimeters in height, (Shwetambar) and the other one Blue coloured idol 75 This place is also located near the cms of Shri Shreyanshnath Bhagwan in Varanasi. This is the birthplace of Padmasanastha, (Digambar) are placed 23rdTirthankar, Lord Sri Parshavnath. in the temples. Somenath Bodh temple This place has a white stature of 60 also exists here. centimeter height, which is worshipped by the believers of Svetambara sect, and a black idol with a height of 75 Shauripur Tirth centimeters is worshipped by the believers of Digambara sect.These The Shauripur village is on the bank of temples are definitely worth seeing. This the Yamuna River near to railway place is believed to be one of the most station in . It is 2 kilometers

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History from Bateshwar, another Jain Tirth. It dedicated to this holiness. This place is can also be reached from Ferozabad via better known as Chawrasi. The present Shikohabad. This temple of Shri Main temple has Tirthankar Ajitnath as Neminath Bhagwan is located at main deity with charan of Shauripur village on the bank of river adorning the main vedi. After Yamuna, about 75 kilometers from Jambuswami his charan were obtained Agara and 25 kilometers from and later on temple was built and they Shikohabad on the Northern railway. were placed by Mathura samaj. The Shri Neminath was born at this place. mulnayak Ajitnathbhagwanpratima is Since this is the land of Chyavan and really impressive and very beautiful birth Kalyanakas of Bhagawan made of white stone. It was discovered Neminath, the twenty-second of the 24 from Gwalior during some excavation Tirthankaras of the present the group, work of land. There are 9 more vedis in this is known as a holy Kshetra. main temple of Parasnath, Neminath, Moreover, this was the lane of Mahavirbhagwan. Two special vedis are attainment of omniscience and nirvana made here of standing karyotsargs of many saints. This was also the statues of Pratham (first) Kevali birthplace of Karna the donor. In swami and Antim (last) addition to Old Jain DigambarMandir, KevaliJambu swami facing each other The Baruamatt and 5 Tonks known as adding glory and dignity to temple. panchmathi are very impressive and mentionable. Idols of Bhagawan Neminathinpadmasana posture are Hastinapur placed in these temples. According to Jain tradition, Hastinapur was one of the earliest Indian cities like Jain Siddha Kshetra of Mathura Ayodhya and Kashi and came into existence during the time of Sri Jambu Swami was born in Champa Rishabhadeva also known as and was the son of a rich man, Seth Bhagawan Adinatha (the first Rishabhdutt. Even though he was tirthankara) whose grandson, married at the age of 16, he was Somaprabha, was the first ruler of the initiated by Lord Mahavir's disciple place. It is also said to be the birthplace Sudhama Swami and lived as a of three Jain tirthankars, , Brahmachari for the rest of his life. After Kunthnnath and Arahanatha. The 20 years of hard penance he attained Buddhists say that this city was the the light of true knowledge and was capital of Kururattam. The Mahabharata enlightened at Chaurasi. He is the last also gives the early history of the place, Kewal Gyani of the Jains. A temple has the founder of which is generally been built here in his memory and believed to be King Hastin, fifth in

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History descent from Bharta. It was the capital 'Jamboodweep' is a special feature of of the Kauravas and Pandavas. It is said Hastinapur pilgrimage. It has come up to have extended as far as Barnawa in with the inspiration and keen interest of the west and Puth in the south. At the ascetic Jnanmatiji. Apart from time of the Mahabharata War it was in Jamboodweep' there are lotus temple, the heyday of its prosperity which, meditation temple and Indradhawaj however, began to decline thereafter. temples. All these new temples are The severe floods in the Ganga, which worth seeing. washed away the city, and the transfer of the capital of Kaushambi left in complete obscurity but it was Rishabhanchal Tirth rehabilitated twice within the next few centuries though it never achieved its This new Jain Pilgrimage centre has former glory. Hastinapur is considered been recently established at a village to be the most ancient capital city of Morta, which is 8 km. away from India. Though it has been the venue of Ghaziabad and 25 km. from Delhi on the all the politics related to the mahabharat Meerut road. President of India laid but it has a history that dates back to the down the foundation stone of this teerth times of Bhagawan Adinatha. It is said on 20th October 1991. The main temple that after relinquishing his throne carries the idol of Bhagwan Shri Bhagawan Adinatha entered the life of Rishabh Dev, which is 4.5 feet tall in an ascetic at this place. The conception, white marble, in Padamasan posture. birth, ordaining and enlightenment of Rishbhanchal is a grand and big temple, Lords Shantinath, Kunthunath and having 52-kalash and 81 feet high Arahnath had also occurred at this very artistic shikhar and popular as a center place. Hastinapur is said to be the of meditation, , worship and human birthplace of the Tirthankaras welfare. It is a unique religious place. It Shantinath, Kunthunath and ; is established under the able guidance their footprints can be seen on a small of Great Sadhivi Pujjya Bal Bramcharini hill nearby. Right now there are huge Maa Shri Kaushalji and is indicative of temples of both the Shwetambar and peace and prosperity for this area. the Digambar sects. Primary medical services, moral education, yoga and meditation training, library and boarding and lodging Jamboodweep facilities are all available here.

With the completion of the Jambu- dweep shrine in 1985, Hastinapur has become a favorite center for studying Jaina cosmology and cosmography, political history

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In ancient times, Uttar Pradesh was the creation of new States (Janpadas) known as the Madhya Desh. Being on and emergence of new people and new the route of invaders from north-west centres. The Sapta Sindhu gradually and forming part of the rich fertile plain lost importance and the centre of culture between Delhi and , its history is shifted to the plains between Saraswati closely linked to the history of north and Ganga ruled by the kingdoms of India. Although not much is known Kuru, Panchal, Kashi and Kosal. about its pre and post historic periods, discovery of arms and implements of ancient and neo-paleolithic age in excavations in Mirzapur, Sonebhadra, S.No Country Capital Bundelkhand and Sarai Nahar area of . Pratapgarh and of Harappan objects in 1. Kuru (Meerut, Indraprasth Almgirpur in Meerut take us back to Delhi and (Indropal near remore antiquity. Thaneshwar) Delhi)

2. Panchal Ahichhatra Aryan Age (Bareilly, (Ramnagar near Budaun and Bareilly) and It is only from the Rigvedic age that Farrukhabad) Kampilya some coherent historical account is (Farrukhabad) found. Initially, the centre of Aryan colonization in India was Sapta Sindhu 3. Vats (Area Mathura or the region irrigated by seven rivers around (undivided Punjab). The seven rivers Mathura) were Sindhu (Indus), Vitasta (Jhelum), Askini (Chenab), Purushni(Ravi), 4. Vats Kaushambi Vipasa(Beas), Shatudri (Sutlej) and (Allahabad (Kosam near Saraswati (now lost in the Rajasthan and nearby Allahabad) desert). More important of the Aryan area) clans were Puru, Turvasu, Yadu, Anu and Druh. These five clans were known 5. Kosal Saket (Ayodhya) as Panchjan. Besides, there was one (Awadh) and Shravasti more prominent clan known as Bharat. (Sahet-Mahet Gradually, the Aryans extended their in Gonda District) territory towards the east. The Shatpath Brahman gives an interesting account of 6. Malla (District Kushinagar the victory of Kosal (Awadh) and Videh Deoria) (Kasia) and Pawa (north Bihar) by tej Brahmans and the (Padrauna) Kshatriyas. Expansion of territory saw

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7. Kashi Varanasi The entire region extending up to (Varanasi) Prayag in the east bore the name of Madhya Desh. Modern Uttar Pradesh 8. Ang Champa corresponds to this region. It was (Bhagalpur) considered sacred in Hindu mythology as Gods and heroes, whose deeds are 9. Magadh Girivraj (Rajgraha recorded in the Ramayan and (South Bihar) -Rajgiri near Mahabharat, lived here. To be the most Bihar-Sharif) cultured Aryans as their speech formed the norm and their conduct was 10. Vajji (District Mithila, Janakpur, prescribed as the model. They were fully Darbhanga (on Nepal border) conversant with rituals and could and and Vaishali worship and sacrifice without any flaw or Muzaffarpur) (Basra in fault. ) Out of the above 16 States, eight (at serial number 1-7 and 11) were in 11. Chedi Shuktimati present Uttar Pradesh. More known (Bundelkhand (Probablynear among them were Kashi, Kosal and ) Banda) Vatsa. Besides these, certain republic states were also within the boundries of 12. Matsya Virat (near present Uttar Pradesh example: Shakya (Jaipur) Jaipur) state of Kapilvastu, Bhagga state of Samsumergiri and Malla state of 13. Ashmak Pandanya (Place Pawapuri and Kushinagar. (Godawari not known) valley)

14. Avanti Ujjaini (Ujjain) Just Before Christ (Malva) All the States were perpetually at war with each other. Kosal annexed Kashi 15. Gandhar Taxshila (near and Avanti grabbed Vatsa. Kosal and (north-west Rawalpindi) Avanti, in turn, were subjugated one by region, now in one by Magadha which became Pakistan) powerful in the entire region. Magadh was ruled in succession by Haryank, 16. Kamboj Rajapur (place Shishunag and Nand dynasties. The not known) Nandas ruled from 343 B.C. to 321 B.C.

The Nand Empire extended almost to the whole of India except Punjab and

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History probably Bengal. It was during their started defeating the Sakas. The reign that the Alexander invaded India in Kushanas also mounted an attack 326 B.C. Several historians are of the around 40 A.D. The Kushanas too were view that the apprehension, that they one of the five Yueh-Chih castes of will not be able to face the forces of the Central Asia. Soon the Kushanas rulers powerful Magadh State, was at the root established their empire right from of Alexander's forces not advancing Central Asia up to the Indus river. beyond Beas river, which compelled him Gradually, They occupied the whole of to go back. With Alexander's retreat, north India. India witnessed a great revolution. As a result the Nand rulers had to give reins of power to Chandragupta, a scion of Kushan Dynasty the Kshatriya clan "Moriya" of Pippalivana. The whole of Uttar Pradesh The Kushan dynasty was established by enjoyed peace and prospeity during the Kujul Kadphises I. His son and reigns of Chandragupta, his son sucessor, Vim Kadphises or Kadphises Bindusara and grandson Ashok. II had come upto the Ganga valley. His sucessor, Kanishk was doubtlessly the For long, Mathura remained a prominent greartest among all Kushan city of Menander's empire.Menander or rulers.Stories of war which Kanishk Milind ruled up to about 145 B.c. Later fought with the king of Soked (Saket) on, small Indo-Greek and Greek states have been preserved in the accounts of flourished in Punjab up to the first Chinese and Tibetan historians and century of Chistain era. During this several inscriptions and coins found in period the Shung dynasty was replaced excavations in extensive parts of Uttar by the danasty in Magadh. It is said that Pradesh indicate that this territory was the last king of Shung dynasty was of at sometime part of the . bad character and he was killed by his Mathura was at that time a well known minister Vasudev. Vasdev established centre of art. Kanva dynasty in 75 B.C. by Simuk, the

founder of the Satavahana or the The reign of Kanishk and genealogy of Andhra Dynasty. It was at this time that Kushan rulers are uncertain. Some the attention of Central Asian rulers was scholars are of the view that Kanishk drawn towards India for the first time. By ascended the throne in 78 AD, while 60 B.C. they had set up their some others are of the view that Kashatraps in Mathura. The first Saka Kanishk ruled between 120 and 140 AD. king was Maues who died around 38 His capital was Purushpur of Peshawar B.C. After the Sakas, the Parthians and other capital was in Mathura. attacked north India and by the Gandhar, Kashmir and basins of Indus beginning of first century A.D. they and Ganga Valleys came under his kingdom. After Kanishk his son Huvishk

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History succeeded to the throne and was the Kushan power, Kaushambi (Kosam followed by his son.Vasudev.The empire near allahabad) probably became of the Kushanas was greatly reduced independent. A local dynasty reled over during Vasudev's rule and after him Magadh and subsequently the Guptas disintegrated and split into several small also emerged from this very region. border kingdoms. With the approach of third century AD, the Kushan sovereignty in Madhya Desh had The Gupta Dynasty and its Downfall collapsed and a number of smaller states had once again sprung up in the place. Although the names of some of With the accession of , the ruling them are still preserved in the pillar dynasty of Thaneshwar and Kannuaj inscription of Samudragupta (4th joined hands. Kannauj became a major century AD) at Allahabad, the most city of north India. For centuries, it powerful dynasty to rule north India enjoyed the same prestige which during this period was of the Nagas. Patalipurta had enjoyed earlier. Another sect of the Nagas, the Because of its grandeur and prosperity, Bharshivas also rose to power during it was known as 'Mahodaya Shri' and its this period. An idea of their power and possession became the goal of the extent of their empire can be had successive Hindu rulers after Harsha from the fact that they performed ten (i.e. after 647 AD). The Chinese ashwamedh Yajnas and were anointed trabveller, Yuan-Chwang, who visited with sacred water brought from the the country at that time, has given a Ganga for their coronation. vivid description of Kannauj. After The history of the period from the middle Harsha, north India was once again of the second century up to the rise of thrown in turmoil. It is not possible to the Gupta rulers in the 4th century is construct a coherent history of the very febulous. The Kushanas were period on the basis of available material. losing power and several smaller states Only a few events can be narrated. has once again started establishing their suverainty. The Panchalas of Ahichhatra had a powerful kingdom which probably Age of Instability extended upto Mathura. The entire area comprising Kumaon and Garhwal and During the first quarter of 8th century probably extending upto Kulu and Simla AD, Yashovarman established away hills formed the kingdom of the over Kannauj. He overran almost the Kunindas. The remains found in whole of India and once again made Kashipur and various places in Kannauj a city of splendour. In alliance show that it was an important and with Lalitaditya Muktapid of Kashmir, he powerful kindgom. After the decline of also sent his army into Tibet and

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History attained substantial success also but was defeated in a battle with Qutub-ud- later on Lalitadity dethroned and killed din Aibak in 1203 AD, the Chandels him in 740AD. During the reign of later later retrieved the situtaion and Ayudh rules, Kannauj became a bone of continued to rule Jeijak-Bhukti, albeit contention betwen Palas of Bengal, with reduced territory for over about two Rashtrakuts of south and Gurjar centuries. Similarly, the distant north hill Pratihars of western India but ultimately region also remained safe from the the Gurjar Pratihars were successful. invaders. The empire that they established was in no way inferior to the of any Gupta in its extend and fame. The Muslim Rulers of Delhi: Gurjar Pratihars held sway over north India during the whole of the 9th and Qutub-ud-din Aibak ascended the 10th centuries. They were vanquished throne of Delhi in 1206 AD and founded by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018-19 AD. the Slave dynasty. The Slaves and after The Chandel rulers of Jejak-Bhukti of them, the Khilijis and Tughlaqs gradually present bundelkhand successfully met extended the frontiers of Delhi the onslaught of Mahmud of Ghazni, Sultanate. The present Uttar Pradesh thanks to their fortress at Kalinjar. Two formed part of their empires. Although Chandel rulers, Dhang and Vidyadhar Sambhal, Kara and Budaun were given played a glorious role in the wars with to important feudal lords but by and invaders. large the entire State continued to oppose the Sultans of Delhi. The names After the decline of Pratihars, anarchy of Katehar, Kampil, Bhojpur and Patiali once again gripped madhya Desh but stand out prominently in this context. rise of Gaharwars at the time helped in The history of Madhya Desh in 13th and restoration of peace and order and a 14th centuries is a saga of brave new era a prosperity began in theregion. resistance and barbaric repression stray The two prominent Gaharwar Rulers glimpses of which are found in the were Govind Chandra (1104-1154 AD) works of contemporary historians. Even and Jaichandra (1170 -1193 AD). Due before the beginning of the end of this to short-singhtedness of Jaichandra, period, the empire of Tughlaqs of Delhi Chauhan king Prithvaraj III had to face had started to disintegrate and in 1394 defeat at the hands of Mahammad Ghori AD. an independent State was at the Battle of Taran in 1192 AD and he established in the eastern part of this himself was defeated and slain at region. It was the Sharqi empire which Chhandwar in Etawah next year. Soon, was foundedin Jaunpur by Malik Sarvar Meerut, Koil (Aligarh), Asani, Kannauj Khwajajahan, a rebel Governor of the and Varanasi also fell victims to Tughlaq ruler. The Sharqi rulers invaders. Though the Chandel ruler constantly contended with the Sultans of Parmardidew (Veer Parmal of folk-lore)

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Delhi for 84 long years and did not main battlefield in the war between the accept Delhi's suzerainty over Kannauj Mughals and Sher Shah were Chunar, and border districts. Chausa and Bilgram. Sher Shah himself was killed in 1545 AD fighting the Four years after the secession of Chandels in his bid to occupy the Jaunpur i.e., in 1398 AD, a Chughtai famous Kalinjar fort. With the death of Turk of Samarkand known as Timur of Sher Shah, a luminous star on the Taimur Lang or Tamerlane, invaded horizon of Mediaeval history had set. India. Though the brunt of Taimur's After this, a series of important events barbarism was mainly borne by Delhi took place. and Punjab, the Doab region also did not escape it. For instance, meerut, Humayun ascended the throne once Harwar and Katehar had to go through a again and after his death the second bitter experience of the invasion. battle of Panipat was fought. Akbar Taimur's invasion brought the Tughlaq ascended the throne in 1556 AD rule to an end. The last Tughlaq ruler, ushering in a new era in Indian history. It Mohamamed Tughlq died in 1412 AD was an era of peace, prosperity and heralding the end of the Tughlaq strong administration, of liberalism and dynasty in Delhi. The Syeds and the integration of Hindu and Muslim Lodies ruled over the remnants of the cultures. This process of integration Delhi empire from 1414 AD to 1526 AD, continued during the period of his but most of the Doab continued to be successors, Jahangir and Shahjahan. under several Hindu and Muslim As contemporary Muslim historians chieftains. An important event of the observe, the role of Uttar Pradesh in contemporay history was that Sikandar taking 'Hindustan' to the pinnacle of Lodi made Agra his sub-capital. progress, prosperity and glory was significant. Two famous ministers of Akbar, namely Birbal and Todermal, The Mughal Period belonged to Uttar Pradesh. Agra continued to be the capital of the Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last of till Shahjahan shifted the the Lodi rulers at the Battle of Panipat in capital to Delhi. The reversal of this 1526 AD and occupied Agra, But even liberal policy by Aurangzeb was a great after this, the Afghans continued their setback to the Mughal empire. Within a resistance in the Ganga valley and few decades of his death, the mighty Sambhal, Jaunpur, Ghazipur, Kalpi, Mighal empire was finished. Even during Etawah and Kannauj had surrendered his life time, Bundelkhand had sounded only after a bitter fight. Babar founded the siren of revolt under Veer the Mughal empire but his son Humayun Chhatrasal. This war of Bundelas was had to face a crushing defeat at the fought intermittantly for 50 years and hands of Afghan chief Sher Shah. The Chhatrasal had to accept help of

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Peshwa Bajirao which helped the Conquered and Ceded Provinces.

Marathas to get a foothold in Uttar Pradesh. In 1816 AD, the districts of present Kumaon, Garhwal and Dehra Dun were In Avadh the local governor, Saadat Ali taken from the Gurkha invaders under Khan declared independenace in 1732 the Treaty of Sanguli and annexed to AD and his successors continued to rule British territories. The large territory thus up to 1850 AD. Almost simultaneously formed was made an administrative unit the Rohillas also established an called the North-Western Provinces in independent State in Rohilkhand and 1836 AD. Pursuing a policy of annexing continued to rule up to 1774 AD, when States, Lord Dalhousie ultimately the then Nawab of Avadh defeated them annexed Avadh in 1856 AD and placed with the help of Company. it under a Chief Commissioner. The last The Marathas tried for sometime to Nawab of Avadh, Wajid Ali Shah was establish themselves in the Ganga- externed to Calcutta and put on a Yamuna Doab, but their defeat at pension. At the same time Jhansi was Panipat in 1761 AD put an end to their also annexed by the British expansionist ambitions.

Nawabs of Avadh First War of Independence and After The British came into contact with the Avadh rulers The relations between the Nawabs and during the reign of the third Nawab of the East India Company remind us of Avadh, Shuja-ud-daula (1754-1775 the weaknesses of the Nawabs on the AD). Shuja-ud- daula had entered into one hand and arrogance, might and an alliance with Mir Qasim, the fugitive betrayal on the part of the British on the Nawab of Bengal, against the other. When the British usurped Avadh, Company, In 1784. Mir Qasim was it was but natural that there should be a defeated by the British and was forced ravolt at the national level. It happened to cede Kara and Allahabad. Thereafter in 1857 A.D. In this revolt, which was, in the Britishers pursued a policy to effect, the first war of Indian usurpe large territories by coercing the independance, the people of Uttar rulers of Avadh at one time and cajoling Pradesh played a glorious role. The them at the other.The territories sense of duty and dedication to the obtained from the Nawabs in cause of freedom displayed in this 1775,1779 and 1801 AD and those won historic struggle by Rani Bai of by Lord Lake from the Scindia in 1803 Jhansi, Begum Hazrat Mahal of Avadh, AD were initially attached to the Bengal Bakht Khan, Nana Saheb, Maulvi province and were named as Ahmadullas Shah, Raja Beni Madhav

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Singh, Azimullas Khan and a host of Harsha or Harshvardhana (590-647) other patriots have made them immortal. ruled Northern India for over forty years. He was the son of Prabhakar Vardhan In 1858 AD, the Delhi Division was and younger brother of Rajyavardhan, taken out from the North-Western king of Thaneshwar. At the height of his Provinces and the State's capital was power his kingdom spanned the Punjab, shifted from Agra to Allahabad. On Bengal, Orissa and the entire Indo November 1, the same year, political Gangetic plain. power was tranferred from East India Company to Queen Victoria through a As a consequence to the coronation of Royal Proclamation. In 1877 AD, the Harshavardhana, dynasty of posts of Lt. Governor of North-Western Thaneshwar and Kannauj Provinces and Chief Commissioner of amalgamated. Kannauj became a Avadh were merged. From then, this prominent city of North India and for large territory was called North Western centuries its glory perpetuated, only Provinces of Agra and Avadh. The comparable to Patliputra. It was the name was again changed in 1902 AD to desire of every state to rule kannauj. United Provinces of Agra and Avadh. It The Chinese traveler, Yhan-Chawang was made a Governor's province in visited the country at the time of Harsha 1921 AD and after some time its capital and praised his reign. was shifted to Lucknow. Its name was shortened to United Provinces in 1937 After Harsha, there was again political AD. About two and a half years after instability in North India. It was difficult independance i.e. January 12, 1950, it to put on record and congruous and got its present name of Uttar Pradesh. consistent history of that period on the When the Constitution of free India basis material available. Only few events, here and there can be reckoned. came into force on January 26, 1950, th Uttar Pradesh became a full-fledged In the first quarter of the 8 century, province of the Republic of India. There Yashoverman established his is not doubt the the history of Uttar supremacy over Kannauj. Almost entire Pradesh has run concurrently with the India came under his rule and Kannauj history of the country during and after regained its lost fame and glory. With the British rule, but it is also well know the co- operation of Lalitaditya that the contribution of the people of the Muktapeed he defended India from State in National Freedom Movement Arab’s attack. During that time there had been significant. was a fear among the neighbouring states due to the Arab’s strength by which they ruled from China, Turkistan to Carboda city of Spain. Pre Medival History

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Later on, Lalitaditya dethroned and dynasty in 1 century BC or even assassinated him in 740 AD. There was thereafter. a long drawn rivalry among Pals of  The stone inscriptions of Ayodhya are related to Shung Bengal, Rashtrakutas of South and dynasty. Gurjar Pratihars of Gujarat to gain the control of Kannauj. However the ultimate success was achieved by the Gurjar Pratihars. Their empire was vast and famed one, comparable to any king of the Gupta dynasty or emperor SUNGA EMPIRE(187 to 78 BCE)

Harshavardhan. Gurjar Pratihars dominated the entire 9th and 10th Pushyamitra Sunga(187–151 BCE): centuries in India. They were defeated by Mohammad Ghaznavi in the year  The dynasty was established by 1018-18. Pushyamitra Sunga, after the fall of the Maurya Empire(when the The Madhyadesh was again in the grip emperor Brhadratha, the last of of anarchy with the downfall of the Mauryan rulers, was Pratihars, but with the emergence of assassinated by the then Gaharwar dynasty peace and order was Senapati of the Mauryan armed forces, Pushyamitra Sunga). Its restored and a new era of prosperity capital was Pataliputra, but later began. There were two Gaharwar kings- emperors such as Bhagabhadra Govind Chandra and Jaichand. It was also held court at Besnagar, the betrayal of Jaichand that Prithviraj modern Vidisha in Eastern was defeated at the hands of Malwa. Muhammad Ghori at the Tarain in the  The empire of Pushyamitra was year 1192. Jaichand himself was later extended up to Narmada in the on defeated and killed at Chandwar south, and controlled Jalandhar (Etawah). There was further unrest and and Sialkot in the Punjab in the invasions continued till the Chandels north-western regions, and the came to rule. They ruled more than two city of Ujjain in central India. The centuries and brought peace and order. Valley and much of the Punjab passed into the hands of the Indo-Greeks and the Deccan to the Satavahanas. Shung and Kanwa dynasty Origin: Facts related to Uttar Pradesh  Patanjali in his Mahabhashya and  The coins found in excavations Panini in his Ashtadhyayi clearly have indicated that entire Uttar states Pushyamitra Sunga was a Pradesh was ruled by Shung Brahmin from Bhardwaj Gotra.

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 The meaning of “Sunga” is the fig restored by his tree in Sanskrit. So Sungas took successor Agnimitra. their dynastic name from the fig 3. The Bharhut Stupa gateway was tree. (Other example of Indian not constructed during the time of dynasties like Kadamba (a tree Pushyamitra Sunga, but was name) of Banavasi, constructed by his successors Pallava(Sanskrit word for “branch who had a more tolerant attitude and twig”) of Kanchi who took to Buddhism, compared to their dynastic name from tree.) Pushyamitra Sunga. 4. The destruction of Ghositarama Prosecution of Buddhists monastery at Kaushambi, in 2nd century CE, is attributed to  It believed by some historians to Pushyamitra Sunga. have persecuted Buddhists and 5. Deokothar Stupas (located contributed to a resurgence of between and Barhut) Brahmanism that forced suffered destruction during the Buddhism outwards to Kashmir, same period, also suggesting Gandhara and Bactria. some kind of involvement of  The earliest reference to Sunga rule. persecution of Buddhists by Pushyamitra Sunga is from the  Some historians have expressed Sarvastivadin Buddhist text of skepticism of Pushyamitra’ s 2nd Century persecution of Buddhists CE, Divyavadana and its because: constituent part, the Ashokavadana.Tibetan 1. The account of the Tibetan Buddhist Buddhist Historian is Historian Taranatha also absurd. mentions proscution. 2. Archaeological evidence casts  Pushyamitra Sunga might have doubt on the claims of Buddhist withdrawn royal patronage of persecution by Pushyamitra. Buddhist institutions. With 3. The Ashokavadana legend is patronage shifting from Buddhism likely a Buddhist version of to Brahmanism, the Buddhists Pushyamitra’s attack on the sided with Sunga’s enemies, the Mauryas, reflecting the declining Indo-Greeks. influence of Buddhism in the  According to some Sunga Imperial court. The very historians, Pushyamitra Sunga same Ashokavadana attributes prosecuted Buddhists because: similar cruelty to Ashoka against the Ajivikas. 1. There is evidence of damage to 4. Support of Buddhism by the Buddhist establishments at Sungas at some point is Takshashila around the time of suggested by an epigraph on the Sunga. gateway of Bharhut, which 2. Sanchi stupa was destroyed by mentions its erection “during the Pushyamitra Sunga, but later supremacy of the Sungas(but

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they may be Pushyamitra’s Pushyamitra, and he defeated Successor) the armies of 5. The existence of Buddhism in the “Yavana” (or Indo-Greeks) on Bengal in the Sunga period can the banks of the Sindhu River. also be inferred from a terracotta tablet that was found at Devabhuti (83–73 BCE): Tamralipti.  The last of the Sunga emperor  Sunga Dynasty ended, Buddhism was Devabhuti (83–73 BCE). He flourished under the Kushanas was assassinated by his minister and the Shakas; and hence (Vasudeva Kanva).The Sunga Buddhism did not suffer any real dynasty was then replaced by the set-back due to the Sunga subsequent Kanvas. Dynasty. Cultural contributions of Sungas: Agnimitra(149–141 BCE):  Art, education, philosophy, and  He was the second King of the other learning flowered during Sunga Dynasty of northern India. this period. Most notably, He succeeded his father, Patanjali’s Yoga Pushyamitra Sunga. and Mahabhasya were  He was hero of Kalidasa’s play composed in this period. Malavikagnimitra. According to  It is also noted for its subsequent Kalidasa in the Malavikagnimitra, mention in Agnimitra belonged to the the Malavikaagnimitra. This work Baimbika family (Baimbika-kula), was composed by Kalidasa in the while the Puranas mention him later Gupta period, and as a Sunga. romanticized the love of Malavika  The Malavikagnimitra, informs us and King Agnimitra, with a that , a war broke out between background of court intrigue. the Sungas and  Artistry on the subcontinent also neighboring Vidarbha kingdom progressed with the rise of during Agnimitra’s reign. Before the Mathura school of art, which the rise of the Sungas, is considered the indigenous Vidarbha(under Yajnasena) had counterpart to the more become independent from the Hellenistic Gandhara school of Mauryan Empire. Yajnasena was art. defeated and recognized the  During the historical Sunga suzerainty of the Sunga rulers. period (185 to 73 BCE), Buddhist activity also managed to survive Vasumitra: somewhat in central India (Madhya Pradesh) as suggested  In the Malavikagnimitram, by some architectural expansions Kalidasa tells us that Vasumitra that were done at the stupas of guarded the sacrificial horse let Sanchi and Barhut, originally loose by his grandfather started under Emperor Ashoka. It

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remains uncertain whether these ‘Andhra bhritya’ dynasty in works were due to the weakness , . of the control of the Sungas in these areas, or a sign of tolerance on their part.  Later Sunga emperors were seen The Chandelas as amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building Facts related to Uttar Pradesh of the stupa at Bharhut.  Yashovarman, also known as Lakshavarman, was a king of the Chandela dynasty of India.

He ruled in the Jejakabhukti

region (Bundelkhand in present- Kanva dynasty(75 BCE – 30 BCE): day Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh).  The Kanva or Kanvayana  The Khajuraho inscription also Dynasty replaced the Sunga states that Yashovarman turned dynasty in Magadha, and ruled in the the Eastern part of India. rivers Ganga and Yamuna into  Vasudeva Kanva (75–66 BCE) was the founder of the his "pleasure-lakes", and that the Kanva dynasty.He was originally waters of these rivers became an Amatya (minister) of last muddy when his might elephants Sunga ruler Devabhuti. bathed in them. This suggests  The Kanvas were Brahmins and that Yashovarman controlled the considered themselves as area around present- descendents from Rishi Kanva. day Allahabad.  At the time of Vasudeva Kanva’s accession, the Shunga kingdom  The Chandelas initially ruled as was already finished as the feudatories of Punjab region was under the the Pratiharas of Kanyakubja (Ka Greeks and most parts of the nnauj). Gangetic planes was under

different rulers.  Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulers.Much detail about these kings has been ascertained only on the basis of Numismatics. Last ruler was Susharman (40 – 30 BCE).  Their dynasty was brought to an From the ninth century to the 13th end by the ruler of century, the Chandelas ruled over the or central India. Their first capital city was Khajuraho, which was later shifted to

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Mahotsava Nagar or Mahoba. They are people. Later on, his descendants linked regarded to be Chandravanshi; i.e., the their lineage with the Moon or with descendents of Soma (Sanskrit literal Chandratreya of the legend, in order to meaning: moon). The roots of Chandela attribute some divine links to the origin can be traced to Sapai, which of their dynasty. Vakapati succeeded his was popularly known as Samapada father Nannuk during the second quarter Nagar. The title given to them was Rao. of the ninth century. They are the only hereditary title holders of Kanpur district. After the Muslim The celebrated Gurjar king, Mihir Bhoja invasion the royals resided in Sapai. It was his contemporary. Samrat Mihir was also called Sampada Nagar. Bhoj had to fight many battles against his two enemies, the Devapala of The kingdom of the Chandels of Bengal and Kokal, the Kalchuri king. Khajuraho were always a part of this Vakapati the ruler of Khajuraho, had to large empire of the Gurjara Pratiharas, often assist Pratiharas in the battle field, the extent of which varied with the because he was a vassal of the fortunes of the kings. The Chandel Pratiharas. The inscription mention the rulers for about hundred years that is, Vindhya Hills, one of the frequent places from Nannuk till Harsh Dev, were but of warfare, as the pleasure mount vassals of the Pratiharas. They (Krida-giri) of Vakapati. It can be proclaimed themselves independent inferred on the basis of this inscription when the Pratihara empire weakened that Vakapati managed to extend his and disintegrated. Earlier, the Pratiharas territory so as to include some hills of helped the Chandels and other kings of the Vindhyas, Jaishakti and Vijayshakti, the region in defending the country from the two sons of Vakapti, succeeded him, the aggression of Muslim invaders from one after the other. Both the princes the Middle East. This collective defence were strong and valorous and annexed against the invaders rendered security considerable territories to their kingdom. in the region which created favourable circumstances for encouraging art and Jaishakti, the elder brother who ruled culture. first, was also called Jai Jak and from this name the region ruled by the The founder of the Chandel dynasty, Chandelas acquired the name of Nannuk was the ruler of a small Jaijikbhukti. He was succeeded on the kingdom. According to inscriptions, he throne by his younger brother, was the chief of his clan in the first Vajaishakti. According to Khajuraho quarter of the ninth century. Epigraphic inscriptions, Vijaishakti fought many records show that Khajuraho, then battles and subjugated a number of called Khajuravatika -Bearer of Dates or neighbouring areas. The exploits and Khajuravatika – Garden of Dates, was deeds of bravery of Jai and Vijai are the stronghold of Nannuk and his oftern sung in ballands as if the two

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History were joint rulers. Nannuk, Jai and Vijai Agnikula origin was perpetuated by over a period of time added large Raso from the 16th century onwards. chunks of adjoining territories to their Chauhan gotracharya: Samved, domain, and whatever was their status Somvansh, Madhyandini Shakha, viz a viz the Palas of Bengal and Gotracharya is used for marriage Pratiharas their overlords, they always relationship and has not changed from were the master of the land they held. time immemorial. Chauhans are termed Rahil, the son of Vijaishakti, ascended as Agnivanshi khstriyas. the throne after him. History The village Rahilya which is 3 km south west of Mohaba was named after him. According to the Rajput bards the There he also built a tank known as Chauhan is one of the four Agnikula or Rahilyasagar and a temple on its banks, 'fire sprung' tribes who were created by which is now in ruins. The period of rule the gods in the Agni kund or 'fountain of of Rahil is said to be of only twenty fire'on Mount Abu to fight against the years and is credited to the end of the Asuras or demons. There was an Asur ninth century. He was succeeded by his Named Dhunda at Mount Abu. All son Harshdev around 900 AD. Rajputs of the world were unable to kill Harshdev earned for himself a him. Then Guru Vashistha make a memorable place in the history of Yagya at Mount Abu. In the agni of that Chandel rulers. In the 25 years or so of Yagya 4 Rajputs took Birth Ist was his rule, he extended his territory and solanki, 2nd was Parmar ,3rd was enhanced the prestige of his dynasty. parihar but those 3 were also unable to He was the first Chandel prince whose kill asur Dhundha. Then 4th birth from power was to be reckoned with in those that Kund Was Anhil, his name was times. Anhil, Guru Vashishtha take the 4 Swear from Anhil those were Satya, Dharm,Karm & Daya, those were 4 Aans for Anhil So he named as The The Chauhans follower of charaans ie. Chauhan.The Anhil killed that Asur Dhundha & free Origins the Earth from Asurs. Chauhan is also According to the Rajput bards, Chauhan one of the 36 ruling races of the is one of the four Agnikula or 'fire Rajputs. Chauhans were mainly used as sprung' clans who were created by the foot soldiers in many battles due to their Gods in the anali kund or 'fountain of huge population. fire' on Mount Abu to fight against the The Chauhan dynasty flourished from Asuras or demons. Chauhan is also one the 8th to 12th centuries AD. It was one of the 36 ruling races of the Rajputs. of the four main Rajput dynasties of that

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History era, the others being Pratiharas, epithet of Chakravartin, or universal Paramaras and Chalukyas. Chauhan potentate. His era must ever remain dynasties established themselves in doubtful, unless, as already observed, several places in North India and in the we should master the characters said to state ofGujarat in Western India. They belong to this race, and which are still were also prominent at Sirohi in the extant, both on stone and on copper. southwest of , and at Bundi Prithi Pahar was brought from and Kota in the east. Inscriptions also to . By a single wife associate them with Sambhar, the salt he had twenty-four sons, whose lake area in the Amber (later Jaipur) progeny peopled these regions, one of district (the Sakhambari branch whose descendants, Manika Rae, was remained near lake Sambhar and lord of Ajmer and Sambhar, in the year married into the ruling Gurjara-Pratihara, S. 741, or A.D. 685. Prithiraj, the who then ruled an empire in Northern descen-dant of Manika Rae, even when India). Chauhans adopted a political emperor of all Northern India. Manika policy that saw them indulge largely in Rae, whom we may consider as the campaigns against the Chalukyas and founder of the Chauhans of the north, the invading Muslim hordes. In the 11th recovered Ajmer. He had a numerous century they founded the city of progeny, who established many petty Ajayameru (Ajmer) in the southern part dynasties throughout Western Rajwara, of their kingdom, and in the 12th century giving birth to various tribes, which are captured Dhilika (the ancient name of spread even to the Indus. The Khichi, Delhi) from the Tomaras and annexed the Hara, the Mohil, the Nirwana, some of their territory along the Yamuna Bhadauria, the Bhaurecha ,the River. Prithviraj III has become famous Dhanetiya, and the Baghrecha, are all in folk tales and historical literature as descended from him. the Chauhan king of Delhi who resisted the Muslim attack in the First Battle of The Chauhans later asserted their Tarain (1191). Armies from other Rajput independence from the Pratiharas, and kingdoms, including assisted in the early eleventh century, the him. However, Prithviraj was defeated in Sakhambari king Ajaya-Raja founded the Second Battle of Tarain the following the city of Ajayameru (Ajmer) in the year. This failure ushered in Muslim rule southern part of their kingdom, and in in North India in the form of the Slave the mid twelfth century, his successor Dynasty, the first of the Delhi Vigraharaja enlarged the state, captured Sultanates. Dhilika (the ancient name of Delhi) from the Tomaras and annexed some of their Ajmer,erected its castle of Taragarh. territory along the Yamuna River, The name of Ajaipal is one of the most including and Delhi. In 12th conspicuous that tradition has century the Chauhans dominated Delhi, preserved, and is always followed by the Ajmer and Ranthambhor. They were

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History also prominent at Godwar in the Ranthambore from the thirteenth to the southwest of Rajputana, and at Hadoti fifteenth centuries, until Ranthambore (Bundi and Kota) in the east. Chauhans was captured by Rana Kumbha of adopted a political policy that saw them Mewar. The Hadas, great dynasty of the indulge largely in campaigns against the Chauhans, moved into the Hadoti region Chalukyas and the invading Muslim in the twelfth century, capturing Bundi in hordes. 1241 and ruled there until the twentieth century. One sect of these Hada The Chauhan kingdom became the Rajputswon Kota The Dhanetiyas of leading state and a powerful kingdom in Shahabad, which by a singular fatality Northern India under King Prithviraj III has at length come into the possession (1165-1192), also known as Prithvi Raj of the Hadas of Kota and ruled their till Chauhan or Rai Pithora. Prithviraj III the merger of state in independent India. has become famous in folk tales and historical literature as the Chauhan king Chauhans of the Deora branch of Delhi who resisted and repelled the established the state of Sirohi in invasion by Mohammed of Ghor at the southern Rajasthan, and ruled there first Battle of Tarain in 1191. Armies from the fifteenth century until Indian from other Rajput kingdoms, including Independence. In western India, Mewar, assisted him. The Chauhan Chauhans are found at Devgadh Baria, kingdom collapsed after Prithviraj faced founded by Dungarsinhji, a member of defeat in the war against Mohammed of the Khichi Chauhan clan about 700 Ghor in 1192 at the Second Battle of years ago. Rajkumar (Bhadaiyan State Tarain. of Awadh) and Bachgoti (Diyara State of Awadh) are two other branches of After Prithviraj III Chauhans in Uttar Pradesh. Chauhan's Prithviraj's defeat and capture at Tarain are also found in Khurja Dasheri and ushered in Muslim rule in North India by Arnia. the Delhi Sultanate. The Chauhans of Religion Ajmer remained in exile due to Muhammad of Ghor and his successors, In India, Chauhans are predominantly the Sultans of Delhi, and thus swelled Hindu. the ranks of the armed forces of the Maharana of Mewar, until 1365, when Some Chauhan Rajputs of the Doab Ajmer was captured by the Sisodias region of Punjab also adopted Sikhism rulers of Mewar, and Ajmer was then and are called Sikh Rajputs, not to be returned to the Chauhans. confused with Jat Chohans of the Punjab (who happen to write the A branch of the Chauhans, led by transliteration of their name in English Govinda, the grandson of Pritviraj III, differently). established themselves as rulers of

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85 villages of chauhan's lies in western and Kurm for the people, leaving the uttarpradesh, in the district of capital in Champawat. Kurmanchal Bulandshahr, Aligarh, Agra Etc. Village named this region Kumaon.

Davkoura lies in Bulandshahr have 75% population of Chauhan's. Foundation of the Gahadwar Dynasty at Kannuj.

Chandradeva founded the Kannauj Gaharwar dynasty in 1090 A.D.. expanded the kingdom to include Delhi, Ayodhya, and Varanasi (modern Benares). During the rule of his successor, Govindachandra, from 1114–1154, the state of Gaharwar reached the pinnacle of its power, occupying much of present-day Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Govindachandra moved his capital from Kannauj to Varanasi. His queen Kumaradevi was a devout Buddhist, and Govindachandra was a patron of both Hindu temples and

Buddhist monasteries.

The gahadavala Expansion to Include Delhi. Introduction. During the Rajput Raaj in India, the The Gahadvala or sometime spelled as Gaharwar king, Chandradev, Gadhwal is a Suryavanshi Kshatriya successfully commanded Delhi and dynasty that ruled the kingdom of annexed it to his State of Kannauj. Delhi Kannauj for approximately a hundred was under Pratihara sovereignty at that years, beginning in the late eleventh time, who was being attacked by century. Rajput Rathore claim being Rashtrakuta. Chandradev attacked both descendants of Gaharwars Rashtrakuta and Pratihara amid their battle with each other, defeated the two enemies now united against him, and Rebuilding the Kannuj Kingdom. took over the state of Delhi. After the dissolution of the Pratihara empire, The Kannauj kingdom was established Chandradev fought off repeated in the tenth century by Som Chand, who incursions, which laid down the came from Kannuaj near Allahabad; foundation of the renaissance era in Chand ousted the Katyuri Kings Delhi. originally from Katyur valley near

Joshimath, who had ruled the area since Gaharwar dynasty rule of the district is the seventh century AD. Chand retained proved by the discovery at Kudarkot of a the name of Kurmanchal for the state,

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History copper plate grant dated in the reign of stopped recognizing Vijaychandra as Chandradeva. Chandradeva founded their sovereign and probably aligned the Gaharwar dynasty at Kanyakubja with Chauhans of Ajmer. after defeating a chief named Gopala of Tuar clan. His jurisdiction extended over The full significance of this loss was nearly all of what is modern Uttar realised when, about a generation later, Pradesh including this district. the Muslims attacked Delhi and occupied it, rendering the Gaharwar Chandradeva was succeeded by frontier defenceless. was Madanpala, who ruled for a very short succeeded by his son, Jaichandra, in period. Madanpala was succeeded by 1170 A. D. Jaichandra may be his son Govindachandra. Two copper described as the last great king of the plate grants of Govindachandra, dated Gahadavala dynasty, whose power and respectively Samvat 1161, or A. D. extensive jurisdiction struck even 1104, and Samvat 1174 or 1117 A. D. Muslim historians. During the reign of have been found in Bisahi, two miles Jaichandra, the Chauhans, from Ajmer, north-east of Tehsil Bidhuna. Another had annexed Delhi and were at this time copper plate grant of this king dated bidding for supremacy in the North Samvat 1166 or A. D. 1109 was found under Prathviraja ChauhanIII. The at Rahan. Govindachandra seems to Chandellas were to the south there; at have wielded substantial power in the this time, their power was at its height. State while he was only a Yuvaraja, or Additionally, there were repeated Crown Prince. He defeated the invading Muslim invasions of North-western Muslims prior to 1109 A.D., for the India, which had already threatened the Rahan plate records that he "again and unity of India. again by the play of his matchless fighting" compelled the Hammira (i.e. Prithviraj carried off , daughter Amir) to "lay aside his enmity". The of Jaichandra. Samyukta's elopement Rahan plate further described with Prithviraj III, heir to the rival Govindachandra as "terrific" in cleaving Chauhan Rajput kingdom to the west, is the frontal gloves of arrays of irresistible the subject of many romantic tales, mighty large elephants from Gauda", although this may have been the seed which shows that Govindachandra must of the dissension between the have made some encroachments on kingdoms. Jaichand was destined to be Magadha. In short, Govindachandra the last Gaharwar king of Kannauj. He made himself a power and revised the sought help from Muslims of North to glories of this region. invade Chauhans of Ajmer-Delhi. After fall of Delhi, the city of Kannauj was also Govindachandra was succeeded by his attacked by Muhammad of Ghor in son Vijayachandra in 1155 A. D. Like his 1194; Jaichandra drowned in the father, Vijayachandra also successfully Ganges fighting the battle; his kingdom faced Muslim aggressions. As was conquered and sacked by Vijayachandra' reign began, an Muhammad's armies. Some survivors, unmistakable symptom of decline of the led by Jaichand's son or grandson Siyaji Gaharwar power manifested itself in the (Shiv ji), fled west to the desert loss of Delhi, the Tuar rulers there region of Rajasthan, where they

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History established themselves as rulers in the considered the original bloodline for early thirteenth century, founding the both Bundela and Rathore. The Rathore clan which ruled the princely Gaharwar era in India was brief, but its state of Marwar or Jodhpur. impact has lasted through the era of renaissance in India.

Collateral Branches of Gahadvala Dynasty. Bundela.

Chand Kings of Kumaon. All the other Gaharwrs trace their lineage to Benres or Bijaipur. Another Another branch escaped to the Kumaon group of warriors that migrated hills, where 300 years later they usurped southward from Kannauj came to power in Kumaon by defeating the ruling occupy territory immediately west of Katyuri dynasty. The Chand kings Daiya, Manda, and Vijaypur. This line mention Rathore as their kul The came to be known as Bundela and gave present king of Kumaon is Raja its name to the Bundelkhand that Mahendra Chand of Lamakhet comprises parts of both current Madhya (), married to Rani Gita Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Chand of Rina and has three children (Rajkumari Aakanksha Chand, Rajkumari Mallika Chand, Rajkumar the Gupta Dynasty Aryan Chand)

Facts related to Uttar Pradesh Vijaypur-Kantit.  There is controversy among Another grandson, Bijai Chand, fled to scholars about the original Kantit in the Mīrzpur District and, homeland of the Guptas. overcoming the Bhar Rja of that place, Jayaswal has pointed out that the founded the family of the Gaharwr Guptas were originally Rjas of Bijaipur-Kantit. All the other inhabitants Gaharwrs trace their lineage to of Prayaga (Allahabad), Uttar Benres or Bijaipur. Dahia kingdom is Pradesh, in north India, as an extension of this line also. the vassal of the Nagas or Bhaarshivas. Thereafter they rose in Manda Kings. prominence.  Early Gupta coins and Kings of Manda trace their line from a inscriptions have been mainly younger brother of Jaichandra of found in Uttar Pradesh. Kannauj. The last king was Raja  The Guptas were possibly the Vishvanath Pratap Singh of Manda, feudatories of the Kushanas in prime - minister of India from 1989-91. Uttar Pradesh, and seem to have Gaharwar, Rathore and Bundela share succeeded them without any the Kashyap Gautra, and Gaharwar is wide time-lag.

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 Chandragupta I conquests are  In the Gupta period India known from a lengthy eulogy attained the peak of glory in composed by his court-poet every aspects starting from Harishena and inscribed on an science, art, literature, Asokan pillar at Allahabad. mathematics, astronomy and  in the Allahabad Pillar philosophy. Inscription, Samudragupta is referred to as a god dwelling on Emperors of Gupta Empire earth.  A large number of Buddha  Shrigupta and Ghatotkacha. images have been unearthed at The reign of Maharaja Sarnath, and one of them is justly Shrigupta (240 AD to 280 AD) regarded as the finest in the is considered by many whole of India. Stone and bronze historians to be the starting images of Buddha have also point of Gupta Empire. been found at Mathura and other  Ghatotkacha succeeded his places. father Shrigupta and ruled from  The images of Siva, Vishnu and 280AD to 319 AD. other Brahmanical gods are sculptured in some of the finest Chandragupta I panels of the Deogarh temple (). Of the  Chandragupta I was the son of Brahmanical images perhaps the Ghatotkacha and succeeded most impressive is the Great his father. He was the first Boar (Varaha), at the entrance of powerful king of the a cave in Udayagiri. dynasty. He ruled the Empire from 320 AD to 335 AD.  Chandragupta I adopted the title of Maharajadhiraja:

meaning King of Kings.  He married princess Kumarade vi of neighboring kingdom Lichchhavi and gained the Gupta Empire control of the territory of north Bihar.  The start of Gupta Empire is  The starting of the reign of considered by many historian Chandragupta-I is considered from the reign of Maharaja by many historians as the Shrigupta. beginning of Gupta era.  Chandragupta-I was the first powerful ruler of Gupta Empire Samudragupta and Chandragupta and ascended the throne in II 320 AD.  The Gupta Period from 320 AD  Samudragupta,succeeded his to 550 AD is also known as the father Chandragupta I and Golden Age of India. ruled the Gupta dynasty for

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about 45 years from 335 AD to III, Vishnugupta, Vainyagupta 380 AD. He is also known as and Bhanugupta. 'Napolean of India'. Fa-hien's India Visit  Many historians believe that Chandragupta II was  Fa-hien was the first Chinese nominated by his father pilgrim who visited India during Samudragupta as the next heir the reign of Gupta emperor of Gupta Empire.But Chandragupta II. Ramagupta,the eldest son of Samudragupta succeeded his Nine Gems or Navaratnas father and became the emperor.  At the time of Vikramadityas  Chandragupta II killed him and reign, the glory of Gupta ascended the throne. He was Empire reached its peak. an extremely powerful  A circle of famous nine persons emperor. Chandragupta II is known as Nine Gems or most commonly known as Navaratnas were present in the ,ruled the Gupta court of Vikramaditya. Empire from 380 AD to 413 AD. The group comprised of

Other Emperors  Kalidasa  Vetala Bhatta  Kumaragupta I,the son of  Varahamihira Chandragupta II succeeded his  father and ruled the dynasty till  Amarasimha 455 AD. After Kumaragupta I,  Dhanvantari Skandagupta succeeded his  kshapanak father.  Shanku  He is considered to be the last  Ghatakarpura of the great Gupta emperors.  He also adopted the title of Kalidasa Vikramaditya.  Kalidasa was a famous  After Skandagupta, the Gupta dynasty didn't get any powerful Sanskrit writer and poet in ruler and finally the dynasty the court of Chandragupta II was overpowered by the (Vikramaditya). Vardhana ruler  Kalidasa was the author of Harshavardhana. three famous plays.  Abhijnanasakuntalam : tells Note:Some of the weak rulers who the story of King Dushyanta ruled after Skandagupta and Shakuntala were, Purugupta, Kumaragupta  Malavikagnimitram tells the II, Budhagupta, Narasimhagupta, Ku story love of King Agnimitra maragupta with Malavika

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 Vikramorvasiyam tells the  He is notably known for his love story of King Pururavas famous Sanskrit and celestial fairy Urvashi thesaurus Amarakosha.  Kalidasa was also the  It is also known as author of two famous Namalinganushasana. Sanskrit epic poems:  Raghuvamsa ("Raghu Dhanvantari Dynasty ") and  Kumarasambhava.  Dhanvantari is regarded as one of the worlds first surgeons and Vetala Bhatta medical practitioner from Gupta era.  Vetala Bhatta was a Brahmin in  He is considered as the origin the court of Vikramaditya. exponent of Ayurveda.  He is known for his contribution  He is also worshipped as the of "Nitipradipa ". God of Medicine.  Sushruta, the author of famous Varahamihira Sushruta Samhita was the student of Dhanvantari.  Varahamihira was an Indian  He is also credited for the astronomer, astrologer and discovery of the antiseptic mathematician of Gupta era. properties of turmeric and the  He is famously known for his preservative properties of salt. great work Pancha  Dhanvantri is considered to be Siddhantika,a book on the pioneer of modern plastic mathematical astronomy. surgery.  His other important contribution to the Indian Sanskrit literature

is the Brihat-Samhita, an encyclopedia of astrology and other subjects of human The Huna Invasion interest. Facts related to Uttar Pradesh Vararuci  In the beginning of the  Vararuci was one of the nine sixth century A.D. when Gems in the court of the Gupta empire was Chandragupta II of Gupta era. disintegrating, they repeated their invasion Amarasimha under their ruler Toramana. Though there  Amarasimha was one of the is no conclusive evidence nine Gems in the court of that Toramana was a Vikramaditya of Gupta era. Huna yet, mostly he had been accepted so. This time the Hunas succeeded

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and occupied Kashmir, Gupta emperor, Samudragupta, there then Punjab, Rajasthan was less control of the Guptas in and parts of Madhya Western India. During this time, the Pradesh and Uttar Hunas armed forces attacked the Gupta Pradesh. Bhanu Gupta dynasty and they were able to win had to fight against Jammu, Kashmir, Himachal, Rajasthan, Toramana. Punjab, and parts of Malwa. This way,  The Maukharis held the the Hunas established their kingdom in region of western Uttar some parts of India and Tormana was Pradesh around Kanauj, the white Hun leader. had conquerred a part of Magadha. First major invasion of India by the  The Maukhri dynasty king Hunas: 458 AD of Kannauj Ishanverma defeated the Huns are The Gupta Empire in India reigned in freed the north India. the during the 5th century, and the Kushan dynasty occupied the area along the Indus. After defeating the Kushanas, the Hunas entered the subcontinent from the Kabul The nomadic savages or tribes who valley. They entered Punjab and the lived in the neighbourhood of China Gupta Empire failed to protect the were the (the Sanskrit northeast frontier of the empire and this name of which is Hunas). Studies show made easier for the Huns to enter an that the Hunas extended their kingdom unguarded entrance in the Gangetic from the border of Persia to Khotan in valley, just into the heart of the Gupta Central Asia. There were two branches Empire. This was in 458 AD. The of Hunas that advanced towards the Hephthalites, known as the Hunas in west. One branch of the Hunas moved India kept on invading India until the towards the and the Gupta ruler Skandagupta repulsed other towards India. This branch of the them. The Hunas, under the leadership Hunas, which came to India, was of Toramana, suffered a crushing defeat referred to as the White Hunas. The by the Gupta emperor Skandagupta. invasion of India by the Hunas began about a hundred years after the Second invasion of India by the Kushanas’ invasion. In historical studies, Hunas: About 470 AD one of the most warlike tribes, popular for their barbarism and cruelty, was the The Hunas waited till 470 AD, till the Huna tribe. There were two major death of the Gupta ruler Skandagupta to invasions of the Hunas in the invade India again in a proper manner. subcontinent. During this time, the Guptas had been ruling over a greater part of India. This The reasons that led to the invasions time Hunas were under the leadership of Mihirkula (also known, as Mihirgula or While the Gupta Empire ruled over a the “Indian Attila”). He was the major part of India, after the death of the successor and son of Toramana, and

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History known as a very tyrant ruler and a During his rule, he reduced the destroyer. This time, the Hunas were power of a number of local kings successful in their invasion of India. and chieftains as his They temporarily overthrew the Gupta subordinates and assumed the Empire. Mihirkula ruled from his capital title of "Maharajadhiraja". at Sakal, which is today the modern  Some of the provincial governors Sialkot. The Huna power in India of the Gupta Empire also joined collapsed after the defeat of Mihirkula. Toramana during the course of Mihirkula was defeated successively by his invasion in India. two Indian rulers, Yasodharman of  In extensive regions of Sutlej and Malwa and Narasimhagupta Baladitya of Yamuna, the coins and the later Gupta dynasty. inscriptions of Toramana were found. Aftermath of the battles: Winner and  However, Toramana's rule in Loser India did not last long and he was defeated by Skandagupta, which Before the defeat of the Hunas by forced him to flee to the other Skandagupta, the first invasions of the side of India. Hunas displaced the Gupta Empire rule  When Toramana was succeeded from the North Western part of India. by his son Mihirkula, he entered This invasion also influenced the and ruined every city and town chieftains and regional kings to become along the Ganges. The capital more ambitious and rebel against the town Pataliputra was reduced to Gupta Empire. The Hunas ruled over a small village. The Hunas Gandhar and central Punjab and also persecuted Buddhists and controlled the Kushans. The first Hun destroyed all the monasteries king Toramana ruled northern India as and the Gupta regime was far as Malwa in central India. After his completely extinguished. death, his son Mihirkula, who destroyed  However, when Mihirkula was the Gupta Empire, ruled over North defeated by two major rulers Western India for thirty years. However, Yasodharman and Mihirakula was driven out of the plains Narasimhagupta Baladitya, he and into Kashmir and died in about 542 had to leave India forever. The A.D. After his death, the political power Hunas suffered a great loss. of the Hunas declined.

The larger implications of the battle The overall place and significance of the invasions in the Indian History

The Hunas' invasion in India had far  Toramana, the first white Huna reaching effects and significance in king, conquered Punjab, Indian History, as mentioned below: Rajputana, Kashmir, parts of Doab and Malwa. He ruled and operated the interiors of India by  First of all, the Hunas had keeping his base at Punjab. destroyed the dominance of the

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Gupta Empire in India and on transformation of the Indian society as a their feudatories. whole.  Small kingdoms began to grow and prosper on the ruins of the The Kushana Dynasty Gupta Empire.  The trade connections between the Guptas in India and the Facts related to Uttar Pradesh Roman Empire also weakened after the Huna invasion that  Under the rule of Kanishka, the completely devastated the Gupta Kushana empire reached its economy. Due to this, the maximum territorial limits. This economic and cultural cities like empire extended from the Central Pataliputra or Ujjain lost their Asia to the northern India, while glory. including Varanasi,  The socio-political and economic Kaushambi and Sravasti in Uttar life during the later Guptas also Pradesh region. deteriorated.  The Kushanas patronized the  On the other hand, trade with Gandhara and the Mathura South East Asia and China schools of sculptural art which prospered through ports like are known for producing the Tamralipta, Kaveri Pattanam, etc. earliest images of Buddha and  There was a racial admixture in Buddhisattavas. India after the Huna invasion and  The successors of Kanishka had this was one of the most ruled for another one significant effects. hundred and fifty years. His son  Various tribes entered India Huvishka kept the empire intact. through North West, same as the While Mathura became an central Asian tribes, some of important city under his rule, like whom remained in Northern India his father Kanishka he was also a and some moved further to the patron of Buddhism religion. south and the west.  The last significant Kushana ruler  For the first time, Indian culture was Vasudeva. The Kushana got introduced to the Hunas’ empire got much reduced in his martial culture. rule. Various inscription with his  After the Hunas were driven out name are found in and of India in 528, few of them around Mathura. He was a blended with the Indian worshipper of Siva. And population and became a part of after Vasudeva, petty Kushan the local population, which exists princes ruled for sometime in even today such as Gurjaras and northwestern India after which the ancestors of some of the the empire faded away. Rajput families.  Wema Kadphises further extended the Kushana empire atleast upto Mathura, although The Huna invasions of India led to one of his inscription is found from Ganwaria (Siddharthnagar socio-economic and cultural

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district of Uttar Pradesh) and his The leader of the Kushans was coins are discovered all over kadphises and his rule probably began Uttar Pradesh and from Bihar as in 40 A.D. He attacked the regions south well. of Hindu Kush, conquered Kabul and  Mathura was most probably the eastern head-quarter of the annexed Gandhara including the Kushane empire. Most sites in kingdom of Taxila. Kadphises died in 77 Uttar Pradesh attained their peak A.D. or 78 A.D. By then the Kushans of prosperity during the Sunga- had supplanted the princes belonging to Kushana phase when a large the Indo-Greek saka and Indo-Parthian number of flourishing urban communities along the frontiers of India. centres can be archaeologically The successor of kadphises was Vima- attested. Kadphses. He conquered large parts of norther India. His coins show that his authority extended as far as Banaras and as well as the Indus basin. In all likelihood his power extended as far as Narbada and the Saka satraps in Malwa and Western India acknowledged his KUSHANS sovereignty. In the post-Mauryan era, central Asia By that time the Chinese reasserted and north-western India witnessed their authority in the north and this led to hectic and shifting political scenes. The a collusion with the Kushans. The Great Yuehi-chi driven out of fertile lend in Western china migrated towards the Chinese general pan-chao conquered Aral Sea. There they encountered the Chinese Turkistan and established the Sakas near Syr Darya river and evicted Chinese authority in parthia that is on them. The Great Yuehi-Chi tribes settled the territory south of the Caspian sea. in the valley of Oxus and with the occupation of the Bactrian lands the These advances frightened the great hordes were divided into five Kushans. In 87 AD Kadphises II, principalities. A century later the Kushan claimed the hand of a Chiese princes, section or sect of Yuehi-Chi attained an acknowledgement of his equality with predominance over the otheres. Their the son of Heaven. The proposal was leader was Kadphises. Thus began the rejected and Kadphises, dispatched a history of Kushans. The unique geographical position of the Kushans large army, But the army was decimated empire made it a colossus astride on the because of the difficult terrain. And it spine of Asia uniting the Greco-Roman was easily defeated by the Chinese. civilization in the west the Chinese The Kushan ruler was compelled to pay civilization in the east and Indian tribute the China and the Chinese civilisation in the south-east. records so that the Kushans continued

to send missions to Cnina till the close

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History of the century. Rossibly the reign of The conclusions of this council were Kadphises II ended C. 110 A.D. engraved on copper sheets and preserved in the stupa of the capital. The next ruler, Kanishka probably The delgates to the council primarily belonged to the little Yuehi-chi section of belonged to the Hinayana sect. the horde. His capital was Purushapura and here he erected a large number of The Buddhism of this period was Buddhist buildings. In his early years he definitely a lax one. The sect annexed Kashmir and consolidated his was popular. But early Buddhism was rule in the Indus and the Gangetic basin. an India product and was based on the His army crossed the Pamirs and Indian ideas of rebirth, transmigration of inflicted a defeat on the Chinese. The souls and the blessedness of escape chief of Khotan, Yarkand and the from the pains of being. This Buddhism Ksshgar were made to pay tribute. was supported by a practical system of Tradition states that while Kanishka was ethics inculcating a stoic devotion to on his return from the Chinese duty for its own sake. Such a teaching Turkistan, he was sothered to death by needed fundamental changes to attract his officers who had got weary of his the sturdy mountaineer, the nomad campaigns. Most of his time was spent horseman and the Helloe rized on waging wars. Alexandrian. The veneration for a dead teacher passed into a worship of living A large number of inscriptions were seviour. incised during the times of Kanishka and his successor. According to evidence, Soon the Kushan power declined. Kanishka became an active partron of Within the Kingdom, harm was done to the Buddhist Church during the later the Kushan Empire by the Nagas and part of his reign. Althouth the Buddhist . A Naga ruler probably records gloat over this fact and regard performed ten ashvamedha sacrifices. him as the second Asoka, his coins Apart from these two communities, a prove that he honoured a medley of few other tribes also, like the Malavas gods - zoroastrain, Greek, Mitraic, and and the Kunindas, probably regained Indian. The prominent Indian duty on the their importance at the expense of the coins was Shiva. The peculiar assembly Kushan empire. of deities by the Kushans offers a great Apart from the weaknesses to the deal of speculation. May be Kansihka successors of Kanishka, developments follwed a loose from of Zorostrianism in the Persia influenced the history of and freely venerated the deities of other North western India. The Parthians were greeds. overthrown byArdashir in 226 A.D. who Also, Kanishka covened a council of established theSassanian dynasty. His Buddhist theologians to settle disputes successors annxed Peshawar and relating to Buddhist faith and practices. Taxila during the middle of the 3rd

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History century. And Kushan kings in the north- the Gandhara art. It was in this period west became the vassals of the that the stone images of the Buddha Sasssanians. The successors of and the Bodhisattavas were craved out. Kanishka, as established today, are the The chief of quality of this art is the following : Vashiska (102-106), blending of Buddhist subjects with Hyvishka (106-138), and Vasudeva (c. Greek forms. Images of the Buddha 152-176). The history after this period is appear in the likeness of Apollo, and extremely vague. Over the ruins of the theYakshakubera is posed in the fasino empire, in Central Asia and the west, of Zeus. The imprint of this school of art rose the Sassanian empire of Persia is still to be found in Mathura and and in India. The Gupta empire. Amarvati. Indeed, the carving of images and the building of temples was not Speaking in general about the neglected in earlier days, but under the achievement of the Kushans, the first is Kushans they attained a refinement. the economic prosperity. As the Kushan The Chaitya built at Peshawar was as empire was situated in a crucial high as four storeys. Fa-Hien, passing geographical region. There was brisk through Gandhara, during the fifth trade. Moreover, the very area covered century, praised the images of the by the Kushan empire helped the flow of Buddha, Bodhisattavas and numerous trade between the east and the west. other deities. The early rulers fostered Some trade routes which came into the Hellenistic art of Gandhara and also existence in this period continued to the Bhikshu Bela, and from this place serve the future also. Gold coins of artistic products were sent to Sarasvati great complexity were issued by the and Sarnath. Kanishka was a great Kushans. builder - tower at Peshawar, a new city These coins speak of the prosperity of in Taxila, a town in Kashmir and fine the people. The coins of Kanishka buildings and sculptures at Mathura. It usually show the figure of Kanishka was at the last place a portrait stature of standing and sacrificing at altar, and on Kanishka has been found but its head is the obverse, deities belonging to various not there. Further, the die-engravers religions. The coins of the Kushans also employed by the Kushans were far from show that the Kushans were in contact negligible. A special note is to be taken with the Romans - the weight of the of coinage. The Kushan coins became Kushan coins has certain similarities the prototypes for many varieities of with the Roman coins. According to the coins of Yadheyas, the imperial Guptas, author of the Periplus god and silver some kings of Nepa and several Kings species were imported at Barygaza of Chedi. Eminent Buddhist writers - (Broach). Nagajuna, Asvaghosha and Vasumitra were the names associated with As regards art and literature, we have to Kanishka. The first was a poet, state that their greatest contribution was musician, scholar and a zealous

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Buddhist monk. Charaka was the court Kanishka alone would not help us to physician of Kanishka. estimate the importance of the Kushanas as the empire lasted for three The next thing to be noted about the centuries. To a certain extent, the Kushana is their religion. In all prosperious time of peace during the likelihood, missionaries propagated Gupta period was directly due to the Buddhism in central Asia and China in Kushans undertaking the unconscious this period. Possibly, it was during the role of the shield and buckler of Indian time of Kanishka that Mahayana civiliszation and culture. The Kushan Buddhism was sanctified. The fourth state was a buffer between the Aryan Buddhist council that was summoned by civilization and the nomadic hordes in Kanishka canonized the doctrines of central Asia who from time to time, had Hinayana and Mahayana. The overrun the civilized worlds with the deliberations of the conference were sweep of avalanches. It was also engraved on sheets of copper and were responsible for the exchange of ideas sealed and deposited in a stupa, but and goods between different civilization they have not been found so far. But to because of the peculiar geographical regard Kanishka as the founder patron position occupied by the Kushanas a of the Mahayana sect, which came into clearing house for the ideas and goods existence under the Kushans, is a of different civilization. disputable point. Even though many scholars regard Kanishka as the second Asoka some writers do not agree with this view. In addition to these things, we The Mughals 1 must mention that the Kushana kings Introduction patronized all kinds of religions, including Hinduism. Kanishka was  In the fourteenth century, the definitely and eclectic monarch as he disintegration of the led honored a medley of gods belonging to Timur to unite Iran and Turan under one the Greek, Zoroastrian and Hindu faiths. rule. Timur's empire was spread from Not only Buddhism flourished under the the lower Volga to the river Indus, Kushanas but there were definitely including Iran, stirrings of Hinduism. Many brahminical sects started merging. Along with  Asia Minor (modern Turkey), Trans- religion, Sanskrit language received an Oxiana, Afghanistan, and some part of impetus. In a way the Kushan age Punjab. constituted the prelude to the Gupta age.  In 1404, Timur died and Shahrukh Mirza, his grandson, succeeded his In this ammner, the services rendered empire. by the Kushanas are commendable. A mere evaluation of the personality of

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 Timur gave patronage to arts and wanted to rule Eastern Europe as well letters and he promoted Samarqand and as Iran and Iraq. Herat as the cultural centers of West

Asia. Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur  During the second half of the fifteenth century, the power of Timurids declined, largely because of the Timurid practice  Babur born on 14 February 1483 at of partitioning of the empire. Andijan in Mughalistan (present day ).  The various Timund territories that developed during his time, were kept  Babur had the prestige of being a fighting and backbiting to each other. descendant of two of the most legendary warriors of Asia namely Their conflicting acts gave an Changez, and Timur. opportunity to two new powers to come to the forefront:  Babur groomed himself to his begs by his personal qualities. He was always a) The Uzbeks: In the north, the Uzbeks prepared to share the hardships with his thrust into Trans-Oxiana. Though the soldiers. Uzbeks had become Muslims, but Timurids looked them down because they (Timurids) considered them to be  Babur was fond of wine and good company and was a good and cheerful uncultured barbarians. companion. At the same time, he was a b) Safavid Dynasty: In the west (i.e. strict disciplinarian and a hard taskmaster. Iran), the Safavid dynasty appeared.

They were descended from an order of  Babur took good care of his army and saints who traced their ancestry to the other employees, and was prepared to Prophet. excuse many of their faults as long as they were not disloyal.  Safavids dynasty promoted the Shi’ite sect among the Muslims, and  Though Babur was an orthodox Sunni, persecuted to all those who were not but he was not prejudiced or led by the ready to accept the Shia views. religious divines. Once, there was a bitter sectarian conflict between the  The Uzbeks, on the other hand, were Shias and the Sunnis in Iran and Turan; however, in such a condition, Babur s Sunnis. Thus, the political conflict ’ court was free from theological and between these two elements was sectarian conflicts. estranged on the basis of sectarian views.  Though Babur declared the battle against a jihad and  The power of the Ottoman Turks had assumed the title of ‘ghazi’ after the escalated in the west of Iran and they

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History victory, but the reasons were noticeably  In 1504, Babur conquered Kabul; at political. that time, Kabul was under the rule of the infant heir of Ulugh Begh.  Babur was master of Persian and Arabic languages, and is regarded as  Almost 15 years, Babur struggled hard one of the most famous writers in the and kept attempting to re-conquest his Turkish language (which was his mother tongue). homeland from the Uzbeks. He approached the ruler of Herat (who was  Babur’s famous memoirs, the Tuzuk-i- also his uncle) for the help, but he did Baburi is considered as one of the not receive any positive response. classics of world literature. His other popular works are masnavi and the  Shaibani Khan defeated Herat, which Turkish translation of a well-known Sufi led to a direct conflict between the work. Uzbeks and the Safavids because

Safavids was also claiming Herat and its  Babur was a keen naturalist, as he described the flora and fauna of India in surrounding area, namely Khorasan. considerable details. In the battle of 1510, Shaibani Khan   Babur introduced a new concept of the defeated and killed by Kasim Khan. state, which was to be based on:  By taking the help of Iranian power, a) The strength and prestige of the Babur attempted to recover Samarqand. Crown; As a result of this, the Iranian generals wanted to treat Babur as the governor of b) The absence of religious and an Iran rather than as an independent sectarian bigotry; and ruler. c) The careful fostering of culture and  After the massive defeat, the Uzbeks the fine arts. swiftly recovered; resultantly, Babur had

 Babur, with all these three features been overthrown again from Samarqand provided a precedent and a direction for and he had to return back to Kabul. his successors  Shah Ismail (Shah of Iran) was  In 1494, Babur, at the young age of defeated in a battle by the Ottoman merely 14, succeeded to Farghana. sultan; the changes in geo-political Farghana was a small state in Trans- scenario forced Babur to move towards Oxiana. India.  Shaibani Khan, the Uzbek chief, defeated Babur and conquered  Once Babur said that from the time he Samarqand. won Kabul (i.e. in 1504) to his victory of Panipat, he had never ceased to think of the conquest of Hindustan.

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 Timur, the ancestor of Babur, had was the governor of Punjab, but he was carried away a vast treasure along with almost an Independent ruler. many skilful artisans from India. The  Daulat Khan wanted to conciliate with artisans helped Timur to consolidate his Ibrahim Lodi; therefore, he sent his son Asian empire and beautify the capital. to his (Ibrahim’s) court to pay homage. They (the artisans) also helped Timur to However, he was also intended to annex some areas of Punjab. strengthen his power by annexing the frontier tracts of Bhira.

 In 1518-19, Babur seized the powerful Reasons of India Conquest fort of Bhira and sent letters as well as verbal messages to Ibrahim Lodi and  Abul Fazl, the contemporary historian Daulat Khan. Babur asked them for the said that "Babur ruled over Badakhshan, cession of all those areas, which had Qandhar, and Kabul which did not yield belonged to the Turks. sufficient income for the requirements of his army; in fact, in some of the border  Daulat Khan detained Babur's envoy territories, the expense on controlling at Lahore, neither granted him audience the armies and administration was nor allowed him to go and meet Ibrahim Lodi. Daulat Khan expelled Babur’s greater than the income". agent from Bhira.

 Babur was also always remained  Once again in 1520-21, Babur crossed apprehensive about an Uzbek attack on the Indus, and easily clutched Bhira and his territory Kabul, and hence, Sialkot (popular as the twin gateways to considered India to be a safe place of Hindustan) and then, Lahore was also refuge, as well as a suitable base for surrendered to him. operations against the Uzbeks.  After capturing Bhira and Sialkot,  By the time, the political scenario of Babur planned to proceed further, but north-west India was much suitable for because of the revolt in Qandhar, he Babur's entry (into India). returned back.

 In 1517, Sikandar Lodi had died and  Babur recaptured Qandhar after Ibrahim Lodi (his son) had succeeded almost one and half years. His political him. stability again encouraged him to move towards India.  Ibrahim Lodi was an ambitious emperor whose efforts to build a large  Daulat Khan sent Dilawar Khan (his centralized empire had alarmed the son) to Babur’s court and invited Babur Afghan chief as well as the Rajputs. to come India. Daulat Khan suggested Babur to replace Ibrahim Lodi, as he  Daulat Khan Lodi was one of the most (Ibrahim Lodi) was a tyrant ruler. powerful chiefs of his time. Though, he

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 Rana Sanga (Rana of Mewar), most India, a large number of Hindustani likely at the same time, also sent a nobles and soldiers joined Babur in message to Babur inviting him to attack Punjab. In spite of Indian army support, India. Two embassies from the powerful Babur's army was numerically inferior. kingdom convinced Babur to conquest India again.  Babur made a master plan and strengthened his position. He ordered  In 1525, when Babur was in one of his army wings to rest in the city Peshawar, he received a message that of Panipat, which had a large number of Daulat Khan Lodi had changed the houses. Further, he protected another sides. wing by means of a ditch filled with branches of trees.  Daulat Khan had collected an army of 30,000-40,000 men and ousted Babur's  On the front side, Babur lashed with a soldiers from Sialkot, and tried to large number of cans, to act as a advance towards Lahore. However, as defending wall. Between two carts, Babur came, Daulat Khan’s army ran breastworks were erected so that away; resultantly, Daulat Khan got soldiers could rest their guns and fire. surrendered and was pardoned. Babur became the ruler of Punjab.  Babur used the Ottoman (Rumi) device technique, which had been used by the Ottomans in their well-known Major Battles battle against Shah Ismail of Iran.

First Battle of Panipat  Babur had also invited two Ottoman master-gunners namely Ustad Ali and  On 20th April 1526, the First Battle of Mustafa. Panipat, was fought between Babur and the Ibrahim Lodi Empire (ruler of Delhi).  Ibrahim Lodi, however, with huge army The battle took place in north India men, could not assume the strongly (Panipat) and marked as the beginning defended position of Babur. of the Mughal Empire.  Ibrahim Lodi had apparently expected  The was one of Babur to fight a mobile mode of warfare, the earliest battles in which gunpowder which was common with the Central firearms and field artillery were used. Asians. However, Babur said that he used it for the first time in his attack on the Bhira  Babur's gunners used their guns fortress. strategically with good effect from the front; however, Babur gave a large part  Ibrahim Lodi met Babur at Panipat with of the credit of his victory to his the force estimated at 100,000 men and bowmen. 1,000 elephants.  After the seven or eight days fight,  Babur had crossed the Indus with a Ibrahim Lodi realized Babur’s strong force of merely 12,000; however, in position. Further, Lodi’s forces were also

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History hesitant to fight with Babur’s modern center. Thus Sanga's forces were technological warfare. hemmed in, and finally defeated.

 Ibrahim Lodi battled to the last with a  Rana Sanga escaped from the battle group of 5,000 to 6,000 forces, but he field. Later he (Rana) wanted to renew (Lodi) had been killed in the battle field. the conflict with Babur, but he was poisoned by his own nobles.  It is estimated that more than 15,000 men (of Lodi kingdom) were killed in the  The strengthened first battle of Panipat. Babur's position in the Delhi-Agra region. Later, Babur conquered the chain of forts including Gwalior, Dholpur, Battle of Khanwa east of Agra, etc.

 On March 17, 1527, the Battle of  Babur also conquered Alwar from Khanwa was fought near the village of Hasan Khan Mewati and Chanderi Khanwa (about 60 km west of Agra). It (Malwa) from Medini Rai. Chanderi was was fought between the first Mughal captured after killing almost all the Emperor Babur and Rajput ruler Rana Rajput defenders men and their women Sanga. performed jauhar (it was the custom of self-immolation of queens and royal  The Rajput ruler, Rana Sanga, was female of the Rajput kingdoms). the great threat for Babur to establish a strong Mughal empire in the Indo- Gangetic Valley, as Sanga planned to The Afghans expel Babur from India or else confined him at Punjab.  Eastern Uttar Pradesh, which was under the domination of the Afghan  Babur had an authentic reason to chiefs had submitted their allegiance to accuse Rana Sanga i.e. of breach of an Babur, but internally planned to throw it agreement. In fact, Sanga invited him off at any time. (Babur) to India with a promise to fight with him against Ibrahim Lodi, but he  Nusrat Shah, the ruler of Bengal, who (Rana) refused. had married a daughter of Ibrahim Lodi, had supported the Afghan sardars.  The battle of Khanwa was aggressively fought. As Babur reported,  The Afghans had ousted the Mughal Sanga had more than 200,000 men officials in eastern Uttar Pradesh and including 10,000 Afghan cavalrymen, reached up to Kanauj many times, but supported with an equal force fielded by their major weakness was the lack of a Hasan Khan Mewati. competent leader.

 Babur’s strategy, in the battle ground,  Afghan leaders invited Mahmud Lodi. was highly technical; he ordered his He (Mahmud Lodi) was a brother of soldiers (who had been sheltering Ibrahim Lodi and also had fought behind their tripods) to attack in the against Babur at Khanwa. The Afghan

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History leaders welcomed him as their ruler, and congregated strength under his leadership. succeeded Babur (his father) in December 1530 at the young age of 23.  The Afghans, under Mahmud Lodi’s leadership, was a great threat for Babur, Babur, because of his pre-matured which he (Babur) could not ignore. At death, could not consolidate his empire; the beginning of 1529, Babur left Agra therefore, Humayun, when became the for the east and he faced the combined ruler, he had to struggle with various forces of the Afghans and Nusrat Shah problems. of Bengal at the crossing of the Ghagra River. Major Problems

 While Babur was fighting with the Major problems (left behind by Babur) Afghans (in the east), he received a were: message i.e. crisis situation in Central Asia. Thus Babur decided to conclude o The administration systems of Mughal the war with an agreement with the Empire were weak and the finances Afghans. He made a vague claim for the were unjustifiable. suzerainty over Bihar, and left the large parts in the Afghan’s hands. o The Afghans had not been subdued entirely; hence, they were cultivating the  On 26 December, 1530, when Babur hope of expelling the Mughals from was returning to Kabul (Afghanistan) India. died near Lahore. o When Humayun ascended the throne at Agra, the Mughal Empire included Kabul and Qandhar; however, there was loose control over Badakhshan (beyond the Hindukush Mountains).

o Kabul and Qandhar were under the charge of Kamran, Humayun's younger brother. Kamran was not satisfied with these poverty-stricken areas therefore, The Mughals 2 he marched towards Lahore and Multan, and occupied them.

Humayun’s Conquest reluctantly accepted his brother’s autocratic act, as he was not interested - in starting a civil war. However, Kamran 1556), Humayun had faced many accepted the suzerainty of Humayun, adverse conditions; however, he did not and promised to help him whenever it lose his patience rather fought with required. courage.

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sent a rakhi (a thread that normally Afghans in the east and Bahadur Shah sister gives her brother and in return (ruler of Gujarat) in the west were brother promises to protect her) to becoming problems that Humayun had Humayun seeking his help and to suppress. Humayun courteously responded.

and overrun Jaunpur in eastern Uttar intervention, Bahadur Shah made an Pradesh, but in 1532, Humayun had agreement with the Rana Sanga and left defeated the Afghan forces. the fort in his (Rana Sanga’s) hands; however, he (Bahadur Shah) extracted a large indemnity in cash and kind. besieged Chunar (from the Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri). yun spent one and half years of his time in building a new city nearby powerful fort that Delhi, and he named it as Dinpanah. commanded the land and the river route resting between Agra and the east; Chunar was popular as the gateway of to impress friends and foes alike. eastern India. Another intention was, Dinpanah could also serve as a second capital, in case, Agra was threatened by the Gujarat Suri (also known as Sher Khan) ruler Bahadur Shah (who already had persuaded Humayun to get permission conquered Ajmer and overrun eastern to retain possession of the fort and he Rajasthan. promised to be loyal to the Mughals. Sher Shah also sent one of his sons to Humayun court as a hostage. Humayun simultaneously, he supplied arms and was in haste to return back to Agra; men to Tatar Khan (Tatar Khan was a therefore, he accepted Sher Shah’s cousin of Ibrahim Lodi), to invade Agra offer. with a force of 40,000 men.

who was of the same age of Humayun had The Afghan forces run away, as the strengthened himself enough to threaten Mughal forces arrived. Tatar Khan was him (Humayun) in the north. defeated, and he was killed.

Bahadur Shah had overrun and now invaded Malwa. He advanced conquered Malwa and then moved forward slowly and cautiously, and towards Rajasthan and besieged Chittor covered a position midway between and soon abridged the Rajput defenders Chittoor and Mandu. Likewise, to sore straits. Humayun cut off Bahadur Shah from Malwa.

Karnavati (the widow of Rana Sanga),

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Bengal for the second time, and seized Chittoor to surrender. It became Gaur (the capital of Bengal). possible because Bahadur Shah had fine artillery, which was commanded by Rumi Khan, an Ottoman master gunner. sent a proposal to Humayun that he would surrender Bihar and pay an annual tribute of ten lakhs of dinars if he with the Mughals and he left his fortified was allowed to retain Bengal. However, camp and escaped to Mandu to Humayun was not in a mood to leave Champaner, then to Ahmadabad and Bengal to Sher Khan. finally to Kathiawar. Thus the rich provinces of Malwa and Gujarat, as well as the huge treasure boarded by the manufactures, and a center for foreign Gujarat rulers at Mandu and trade. Secondly, the ruler of Bengal who Champaner, came into the hands of had reached Humayun's camp in a Humayun. wounded condition, informed that resistance to Sher Khan was still ’s attack (on continued. Mughal Empire) was gone with his death, as he died while fighting with the suspicious Portuguese. intention of Sher Shah, Humayun rejected Sher Khan's proposal and decided a campaign to Bengal. Soon Sher Shah’s Upsurge after, the Bengal ruler submitted to his wounds; therefore, Humayun had to Humayun’s absence from Agra undertake the Bengal campaign all (between February 1535 and February alone. 1537), gave an opportunity to Sher Shah to strengthened his power and yun was position. not much beneficial, but rather was the prelude to the disaster, which overtook his army at Chausa after a year. continued to acknowledge loyalty to the Mughals, but steadily he planned to expel the Mughals from India. south Bihar. With a master plan, he let Humayun campaign Bengal so that he might disrupt Humayun's Bahadur Shah, as he (Bahadur Shah) communications with Agra and bottle had helped him with heavy subsidies, him up in Bengal. which enabled him to recruit and maintain a large and competent army including 1,200 elephants. took steps to establish law and order. But this did not solve any of his problems. On the other hand, Humayun attacked Sher Khan and Humayun’s situation was further made captured Chunar and then he invaded worse by his younger brother, Handal,

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History as he attempted to crown himself of Mughal soldiers and many prominent Agra. However, because of Sher Khan's nobles were killed. master plans, Humayun was totally cut off from all news and supplies from Agra. 1539, only the fullest unity among the Timurid princes and the nobles could have saved Humayun.

Humayun’s Downfall -hardened force of 10,000 Mughals under his command Humayun’s Difficulties at Agra. But he had not come forward to help Humayun, probably, he had lost After a stay of three to four months at confidence in Humayun's leadership. On Gaur, Humayun planned back to Agra, the other hand, Humayun was not ready leaving a small garrison behind. In spite to assign the command of the armies to of having a series of problems such as Kamran, as he could misuse it to store the rainy season, discontent in the power for himself. The confusions nobility, and the constant harrying between the two brothers grew till attacks of the Afghans, Humayun Kamran decided to return back to managed to get his army back to Lahore with his army. Chausa near Buxar, without any serious loss. Humayun at Agra was no match against ’s act, Sher Shah. However, in May 1540, the he left Lahore to suppress Hindal’s battle of Kanauj was bitterly contested. rebellion at Agra. But Kamran, though Both the younger brothers of Humayun not disloyal, made no attempt to send namely Askari and Hindal, fought any help to Humayun. courageously, but to no avail.

battle of Kanauj taken away Sher Shah, Humayun crossed to the Humayun’s empire and he became a eastern bank of the Karmnasa River and prince without a kingdom; Kabul and gave full opportunity to the Afghan Qandhar remaining under Kamran. Sher horsemen encamped there. It was the Shah, now became the sole powerful great mistake of Humayun that reflected ruler of north India. not only a bad political sense, but also a bad generalship as well. and its neighboring countries for the ’s forces attacked on next two and a half years, planning Humayun surreptitiously; however, various schemes to regain his kingdom. Humayun, somehow managed to But hardly anyone was ready to help escape from the battle field. He swam him. Surprisingly, his own brothers were across the river with the help of a water- against him, and even had tried to kill or carrier. Sher Shah robbed Humayun’s imprison him. Nevertheless, Humayun treasures. In this war, about 7,000 faced all these trials and tribulations with great fortitude and courage. The

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History downfall period of Humayun reflected the best part of his character. the first floor of the library building in his fort at Delhi.

Humayun reached at the court of the Iranian king. In 1545, with the help of the orders of Akbar (son of Humayun) Iranian king, Humayun recaptured and Humayun's first wife (Bega Begum). Qandhar and Kabul. And, the tomb was designed by Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, a Persian architect Reasons of Humayun’s Downfall appointed by Bega Begum.

The major reasons for Humayun's failure were: 1565 (nine years after the death of Humayun) and completed in 1572. The o Humayun’s inability to understand the total cost spent in the building (of tomb) nature of the Afghan power and Sher was 1.5 million rupees (at the time). Shah’s deceptive trick. o The presence of large numbers of Afghan tribes across the north India and their nature of getting united under a capable leader (like Sher Shah). Sher Shah o Without getting the support of the local Sher Shah Suri ascended the throne rulers and , the Mughals were of Delhi at the age of 67. His original bound to remain numerically inferior. name was Farid and his father was a jagirdar at Jaunpur. o The differences of Humayun with his brothers, and his alleged faults of Sher Shah spent his childhood with character. his father and remained actively involved in the affairs of his father’s o Though Humayun was a competent jagir. Because of this, he learned rich general and politician, his two mistakes administrative knowledge and i.e. ill-conceived Bengal campaign and experience. wrong interpretation of Sher Shah’s proposal made him lose. never let any opportunity to go in vain. The defeat and death of Ibrahim Lodi as he experienced from rich to rag and and the misunderstanding in Afghan again from rag to rich. affairs let Sher Shah emerge as the most important Afghan sardars (of that -up of the Sher time). Shah’s empire, Humayun again recovered Delhi; however, he did not Because of his smart skill set and live long to enjoy his victory. administrative quality, Sher Shah

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History became as the right hand of the ruler of Bihar. Sher Shah overran almost the entire Rajasthan. His last campaign was against Kalmjar; it was a strong fort and Shah adorned him the title of ‘Sher the key to Bundelkhand. Khan.’

a gun burst and severely injured Sher mightiest empire, which had come into Shah; the incident took, Sher Shah’s existence (in north India) since the time life. of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Islam ’s empire was extended Shah (his second son), who ruled till from Bengal to the Indus River 1553. (excluding Kashmir). In the west, he conquered Malwa, and almost the entire Rajasthan. and general, but most of his energies were lost in controlling the rebels raised Maldeo, the ruler of Marwar, by his brothers. Besides, rebels of tribal ascended the gaddi (kingdom) in 1532, feuds also pulled Islam Shah’s attention. and in a short span of time, took the control of whole of western and northern ’s death (November 1554) Rajasthan. He further expanded his led to a civil war among his successors. territories during Humayun's conflict with The civil war created a vacuum that Sher Shah. ultimately provided an opportunity to Humayun to recover empire of India.

Maldeo was killed after a courageous resistance. His sons, Kalyan Das and Afghans, and recovered Delhi and Agra. Bhim, took shelter at the court of Sher Shah. Sher Shah’s Work

Sher Shah was one of the most clashed at Samel (located between distinguished rulers of north India who Ajmer and Jodhpur). While invading had done a number of developmental different jagirs of Rajasthan, Sher Shah works (along with well-planned had taken the great precautions; at administrative works). His works can be every step, he would throw up studied under the following heads: entrenchments to guard against a surprise attack. Administrative Works

-established law and besieged and conquered Ajmer and order across the length and breadth of Jodhpur, forced Maldeo into the desert. his empire.

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towns) where peasants flocked to sell emphasis on justice, as he used to say, their produce. "Justice is the most excellent of religious rites, and it is approved alike by the king ’s roads and sarai have of infidels and of the faithful". been called as "the arteries of the empire." These development works strengthened and fasten the trade and whether they were high nobles, men of commerce in the country. his own tribe or near relations. ’s entire empire, customs Qazis were appointed at different duty was paid only at two places: the places for justice, but as before, the goods produced in Bengal or imported village panchayats and zamindars also from outside paid customs duty at the dealt with civil and criminal cases at the border of Bengal and Bihar at Sikrigali local level. and goods coming, from West and Central Asia paid custom duty at the Indus. No one was allowed to levy and dacoits. custom duty at roads, ferries, or town. The duty was paid a second time at the time of sale. zamindars who refused to pay land revenue or disobeyed the orders of the government. compel the people to treat merchants and travelers well and not to harm them Economic & Development Works in any way.

promotion of trade and commerce and goods. also the improvement of communications in his kingdom. Shaikh Nizami i.e. "If a merchant should the old imperial road die in your country it is a perfidy to lay known as the Grand Trunk Road, from hands on his property." the river Indus in the west to Sonargaon in Bengal. Shah made the local village headmen and zamindars responsible for any loss Jodhpur and Chittoor, noticeably linking that the merchant suffered on the roads. up with the road to the Gujarat seaports. s of a merchant were Sher Shah built about 1,700 sarai; stolen, the headmen and/or the some of them are still existing, which zamindars had to produce them, or to reflect how strong these sarai were. trace the haunts of the thieves or highway robbers, failing which they had to undergo the punishment meant for sarai developed into qasbas (market- the thieves and robbers.

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(to make ‘Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi’ or history of Sher innocent responsible), but the same law Shah) says, "It was a rule in the sarai (discussed in the immediate above that whoever entered there, received point) was applied in cases of murders provision suitable to his rank, and food on the roads. and litter for his cattle, from the government."

Shah’s law and order in the picturesque language i.e. "a decrepit old woman down villages around the sarai, and the might place a basketful of gold land was set apart in these villages for ornaments on her head and go on a the expenses of the sarai. journey, and no thief or robber would come near her for fear of the punishment which Sher Shah inflicted." Administrative Division

’s currency reforms also A number of villages comprised a promoted the growth of commerce and pargana. The pargana was under the handicrafts. charge of the shiqdar, who looked after law and order and general the trade and commerce purpose, administration, and the munsif or amil Sher Shah made an attempt to fix looked after the collection of Land standard weights and measures across revenue. his empire. Above the pargana, there was the shiq or sarkar under the charge of the to Multan. At that time, Multan was one shiqdar-i-shiqdran and a munsif-i- of the central points for the caravans munsifan. going to West and Central Asia. ounts were maintained both in the Persian and the local languages Shah built a number of sarai at a (Hindavi). distance of every two kos (about eight km) on all the major roads. central machinery of administration, sarai was a fortified lodging or inn which had been developed during the where travelers could pass the night and Sultanate period. Most likely, Sher Shah also keep their goods in safe custody. did not favor leaving too much authority in the hands of ministers.

Hindus and Muslims were provided in the sarai. Brahmanas were appointed devoting himself to the affairs of the for providing bed and food to the Hindu state from early morning to late at night. travelers, and grains for their horses. He also toured the country regularly to know the condition of the people.

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xcessive centralization submit to those in power, and if I of authority, in his hands, has later oppress them they will abandon their become a source of weakness, and its villages, and the country will be ruined harmful effects became apparent when and deserted, and it will be a long time a masterful sovereign (like him) ceased before it again becomes prosperous". to sit on the throne.

in order to administer his vast empire. be based on the guess work, or by He dispensed with tribal levies under dividing the crops in the fields, or on the tribal chiefs, and recruited soldiers threshing floor rather Sher Shah insisted directly after verifying their character. on measurement of the sown land. th of Sher Shah's personal ray) was army was recorded as: drawn up, laying down the state's share of the different types of crops. This o 150,000 cavalry; could then be converted into cash on the basis of the prevailing market rates o 25,000 infantry armed with matchlocks in different areas. Normally, the share of or bows; the state was one-third of the produce. o 5,000 elephants; and ’s measurement system let peasants to know how much they had to o A park of artillery. pay to the state only after sowing the crops. different parts of his empire; besides, a strong garrison was posted in each of crops cultivated, and the amount each them. peasant had to pay was written down on a paper called patta and each peasant was informed of it. on the bank of the Yamuna River near Delhi. The sole survivor of this city is the Old Fort () and the fine the peasants anything extra. The rates mosque within it. which the members of the measuring party were to get for their work were laid Malik down. Muhammad Jaisi (who had written Padmavat in Hindi) was the patron of Sher Shah’s reign. other natural calamities, a cess at the rate of two and half seers per bigha was Religious Views also levied.

was very solicitous for the any new liberal policies. Jizyah welfare of the peasantry, as he used to continued to be collected from the say, "The cultivators are blameless, they Hindus.

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’s nobility was drawn exclusively from the Afghans. besieged. Sikandar Sur, the defeated Afghan ruler, was forced to loiter in the Siwalik Hills.

Akbar and a loyal and favorite officer of Humayun, became the wakil (advocate) of the kingdom and received the title of ‘khan.i.khanan;’ . He united the Mughal forces.

considered the most serious for Akbar. Further, the area from Chunar to the border of Bengal was under the domination of Adil Shah, a nephew of Sher Shah.

The Mughals 3 ’s reign, had started his career as a superintendent of the market, but soon promoted under Akbar the Great Adil Shah. Surprisingly, Hemu had not lost a single one of the twenty-two battles in which he had fought. Mughal rulers, was born at Amarkot. Hemu as wazir, gave the title of ‘Vikramajit,’ and (brother of Humayun) captured young entrusted him with the task to expel the Akbar. Kamran treated the child well; Mughals. however, Akbar was re-united with his parents after the capture of Qandhar.

When Humayun died, Akbar was in Punjab, commanding operations against army of 50,000 cavalry, 500 elephants the Afghan rebels. and a strong park of artillery marched towards Delhi.

Kalanaur at the age of merely thirteen -contested battle, Hemu years and four months. defeated the Mughals near Delhi and captured the city. But Bairam Khan took an energetic and smart step to meet the were still strong beyond Agra, and were critical situation. Bairam Khan reorganizing their forces under the strengthened his army marched towards leadership of Hemu.

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Delhi before Hemu could have time to Bairam Khan was a Shia, and that he consolidate his position again. was appointing his own supporters and Shias to high offices, while neglecting the old nobles. between the Mughals (led by Bairam Khan) and the Afghan forces (led by Hemu), took place once again at were not much serious in themselves, Panipat. but he (Bairam Khan) became egoistical, and hence failed to realize ’s artillery had been that Akbar was growing up. In fact, there captured by a Mughal force, the tide of was friction on a petty matter, which battle was in favor of Hemu. Meanwhile, made Akbar realize that he could not an arrow hit in the eye of Hemu and he leave the state affairs in someone else's fainted. Hemu was arrested and hands for any more. executed. Akbar had virtually reconquered his empire. his cards cleverly. He left Agra on the pretext of hunting, and came Delhi. teen age; he had been supported by a From Delhi, Akbar issued a farman group of nobles. (summon) dismissed Bairam Khan from his office, and ordered all the nobles to Bairam Khan’s Conquest come and submit to him personally.

Bairam Khan remained at the helm of farman made Bairam Khan affairs of the Mughal Empire for almost realize that Akbar wanted to take power next four years and during this period, in his own hands; so, he was prepared he kept the nobility fully under control. to submit, but his opponents were keen to ruin him. They heaped humiliation The territories of the Mughal Empire upon him until he was goaded to rebel. were extended from Kabul (in the north) to Jaunpur (in the east) and Ajmer (in the west). almost six months. Finally, Bairam Khan was forced to submit in Akbar’s court; Akbar received him cordially, and gave vigorous efforts were made to conquer him the option of serving at the court Ranthambhor and Malwa. (anywhere), or retiring to Mecca.

Bairam Khan’s Downfall Mecca. On his way to Mecca, he was Over a period of time, Akbar was assassinated at Patan near Ahmadabad approaching the age of maturity. On the by an Afghan who bore him a personal other hand, Bairam Khan became grudge. arrogant and had offended many powerful persons and nobles of Mughal child court (as he held supreme power). Many were brought to Akbar at Agra. Akbar of the nobles complained to Akbar that married Bairam Khan's widow (who was

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History also his cousin), and brought up the had seized control of Kabul, advanced child as his own son. into Punjab, and besieged Lahore. As a result of this, the Uzbek rebels formally ’s child later became proclaimed him as their ruler. popular as Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan and held some of the most significant ’s attack was the most offices and commands in the Mughal serious crisis Akbar had to face since Empire. Hemu's capture of Delhi. However, Akbar's bravery and a certain amount of luck enabled him to triumph. groups and individuals in the nobility became politically active. The group included Akbar's foster-mother, Maham to Lahore, forced Mirza Hakim to retire. Anaga, and her relatives. However, Meanwhile, the rebellion of the Mirza’s Maham Anaga soon withdrew from was crushed, the Mirzas fled to Malwa politics. and thence to Gujarat.

’s son, Adham Khan, was an impetuous young man. He Jaunpur from Lahore. Crossing the river assumed independent airs when he had Yamuna nearby Allahabad (at the peak been sent to command an expedition of the rainy season), Akbar surprised against Malwa. He claimed the post of the rebels led by the Uzbek nobles and the wazir, and when this was not completely routed them out. accepted, he stabbed the acting wazir in his office. His tyrannical act enraged Uzbek leaders were killed in the Akbar. In 1561, Adham Khan had been battle; likewise, their protracted rebellion thrown down from the parapet of the fort came to an end. and he died.

’s maturity and Expansion of Mughal Empire establishing his full authority, the Uzbeks formed a powerful group. They During Akbar’s initial period, Malwa held important positions in eastern Uttar was being ruled by a young prince, Baz Pradesh, Bihar, and Malwa. Bahadur. Baz Bahadur’s accomplishments were a mastery of Between the period of 1561 and 1567, music and poetry. Besides, the romantic the Uzbeks rebelled many times, forced story of Baz Bahadur and Rani Rupmati Akbar to take the field against them. is also very famous. Rani Rupmati is Every time Akbar was induced to pardon known in history because of her beauty. them. However, 1565 rebel exasperated Akbar at such a level that he vowed to Because of Baz Bahadur’s interest in make Jaunpur his capital till he had music and poetry, Mandu (Baz rooted them out. Bahadur’s capital) had become a celebrated center for music. The army, ’ rebellions, however, had been neglected by Baz Akbar's half-brother, Mirza Hakim, who Bahadur.

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Rani Durgawati (daughter of famous Rajput Chandel Emperor Keerat Rai of Malwa was led by Adham Khan, son of Mahoba) and strengthened his position. Akbar's foster-mother, Maham Anaga. Baz Bahadur was badly defeated (in the i Shah died soon after his battle of Sarangpur) and the Mughals marriage and the princess Durgavati took valuable assets, including Rupmati. became a widow. But she made her However, she refused to go with Adham minor son king and ruled with great Khan and preferred to commit suicide. courage.

After defeating Malwa, Adham Khan ruled with cruelties, because of this, markswoman with both guns and bow & there was a reaction against the arrow. She fought many successful Mughals, which supported Baz Bahadur battles against her neighbors, including to recover Malwa. Baz Bahadur of Malwa.

expedition to Malwa (led by Abdullah Allahabad moved towards Garh- Khan). Baz Bahadur defeated again and Katanga with 10,000 cavalries. Some of he had to flee west. He took shelter with the semi-independent rulers of Garha- the Rana of Mewar. Katanga found it an opportune moment to throw off the Gond supremacy. to another, Baz Bahadur, finally approached to Akbar's court and was supported by her nobles rather left with enrolled as a Mughal mansabdar. a small force. She fought bravely but Likewise, the extensive territory of defeated. Once finding that she lost the Malwa came under Mughal rule. battle and was in danger of being captured, she stabbed herself to death.

Kingdom of Garh-Katanga ime, Asaf Khan also became despotic; however, when Akbar In 1564, Mughal arms (led by Asaf had dealt with the rebellion of the Uzbek Khan) overran the kingdom of Garh- nobles, he forced Asaf Khan to expel his Katanga. The kingdom of Garh-Katanga illegal games. included the Narmada valley and the northern portions of present Madhya - Pradesh. Katanga to Chandra Shah, the younger son of Sangram Shah and took ten forts -Katanga to round off the kingdom of Malwa. consisted of a number of Gond and Rajput principalities. Gujarat Expedition

In 1572, after defeating Rajputs Sangram Shah), ruler of Garh-Katanga (namely Chittoor, Ranthambhor, married his eldest son Dalpati Shah with Jodhpur, etc.), Akbar advanced towards

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Ahmadabad via Ajmer; however, collection of a of dams (i.e. Rs. Ahmadabad surrendered without a fight. 250,000).

turned his attention towards the Mirzas system called the dahsala; under this who held Broach, Baroda, and Surat system, the average produce of different (regions of Gujarat). crops along with the average prices prevailing over the last ten (dah) years were calculated. However, the state saw the sea for the first time at Cambay, demand was stated in cash. This was he rode on it in a boat. done by converting the state share into money on the basis of a schedule of In 1573, when Akbar returned back, average prices over the past ten years. after defeating Gujarat, a fresh rebel broke out all over Gujarat. Immediately after hearing the news, Akbar moved measurement system (known as the out of Agra and traversed across zabti system) covering from Lahore to Rajasthan in merely nine days. Allahabad, including Malwa and Gujarat.

zabti system, the shown Ahmadabad. In this journey, which area was measured by means of the normally took six weeks, only 3,000 bamboos attached with iron rings. soldiers were accompanied with Akbar. But with only 3,000 soldiers, Akbar zabti system, originally, is overcame the 20,000 rebellions. associated with Raja Todar Mal (one of the nobles of Akbar), therefore, sometimes, it is called as Todar Mal's (the Afghan ruler) in Bihar and executed bandobast. him on the spot. Likewise, ended the last Afghan kingdom from northern India. officer of his time. He first served on Sher Shah’s court, but later joined Akbar’s Administrative System Akbar.

Though Akbar adopted Sher Shah’s zabti system, a number of administrative system, he did not find it other systems of assessment were also that much beneficial hence he had introduced by Akbar. The most common started his own administrative system. and, perhaps the oldest one was ‘batai’ or ‘ghalla-bakshi.’ 73, just after returning from Gujarat expedition, Akbar paid personal batai system, the produce was attention to the land revenue system. divided between the peasants and the Officials called as ‘karoris’ were state in a fixed proportion. appointed throughout the north India. Karoris were responsible for the between zabti and batai under certain

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History conditions. However, such a choice was productivity of the land, the method of given when the crops had been ruined assessment, etc. by natural calamity.

batai system, the peasants development and extension of were given the choice of paying in cash cultivation; therefore, he offered taccavi or in kind, though the state preferred (loans) to the peasants for seeds, cash. equipment, animals, etc. Akbar made policy to recover the loans in easy installments. indigo, oil-seeds, sugarcane, etc., the state demand was customarily in cash. Army Therefore, these crops were called as cash-crops. Akbar organized and strengthened his army and encouraged the mansabdari system. “Mansab” is an Arabic word, widely used (particularly in Bengal) in which means ‘rank’ or ‘position.’ Akbar's time was nasaq. mansabdari system, every Most likely (but not confirmed), under officer was assigned a rank (mansab). the nasaq system, a rough calculation The lowest rank was 10, and the highest was made on the basis of the past was 5,000 for the nobles; however, revenue receipts paid by the peasants. towards the end of the reign, it was This system required no actual raised to 7,000. Princes of the blood measurement, however, the area was received higher mansabs. ascertained from the records. mansabs (ranks) were er categorized as: cultivation almost every year was called ‘polaj.’ o Zat

o Sawar called ‘parati’ (fallow). Cess on Parati land was at the full (polaj) rate when it ‘zat’ means personal. It was cultivated. fixed the personal status of a person, and also his salary. two to three years was called ‘chachar,’ ‘sawar’ rank indicated the number and if longer than that, it was known as of cavalrymen (sawars) a person was ‘banjar.’ required to maintain.

good, middling, and bad. Though one-third of mansabdar was expected to maintain a the average produce was the state corps of elephants, camels, mules, and demand, it varied according to the carts, which were necessary for the transport of the army.

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responsible for the assessment and mansabdars were paid collection of the land revenue. very handsomely; in fact, their salaries were probably the highest in the world at mpire were the time. classified into jagir, khalsa and inam. Income from khalsa villages went A mansabdar, holding the rank of: directly to the royal exchequer. o 100 zat, received a monthly salary of Inam lands were those property, Rs. 500/month; which were given to learned and religious men. o 1,000 zat received Rs. 4,400/month; Jagir lands were allotted to the o 5,000 zat received Rs. 30,000/month. nobles and members of the Royal family including the queens. as such no income tax. Amalguzar was assigned to exercise a general supervision over all types of lands for the purpose of musketeers (bandukchi), sappers, and imperial rules and regulations and the miners were also recruited in the assessment and collection of land contingents. revenue uniformly.

Administrative Units bar reorganized the central machinery of administration on the basis Akbar followed the system of the of the division of power among various Subhah, the pargana, and the sarkar as departments. his major administrative units. During the Sultanate period, the role Subhah was the top most of wazir, the chief adviser of the ruler, administrative unit, which was further was very important, but Akbar reduced sub-divided into Sarkar. Sarkar the responsibilities of wazir by creating (equivalent to district) was constituted of separate departments. certain number of parganas and pargana was the collective wazir as head of the administrative unit of a few villages. revenue department. Thus, he was no longer the principal adviser to the ruler, subhah was but an expert in revenue affairs (only). subedar. However, to emphasize on wazir’s importance, Akbar generally used the sarkar were title of diwan or diwan-i-ala (in the faujdar and the amalguzar. preference to the title wazir).

faujdar was in-charge of law and diwan was held responsible for all order, and the amalguzar was income and expenditure, and held

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History control over khalisa, jagir and inam lands. In 1580, Akbar classified his empire into twelve subas (provinces) namely: was known as the mir bakhshi. It was o Bengal the mir bakhshi (and not the diwan) who was considered as the head of the o Bihar nobility. o Allahabad appointments to mansabs or for the o Awadh promotions, etc., were made to the emperor through the mir bakhshi. o Agra

mir bakhshi was also the head of o Delhi the intelligence and information agencies of the empire. Intelligence o Lahore officers and news reporters (waqia- navis) were posted in all regions of the o Multan empire and their reports were presented to the emperor’s court through the mir o Kabul bakhshi. o Ajmer mir saman was the third important officer of Mughal Empire. He o Malwa and was in-charge of the imperial household, including the supply of all the provisions o Gujarat and articles for the use of the inmates of the harem or the female apartments. Each of these subah consisted of a governor (subadar), a diwan, a bakhshi, a sadr, a qazi, and a waqia-navis. by the chief qazi. This post was sometimes clubbed with that of the chief Integration of States sadr who was responsible for all charitable and religious endowments. By adopting a liberal policy of religious toleration and, in some cases, by giving important jobs, including people as well as to the ministers, Akbar service at the court and in the army, to judiciously divided his time. The day the Hindus, Akbar successfully started with the emperor's appearance attempted to integrate all religious at the jharoka of the palace where large people. numbers of people used to assemble daily to have a glimpse of the ruler, and saints, to present petitions to him if required so. such as Chaitanya, Kabir, and Nanak, (resided in different parts of the country) Akbar’s Provinces

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History emphasized on the essential unity of Ibadat Khana had Islam and Hinduism. not led to a better understanding among the different religions, but rather lead to bitterness, as the representatives of took, after coming into power, was to each religion criticized the other and abolish the jizyah (tax), which the non- tried to prove that their religion was Muslims were required to pay in a superior to others. In 1582, by Muslim state. understanding the conflicting situation, Akbar withdrawn the debates in the Akbar also abolished the pilgrim-tax Ibadat Khana. on bathing at holy places such as Prayag, Banaras, etc. Further, Akbar abolished the practice of forcibly (Hindu philosophers) to explain the converting prisoners of war to Islam. doctrines of Hinduism. He also invited Maharji Rana to explain the doctrines of Zoroastrianism. successfully attempted to gather a band of intellectual people with liberal ideas at Christian religion, his court. Abul Fazl and his brother Faizi Akbar also met with some Portuguese were the most recognized scholars of priests, he sent an embassy to Goa, that time. However, both of them were requesting them to send learned persecuted by the mullahs for having missionaries to his court. Two sympathy with Mahdawi ideas. Portuguese saints namely Aquaviva and Monserrate came and remained at Akbar’s court for almost three years. more popular as Raja Birbal was one of the most trustworthy nobles of Akbar’s h Hira Vijaya Suri, court. the leading Jain saint of Kathiawar, he also spent a couple of years at Akbar’s court. Ibadat Khana (or the Hall of Prayer) at his new capital, Fatehpur Sikri (nearby -ul-Qadir Bada'uni (an Indo- Agra), which Akbar kept open for all Persian historian and translator) religious people including Christians, asserted that as a result of knowing Hindus, Zoroastrians, Jains, and even different religious views, Akbar gradually atheists. turned away from the Islam and set up a new religion, which was compounded ’s Ibadta Khana horrified many many existing religions. However, there theologians, and various rumors spread is very little evidence to prove that Akbar i.e. Akbar about to forsake Islam. intended or actually promulgated a new However, Akbar was less successful in religion of such kind. his effort to find a meeting place between the votaries of different religions in his territory. Bada'uni for the so called new path was “tauhid-i-ilahi.” The literal meaning of tauhid-i-ilahi is “Divine Monotheism.”

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‘Pabos’ (or kissing the poets, painters, and musicians, as his floor before the sovereign), a ceremony court was infused with famous and which was previously reserved for God. scholar people, more popularly known as the ‘navaratna.’ ed to emphasize the concept of ‘sulh-kul’ (or peace and harmony) ’s empire (as many historians among different religions in other ways claim) was essentially secular, liberal, as well. He set up a big translation and a promoter of cultural integration. It department for translating works in was enlightened with social and cultural Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, etc., into matters. Persian. Most likely, it was the time when the Quran was also translated for Foreign Power the first time. Akbar was apprehensive because of Social Reforms the growing power of the Portuguese, as they had been interfering the pilgrim Akbar introduced a number of social traffic (to Mecca), not sparing even the and educational reforms. He stopped royal ladies. sati (the burning of a widow), unless she herself, of her own free will, were determinedly desired it. Further, Akbar practicing the proselytizing activities, made a strict rule that widows of tender which Akbar disliked. Akbar apparently age who had not shared the bed with felt that the coordination and pooling of their husbands were not to be burnt at the resources of the Deccani states all. Akbar also legalized Widow under Mughal supervision would check, Remarriage. if not eliminate, the Portuguese danger.

marriage (having two wives at the same time) unless the first wife was barren.

girls and 16 for boys.

The Mughals 4 spirits. Jahangir syllabus, emphasizing more on moral Emperor Jahangir strengthened the education and mathematics, and on Mughal Empire in India after his father secular subjects including agriculture, Akbar. Jahangir was born on 31st geometry, astronomy, rules of August, 1569 and was named Nuruddin government, logic, history, etc. Salim Jahangir. Nuruddin has been derived from Arabic which means "light of faith". Jahangir is a Persian word

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History which means "world conqueror". many of them are still preserved in a Jahangir was an able administrator who museum. He was famous for his "Chain had a penchant for the finer things in of Justice", which was a golden chain life. He was not a brutal warrior but a attached to some bells outside his learned politician. Read this short palace. Anyone in despair could pull the biography to know the life history of chain and go in for a personal hearing Mughal Emperor Jehangir. from the emperor himself. Jahangir died in the year 1627 and was buried in a Jahangir received the best education magnificent tomb at a place called that was available at that time. His Shahdra, located in present day father Akbar was very particular that his Pakistan. son received the best education that was available in the kingdom. At the age of four he was taught Turkish, Urdu, Persian, Arabic, Arithmetic, Geography, History, Sciences, etc. At a very young Shah Jahan was a man of greater mark, age, he was given the rank of a though less attractive than Jahangir, in Mansabdar of ten thousand, which is the spite of his obvious faults. Shah Jahan highest rank in military after the was a man of great executive ability, to Emperor. At the mere age of twelve, he which he added a love for the commanded a regiment independently magnificent and a refined artistic sense, in the Kabul campaign. specially for architecture. Shah Jahan (1592-1666) was the fifth ruler of the Emperor Jahangir married many times Mughal Empire in India. He became and the girls were from very high-class ruler in 1628. At his succession he noble families of the Mughals and executed all the male Mughal collterals , Rajputs. A Rajput princess known as the descendants of his brothers and Jagat Gosain was his favorite and she uncles, although at that time they had gave birth to Shah Jahan, Jahangir's little political significance. During his successor. He also married the famous reign, the Mughals reached their golden Noor Jahan, who was the widow of Sher age, with vaults crammed with treasures Afghan. Noor Jahan was supposed to and with architecture in magnificent be unparalleled in beauty and style. He was in a special sense the intelligence. This was the reason why architectural director of the day and Jahangir was attracted towards her. She there seems to be little doubt that the proved to be the driving force behind great buildings of his reign, the Taj Jahangir and made him strengthen the Mahal, the Delhi Fort, and Jama Masjid, empire. and the reconstruction of the Agra Fort, would not have been what they are Jahangir loved fine arts and encouraged without his personal inspiration and the growth the poetry, paintings, dance, direction. music, etc. He was also a good writer and loved nature. He penned down his Shah Jahan is best remembered for the life and his experiences in the form of an perfectly proportioned Taj Mahal, an autobiography named Tuzk-e-Jahangiri. immense tomb of white marble built for He was a collector of paintings and his wife in Agra, India. These and other

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History buildings still stand as examples of Mughal glory. His romantic love for Mumtaz Mahal (his wife) did not hesitate Aurangzeb to expose Mumtaz to the rigours of travel in all states of health so that she Aurangzeb (1618-1707), was an died at the age of 39 after giving birth to emperor who ruled what is now India her fourteenth child. The dynasty began and Pakistan from 1658 until his death. its decline because too much money During his reign as monarch of the was spent on luxuries and too much Mughal Empire, he conquered several effort was wasted in war. Shah Jahan's states in southern India. reign was a troubled one, and one of his sons took his throne by force. Aurangzeb, a devout Muslim, tried to make all his people follow the doctrines Taj Mahal of Islam, the Muslim religion. He differed from Akbar in consciously tolerating Taj Mahal is one of the most beautiful Hindus rather than treating them as and costly tombs in the world. The equals. He placed special taxes on Indian ruler Shah Jahan ordered it built Hindus and destroyed Hindu temples in memory of his favourite wife, Mumtaz and images, such as the destruction of Mahal, who died in 1629. The tomb Kashi Vishwanath temple and erection stands near the city of Agra, in northern of a mosque in its place. Aurangzeb India, on the south bank of the Jumna also destroyed many works of art River. About 20,000 workers were because he feared that they might be employed in its construction, completed worshipped as idols. after some 20 years by about 1650. Aurangzeb was born in Dohad, near According to tradition, the Taj Mahal Ahmadabad. In a struggle for the throne, was designed by a Turkish architect. It Aurangzeb murdered his three other is made of white marble and rests on a brothers, including the crown prince platform of red sandstone. At each Dara Shukoh, and deposed Shah corner of the platform stands a slender Jahan, the reigning emperor, to seize minaret (prayer tower). Each tower is the throne for himself. Shah Jahan died 40.5 metres high. The building itself is a prisoner in the fortress of Agra. almost 57 metres square. A dome Aurangzeb's reign was one of the covers the centre of the building. longest in the history of the Mughal dynasty. His rebellion and acts of cruelty It is over 21 metres in diameter and 36.5 toward his family at first aroused public metres high. Passages from the Muslim horror and dislike. Yet there was no law holy book, the Quran, decorate the recognized in Islamic states to nominate outside along with inlaid floral patterns. a legal successor to the king. The A central room contains two cenotaphs succession was often settled by wars (monuments). Visitors can see the and by murders. monuments through a carved alabaster screen. The bodies of Shah Jahan and The new emperor, Aurangzeb, was a his wife lie in a vault below. The tomb strict Muslim. To begin with, he followed stands in a garden. the policy of making peace with the non-

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Muslim peoples he conquered and The visible decline of the empire can be bringing them into the imperial service. dated from 1712, the year of the death But the policy broke down, and in the of Bahadur Shah 1. But it remained an latter part of his reign, Aurangzeb apparently imposing institution until the imposed a much stricter form of Islamic rule. In 1679, he reintroduced the jiziya, I750s, and few thought its doom a poll tax on non-Muslims. Militarily, inevitable before then. The first stage in Aurangzeb set out to protect his the process was succession wars which northern borders and subdue the left a puppet in the hands of independent Muslim kingdoms in the kingmakers. The kingmakers Deccan and south India. By 1690, the overreached themselves when the third whole of the Indian subcontinent lay choice proved a clever youth who within the Mughal Empire. disposed of them in the course of two Aurangzeb won swift political and Years. military success, through his abilities as a soldier and politician. But his This youth was Muhammad Shah, who conquests brought him great trouble reigned for twenty-nine years until 1748. toward the end of his reign. The wars The twenties saw the next stage when were expensive and the military officers the empire was virtually divided into two. were rewarded for their service by the grant of new jagirs. The jagir-holders Asaf Jah, Nizam-ul-mulk, baulked in his taxed the peasants mercilessly, causing reforming intentions as chief minister in many to flee from the villages. Much Delhi, went back to his Deccan land was left uncultivated as a result. provinces and became the virtually independent ruler of the southern half of Aurangzeb's reign was troubled by the Mughal empire with Hyderabad as developments in west and south India. As early as the 1660's, Shivaji, a Hindu its capital. chief of western India, had built up a strong private army and begun to raid The empire bad crushed the Sikhs in Mughal towns and cities. He captured 1716, but it found itself helpless against and sacked the great port of Surat. the Marathas. In 1738 the Marathas Shivaji's followers, known as the plundered the suburbs of Delhi and Marathas, were very good cavalry dictated a peace which divided the two fighters. They took all the strong fortresses from the Mughal governors. halves of the empire by the cession of Aurangzeb had to fight the Marathas, the province of Malwa. In 1739 came and many other local chiefs in the south, the humiliation of the Persian King Nadir who were constantly rebelling against Shah's invasion. Neglect, ineptitude, Mughal rule and trying to reestablish divided counsels, and treachery led to their independence. military debacle at Karnal, the

occupation of Delhi, massacre, and The Last Mughals wholesale plunder. Nevertheless, when Nadir Shah's back was turned, with the

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Peacock Throne in his train, the empire Aurangzeb's death had created a void in seemed to recover and even repelled the Mughal empire which none of his the first of the Afghan incursions in successors were able to fill. Frequent 1748. With Muhammad Shah's death struggles for throne and betrayal of the collapse began. A civil war between ministers had resulted in the weakening rival ministers left a headlong and of the empire. Nadir Shah, who from ruthless youth in power, who murdered being a chief of dacoits had become the two emperors and called in the king of Persia, saw the weak empire as Marathas before vanishing into an opportunity. obscurity. The south was already the Nizam's domain. Kabul was lost to Nadir In 1738, Nadir Shah proceeded to Shah in 1739. Sindh and fertile Gujarat invade India. The excuse for the with Surat went in 1750, prosperous invasion being that the Mughal emperor Oudh in 1754, and the martial Punjab to Muhammad Shah had insulted the the Afghans in the same year. Bengal Persian envoy at the royal court of still sent tribute but was virtually Delhi. He overran the western frontiers independent. of Mughal empire capturing Ghazni, Kabul and Lahore in 1739. When Nadir The cause of this collapse is usually put Shah crossed the down to the effeteness of the emperors. Governor of Punjab requested the This was certainly one cause since Mughal empire to reinforce the defences personality was one of the main imperial in Punjab, but the then Mughal emperor pillars. But it was not the only cause or Muhammad Shah turned a deaf ear necessarily the vital one. Another towards his genuine request. important reason was Aurangzeb's policy of treating the empire as a Muslim Soon Nadir Shah stormed Punjab, state instead of an Indian state with Muhammad Shah realizing the danger Islam as the state religion. Which asked Khan Dauran and Nizam-ul-Mulk alienated Hindus to such an extent that to lead the Mughal forces against Nadir they had no desire of allowing Mughal Shah. But the two declined, so empire to continue. Martial groups like ultimately Muhammad Shah decided to the Sikhs and the Jats were encouraged lead the forces himself. The two forces to open revolt. And the Marathas with met at Karnal, but soon the Mughal their invincibility and Guerrilla warfare forces were encircled and defeated. The had all the capabilities to ruin the Nawab of Awadh Saadat Khan was Mughals and form another empire. taken prisoner and Khan Dauran was seriously wounded.

Nadir Shah The defeat of the Mughal army created confusion in their ranks. The Nizam

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History played the role of mediator and Nadir Shah on his return after persuaded Nadir Shah to return to plundering and slaughtering Delhites for Persia on receiving 20 million rupees. 57 days, took with him the famous Mughal emperor pleased with Nizam 'Peacock throne' built by Shahjahan and conferred him the title of 'Amir-Ul-Umra' the legendary 'Koh-i-noor' along with and also appointed him the Prime 600 million rupees worth of jewellery, Minister. Jealous Saadat Khan gold worth 10 million rupees and coins approached Nadir Khan and told him worth 6 million rupees. His total that he should not get satisfied with collection of booty was worth 700 million such a paltry sum which even a rupees and also took care to include in provincial governor can give him. This his train 100 elephants, 7000 craftsmen, had an electrifying effect on the Persian 100 stone-cutters and 200 carpenters. ruler and the grandeur of Delhi flashed before his eyes. Nadir Shah's invasion did a irreparable damage to the Mughal empire. Mughal Triumphant Nadir Shah entered Delhi provinces across the Indus were along with the humbled Mughal seceded to the Persians. Later on Emperor. The keys of the Delhi fort and inspired by the antics of Nadir Shah his treasure had already been surrendered. successor Ahmad Shah Abdali too An amount was also settled with Nadir invaded India several times between Shah as a condition for his return. But a 1748 and 1767 and plundered Delhi. rumour spread that Nadir Shah has been killed. Riots were sparked off in Delhi in which few Persian soldiers were The nawabs of Awadh killed. As Nadir Shah heard of this he straightaway rode into the city, in the Nawab Saadat Khan (1722-1739) city he saw the corpses of Persian soldiers lying on the streets. Near the Sunhari masjid of Roshnuddola, some The power of the shaikhzadas remained people hurled stones at him also a stray paramount and unchallenged until bullet killed a Persian soldier. He was Saadat Khan stepped into Lucknow. enraged, he ordered a general Being appointed Subedar in 1722 massacre at all those localities where Saadat Khan laid the foundation of the bodies of Persian soldiers were Awadh dynasty of the Shia Nawabs of found. Consequently on 11th of march Iranian lineage based first at Faizabad 1739 citizens of Delhi were plundered and later at Lucknow. He died in 1739 and slaughtered, some historians say A.D. in Delhi. Although he died a natural that nearly 0.2 million people were death due to the chronic pain in his leg killed. caused by a tumor, which was probably cancerous, yet his sudden death gave rise to the calumny that he committed

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History suicide by consuming poison because of revenues of Ghazipur in 1775. loss of credibility both with the victor and Safdarjang was a restless, ambitious the vanquished during the invasion of and impulsive ruler who was engaged in India by Nadir Shah. violent disturbances which brought momentous vicissitudes for his reign ( 1754 – 1775 ). Shuja-Ud-Daula died Nawab Safdar Jang (1739 – 1754) early in January 1775 and was laid at his mausoleum at Gulab-Bari, Faizabad. Saadat Khan was succeeded by his son-in-law, Safdar Jung who set up his military head-quarters at Faizabad. His Nawab Asaf ud-Daula (1775-1798) rule of fifteen years (1739 – 1754)saw no peace as he was constantly engaged The accession of Asaf-Ud-Daula, the in struggle against the Bangash Nawabs fourth Nawab, brought a great change in of Farrukhabad. Safdar Jung had to Awadh politics. He moved the court of leave the Delhi court due to Awadh from Faizabad to Lucknow in conspiracies. He returned to Awadh in 1775. When the court moved to 1753, but died within a year at Rupar Lucknow, the kernel of the court, as if, ghat, near Sultanpur in 1754. His shed its old husk and acquired a new mausoleum, which is one of the finest one and the city largely grew in and pieces of the architecture of the period, around the existing town to is in . accommodate the influx of the people. There emerged a powerful Shia culture, in constant interaction with Shia heart Nawab Shuja ud-Daula (1754-1775) lands of Iran and Iraq. The increasing number of Shia emigrants from Iranian Safdar Jung was succeeded by his son, cities veritably transformed Lucknow Shuja – Ud – Daula, who stayed mostly into a great intellectual center. at Faizabad but was always eager to extend his dominion up to Bihar. He The Nawab constructed Daulat Khana, made several efforts to this end, by the large palace – garden complex as supporting Shah Alam II, and residence for himself, the major subsequently Mir Kasim but was mosques like Asfi Masjid, enlarged the defeated in the battle by the English at Chowk and set up dozen major markets Buxar in 1764. The defeat compelled to form the core of royal quarter of the him to enter into a treaty with the East city. He built the gateway, Rumi India Company. The agreement not only Darwaza and Bara Imambara to provide paved the way for British advent on the succor to the victims of famine of 1784. soils of Awadh but also their gradual The arched roof of Imambara, built ascendancy to real power. The Nawab without a single beam or pillar for first gave up the fort of Chunar, and then support, is one of the largest of its kind ceded the Banaras region and the in the World. The Bhul Bhulaiya at

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Imambara is a unique labyrinth of the de-facto guardianship of wasiqadars intricate balconies and passages, with or pensioners against the Nawab 489 identical doorways, which make one himself. feel being lost. Asaf- Ud-Daula also built Sadat Ali Khan, though a miser, was Bibiyapur Kothi and Chinhut Kothi. nevertheless an enthusiastic builder and Overwhelmed by the design of he commissioned many palaces, Constantia built by Claude Martin he including Dilkusha, Hayat Baksh Kothi, purchased it, offering to give ten lakhs of Farhat Baksh Kothi as well as Lal gold coins. However, before the . He also constructed, Chhatar transaction could be completed, the Manzil, Kothi Dil Aram, Munawar Baksh, Nawab died in 1798 and was laid to rest Khursid Manzil and the Chaupar Stables in the magnificent Imambara built by abandoning the Mughal style by him. The British absorbed Allahabad adopting European Innovations in and the adjoining region in the same architecture. year. In 1814, Sadat Ali Khan died and was

buried with his wife Khursheed Zadi in Nawab Wazir Ali (1798) the twin tombs of Qaiserbagh adjoining the Begum Hazrat Mahal Park. Wazir Ali became the Nawab of Awadh after the death of Asaf – Ud – Daula. His succession was disputed on his being Nawab Ghazi-ud-Din Haider (1814- an illegitimate son of Asaf-ud-Daula, 1827) whose brother Sadat Ali Khan made overtures to the British who finally Ghazi-ud-din Haider became Nawab in deposed and imprisoned Wazir Ali at 1814. He broke the frayed ties between Vellore as the latter did not toe their the defunct Mughal empire and Awadh lines and revolted against the British. and declared it an independent state in 1819. He was now called King, but for

all formal and ceremonial purposes, the Nawab Saadat Ali Khan (1798-1814) Resident was deemed his equal. The Resident even had an edge over the Sadat Ali Khan was made Nawab on king; he could threaten and bully while 21st January 1798 at a grand darbar the King could only sulk and held at Bibiyapur kothi. As a mark of occasionally protest. gratitude, the Nawab formally ceded lower Doab, Gorakhpur and Rohilkhand. He built two houses in Moti Mahal While Awadh shrank half in size, the complex, Mubarak Manzil and Shah powers of British Resident grew in Manzil. He got built for his European inverse proportion. The resident wife a house named Vilayati Bagh in gradually arrogated to himself the right European style. Near it was constructed to hold a darbar or court and assumed Qadam Rasul which supposedly bears

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History the foot prints of Muhammed on black Begum forcibly enthroned Munna Jan at stone. Owing to his religious fervency, the Lal Baradari. The British intervened he also constructed a holy mausoleum, and exploited the situation to their Najaf, the replica of Ali’s burial place at advantage. They arrested Munna Jan Najaf in Iraq. He was buried there on his and Badshah Begum and arranged for death in 1827. Later, his three begums the accession of Nasir-ud Din Haider, were also buried at Shah Najaf the son of late Nawab Sadat Ali Khan, Imambara. who promised to pay a large sum of money to the British for this.

Nawab Nasir-ud-Din Haider (1827- 1837) Nawab Mohammad Ali Shah (1837- 1842) Ghazi-ud-din Haider’s son, Nasir-ud-din Haider ascended the throne in 1827. Muhammad Ali Shah was 63 years of The administration of the kingdom was age when he ascended the throne. He left to hands of wazir Hakim Mahdi and was an experienced man and had seen later to Raushan-ud-Daula. The king the glorious days of his father. He kept himself busy in debaucheries and started to economise and set right the inventing religious rites. He lived mostly administrative machinery. He built the in womens quarters and even dressed Husainabad (Chhota) Imambara in 1838 like a woman. He had a colourful court and created Hooseinabad Endowment and led a very lavish life. Fund to support it. His strong belief in astrology and Muhammad Ali Shah had resolved to astronomy led him to set up an make Lucknow into veritable Babylon. observatory at Lucknow — Tarawali He started building in the Kothi. He added Darshan Vilas, a neighbourhood of the present Clock European style Kothi to the Farhat Tower, an edifice similar to Babylon’s Baksh complex in 1832 and reproduced minaret or floating garden and named it a Karbala at Iradatnagar for his place of Satkhanda, but it reached only its fifth burial. storey in 1842 when Muhammad Ali Shah died. In 1837, he was poisoned to death by his own friends and favourites. Nasiruddin Haider had died without any Nawab Amjad Ali Shah (1842-1847) offspring and his queen Badshah Begum put forward Munna Jan as a After Muhammad Ali Shah, his son claimant to the throne though both Amjad Ali Shah ascended the throne. Ghaziuddin Haider and Nasir uddin He had received an excellent education Haider had refused to acknowledge him which made him a devout Muslim but as belonging to royal lineage. Badshah fell short of making him a capable ruler.

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He became a deeply religious, of Qaiser Bagh, with its lawns was circumspect and abstinent ruler of called Jilo Khana. In the center was a Awadh. As a result, the system of Baradari flanked by two mermaid gates administration toned up by Muhammad (Lakhigate) on eastern and western Ali Shah became completely ends. On the right end was Chandwali disorganised while the vicious officers Baradari, which was paved with silver had their day. His ability to rule was and the Khas Muqam and Badshah considerably undermined by the Manzil, which used to be special competing power structure created by residence of the king. The buildings at the East India Company and its large Qaiser Bagh quadrangle were occupied scale interference in the affairs of the mainly by the ladies of his seraglio. To kingdom. The situation progressively the left of western Lakhi Gate was sapped the authority of the king. Roshan-ud Daula Kothi built by the Wazir of Nasiruddin Haider. Wajid Ali Amjad Ali Shah died in 1848 due to Shah confiscated it and named it Qaiser cancer and was buried at the Imambara Pasand, where one of his wife Mushuq Sibtainabad in western part of Mahal used to live. He purchased Hazratganj, a quarter which he had Chaulakhi Kothi from Azimulla Khan. himself established. During the first war of independence, Begum Hazrat Mahal held her court from this Kothi. Nawab Wajid Ali Shah (1847-1856) The British were looking for an Wajid Ali Shah, the eldest son of Amjad opportunity to annex Awadh. About Ali Shah, became the king of Awadh in Wajid Ali Shah, Lord Dalhousie once 1847. Wajid Ali Shah was himself a wrote: “The king of Oudh seems great theatre genius and had set up a disposed to bumptious. I wish he would Pari Khana for training artists. He was be. To swallow him before I go, would also a great patron of artists, singers give me satisfaction”. He referred to and musicians. He lived in an Awadh as the “luscious cherry” that will atmosphere of gaiety and merriment. drop into their mouth one day especially Wajid Ali Shah was completely given to if the British continued shaking the tree pleasure in the closing years of his to help it down. reign. He was devoted to his large They found an opportunity. Hindu – harem, his boon companions, his Muslim rupture over Hanuman Garhi at columbary, and his large and impressive Ayodhya created so much tumult for the menagerie. secular-minded king that the British got Wajid Ali Shah was greatly interested in an excuse to annex Awadh on the self – architecture. He started building the righteous ground that “British Qaiser Bagh palace complex as soon as Government would be guilty in the sight he came to power. The inner court yard of God and man, if it were any longer to

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Module 1a: Uttar Pradesh History aid in sustaining by its countenance an  Dharmapala defeated administration with evil to millions.” The Indrayudha, the king of Kanauj British annexed Awadh on 11th and installed his nominee February 1856 deposing Wajid Ali Shah. Chakrayudha to the throne of

Kanauj. The Palas  Dharmapala held a grand darbar at Kanauj, which was attended Introduction by several kings. However, he  After the death of Harsha and up could not consolidate his to the rise of the Palas, the position. is not clear.  Rashtrakuta king, Dhruva  During this time, West Bengal defeated Dharmapala near was known as Gauda and East Monghyr (Bihar) in a battle. Bengal as Vanga.  Meanwhile Nagabhatta II,  Bengal was subject to internal Pratihara king became more disorder, which has been termed powerful. as Matsyanyaya.  After Dharmapala, his son Rulers of Devapala became the ruler. He  Gopala was the elected king by was the mightiest Pala king. He the people in a revolution to end conquered –Pragjotishpur the Matsyanyaya. (Assam) and Utkala (Orissa).

 The history of Gopala’s early life  The kings Palas dynasty ruled is not known. over Bihar, Bengal, and parts of Orissa and Assam with many  Gopala introduced peace in the ups and downs for over four kingdom and laid the foundation centuries. for the Pala dynasty.  Arab merchant Sulaiman testifies  Dharmapala became ruler after their power. He calls the Pala Gopala in about A.D. 780. He kingdom Ruhma (or Dharma), undertakes the expansion of his short for Dharmapala, empire.

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 Sulaiman mentioned that the educational institutions of its Pala rulers were at war with their time. neighbors – the Pratiharas and  It imparted education in various the Rashtrakutas, but his troops branches of knowledge. were more in number than his adversaries.  Dharmapala donated the royal income from two hundred  Sulaiman also mentioned that ‘it surrounding villages to meet the was usual for the Pala king to be expenses of Nalanda University. accompanied by a force of 50,000 elephants. ’  Devapala also donated income from five villages.  The Tibetan chronicles also provide detailed information  The king of Suvarnadvipa about the Palas dynasties. (modern Malaya Peninsula, Java and Sumatra), Maharaja  According to Tibetan historians, Balaputradeva erected a Pala rulers were great patrons of monastery in Nalanda and Buddhist learning and religion. requested Devapala to donate  Dharmapala founded the famous five villages for the maintenance Buddhist monastery at of that monastery. Vikramashila. It became eminent  The Pala kings patronized as Nalanda (in fame). Hinduism as well.  During Pala reign, Nalanda  Vinayakapala built one thousand University became famous all temples in honor of the Lord over the world. Saiva. They also gave donations  During this period, Nalanda had to Brahmans to settle in their more than 10,000 students and country and run gurukuls. teachers coming not only from  The powerful Sailendra dynasty different parts of India, but also of South East Asia sent many from central Asia, China, South embassies to the Pala kings. East Asia, and Sri Lanka. They ruled over Malaya, Java,  Nalanda University was Sumatra, and neighboring considered as one of the biggest islands.

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 The Palas had close trade Political cause: Major political cause for the outbreak of the Revolt was the contacts and cultural links with policy of annexation followed South East Asia and China. by Dalhousie. On application of the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ or on the ground of  The trade with South East Asia mis-governance he annexed states after and China was very profitable states deploring their rulers. Satara, Jhansi, Sambalpur, Nagpur, etc. fill and added greatly to the victim in his aggressive policy. All these prosperity of the . states came under British rule. In 1856, he captured Oudh on the plea of misrule. He looked the palaces of Nagpur and Oudh. Not only the ruling house, but also the employees and other dependent families were deprived Great Revolt of 1857 of their livings for the policy of Dalhousie. His maltreatment towards The Great Revolt of 1857 (also Indian the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah-II rebellion of 1857, the Great uprising of hurt the sentiment of the Muslim 1857, the Great rebellion, Indian Sepoy community. Discontinuation of the mutiny) is regarded as India’s First War pension of the Peshwa Nana Sahib of Independence against the British rule. shocked the Marathas. This discontent It was the most remarkable single event of royal families, army men and in the history of India after the common people jointly exposed in the establishment of British rule. It was the Great Revolt of 1857. result of the century-old British rule in India. In comparison to the previous Economic cause: The Great Revolt of uprisings of the Indians, the Great 1857 was also an outburst of grievances Revolt of 1857 was of a greater due to the economic exploitation of the dimension and it assumed almost an all- company. India’s traditional economy India character with participation of collapsed as a result of the British people from different sections of the ‘investment’ policies and revenue society. This Revolt was initiated by the administration. The company’s trade sepoys of the company. So it has been policy destroyed Indian handicrafts. commonly termed as `Sepoy Mutiny‘. Huge numbers of Indians were thrown But it was not simply a revolt of the out of employment. The British, opened sepoys. a new avenue of exploitation on the peasants By introducing permanent Causes settlement. Exploitation of the Zamindars gave rise 10 landless The causes of the Great Revolt of laborers who became restless by and 1857 and Sepoy Mutiny may be studied by. Thus out of discontent the artisans in the following heads: and peasantry joined hands with the sepoys in the mutiny.

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Military cause: The sepoys of the A.D.). But the planned revolt started at company regiment had been feeling Meerut (May, 1857 A.D.). Gradually it dissatisfied with the English for various spread from Punjab in the north to reasons. Narmada in south, from Rajputana in the west to Bihar in the east. As the 1. Thus was a great disparity in revolt was started by the Indian sepoys salaries between the Indian and in the British army, the revolt became European soldiers. known as Sepoy mutiny. When the 2. The Indian sepoys were treated sepoys of Meerut reached Delhi there with contempt by their European was huge upsurge. They declared old officers. Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah as the 3. The sepoys were sent to distant Badshah of India. He was accepted as parts of the empire, but were not the symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity. With paid any extra allowance. the outbreak of mutiny among Sepoys 4. Indian sepoys were refused common men joined the revolt. Farmers promotion in service as like their and artisans put further force behind the European counterparts. Out of mutiny. The second reason for this such discontent the Indian mass revolt was the unity among the sepoys led to a mutiny. Hindus and Muslims. On observing this historians thought that, up to this period Social cause: The English could not there was no communal feelings among establish any social relationship with the the masses. Indians. The racial arrogance of the British created a difference between the End of the Revolt rulers and the ruled. The British government came out with all the powers to suppress the revolt. Enactment of some Acts greatly The sepoys fought the battle with their offended the sentiment of the people. limited strength for four months. Then, Some of these acts were taken as the sepoys had to retreat. On 25th deliberate blow at the Hindu religion, September British troops regained custom and right of inheritance. Delhi. Bahadur Shah was arrested. Nana Saheb lost the battle of Direct cause: At that time, Enfield rifles Kanpur. His commander Tantia Topi were introduced in the army. The bullets continued the fight up to April, 1859 A.D. of these rifles were covered by paper and surrendered to the British with grease like thing. The Sepoys were force. Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi lost her life to cut the cover by teeth before using it. in the battleground. Kunwar Singh, The Hindu and Muslim soldiers refused Bakht Khan of Bihar, Bahadur Khan, to cut the covers. They protested Moulavi Ahmed of Faizabad lost their against this and were arrested. That lives one after the other. By the end of ignited the fire. 1859 A.D. the British power was reestablished in troubled areas. Under the leadership of the agony of the Sepoys exposed at Reason of failure of the revolt Barrackpore in Calcutta (March, 1857

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There were several reasons behind the sepoy mutiny as it had a large mass failure of this revolt. base. Though in the beginning it was like sepoy mutiny, but later on it turned 1. There was no central organization out to be a real mass upsurge. of the sepoys. There was no unified action also. Bahadur Shah, Karl Marx in his several essays Nana Saheb, Lakshmi Bai, no one described this revolt as nationalist fight had acceptance as a real leader. for independence. Marxist writers looked They had different goals and times at this event as uprising of peasants again they had contradictions. against feudal system of exploitation. 2. The British had a huge number of V.D. Savarkar, the great revolutionary, forces. New groups of soldiers described this revolt as the first struggle were sent to India after the end of for independence. M.N. Roy said that it Crimean war. Fresh army men was the reaction of the feudal against came from Singapore. As a result capitalism. of these, in the middle of the revolt the strength of the British force On the centenary of the great revolt Dr. was doubled. The chance of a win Ramesh Chandra Majumder wrote and became remote. published a book entitled ‘Sepoy Mutiny’ 3. The sepoys had no improved and ‘Revolt of Eighteen Fifty Seven’. Dr. arms with them. On the other Majumder thought that this was nothing hand, the British force had huge but a revolt of the sepoy. He also said and improved armory. They could that in some places few non-military not match improved guns and ri- persons came out in support of the fles with their old model musket, sepoys but they were local landlords, spears and sword. So the defeat talukdars and feudal leaders. In his was almost certain. opinion it was nothing better than 4. Further the leaders of this revolt feudalistic reaction of the revolt. could not get the support of several native states like Holker, Scindia and Rajput sardars and But many historians are of opinion that kings. They supported the British. the Great movement of 1857 A.D. Educated middle-class people also cannot be termed as narrow, isolated were behind the British power. and reactionary. The sepoys established a symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity by Nature of the Great Revolt of 1857 electing Bahadur Shah as the Emperor of India. In the Ajamgarh declaration a There are differences of opinions call was given to people of all classes of amongst historians about the character mass to unite against the British rule. It of this great revolt. Some historians are may be righty that they had no idea of opinion that the revolt in the North- about national government, but Western province was a lawless revolt nationalism was there. So it can be by a group of sepoys. called a national movement.

On the other hand, some historians Importance and Outcome of the Great believe that it was more than just a Revolt of 1857

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It can be said that the great revolt of “doctrine of lapse” of Lord Dalhousie 1857 A.D. was a failure, but was not was cancelled. New recruitment policy fruitless. of the army men was announced to see that they could not organize any revolt. 1. United Effort: From this revolt, we In the important positions of the government no native people (Indian) can have a picture of India’s struggle for keeping the rights. There were several was given any chance. revolts before this, but there was no feeling of Indian-ness in those revolts. The revolt of 1857 A.D. was a collected effort of different sections of people.

2. Awakening of Peasants class: The peasants joined this revolt which was out and out against the British. This was unique.

3. Development of National Feeling: Dr. K. M Panikkar wrote that though the sepoys had limitations and weaknesses, but their efforts to make India free from British rule was patriotic work and a progressive step. If we do not consider any historical event on the basis of its success then the revolt of 1857 A.D. was never a tragedy. Even inspite of failure that served a great purpose, it was a source of inspiration in India’s freedom struggle.

4. End of Company Rule: The political result of this great revolt was the end of company’s rule in India. By a new act introduced in the British Parliament British government took the charge to rule India. From then onward a Viceroy as a representative of British King ruled India.

5. Queen’s proclamation: The Queen’s Proclamation showered many promises in 1858 A.D. Government service was promised irrespective of cast, religion and on the basis of merit only. Ill framed

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