Homegrown Islam in the USA

Bauer: Homegrown Islam in the USA

problem stems from the fact that the US government does By Bruce L. Bauer not include religious background questions in its census counts, thus leaving the ques- Muslims in America are an tion of the Muslim population ethnically diverse group, coming in the USA to less than accu- from more than sixty nations and rate estimates. Many claim representing very different racial, that there are between 6 and 7 linguistic, tribal, educational, million Muslims in the United and cultural backgrounds. States, while others are just as Yvonne Haddad groups them insistent that there are only into three categories: immi- about two million (Boehlert grants, converts, and sojourners 2001, 4). It is beyond the scope (Conser, 218-219). This article of this article to deal with this will focus on those who have issue. Regardless of the num- converted to Islam in America, ber, it is a given that the Mus- with particular attention to the lim population in the USA is brand of homegrown Islam that growing rapidly, that there are has developed among African more than 1,209 mosques, and Americans. that African Americans consti- There is a growing contro- tute 25-30 percent of all Mus- versy over how many Muslims lims in the United States there are in the USA, with (Sheler and Betzold 2001, 50). widely different numbers Over the past ninety years claimed by various groups. The converts to Islam in North Bruce L. Bauer is America have largely come from Chair of the Mis- among African Americans. Ini- sion Department at tially Blacks joined a racist, the Seventh-day separatist movement that could Adventist Theologi- cal Seminary at be labeled quasi-Islamic at Andrews Univer- best, but most of those con- sity. He and his verts have now moved to a wife spent 23 much more orthodox Islamic years in Asia. position that encourages par- Published by Digital Commons @ Andrews University, 2005 1 40 Journal of Adventist Mission Studies Journal of Adventist Mission Studies, Vol. 1 [2005], No. 1, Art. 5 ticipation in the nation and Qur’an to memory in order to calls for brotherhood among all keep their faith alive and pass it races. While small splinter on to others (Waugh, 218). How- groups still mirror the early ever, the combined forces of in- stages of the separatist Black stitutional slavery were too much Muslims, the large majority has and, in the end, Protestant moved into mainstream Islam. Christianity largely became the In this article I will briefly religion of the African Americans. sketch the development and The second attempt by Islam growth of Islam among African to make inroads among African Americans, then I will offer four Americans was carried out in brief suggestions on how the 1913 by Nobel Drew, a Black Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) “prophet” from North Carolina Church should begin to relate who established a “Moorish Sci- to the growth of Islam in the ence Temple” in Newark, New African American communities Jersey. His followers were en- of North America. couraged to be known no longer

Christianity was the religion of the White man and Islam was the religion for Blacks.

Islam and African Americans as “Negroes” or “African” but as The relationship between Is- “Moorish-Americans.” To Drew, lam and African Americans goes Islam was the religion of the back to the arrival of African Moors, the Black conquerors slaves on the North American from Africa who once ruled much continent in the late seventeenth of Europe. He taught that Chris- century. Slavery, in its dehu- tianity was the religion of the manizing forms, separated fami- White man and that Islam was lies, split up slaves from the the religion for Blacks. Drew’s same cultural and linguistic movement spread to Pittsburgh, backgrounds and also did ev- Detroit, Chicago, Philadelphia, erything possible to destroy the and to a number of cities in the Islamic religious heritage held South. Temples were established by some of the slaves (Waugh and during Drew’s lifetime mem- 1983, 218). bership grew to around 30,000 Arabic speaking slaves were (Woodberry 1989, 139). brought to the United States as Drew’s movement utilized early as 1717 (Haney 1992, 8). the Qur’an, Muslim names, fez- Accounts persist of Muslim zes, and repudiated certain slaves who committed the entire fundamental Christian beliefs, https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/jams/vol1/iss1/5 2 1/2005 41 Bauer: Homegrown Islam in the USA but it was not Islam. Drew’s that Whites were devils, and that message was a mixture of Black the only hope for Blacks was to- nationalism, Christian revival- tal separation from Whites and ism, and Islamic teachings. the development of self-reliance. What it did accomplish in North Farrad began to call his move- America was to create a wide- ment the Nation of Islam. His spread awareness of Islam in first temple was built in Detroit the Black community (Waugh, to care for the 8,000 followers he 221). was able to recruit in that city between 1930 and 1933 (Marsh Nation of Islam 1984, 53). Because of the rapid Sometime during the sum- growth, he gathered a group of mer of 1930, a peddler, Wali men and began to train them as Farrad, appeared in the Black ministers. Among that group was ghetto of Detroit. He gained en- Elijah Poole, the son of a Baptist trance to homes selling arti- minister and very knowledgeable facts and silks, which he in the Bible. Since Farrad used claimed were like those Black Bible passages to introduce his people wore in their homeland new religion, Poole’s biblical across the sea. He claimed to knowledge fitted his strategy. It have come from Mecca on a was not long before Poole became mission of redemption to re- Farrad’s protégé and right-hand store the Black underclass. He man. Poole’s name was changed taught that Blacks were all of to Elijah Muhammad and he be- Muslim heritage, that Black de- came the Chief Minister of the basement was the result of cen- Nation of Islam. After Farrad’s dis- turies of separation from the appearance, Elijah Muhammad knowledge of Allah and that he, was elected the head of the Nation Wali Farrad, had been sent to of Islam. wake up the Black Nation to Elijah Muhammad built the their full potential in a world Nation into a strong movement temporarily dominated by with steady growth. In 1955 “blue-eyed devils” (Lincoln there were fifteen temples in the 1973, 12-14). United States. By 1960 there Farrad initially used the Bible were fifty-five temples in twenty- as his textbook since it was the two states (Woodberry 1989, 140). only religious book his followers During Elijah Muhammad’s lead- knew, but he stressed that he ership the Nation of Islam re- was the only one able to inter- mained exclusively a Black or- pret the language of Scripture. ganization that appealed to Meanwhile, he slowly began to young (80% of new recruits were introduce people to the Qur’an, between 17 and 35), disadvan- always emphasizing a message taged, African American males that Christianity was a tool in the with a previous Christian back- hands of White slave masters, ground (Lincoln 1973, 22-28). Published by Digital Commons @ Andrews University, 2005 3 42 Journal of Adventist Mission Studies Journal of Adventist Mission Studies, Vol. 1 [2005], No. 1, Art. 5 The Nation of Islam strongly for those of his followers who emphasized moral living and lacked these basic necessities. ethical conduct for its members He was also able to engender who were integrated into a car- pride in his followers as they re- ing brotherhood that provided alized, for the first time in their them with a sense of belonging, lives, that they shared ownership support, and sustenance against in successful business ventures a hostile world. They were to re- and that they were largely inde- frain from eating pork and corn pendent. bread (slave diet), and eat only Elijah Muhammad’s teach- fresh meat of chicken, lamb, ings were strange and have al- beef, and fish from either Mus- ways created barriers that kept lim or Kosher Jewish shops. To- his followers within the Nation bacco and alcohol were abso- of Islam from being accepted by lutely forbidden. Members were the larger community of ortho- to observe strict sexual morality. dox Islam. Elijah Muhammad A woman was not to be alone taught that Allah was a man, with any man except her hus- specifically, Wali Farrad. He also

Farrad taught that the only hope for Blacks was total separation from Whites.

band. Her dress was not to be taught that the universe was cre- provocative, nor should she use ated and owned by Blacks, and cosmetics. Marriage outside the that the White race was created faith was discouraged and un- 6,000 years ago through some converted spouses were pres- crude engineering by a mad sci- sured to join the group. Divorce entist named Yakub, an exile was discouraged but permitted from Mecca. According to Elijah under certain conditions. Mem- Muhammad’s theory, Yakub cre- bers were required to contribute ated the White race of devils to one tenth of their earnings for the get revenge on those who had support of the group (Woodberry exiled him and his followers to 1989, 140). the Island of Patmos. After Elijah Muhammad used do- Yakub’s death this newly created nations to purchase farms, store- White race returned to Arabia, fronts, bakeries, apartment began to get into trouble, was ex- buildings, and schools in order iled to Europe, and then walled to provide an economic base for in to keep the Whites from his growing organization. By spreading. Part of Muhammad’s owning businesses and land, theory also included the idea that Muhammad was able to provide twenty-four scientists rule the both housing and employment universe, and that they write a https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/jams/vol1/iss1/5 4 1/2005 43 Bauer: Homegrown Islam in the USA prophetic book of history before schooling for students from each 25,000 year period. Accord- kindergarten through high ing to Elijah Muhammad, the school. prophetic book predicted that 5. A national network of Yakub would create his race of temples was organized under White devils, and that they would centralized leadership with rule the earth for 6,000 years. programs filling needs in Now, according to Muhammad’s many areas of life (Haddad interpretation, the 6,000 years 1991, 19). were finished and the Battle of Armageddon between Blacks Malcolm X and Whites, between Muslims In spite of Elijah Muhammad’s and Christians was about to oc- leadership gifts, the greatest pe- cur (Muhammad 1965, 110-126). riod of growth in the Black Mus- During his lifetime Elijah lim movement was largely the Muhammad built an organiza- result of the energetic efforts of tion with strengths in five major Malcolm X. In 1948, while serv- areas: ing a prison sentence at the Nor- 1. Unlike most Islamic organi- folk State Prison Colony in Vir- zations that tend to be egali- ginia, Malcolm Little accepted tarian, the Nation of Islam the teachings of Elijah developed a strong charis- Muhammad and was converted matic and centralized lead- to the Nation of Islam (Haley ership that commanded 1965, 170-171). After his release great loyalty at the grassroots from prison, Malcolm Little, a level. former pimp, drug pusher, 2. The Fruit of Islam (FOI), a armed robber, and numbers well-trained militia, was de- man, returned to Detroit and veloped from militant former began aggressively recruiting for servicemen. The FOI pro- Detroit Temple #1. In keeping tected the community, with Elijah Muhammad’s teach- mosques, and other institu- ing that Blacks should change tions. This organization was their names to show that they accused of the assassination were no longer under the con- of Malcolm X. trol of White slave masters, 3. Successful businesses, Malcolm received a last name banks, and farms were es- “X” as a symbol of his original tablished in order to prove African name. that Black Muslims could Malcolm X was unyielding in control their own destiny and his devotion to Elijah Muhammad provide for their own needs. and extremely aggressive in re- 4. Educational institutions cruiting new members to the were established (named uni- Nation. In recognition of the versities of Islam) and run as growing impact Malcolm X was highly disciplined systems of having on the movement, Elijah Published by Digital Commons @ Andrews University, 2005 5 44 Journal of Adventist Mission Studies Journal of Adventist Mission Studies, Vol. 1 [2005], No. 1, Art. 5 Muhammad appointed him as Qur’an for some prophetic expla- National Spokesman in the nation of what was happening. United States. Malcolm X conducted his own From Detroit, Malcolm went private investigation of the adul- to Boston and organized Temple tery charge, and went so far as #11. In March of 1954 he moved to question Elijah Muhammad in to Philadelphia and in three person. In answer to the ques- months Temple #12 was in op- tions Elijah Muhammad replied, eration. Next, he went to New I’m David. When you read in the York and became the minister in Bible how David took another man’s Temple #7 (Marsh 1984, 72). wife, I’m that David. . . . You read Malcolm X was instrumental in about Lot who went and laid up with establishing most of the temples his own daughter, I have fulfilled all in North America and he believed these things (Marsh 1984, 79). that his efforts were largely responsible for the increase in Wallace was given the task of membership from 400 to 40,000 influencing Malcolm X’s theologi- during his few years as a mem- cal thinking and keeping him up ber in the Nation of Islam. to date on the thinking of the

In spite of Elijah Muhammad’s leadership gifts, the greatest period of growth in the Black Muslim movement was largely the result of the energetic efforts of Malcolm X.

The late 50s and early 60s were stormy years for the Nation Honorable Elijah Muhammad. of Islam. Malcolm X and Wallace However, even Wallace, Elijah’s Deen Muhammad (Elijah’s fifth own son, saw the lie between the son) found themselves under in- teaching and the lifestyle (Marsh creasing pressure and embroiled 1984, 112). in controversy. Many within the As a consequence both Nation of Islam were jealous of Malcolm X and Wallace began to Malcolm X’s successes. There lean more and more toward or- was added tension when two of thodox Islam. Wallace began to Elijah Muhammad’s former sec- question seriously how Wali retaries accused him of commit- Farrad could be God himself when ting adultery. Malcolm X and in some of Farrad’s writings he Wallace Deen Muhammad clearly referred to himself as the searched the Bible and the “messenger of Allah.” Soon both https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/jams/vol1/iss1/5 6 1/2005 45 Bauer: Homegrown Islam in the USA Wallace and Malcolm X were con- to an audience of about 500 vinced that Farrad could not have people in New York City. While been Allah in person. Elijah Muhammad denied any In 1964 Malcolm X left the involvement in Malcolm X’s Nation of Islam and formed his death, three former members of own organization: Muslim the Nation of Islam were con- Mosque, Inc. He made Hajj to victed of his murder (Marsh Mecca, where his ideas and be- 1984, 85). liefs concerning Islamic teachings were further altered Wallace Deen Muhammad (Woodberry 1989, 140). While in Wallace Deen Muhammad, Mecca he observed Muslims from the other reformer and advocate differing cultures and races prac- of a shift toward orthodox Islam ticing true brotherhood. In his in the African American commu- travels he met various leaders nity, continued to have a very from African countries who also contentious relationship with the helped modify his worldview. Nation of Islam and his father.

Malcolm X was . . . largely responsible for the increase in membership from 400 to 40,000 during his few years as a member in the Nation of Islam.

Through these and other events, After a series of suspensions, Malcolm X became a follower of Wallace was restored to the Na- orthodox Islam. As a result of his tion of Islam in 1970. In 1974 ideological shift, he took a new he was restored to ministry Islamic name, Malik el Shabbazz, within the Nation of Islam and and broadened his emphasis allowed to preach what he pleased. from Black nationalism to hu- The day after Muhammad’s death man rights for all peoples (Young on February 25, 1975, Wallace 1979, 80). He began to invite Deen Muhammad was chosen to White Americans to turn also lead the Nation of Islam. toward the spiritual path of truth Under Wallace Muhammad’s and to embrace the brotherhood leadership, dramatic changes of Islam. took place in the Nation of Islam. Malik el Shabbazz had no In 1976 Wallace declared that his time to promote orthodox Islam father was not a prophet and in the Afro-American community began the process of moving the for he was assassinated on Feb- theology of the Nation of Islam ruary 21, 1965, while speaking towards orthodox Islam. Un-Is- Published by Digital Commons @ Andrews University, 2005 7 46 Journal of Adventist Mission Studies Journal of Adventist Mission Studies, Vol. 1 [2005], No. 1, Art. 5 lamic elements such as racism FOI, and the cessation of were eliminated; Malcolm X was preaching a message of racial restored to a position of honor hatred that identified Whites and had a mosque named after as blue-eyed devils (Haddad him; followers were encouraged 1991, 20). to honor the American Constitu- Not everyone was happy tion and to participate in the po- about these changes in the Black litical process. Wali Farrad was Muslim movement in North demoted and became a “wise America. In December of 1977, man.” The five pillars of ortho- the National Spokesman for the dox Islam became central teach- World Community of Islam in the ing points. Temples became West, Louis Adul Farrakhan, de- mosques, ministers became fected, accusing Wallace imams, and Islamic rituals be- Muhammad of denying the gan to be observed (Haddad teachings of his father, Elijah 1991, 19-20). Muhammad. Farrakhan re- Wallace also “changed the ferred to himself as the national name of the organization to spokesman for the Honorable ‘American Bilalian Community’ Elijah Muhammad and contin- in deference to Bilal, the first Mu- ued to promote the radical ezzin of Prophet Muhammad, a Black separatist ideas of the slave of Abyssinian origin who past. His organization took over was converted by the teachings the name “Nation of Islam” and of the prophet Muhammad” continued to print a monthly (Woodberry 1989, 141). newspaper The Final Call, in In 1975 the name was which he reprinted the late changed again to “World Com- Elijah Muhammad’s speeches munity of Islam in the West.” and writings. Further changes occurred in Mainline Muslims consid- 1978 when Wallace Muhammad ered Farrakhan and his follow- resigned as the spiritual leader ers to be non-Muslim heretics, or “Chief Imam” in order to be- but Farrakhan continued to come an ambassador-at-large. draw a large and sympathetic Decentralization occurred as a response among inner city, seventeen-member council with lower class Blacks (Woodberry six regional Imams assumed 1989, 141). However, after un- day-to-day authority. Another dergoing cancer surgery in new name was adopted, “The 1999, Farrakhan began to American Muslim Mission” moderate his racist views and (AMM), which continues to be started the process of moving used. the Nation of Islam closer to Additional changes were in- orthodox Islam by observing stituted. These included a re- the traditional Friday prayers laxation of strict Islamic disci- and keeping the daylight fast pline, the disbanding of the during the month of Ramadan. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/jams/vol1/iss1/5 8 1/2005 47 Bauer: Homegrown Islam in the USA The Nation is also teaching that phasized developing an indepen- the prophet Muhammad re- dent Black economy, from farms ceived the final teachings for to retail outlets, and a rigorous Islam rather than Elijah Muslim code of morality. The as- Muhammad (Wood 2002, 298). cetic lifestyle encouraged thrift and savings, not buying on American Muslim Mission and credit, not spending money on Nation of Islam: Two Ap- foolish pleasures such as danc- proaches ing or sporting events, and not As one looks at the impact of wasting it on frivolous things like Islam in the African American cars, clothes, and records. communities of North America in The AMM sees in its member- 2005, one is struck by the fact ship the results of forty years of that the America Muslim Mission preaching such a message. As and the Nation of Islam attract Sister Evelyn Akbar reports: two distinct groups of people. Everyone who has been in the Lawrence H. Mamiya, in his movement for ten years or more has chapter, “Minister Louis moved upward. You can’t help it be- Farrakhan and the Final Call: cause the Honorable Elijah Schism in the Muslim Move- Muhammad’s message was strongly

Middle-class African American Muslims . . . have reacted positively to the downplaying of ideas of separatism and themes identifying Whites as devils.

ment,” clearly delineates several economic. If Elijah Muhammad was socio-economic factors that will about anything, he was about up- lifting people’s education and eco- probably continue to drive a nomics (Waugh 1983, 248). wedge between these two major African American Muslim groups As a result, the membership (Waugh 1983, 234-255). of the AMM contains many pro- Presently the AMM is made fessionals: bankers, doctors, law- up of largely middle class mem- yers, educators, and graduates bers, while Farrakhan’s resur- with university degrees. These rected Nation of Islam continues middle class African American to find its base of support in its Muslims, who have been victims lower-class origins. of racism in their climb up the The program of the Honorable economic ladder, are reluctant to Elijah Muhammad strongly em- be called racists. Therefore they

Published by Digital Commons @ Andrews University, 2005 9 48 Journal of Adventist Mission Studies Journal of Adventist Mission Studies, Vol. 1 [2005], No. 1, Art. 5 have reacted positively to the America’s Black middle class. downplaying of ideas of separat- The Mission moved into the ism and themes identifying mainstream of American life. Whites as devils. Members are now encouraged to On June 18, 1975, only a vote, to participate in politics, few months after his father’s and to honor the constitution death, Wallace Muhammad de- and flag of the United States. The clared, “there will be no such result is that out of the approxi- category as a White Muslim or mate two million African Ameri- a Black Muslim. All will be can Muslims all but 20,000 to Muslims. All Children of God” ( 30,000 belong to this moderate, Waugh 1983, 249). This new orthodox stream of Islam policy was a radical shift from (Gilbreath 2000, 53). the early days of the movement. In contrast, the resurrected Most members were ready to Nation of Islam under change and to move beyond rac- Farrakhan’s leadership contin- ism. As Imam Ali Rasheed of the ues a policy of separatism and Malcolm Shabbazz Mosque in alienation from American soci- Harlem said: ety. Farrakhan continues to make racism a central theme of Those who were indoctrinated by his speeches, although in the racism were disappointed because the race game had ended. But the early 2000s he has moderated majority of the people were open to the rhetoric to some degree. The social change and social revolution. Nation of Islam continues to re- We lost people who lacked the un- cruit among the receptive people derstanding, who couldn’t make the of the Black lower class, stresses transition, but we have gained oth- strict discipline and emphasizes ers as a result of the change (249). economic self-help programs. In the early days of Elijah Eddie X, a recent convert to the Muhammad, followers were Nation of Islam from Greensville, placed under severe discipline. Mississippi explained it this way: This helped create a highly dis- What attracted me to Farrakhan ciplined, upwardly mobile middle was his deep concern for the de- class. As the discipline became spised and rejected of American so- habitual and part of a new ciety. I don’t see Wallace’s group as lifestyle, members were happy to being concerned with the outcasts. embrace the relaxation of those dis- They seem to me to be Arabicized in- ciplines by Wallace Muhammad tellectuals, spouting Arabic phrases to you (Waugh 1983, 250). after he assumed leadership. When the twin barriers of racial attacks A Suggested Christian Re- on Whites and strict discipline in sponse many areas of life were removed, How should the American the way was opened for the AMM Christian church and especially to recruit actively among the African American Church, https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/jams/vol1/iss1/5 10 1/2005 49 Bauer: Homegrown Islam in the USA respond to the challenge of the swer some of the most serious Black Muslim Movement? I charges Black Muslims level would like to suggest five areas against Whites and Christianity. that should be addressed. We must acknowledge and re- 1. The church must develop pent for the way Christians in a deeper understanding of the Europe and America used Chris- role of Africa and Islam in his- tianity as a tool for enslaving tory. Most Christians in North Blacks. But we must also know America are totally ignorant of enough to point out the extent the arguments Noble, Stockwell, of slavery in Africa among the fol- and Van Sertima (1978) present lowers of Islam themselves in The African Presence in Ancient (Haney 1992, 20). America: They Came Before Co- 2. The church must strive to lumbus. According to the theory understand Islam from the per- there are three possible periods, spective of Islam, knowing the circa 1200 B.C., circa 800 B.C., historical background, how it de- and a Mandingo period in 1310/ veloped, and then learning all

The Church must acknowledge and educate its members concerning the contributions that people of African descent made within the Bible and also in Church History.

1311 A.D. when Africans could that is possible about why Is- have reached the Americas (Van lam has become entrenched in Sertima 2004, 1). I am not argu- the Black community in North ing either for or against the America (Ellis, 56). Most Ameri- theory, but it should be pointed can Christians in 2004 still know out that Black Muslims utilize very little about the beliefs and this historical perspective in practices of Muslims. If the church their evangelistic strategy. Chris- is to be effective in reaching out tians in America also tend to dis- to African American Muslims, the miss the universal appeal of Is- church must first of all under- lam as something that cannot and stand them and their faith. will not happen in America. Mean- 3. The church must begin to while thousands of African Ameri- look at the world from an Afro- cans continue to convert to a reli- centric perspective. At a time gion few Americans understand. when African Americans are in By deepening our under- the process of searching for their standing of history we can an- roots and reclaiming their Afri- Published by Digital Commons @ Andrews University, 2005 11 50 Journal of Adventist Mission Studies Journal of Adventist Mission Studies, Vol. 1 [2005], No. 1, Art. 5 can identity, as indicated in their in central and southern Africa desire to be known as African and the resulting shift of the cen- Americans rather than Blacks, ter of Christianity to the south- surely it is not too much to ask ern hemisphere. the church to redouble its efforts 4. The church must develop to see the many contributions a stronger incarnational minis- Africans have made and con- try. It is ironic that Islam, the tinue to make to the building up major religion that tolerates no of God’s Kingdom. culture or language other than An Afro-centric perspective Arabic, has been much more ef- understands that God created fective in affirming the roots and African American women and culture of African Americans men in His image, and that they, (Ellis 1983, 54). The biblical like all humankind, are fallen but models and the example of also redeemed in Jesus Christ. Christ challenge the church in This perspective believes that North America to develop com- God is working through African passionate, healing, prophetic, American culture, not against it, and saving congregations in the to bring African Americans into African American communities. a relationship with Him. An incarnational ministry The Church must acknowl- must take seriously the injustice, edge and educate its members the poverty, the oppression, and concerning the contributions the suffering that many in the that people of African descent Black community still face. made within the Bible as well as Throughout history, when the in church history. Christian church has stood in Too often, African American solidarity with suffering people, school children have heard of the speaking in their defense and ancient powerful Islamic king- identifying with their needs, the doms of western Africa (Ghana, church has been viewed not only Mali, Songhay), of the great king as the repository of truth, but Mansa-Musa who reigned from also as being relevant. By not 1312-1337, and of Timbuktu, taking seriously the needs of the one of the greatest learning cen- African American community, ters in the world, but few have the church is too often perceived heard or know of the contribu- as containing no truth (Haney tions of the African Christian 1992, 21). world, such as in the Sudan, 5. The church must develop Ethiopia, and Egypt (Haney a ministry that models the trans- 1992, 21). forming power of Jesus Christ. We must not only acknowl- Merely understanding the role of edge the contributions of Afri- Africa and Islam in history, de- cans in the history of Christian- veloping an Afro-centric perspec- ity but we must also note the tive, and having an incarnational rapid expansion of Christianity ministry will still be inadequate https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/jams/vol1/iss1/5 12 1/2005 51 Bauer: Homegrown Islam in the USA unless Christians model the Haney, Marsha S. 1992. The West transforming power of Jesus African American Muslims. Christ. When White Christians, Theology, News and Notes 38, Black Christians, Hispanic no. 3:8-9, 20-21. Lincoln, C. Eric. 1973. The Black Christians, and Korean Chris- Muslims in America. Westport, tians live and work in the same CT: Greenwood Press. community, belong to the same Marsh, Clinton. 1984. From Black denomination yet do not know Muslims to Muslims: The each other, and never mingle, transition from separatism to such Christian communities only Islam. Meuchen, NJ: The reflect the separatist attitudes of Scarecrow Press. American culture. The church in Muhammad, Elijah. 1965. Mes- America must do more than is sage to the Black man in America. Chicago: Mosque of being done by the secularists in Islam No. 2. society, for in Jesus Christ there Noble, Gil, John Stockwell, and is neither Jew nor Greek, bond Ivan Van Sertima. 1978. The or free, African or any other kind African presence in ancient of American, for we are all one America: They came before in Christ. Columbus. 55 min. New York: WABC TV. Videotape. Works Cited Sheler, Jeffrey L., and Michael Boehlert, Eric. 2001. “The Muslim Betzold. 2001. Muslims in population riddle.” 30 August. America. U.S. News and World http://www.ajc.org/ Report, 29 October, 50, 51. InTheMedia/ Van Sertima, Ivan. 2004. Reply to RelatedArticles.asp?did=372 my critics. http:// (30 September 2002). www.africawithin.com/ Conser, Walter H. Jr., and vansertima/reply_critics.htm Sumner B. Twiss. 1997. (20 December 2004) Religious diversity and Ameri- Waugh, E. H., Abu-Laban, B., and can religious history. Athens, R. B. Qureshi, eds. 1983. The GA: University of Georgia Muslim community in North Press. America. Winnipeg: University Ellis, Carl. 1983. How I witness to of Alberta Press. Muslims. Moody Monthly 83, Wood, Daniel B. 2002. America’s no. 5, 52-56. Black Muslims close a rift. Gilbreath, Edward. 2000. How Christian Science Monitor, Islam is winning Black February 14. America. Christianity Today, 3 Woodberry, Dudley J., ed. 1989. April, 52, 53. Where Muslims and Christians Haddad, Yvonne Y., ed. 1991. The meet. Altadena, CA: Zwemer Muslims of America. New York: Institute of Muslim Studies. Oxford University Press. Young, Henry. 1979. Major Black Haley, Alex, and Betty Shabazz. religious leaders since 1940. 1965. The autobiography of Nashville, TN: Abingdon. Malcolm X. New York: Ballantine Books.

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