SPACEPORTS: THE NECESSARY INFRASTRUCTURE FOR PRIVATE SPACEFLIGHT

Zauher Abdullah1, Marc Zaballa Camprubi2, Shakib Ghassemieh3, Alex Ghosh4, Gregor Z. Hanuschak5, Emma Hinds6, Nadine Kaefer7, Sonny Kohli8, Kris Lehnhardt9, Sandrine Marvao10, Vinita Marwaha11, Paul B. McBeth12, Tahir Merali13, Lauren Payne14, Daria Shapovalova15, Babak Tavakoli16, Jose Mariano Lopez Urdialez17, Olga Zdanovich18

International Space University – Space Studies Program.

1 – Toronto, Canada, [email protected] 11 – London, England, [email protected] 2 – Barcelona, Spain, [email protected] 12 – Calgary, Canada, [email protected] 3 – Mountain View, United States, 13 – Calgary, Canada, [email protected] [email protected] 14 – Ámsterdam, Holland, [email protected] 4 – Ottawa, Canada, [email protected] 15 – Moscow, Russia, 5–Boston, United States, [email protected] [email protected] 6- Washington, DC, [email protected] 16 – Toronto, Canada, [email protected] 7 – Winnipeg, Canada, [email protected] 17 – Madrid, Spain, [email protected] 8 – Oakville, Canada, [email protected] 18 – Moscow, Russia, [email protected] 9 – London, Canada, [email protected] 10 – Paris, France, [email protected]

On behalf of the International Space University, Space Studies Program 2008 team project on spaceports 1

ABSTRACT

This paper provides an overview of a mechanism to evaluate the viability of a spaceport for commercial space transportation. The current literature in the field of space transportation tends to focus on the vehicle rather than on supportive infrastructure. While several launch sites exist or have been proposed, a structured approach to spaceport evaluation is lacking. To respond to this need a mechanism was created and tested on existing and potential spaceports. The spaceport evaluation mechanism (SEM) contains criteria describing the requirements for the selection, development and operation of a spaceport for commercial space transportation. In the process of the derivation and testing of the SEM, several issues pertaining to the current spaceport industry were identified. Limitations and recommendations for the advancement of the SEM are also discussed. This paper provides an outline of the SEM developed by the Spaceport Team Project at the International Space University (ISU) in its Space Studies Program 2008 in Barcelona, Spain.

1 INTRODUCTION research and expertise in seven interdisciplinary areas. The era of government-dominated space activities is now being augmented by For the purposes of this paper, the private ventures and public-private following definition of a “spaceport” partnerships2. Although in its infancy, was developed: the market for spaceports is emerging as a promising enterprise. The number of An area of land or water that is used or proposed spaceports around the world intended to be used for the launch and aiming to service commercial space recovery of space access vehicles, and tourism and other industries indicates a includes its buildings and facilities, if future market that may be highly any. competitive. Technologies for commercial spaceflight have been This paper makes several assumptions. demonstrated in recent years and several The first is that spaceports can be viable, companies are independently developing either currently or in the near future. space access vehicles and spacecraft. To Second, the use of the SEM is broad in incorporate these developments and nature and can be applied to all infrastructure investments into a spaceports. Furthermore, the SEM spaceport, a comprehensive assessment should be viewed as the first published of viability is necessary. In response to version of the mechanism and used with this need, a Spaceport Evaluation a clear understanding of its benefits and Mechanism (SEM) was designed and limitations. Additionally, the tested1. To test the SEM, it was conclusions of the evaluation are subject evaluated against two existing and to the accuracy of the information fundamentally different spaceports: gathered. Updates to the SEM are Mojave Air and Space Port, California, encouraged to reflect the emergence of USA; and Guiana Space Center, Kourou, advanced technology, new experiences French Guiana. It was then applied to a gained, and the evolution of society’s case study, analyzing Lleida, Catalonia, acceptance of private spaceflight and Spain as a potential site for a spaceport. commercial space transportation. Only the Lleida case study is discussed in this paper. The creation and application of the SEM represent the contributions of 41 student The SEM consists of criteria developed professionals from 11 nations at the to assess the viability of a commercial International Space University Space spaceport. Application of the mechanism Studies Program 2008 in Barcelona, is intended to result in an overall Spain. evaluation and a set of recommendations for a given spaceport. It is intended to METHODOLOGY assist spaceport operators, investors, and policy makers in the evaluation and A literature review on issues relevant to development process. It is submitted that the construction and operation of the SEM is unique due to its spaceports resulted in the identification international nature, drawing from of seven key research areas: technical

2 infrastructure; facilities; business and recommendations that could be used to commercial; policy and law; safety and assist the potential development of a security; medical and training; and spaceport in Lleida. geography, community, and environment. These areas were Prospective users of the SEM may assess addressed by research groups formed the commercial viability of any according to professional expertise and spaceport model by evaluating the interest. In addition to this research, spaceport against the list of criteria. The there was consultation from industry criteria questions are answered experts. This process culminated in the qualitatively as Sufficiently Fulfilled development of 58 criteria deemed (SF) or Insufficiently Fulfilled (IF). necessary for the viability of a spaceport. Insufficiently fulfilled criteria may The criteria were consolidated into seven receive suggested recommendations for areas of interest and refined to produce improvement. A criterion question may the Spaceport Evaluation Mechanism be answered as Potentially Fulfilled (PF) (SEM). The SEM was applied to two if the spaceport has shown that a given existing spaceports, Mojave Air and requirement is in the process of being Space Port in California, USA; and fulfilled. If this is the case, the Guiana Space Center, Kourou, French evaluation should then be re-applied at a Guiana. These two sites were selected later date. In the event that the available based upon their differing locations, data is insufficient for the evaluation of a funding structures, regulations, target particular criterion, an answer of Not markets and technical infrastructure. The Evaluated (NE) will be recorded. If a SEM was then applied to a case study of certain criterion is perceived as being a possible spaceport in Lleida, Catalonia, critical to a spaceport’s viability, it is Spain. Figure1. Application of the SEM identified with a red flag. resulted in the formulation of

Figure 1 – Development and evaluation of the Spaceport Evaluation Mechanism (SEM).1

3 RESULTS and agreements. The location of a spaceport will affect the legal After extensive research, the following obligations of the spaceport owner or areas of interest for spaceports were operator. Some of these obligations arise identified and incorporated into the SEM when a State implements national space (Table 1): Business and Commercial; law. As States are generally accepted as Regulatory Issues; Operational; responsible for the space activities of Infrastructure; Location, Environment companies established and operating in and Community; Human Spaceflight; their jurisdiction, they often put a space and Cargo and Satellite Operations. sector licensing framework in place to regulate such activities. This framework Business and Commercial may require the spaceport to be built to a particular specification, with certain Determining the overall commercial safety and security standards, and in viability of a spaceport is based on compliance with specific environmental several factors, including a detailed laws and policy. These licenses are understanding of the consumer base, the usually granted where the space activity type of orbit offered by the Space is not contrary to national policy or Access Vehicle (SAV) operator, and the interests, and where adequate insurance spacecraft utilized. Other factors include and operational plans are in place. a focus on commercial launches, suborbital transit, orbital launches, or It is also necessary to consider the point-to point transportation. Creating current lack of specific policy and law, multiple sources of revenue is both internationally and nationally, on paramount to the financial health of the the ownership and operation of a spaceport. These revenue streams may spaceport. The only comprehensive include space related or terrestrial regulatory framework currently in place products and services as well as space is in the United States, where the Federal and terrestrial tourism opportunities. Aviation Administration’s Office of Having a well developed business plan Commercial Space Transportation has that outlines financial projections, risks, begun to directly address regulations for and liability is needed to establish spaceports. appropriate contingency plans. As there is a growing number of spaceports under Operations development, having a confirmed commercial spacecraft operator is key in Spaceport operations involve day-to-day sustaining early development. activities to facilitate launching of space vehicles. These activities may include: Regulatory Issues operations of local infrastructure, human and non human launch activities, and Five criteria pertaining to regulatory personnel training. The spaceport will issues were developed and incorporated provide operational support to each into the SEM. Spaceport developers and spaceline and ongoing operations of operators must be aware of and abide by tourism infrastructure with governance regional and international laws, treaties, by local and state regulations.

4 Table 1 – Spaceport Evaluation Mechanism (SEM)

Number Criterion Description

Business Have basic business plan areas For a business to be commercially viable, basic business plan areas 1 been addressed? should be addressed. Have financiers and multiple Financing for any large project is an essential element of revenue streams been development. Research has shown that a spaceport will not be identified? profitable if it only focuses on providing space-specific services. 2 Other areas for non-space specific revenue streams must be explored and included in a spaceport business plan e.g. test facility rental or terrestrial tourism. Can the Spaceport secure a It is a significant advantage if the spaceport has the depth and 3 substantial share of the breadth to be a market leader. spaceport market? Can the spaceport take It is an advantage if the spaceport can be the market leader for a advantage of a particular particular customer segment, such as vertical take-off or horizontal 4 customer segment, and/or does landing. it address a specific customer need? Are the engineering and Spaceports are large-scale projects requiring significant capital development costs plus capital investment. 5 expenditures reasonable based on analogous projects? Has an analysis of the business A spaceport must evaluate the possibility of failure, including what the risks and costs of failure, failure will cost and whether or not business will be interrupted in the 6 including potential business event of a failure or accident. interruption, been conducted? Are there healthy financial ratios Financial ratios and financial figures include: revenue - costs, current 7 and financial figures after the ratio, debt ratio, debt to equity ratio, free cash flow to operating cash ‘breakeven’ point? flow, return on assets, and return on equity. Are there manageable quarterly Expenses include Cost of Goods Sold (COGS), sales and marketing 8 expenses after the ‘breakeven’ expenses, and general and administrative expenses. Some capital point? expenditures are fixed costs and some are ongoing costs. Is the breakeven point Breaking even represents the point where a commercial venture achievable in a reasonable recovers all of its initial costs. It is recommended for the health of the 9 amount of time? business that the breakeven point be achieved as soon as is possible. Is a return on investment For a successful business proposition for a spaceport, a prompt 10 achievable in a reasonable return on investment should be forthcoming. amount of time? Has an exit strategy been A worst case scenario exit-strategy for the venture should be defined. 11 defined? Is the spaceport well situated A geographic area determines orbits which are accessible and can geographically to access the reduce costs by having an optimum launch location. 12 orbits/sub-orbits which are desirable to the targeted market?

Regulatory Issues Is the Spaceport subject to a Lack of a regulatory framework may cause uncertainty in planning regulatory framework? and operations. If there is no regulatory framework specific to spaceports or space activities, regulations applicable to aviation 13 should be used as guidelines, and/or consultation with aviation sector/aerospace sector regulators would be necessary. Does the Spaceport operate in Issues that aviation regulations govern include: air traffic accordance with principles of management to ensure the space access vehicle has a free and safe international and national airspace corridor, access to space without endangering local aviation regulations, concerning, communities, and absence of conflict with civil aviation activities. amongst other things, Aviation regulations at national or international level also (depending 14 minimizing the effects of on the type of space transport) pertain to: infrastructure requirements, operations on air traffic, and warning signage and markings, wind indicators, building evacuation obtaining rights of overflight plans; and, the sovereignty of states over their airspace. from neighboring States?

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Are the international obligations International obligations (UN Space Treaties) of states often impact of the State within which the space activities and actions of private entities. In the event that there Spaceport is located taken into is no specific framework for regulation of space activities, the 15 consideration by the Spaceport regulatory authority ought still to respect such obligations in their management? approach to Spaceports (requiring authorization and supervision through licensing). Are all local, regional and Environmental and planning laws, health and safety national laws, including those regulations,employment law, and ultimately licensing requirements (if 16 required for licensing provided for) should be taken into account. considered? Does the Spaceport provide for communication radio frequency The spaceport should have its own assigned frequency, and allocation, tracking and appropriate tracking infrastructure. telemetry in accordance with 17 international requirements (ITU) with respect to the spaceport airspace?

Operations Is there adequate nominal and Ventilation in maintenance facilities and hangars should comply with 18 emergency ventilation? local health local health and safety/best practices, and ensure the safety of occupants. Does the spaceport have the The Spaceport should be equipped with facilities to deal with fire, HAZMAT, and Emergency operational emergencies. crews (with access to 19 emergency onsite fire station) to respond to any operational emergencies? Are there built-in redundant Certain operational activities must be maintained at all times and will 20 power systems for contingency require redundant power systems. operations? Is there comprehensive A comprehensive plan would include: onsite triage, immediate emergency medical response emergency facilities, and/or transport for patients to regional facilities 21 plan? with advanced healthcare. Integral to such a plan is the relationship with local authorities. Does the Spaceport emergency Emergency response plans require redundancy in accordance with health care plan have industry standards in the event of systems failure. 22 redundancy in the event of failure, i.e. do they demonstrate fault tolerance? Are Spaceport personnel Given the hazards of spaceport operations, it is necessary to observe performing operations according applicable occupational health and safety standards. 23 to applicable occupational health and safety standards? Is there a manifest that will In the event of mishap involving hazardous materials or operations, document in real-time the emergency response services require real time access to location of 24 location of users and personnel all personnel. and their proximity to areas of higher risk? Can the Spaceport Given the uniqueness of spaceport operations, it is essential that management provide jobspecific 25 appropriate training to training infrastructure be provided. personnel? Is informed consent obtained Given the hazards of a spaceport, it is incumbent on the spaceport from personnel who may be authority to inform the users and personnel of the risks. 26 exposed to hazardous areas related to space access vehicle operations and launch? Does the Spaceport have Utilities may include, but are not limited to power generation, gas, 27 sufficient access to utilities? water, communication, and internet. Resource usage should not affect local community needs. Is there an environmentally A spaceport’s proposed waste management plan must be acceptable 28 sustainable plan for waste to the local community and meet applicable environmental and management and removal? recycling regulations. Is adequate provision made for A hazardous material management plan would prevent environmental 29 hazardous and toxic material contamination. management? Does the Spaceport have a A propellant management plan would include storage, monitoring, 30 propellant management plan? and dispensing systems.

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Does the Spaceport have a A security plan includes: security regulations, defined security plan? restricted/unrestricted zones, surveillance, liaising with local authorities, protection against espionage, sabotage, theft, vandalism, 31 terrorism or other criminal/unlawful acts. National requirements may also depend on the domestic security policy, as illustrated by requirements at airports. Has the Spaceport management Safety risk analysis must be done to mitigate risk of injury, loss of life, performed a safety risk analysis and loss of infrastructure. 32 based on identified risks for prelaunch, launch, and re-entry operations? Is there a downrange In case of downrange emergency, a procedure should be in place to 33 emergency recovery, search recover a space access vehicle and its passengers/cargo. This plan and rescue plan? should include coordination with local and regional authorities. Is the Spaceport located where Favorable launch conditions should be present most of the year. suitable prevailing weather Weather criteria pertaining to launch and landing operations of a 34 conditions meet the given space access vehicle should be defined. requirements of the appropriate space access vehicle?

Infrastructure Does the spaceport launch site The spaceport launch infrastructure must be space access vehicle support the appropriate space specific. Examples of launch site infrastructure that would support the 35 access vehicles? space access vehicle would be a launch/landing pad, runway, etc. Has an emergency response Emergency recovery plans of the space access vehicles at the plan been developed for the spaceport (i.e. emergency landing ability, abort system capability) are 36 contingency situation where a necessary to minimize risk to passengers, cargo/payloads, and the failure occurs within the community. boundaries of the spaceport? Does the Spaceport have space The spaceport should have the capability to assemble and integrate access vehicle and payload payloads with specific space access vehicles. 37 specific assembly and integration facilities? Are there storage and Storage and Maintenance facilities including hangars, warehouses 38 maintenance facilities for space are necessary for space access vehicle operations. access vehicles? Is there capacity for future Once the spaceport becomes established in the region and in the 39 infrastructure expansion? market, the capability to accommodate additional facilities and infrastructure will be essential.

Location, Community, and Environment Is the location of the Spaceport Public accessibility can be in the form of public transportation, private 40 publicly accessible? road access, etc. If the spaceport has multiple sites or buildings, these should be equally accessible. Is the Spaceport situated near Existing transportation links are beneficial as they would reduce costs transportation infrastructure that in shipping of materials relevant to the infrastructure and its operation 41 facilitates transport outside the as a commercial spaceport. region (national/international)? Is there existing local tourism Existing local tourism would provide an additional revenue stream to infrastructure (hotels, the spaceport independent of primary operations, and may alleviate 42 attractions, etc) and can the the need to build accommodations for visitors. spaceport absorb seasonal fluctuation in tourism activities? Does the Spaceport provide or Facilities such as a visitor center, museum, public launch viewing intend to provide entertainment areas can increase the exposure, publicity and profitability of a 43 venues and activities for spaceport. terrestrial tourists? Is there an expandable Existing terminals should be upgradeable to accommodate space commercial airport with a tourism and target specific markets. If the facility supports only 44 passenger terminal on-site? ground tourism, an existing terminal could facilitate visitor access and cargo transport. Does the spaceport To induce a positive visual impact, the infrastructures should 45 infrastructure harmonize with harmonize with the landscape of the location and follow local/regional the landscape of the location? planning guidelines, e.g. ‘green building guidelines'. Is there a wildlife hazard Both in constructing the spaceport, and in future operations, there 46 assessment, management, and should not be a negative impact on local plant and fauna. protection plan?

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Has an environmental impact Local licensing may be dependent upon the acceptable completion of study been completed in an environmental impact analysis. Additionally, reducing the 47 accordance with local law? environmental impact is a beneficial sustainable practice. Does the Spaceport have a plan Spaceport noise pollution negatively impacts the local community and to minimize noise pollution in should be minimized through sound suppression techniques and 48 local community? distance. Space access vehicle operators licensed to operate at the spaceport must conform to noise limitations. Is there an ethical The spaceport must accept the responsibility to provide 49 communication strategy that understandable, transparent and relevant information to the public; a facilitates community feedback? process should exist for public interaction, feedback and consultation. Does the Spaceport The organization must respect basic civil and human rights, and management have a corporate display commitment to the betterment of community. The 50 social accountability plan? organization must honor and respect local culture, language, and knowledge. The requirement of relocating citizens should be avoided where possible. Does the Spaceport promote The spaceport should utilize local and regional human resources human resource development where possible. The spaceport must inspire, engage, educate, and 51 within local and regional employ local and regional community members. communities?

Human Spaceflight Is there infrastructure necessary Medical screening and spaceflight training infrastructure is a to perform screening and necessary component of human spaceflight operations and may 52 training of passengers and flight serve as an additional source of spaceport income. crew? Can the Spaceport provide In the event of medical mishap on board the space access vehicle, ground-based in-flight the vehicle crew should have the capability to communicate with 53 physiological monitoring and spaceport based medical staff. Ground-based in-flight physiological medical management? monitoring capability is a necessary requirement to perform this function. Is there luggage storage and Luggage storage and processing infrastructure may be used as an 54 processing infrastructure? additional source of spaceport income. This infrastructure should be securable. Does the Spaceport have onsite Food handling and storage infrastructure may be used as a source of 55 food handling and storage spaceport income. This infrastructure should comply with applicable infrastructure? food handling standards. additional

Cargo and Satellite Operations Are there space cargo Cargo processing facilities should include transport, processing, 56 processing facilities? quarantine, inspection, and customs capabilities. These operations may serve as an additional income source for the spaceport. Does the Spaceport provide Testing infrastructure may be used as an additional source of testing infrastructure for space spaceport income, as spaceport clients typically utilize such facilities 57 access vehicle and payload in pre-flight verification operations. operations? Does the spaceport have a A clean room should be present that meets applicable industry 58 clean room? standards for storage, handling, and integration of space access vehicle components and payloads.

Infrastructure flights will be very different from one that focuses on orbital flights. The two The SEM contains five criteria types of spaceports will have different pertaining to the infrastructure optimal locations and different facilities. requirements of a spaceport. The present They will also cater to different types of technical infrastructure in government- SAVs which rely on different owned spaceports is not sufficient for the technologies. Sub-orbital flights will requirements of private spaceflight. primarily be used for space tourism or Commercial spaceports are being point-to-point transportation of human established by private sector and through passengers or cargo. These flights can public-private partnerships3. co-exist with existing air traffic to minimize the impact on current air A spaceport that focuses on sub-orbital infrastructure. Government space

8 programs tend to focus on end-product Continuous monitoring of the operations delivery and not the reusability of is essential in the evolving years for vehicles. For commercial applications continuous improvement of operational such as space tourism, frequent flights efficiency. are necessary and spaceports must be able to support these types of vehicles. Location, Environment and Community

Orbital spaceflight has higher risks and Twelve criteria were incorporated into the amount of power to reach orbit is the SEM to address a spaceport´s larger than that required for sub-orbital interaction with its community. Issues altitudes3-4. Multi-stage vehicles are pertaining to this interaction include: required for launch from ground, transportation, tourism, social and automatically restricting the location of environmental. the spaceport to an isolated area or near the ocean due to the possibility of debris Transportation issues include terrestrial falling during stage separation. Most accessibility both to the region, to and present orbital vehicle configurations use within the facilities and are addressed as a launcher that deploys the capsule in a a trade-off between ensuring security parking orbit. and commercial optimization due to terrestrial tourism revenues. The key technical requirement for the Tourism issues address questions such as development of spaceport infrastructure who are the customers of the spaceports is to ensure safe and reliable access to and the need of terrestrial tourist space. The type of SAV, propulsion activities that require dedicated facilities method, and the launch and recovery such as terminals, accommodation, modes determine the requirements for restaurants and entertainment5. Tourism the infrastructure. This infrastructure activities, space related or not, have an includes runways, launch pads, assembly important impact in the regional buildings, and the number of personnel economy, and, if already existing, can required for operations. Redundant contribute avoiding many costs while systems must be included in the taking advantage of an existing tourism spaceport to increase reliability. These market. systems will also maximize safety and minimize the turnaround time needed Social issues include corporate social between launches. accountability to provide a positive economic and social impact on the local Other important aspects of spaceport community by creating jobs, and infrastructure include the need for an generating new revenues to the local uninterrupted power supply, a safe companies. An ethical communication means for storing and handling plan should ensure transparent propellant, and an efficient and reliable information to the public together with air traffic management system. The an adequate education and outreach infrastructure requirements should take program. into account the upgradeability of the spaceport to support future traffic such Environmental issues identified include as runways and new installations. items such as landscape integration of

9 the spaceport, which is relevant both for attraction for spaceport visitors. They aesthetic purposes and to provide would also complement onsite medical adequate viewing areas to the visitors. and occupational health services that are Wildlife is addressed both from a ground necessary to address immediate operations safety perspective and a problems at the spaceport. Lastly, they protection perspective. Environmental are integral to the creation of a center of studies are essential in order to minimize excellence in human spaceflight research impact on the local community by and development that would facilitate reducing pollution and noise levels. ongoing links between industry and academia. Human Spaceflight Despite rigid screening and training For a spaceport to support and generate protocols, adverse events will still occur revenue from human spaceflight during human spaceflight. To manage activities, they must be safe and have these risks, a spaceport should have the manageable risks. This requires the capability to perform in-flight capability to monitor and intervene in physiological data monitoring and participant health during all phases of ground-to-space communication to flight. Although, the health and safety of facilitate in-flight medical management. spaceflight crew and passengers is the Such systems would act as an early responsibility of both the spaceport warning system, providing the operator and launch vehicle operator opportunity to intervene early and (spaceline), these criteria apply to the prepare for possible post-flight care and spaceport operator only. transfer. The capability to record this data would also create an expanded To minimize the risk of human cohort for medical research, provided spaceflight, pre-flight screening and issues of informed consent, data training infrastructure is necessary to security, and confidentiality have been identify at-risk participants who may be addressed. unable to endure the physiological stresses of spaceflight and microgravity. Post-flight medical problems will be Current medical screening guidelines for addressed by onsite medical services. commercial human spaceflight have This will necessitate the presence of been developed (FAA, 2003) and are trained medical staff including flight derived from astronaut and pilot surgeons with expertise in space cohorts6. Screening and training of flight medicine, infrastructure for emergency crew and passengers are the response, a comprehensive medical responsibility of the spaceline and may emergency response plan that involves be conducted offsite. However, there is a local search and rescue, police, fire and rationale for onsite screening and health care resources, triage and transfer training facilities (such as a centrifuge, protocols, and rehearsal and redundancy hypobaric chamber and exercise of onsite emergency medical responses physiology laboratory) given their to ensure their effectiveness. multiple benefits. Onsite facilities could serve as a revenue source when leased to The provision of allied services is also the spacelines or when used as an integral to a spaceport’s human

10 spaceflight capability. Food handling • The airport is optimally located with and storage that abides applicable respect to population density regional standards, and luggage • The airport is easily accessible in an processing and storage infrastructure area with developed tourism will also be necessary to support human infrastructure spaceflight. • The airport has significant capacity for expansion Cargo and Satellite Operations • The airport infrastructure requires modification to accommodate There are three criteria necessary for a horizontal take off and landing spaceport to support and generate • A detailed financial plan including an revenue from cargo and satellite analysis of potential revenue sources is operations. Cargo processing that links required with regional transportation • A national regulatory framework infrastructure should be available. governing commercial spaceport Testing facilities that could be utilized operations is required by clients in pre-flight verification of • Establishment of on-site facilities to their vehicles and payload would serve meet the training, medical and as a potential source of revenue. Lastly, residential requirements for spaceflight the spaceport should have a clean room participants and spaceport employees that meets applicable industry standards • The proposed spaceport must adopt for storage, handling, and integration of and employ a propellant storing, space access vehicle components and monitoring and dispensing plan and payloads. Refer to the section on must encourage the use of non-toxic Infrastructure for further information propellants related to cargo and satellite operation requirements. • Environmental and community concerns including noise and air

pollution should be carefully evaluated Application of SEM: The Lleida Case and involve local government Study

The SEM was used to assess the The accuracy of the SEM analysis was feasibility of a potential spaceport to be dependent on the information available co-located at the Lleida-Alguaire airport at the time of evaluation. The SEM near Lleida, Catalonia, Spain. Because should be re-applied to evaluate the this spaceport is conceptual, not all Lleida spaceport as more information information relating to our criteria was becomes available. In addition, however, the SEM may be used to guide spaceport accessible and most of the details used to development at Lleida. This evaluation complete the SEM were obtained from can be re-applied periodically to account interviews with representatives from for new and evolving trends in industry. Lleida-Alguaire airport. As a result, most of the criteria in the SEM have not been fulfilled. Specific findings and DISCUSSION / CONCLUSION recommendations are as follows:

The SEM is the first comprehensive evaluation mechanism of spaceport

11 viability to be developed. The caused by activities related to spaceports application of the SEM to Mojave, is assumed by the appropriate party. A Kourou, and the potential Lleida private enterprise owning or operating a spaceport produced valuable insights and spaceport would require adequate recommendations. The process also insurance. highlighted necessary improvements to the spaceport industry and the SEM. Whilst there are clearly issues that need to be addressed through the Various issues have been identified that implementation of new regulatory are currently lacking in the area of frameworks, it is important for law and spaceport industry. For example, policy makers to develop them in spaceport policy and regulation has not consultation with industry to minimize been fully developed. Several countries the potentially negative effect that have expressed an interest in spaceports excessive regulation can have on a but do not possess a national regulatory nascent industry. body to provide guidelines and framework. Furthermore, such a body Future Directions could facilitate the adoption of regulations for the spaceport. It would A generic mechanism (SEM) with high- also perform licensing, control and level criteria applicable to several types supervisory functions and monitor of spaceports was developed to make the spaceport activities. These activities evaluation process efficient and easy-to- would include a mandatory payload use. Over the course of development, review and notification procedures for specific sub-groups identified areas of all spaceport launches. Regulations improvement for the SEM. This provides should also be formulated to negate the the SEM users with an idea of how the impact of spaceports on the mechanism was developed and its future environment. Although environmental potential. In the next version of the plans are required for licensing of SEM, a weighting system derived from airports, these regulations do not full statistical analysis should be necessarily extend to spaceports. adopted. The use of a weighting system would allow the criteria to be targeted to Procurement of adequate insurance is an different audiences, and a full scoring additional requirement for commercial method similar to that of a statistical viability. As there are an increasing Likert scale could accurately assess how number of spaceport models, owned and well a spaceport meets the stated criteria. operated by actors other than the traditional public or governmental Regarding the financial considerations of entities, insurance may become difficult a spaceport, additional forms of revenue to acquire. As international law generation are discussed in the designates the ´launching State´ as liable referenced report including advertising, for damage caused by space activities, it power generation, and terrestrial is necessary for a regulatory body to tourism. These revenue streams are impose insurance requirements upon encouraged as a focus in the early stage private commercial operations. This of spaceport development when costs are insures liability for potential damages high and revenue is low or not yet

12 existent. Although these revenue streams interdisciplinary project set out to are important, they do not fully capture investigate and recommend criteria for the business needs of a spaceport. commercially viable spaceport infrastructure and operation for the Currently, no in-depth business plan has civilian space transportation and tourism been explored for development of the industries. Iterations of research, SEM. A quantitative mechanism, as discussion and designs ensued discussed, would facilitate in-depth cost- formulating the SEM evaluation benefit analysis. To make such an mechanism as the deliverable. analysis, additional criteria would need Verification of the SEM on two to be added to the SEM. For each operational spaceports, Mojave, USA potential spaceport infrastructure and Kourou, French Guiana, were decision, detailed research would be conducted. The SEM was also applied to performed in order to determine the the potential spaceport at Lleida- opportunity cost of the decision as well Alguiare Airport in Spain to determine as up-front costs, local taxes, operational its viability as a potential spaceport. costs, and other ongoing costs of the Lastly, recommendations on further decision. Also researched would be how development and use of the SEM were these costs are offset by potential described. This document is aimed at benefits of the decision. These potential entrepreneurs, investors, governmental benefits would include estimated yearly entities and spaceport operators. It is the revenue and rapid rate of return as well intention of the authors to produce a as tangible benefits to the area useful and effective mechanism for surrounding the spaceport. These local evaluating the viability of existing and benefits would be quantified in some proposed spaceport projects around the way. They could include criteria like job world and to provide a sound rationale creation, providing a resource for space for their future development. agencies, drawing international attention to the area, and improving the local REFERENCES economy by bringing people, business, and investment to the area. 1. The FuturIST Report (Team Project Report,International Space University-Space Although the mechanism currently Studies Program 2008). Team Members: includes the criteria and a short Zauher Abdullah, Eric Aufderhaar,Asli Aytac, Stephanie Bednarek, Marc Zaballa Camprubi, description, a more detailed description Chi Jun, Hugo Andre Costa, Brice Gaudilliere, is appropriate for future development. Shakib Ghassemieh, Babak Tavakoli Gheynani, Another recommendation is to Alex Ghosh, Gregor Hanuschak, Emma Hinds, Mariel John, Nadine Kaefer, Sonny Kohli, Jason implement a software interface of the Kruska, Nikita Kuprikov, Tricia Larose, Kris criteria evaluation that would allow Lehnhardt, Guangxi Li, Sandrine Marvao, Vinita easier accessibility to industry users and Marwaha, James Mason, Paul McBeth, Tahir Merali, Vijayan Nandalan, Francois Nuyttens, provide a preferred viewing. Jemini Patel, Lauren Payne, Laurent Ravelli Patricia Ruiz, Anurup Sankarathodiyil Marath, Spaceports are the gateway for future Damaris Sarria, Daria Shapovalova, Chunyao Shen, Pol Sintes, Michael Soulage, Aleksandr space travel just as their airport Timofeev, Yifeng Xu, Dapeng Zhao counterparts opened up the skies to limitless possibilities a century ago. This 2. Pelton, J Space planes and Space tourism,

13 George Washington University http://www.spacesafety.org/ SpacePlaneTourismStudyMarch07.pdf, accessed August 23 2008. 3. Seedhouse, Erik Tourists in Space: A Practical Guide. Springer-Praxis Publishing, Chichester, UK. 4. U.S. Department of Transportation, “Hazard Analysis of Commercial Space Transportation”, May 1988. 5. Webber, D Horses for Courses http://www.spaceportassociates.com/ pdf/WASHDCPAPER2005.pdf, May 5 2005, accessed July 31, 2008. 6. FAA (2003). Information: Guidance for Medical Screening of Commercial Aerospace Passengers. http://www.faagov/regulations_policies/faa_ regulations/commercial_space/#guidelines, accessed August 17 2008.

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