Pine Nuts Technical Information Pine Nuts 1

Home , Nut (fruit), Pine nut, Pine nut oil, Pinus armandii, Pinus bungeana, Pinus cembra

Pine Nuts Technical Information Pine Nuts 1. General Information

Pine nuts are the edible seeds of pine trees, which are evergreen, coniferous1 Pine Nuts / General Information resinous trees of the Pinaceae family. Pine trees are mainly spread across the Northern hemisphere and are found in Asia, Europe, the Near East and North America. Several species of pine trees produce edible nuts, which are considered a delicacy. The major producers are China, North Korea, the Russian Federation, Pakistan and Afghanistan; in the Mediterranean (Pinus pinea), the top producing countries are Italy, Turkey, Spain and Portugal. Pine nuts are used in a wide variety of traditional recipes.

The pine tree belongs to the Pinaceae family and the Pinus genus is the largest and most important genus of conifers with more than 100 species, found mainly in the Northern hemisphere. A great number of species of the genus Pinus produce edible seeds, also known as pine nuts. Pine trees are evergreen, coniferous resinous trees whose height depends on the species, ranging from 10 m up to 30 m tall. They are also adapted to a wide variety of weather conditions: from the extremely harsh and cold climate of northeast Siberia to the hot dry deserts of Nevada and Mexico. They are long-lived with some trees living for over 1,000 years.

Pine nuts have been collected since ancient times. They were prized by the Romans and Greeks and were a staple food of several Native American tribes in North America, and indigenous peoples in Siberia and the Russian Far East. Today pine nuts are considered a gourmet product and are highly regarded as an ingredient in a multitude of recipes. Most pine nuts are marketed shelled, although a small quantity is marketed in-shell.

Pine nuts are known around the world as a nutritious snack (raw or roasted) and an essential ingredient in many traditional dishes. They are highly valued for their taste. In addition, like all tree nuts, they have an interesting nutritional profile, high in vitamin E and K, and minerals such as iron and magnesium, among others. They also are high in polyunsaturated fats (34%).

Pine Nuts / 1. General Information

PINE NUT WORLD GROWING AREAS

Pinus sibirica Pinus pumila Overview of Pine Nut Production

Pinus lambertiana Global pine nut production P. monophylla P. quadrifolia has presented marked P. sabineana Pinus pinea P. torreyana Pinus koraiensis fluctuations over the years, P. coultieri

partly because pine trees Pinus edulis Pinus massoniana P. cembroides tend to produce periodic Pinus gerardiana (P. griffithii) crops, with good crops every Pinus yunnanensis 3-5 years on average. The average annual production of pine nuts between 2014/15 Pinus pinea and 2018/19 was 27,000 metric tons (MT), kernel basis. Main Pine Nut Growing Areas (Source: INC)

China is the main producing country with a 5-year average (2014/15-2018/19) crop of 8,100 MT, which accounts for 30% of world production. The average production in North Korea was 4,900 MT, and in the Russian Federation, Pakistan and Afghanistan 3,600 MT each. Note that these averages are merely the arithmetic averages –pine trees usually have periodic crops, with good crop years approx. every 3-5 years.

In general, North Korea, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Russia export a significant percentage of their in-shell production to China. For instance, from the 2016/17 Russian crop, around 50% was exported to China and the remaining half was consumed domestically. Russia is one of the major producers of Pinus sibirica and P. koraiensis. However, due to the vastness and isolation of the Siberian forest, only around 10% of the production potential is currently harvestable.

Seasons

Pine trees are rarely planted for nut production purposes. Most of the pine nuts available on the market come from natural forests, where no cultivation techniques are applied except for silvicultural practices. Commercial plantations are very scarce for several reasons. Pine trees take a long time to bear nuts, between 10 and 40 years (or even more), depending on the species and the conditions. Although pine nuts are collected without any expense of plantation forestry, the labor cost is particularly important given that the collection and processing are very labor-intensive.

Pine nuts are gymnosperms, meaning that they grow inside a cone rather than being protected by an ovary or fruit. Most of them are monoecious, having male and female reproductive structures –cones– on the same tree. The male cones (herbaceous cone) fall as soon as the pollen is shed. After wind pollination, the seeds in the female cones (woody cone) mature in the third year. When the cone is ripe the scales open and the seeds (pine nuts) are released.

Northern Harvesting Hemisphere Blooming

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

This chart shows the most common blooming and harvesting months, which may vary depending on the pine tree species and the area. The harvest may last from autumn to spring since the pine nuts are well stored in their cones on the tree.

In hand-harvesting, the still-closed green cones are collected by gatherers and piled into heaps to dry in the sun, so that the cone scales open and loosen the seeds. In recent years the use of machines during harvesting has increased. Mechanical harvesting is performed by tree shakers, with special vibrating jaws coupled onto fronted booms of a farm tractor or on compact utility tractors with armored cabins.

Sources: • Ciesla, W. M. (1998). Non-wood forest products from conifers. FAO. • Sharashkin, L., & Gold, M. (2004, August). Pine nuts: species, products, markets, and potential for US production. In Northern Nut Growers Association 95th Annual Report. Proceeding for the 95th annual meeting, Columbia, Missouri. • Mutke, S., et al. (2012). 4 Mediterranean Stone Pine: Botany and Horticulture. Horticultural reviews, 39, 153.

Copyright © INC International Nut and Dried Fruit Council, October 2019. www.nutfruit.org Pine Nuts 2. Products Pine Nuts / Products Enjoyed by the Greeks and Romans in ancient times, the pine nut kernel2 is an edible nut with an exquisite flavor and high in vitamin E and K, as well as minerals such as iron and magnesium. Pine nuts are considered a delicacy in many cultures. They can be eaten raw, but also lightly roasted. In addition, they are highly valued as ingredients for a great number of recipes both sweet and savory.

Pine nuts are known around the world as a nutritious snack (raw or roasted) and may be found in some nut mixes. In addition, pine nuts are a culinary ingredient widely used in the elaboration of dishes and salads, in NUTRIENTS IN 100 g OF DRIED PINE NUTS* the confectionery and bakery industry, as well as the Calories 673 kcal world-famous pesto sauce. Proteins 13.69 g Saturated fat 4.899 g Although the dietary values differ depending on the Monounsaturated fat 18.764 g species, the nutritional profile of the pine nuts is very Polyunsaturated fat 34.071 g interesting. They are high in polyunsaturated fats, Carbohydrate 13.08 g thiamin, vitamin E and K, and minerals such as iron, Fiber 3.7 g magnesium, phosphorus, zinc, copper and manganese. They are as also a source of fiber, potassium, niacin Phosphorus 575 mg and riboflavin. Potassium 597 mg Magnesium 251 mg Pine nuts can be pressed to obtain a gourmet cooking Manganese 8.802 mg oil. The highest quality oil is obtained by cold pressing. Zinc 6.45 mg Pine nut oil is also used in cosmetics, beauty products Iron 5.53 mg and as a high-end massage oil. The by-product of pine Copper 1.324 mg nut oil pressing is called pine nut flakes (contains up Vitamin E 9.33 mg to 30% oil) and is usually used in granolas, chocolates and bars. Vitamin K 53.9 µg Thiamin 0.364 mg When flakes are further pressed and crushed to extract Niacin 4.387 mg oil, they turn into pine nut meal or flour, which has a wide variety of culinary uses such as in pastries, * Includes pignolia (Pinus pinea) and Korean (Pinus koraiensis). pancakes, etc. Mixed with water, the meal becomes a Source: USDA FoodData Central, January 2019. beverage or cream.

Pine Nuts / 2. Products

Used as a Snack Examples of commercialized pine nut snacks Raw pine nuts Roasted pine nuts Pine nuts in nut and dried fruit mixtures Candied pine nuts

Uses as an Ingredient Dishes Pesto and other sauces, salads, toppings, traditional vegetable, fish and meat dishes, and desserts.

Bakery Industry Breads, cookies, cakes, pastries. Pine nuts may be made into flour for cakes.

Confectionary Industry Pine nuts are used as an ingredient in chocolates and bars.

Beverage Industry Pine nut meal or flour mixed with water is made into pine nut beverages and cream.

Other Uses Oil Industry Due to their polyunsaturated fats (34%), pine nuts are a source of vegetable oil. Their oil can be used as dressing for salads, for cooking or eaten raw.

Cosmetics Pine nut oil can be used in cosmetics and soaps.

Sources: • Sharashkin, L., & Gold, M. (2004, August). Pine nuts: species, products, markets, and potential for US production. In Northern Nut Growers Association 95th Annual Report. Proceeding for the 95th annual meeting, Columbia, Missouri.

There are approximately 30 species of Pinus that produce seeds and that3 have been used as a food item, at least by indigenous tribal cultures. Pine nuts of different pine species differ in size, nutritional value and taste.

Around 30 pine species in Asia, Europe, the Near East and North America produce edible pine nuts. However, only a small number of species are commercially important. Many species were historically important but lost their importance as emphasis shifted from nut production to timber or charcoal.

Some species (e.g., P. armandii) are found to cause pine nut syndrome. Pine nut syndrome is a pine nut related dysgeusia whose symptoms are predominantly related to taste disturbances, such as a constant bitter or metallic taste. The taste disturbance has been reported to occur 1-2 days after ingestion of pine nuts from the species of Pinus armandii.

Major Pine Species with Edible Nuts

NORTH AMERICA Scientific name Common name Natural range Economic value Pinus edulis Colorado pinyon, USA (semi desert from Texas to High. two-leaf pinyon California), Mexico (northwest Important producer of pine nuts. Chihuahua) Pinus monophylla Single-leaf pinyon, USA (Nevada, California, Utah), High. one leaf pine Mexico (northwest Chihuahua) Important producer of pine nuts. Pinus cembroides Mexican pinyon, USA (southeast Arizona, southwest High historically. three-leaf pinyon New Mexico, west Texas), Mexico Locally important. (northeast Sonora, south Chihuahua to Puebla) Pinus quadrifolia Parry pinyon California, Mexico High historically. Locally important. Pinus nelsonii Nelson pinyon Central Mexico mountains Locally important. Seeds collected with P. cembroides. Pinus pinceana Pince pinyon Central Mexico mountains Locally important. Pinus torreyana Torrey, Soledad, USA (California mountains) High historically. Ione or Del Mar pine Traditional food for indigenous tribes. Pinus sabiniana Digger pine, bull pine, USA (California), Mexico High historically. grey pine Traditional food for indigenous tribes. Pinus coulteri Coulter pine USA (California), Mexico Traditional food for indigenous tribes. Pinus lambertiana Sugar pine USA (California, Oregon), Mexico Traditional food for (Sierra Nevada) indigenous tribes.

Pine Nuts / 3. Varieties

EURASIA Scientific name Common name Natural range Economic value Pinus koraiensis Korean pine, East China, Japan, Korea, Russia Very high. Cultivated. Red pine (southeast Siberia) Important in international trade. Use: edible, oil crashing. Pinus sibirica Siberian pine, Russia (central Siberia, Urals), north Very high. Cultivated. Siberian cedar Kazakhstan, north Mongolia Use: edible, cooking oil. Pinus pinea Italian stone pine Mediterranean Europe and Near Very high. Cultivated. East Important in international trade. Use: edible. Pinus gerardiana Chilgoza pine East Afghanistan, Pakistan, north High. India Important in international trade. Pinus pumila Japanese stone pine, East Siberia, east China, Korea, Medium. Siberian dwarf pine north Japan, north Mongolia Locally important. Use: edible as snack and paste. Pinus wallichiana, Himalayan (white) pine, Himalayas, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Medium. Pinus griffithii Bhutan pine Nepal, Bhutan Locally important. Pinus yunnanensis Yunnan pine South China, Tibet Use: edible, oil crashing. Pinus bungeana Lacebark pine, Northwest China Medium. Bunge’s pine Locally important. Pinus tabulaeformis Chinese pine North China Accounts for 3% of Chinese pine nut export shares. Pinus cembra European stone pine Alps, Carpathian Mountains Low. Locally important.

Korean pine kernel. Siberian stone pine kernel. Yunnan pine kernel. Botanical name: Pinus koraiensis Botanical name: Pinus sibirica Botanical name: Pinus yunnanensis

Japanese stone pine kernel. Himalayan pine kernel. Botanical name: Pinus pumila Botanical name: Pinus griffithii

Pictures courtesy of the China Chamber of Commerce of I/E of Foodstuffs, Native Produce and Animal By-products.

Sources: • Ballin, N. Z. (2012). A trial investigating the symptoms related to pine nut syndrome. Journal of Medical Toxicology, 8(3), 278-280. • Ciesla, W. M. (1998). Non-wood forest products from conifers. FAO. • Sharashkin, L., & Gold, M. (2004, August). Pine nuts: species, products, markets, and potential for US production. In Northern Nut Growers Association 95th Annual Report. Proceeding for the 95th annual meeting, Columbia, Missouri. • UNECE STANDARD DDP-12 concerning the marketing and commercial quality control of pine nut kernels, Edition 2013. • China Chamber of Commerce of I/E of Foodstuffs, Native Produce and Animal By-products. Chinese Pine Nuts.

4. Processing Pine Nuts / Processing There are several pine tree species that produce edible nuts. Pine 4nuts of different pine species vary widely in size and shape, which can influence the processing methods. They are processed to obtain the pine nut kernel in optimal condition.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PROCESSING, STORAGE, PACKAGING, AND TRANSPORT Cone

PROCESSING Cone drying The cones are collected while they are still closed. Once collected, they are dried in the sun (during the summer) or in a dryer where Cone grinding they are heated, allowing the opening of the scales and the release of the seeds (pine nuts). The advantage of using dryers is that

cones can be opened according to the market requirements, not Cleaning Cone scales/ only during summer. fragments

Once opened, the cones are ground and the pine nuts are separated In-shell from the cone scales and fragments by sieves and cyclones. The pine pine nut nuts are then stored in-shell.

Soaking Before shelling, in-shell pine nuts are soaked in water to increase elasticity and avoid kernel fractures. Shelling should avoid damaging the kernels. There are two main methods of shelling: rotary-friction Shelling Shell shelling and impact shelling. In the rotary-friction method, the pine nuts are placed between two hard surfaces that roll against the nuts and remove the shell. The distance between the two surfaces must Pine nut kernel be adjusted to crack the shell without damaging the kernel. For this reason, pine nuts need to be sized in order to get a uniform size lot. In the impact shelling method, pine nuts do not need to be sized since Sorting they are cracked by impact against a hard surface. The latter method is more appropriate for soft-shell pine nuts. Packaging

After shelling, pine nut kernels are separated from the shell by

sieves and cyclones. Further processing consists of humidity Figure 1. This flow chart is not exhaustive, it is standardization, polishing with sawdust and classification by size, only an overview of the steps involved in wholeness and color, using electronic colorimeters. processing pine nuts.

Pine Nuts / 4. Processing

STORAGE

Pine nuts may be stored within the cones (before opening) or after separating the pine nuts from the cones. Pine nuts can be stored for years in-shell without becoming rancid.

According to the Codex Alimentarius: (i) For optimum storage conditions, store at approximately 1 °C (34 °F) with a relative humidity from 60% to 70%. In temperate countries, nuts in-shell and kernels may be stored in sound, dry warehouses at ambient temperatures. (ii) Where nut products are stored under conditions in which they may become infested by insects and/or mites, appropriate methods of protection should be used regularly. Nut products should be stored in such a manner that they can be fumigated in situ or that they can be removed elsewhere for

Shelling machine. fumigation in special facilities (e.g., fumigation chambers, steel barges, etc.). Cold storage can be used, either to prevent infestation in localities where insects are likely to be present in ordinary storage or to prevent insects damaging the nut products.

PACKAGING

According to the UNECE Standard DDP-12 concerning the marketing and commercial quality control of pine nut kernels, the kernels must be packed in such a way as to properly protect the produce.

The materials used inside the package must be clean and of a quality such as to avoid causing any external or internal damage to the produce. The use of materials, particularly of paper or stamps bearing trade specifications, is allowed, provided that the printing or labeling has been done with non-toxic ink or glue. Cleaning and drying. Packages must be free of all foreign matter.

TRANSPORT

According to the Codex Alimentarius, the means of conveyance of the product should be adequate for the purpose intended and should be of such material and construction as will permit thorough cleaning, and should be so cleaned and maintained as not to constitute a source of contamination for the product.

Pictures courtesy of PICASA, Piñones de Castilla S.A.

Sources: • Mutke, S., et al. (2012). 4 Mediterranean Stone Pine: Botany and Horticulture. Horticultural reviews, 39, 153. • UNECE STANDARD DDP-12 concerning the marketing and commercial quality control of pine nut kernels, Edition 2013. • CODEX. 1972. Code of hygienic practice for tree nuts. CAC/RCP 6-1972.

To ensure the safety of pine nuts, growers and processors have developed a 5Pine Nuts / Quality Requirements wide range of good practices. Pine nuts should be produced with consideration for quality control and international food safety standards. Careful practices have been established to control the chemical, microbiological, pesticide and contaminant content.

QUALITY - MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS (UNECE)

The kernels must be: • intact, however, slight superficial damage is not considered a defect, • sound; produce affected by rotting or deterioration such as to make it unfit for human consumption is excluded,

• clean; practically free of any visible foreign matter, • sufficiently developed; no shrunken or shriveled kernels which are extremely flat and wrinkled, or with desiccated, dried-out or tough portions affecting more than 20% of the kernel,

• free from blemishes, areas of discoloration or spread stains in pronounced contrast with the rest of the kernel affecting in aggregate more than 10% of the surface of the kernel,

• well formed, • free from living pests, whatever their stage of development, • free from damage caused by pests, including the presence of dead insects and/or mites, their debris or excreta,

• free from mold filaments visible to the naked eye, • free from rancidity, • free from abnormal external moisture, • free from foreign smell and/or taste.

Pine Nuts / 5. Quality Requirements

CHEMICAL AND MICROBIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS

UNECE China Chamber of Commerce (Grade A) Chemical Moisture ≤ 3.5%, except for: ≤ 3% − Pinus pinea ≤ 6.0% − Pinus gerardiana ≤ 7.0% Free fatty acids - ≤ 0.5% Peroxide value - ≤ 5 meq/kg Microbiological Total plate count - Ready to eat: ≤ 10,000 cfu/g Material: ≤ 30,000 cfu/g Yeast and mold - ≤ 3,000 cfu/g Coliforms - ≤ 1,000 cfu/g E. coli - ≤ 10 cfu/g Salmonella - Negative

PESTICIDES The use of chemicals is carefully regulated and so they must be used responsibly. Producers should be aware of all rules regarding the products they use and the maximum residue limits in the destination market.

CONTAMINANTS

International Maximum Levels for Aflatoxins in Pine Nuts Aflatoxin B1 Total Aflatoxins Country (ppb) (B1-B2-G1-G2) (ppb) Source China 5 (RTE & FP) GB 2761-2017 Food Safety National Standard for Maximum Levels of Mycotoxins in Foods 5 (FP) 10 (FP) Commission Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 of 19 December 2006 setting maximum levels EU 2 (RTE) 4 (RTE) for certain contaminants in foodstuffs U.S. Food and Drug Administration Compliance Policy Guides (CPG) CPG 555.400. Foods USA 20 (RTE & FP) - Adulteration with Aflatoxin

RTE: Ready-to-eat. FP: For further processing.

QUALITY ASSURANCE The following programs are endorsed by the industry: • Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs), which provide growers guidelines and principles to apply for on-farm production and post- production processes, to provide safe and healthy pine nuts, minimizing potential hazards, such as pathogens, contaminants and pest management materials. • Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs), which define procedures to be used in the processing, packaging, storing, and transport stages by handlers to ensure the quality of the product. GMPs are used by handlers to treat pine nuts under the best sanitary conditions. • Good Storage Practices (GSP), which provide procedures that should be in place in the post-harvest, processing and transport stages by handlers to control the moisture content and temperature, and to minimize the levels of fungi (especially aflatoxins) and insects. • Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP), which provides a systematic preventive approach to food safety that identifies, assesses and controls the risk of biological, chemical and physical hazards in production processes.

Sources: • UNECE STANDARD DDP-12 concerning the marketing and commercial quality control of pine nut kernels, Edition 2013. • China Chamber of Commerce of I/E of Foodstuffs, Native Produce and Animal By-products. Chinese Pine Nuts.

The following requirements are extracted from the United Nations Economic Commission6 for Europe (UNECE) Standard DDP-12 concerning the marketing and commercial quality control and Grades Pine Nuts / Standards of pine nut kernels (2013 edition), and from the brochure “Chinese Pine Nuts” published by the China Chamber of Commerce of I/E of Foodstuffs, Native Produce and Animal By-products in 2012. This kit merely outlines some international and national standards. Operators are free to choose which standards they use in their business practice, subject to national regulations.

UNECE Standards were created by the Specialized Section on Standardization of Dry and Dried Produce of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) with the help and recommendations of the International Nut and Dried Fruit Council (INC) and the supervision and approval of the main producing countries.

The DDP-12 Standard applies to decorticated pine nut kernels of species (cultivars) grown from Pinus pinea L., Pinus koraiensis, Pinus sibirica, Pinus yunnanensis, Pinus wallichiana, Pinus gerardiana and Pinus pumila, intended for direct consumption or for food when intended to be mixed with other products for direct consumption without further processing. This standard does not apply to pine nut kernels that are processed by salting, sugaring or flavoring, or for industrial processing.

SIZING

According to UNECE Standard DDP-12, sizing is optional. When sized, size is determined by count, i.e., the number of kernels per unit of weight according to the following table.

Kernels per Species Size 100 grams 600-700 Pinus pinea L., Pinus gerardiana More than 700 550 500-600 Pinus koraiensis 650 600-750 850 800-900 Pinus sibirica 1,100 1,000-1,200 850 800-900 Pinus yunnanensis 1,200 1,000-1,500 Pinus wallichiana, Pinus griffithii 400 350-550 Pinus pumila 1,800 1,700-2,400

Pine Nuts / 6. Standards and Grades

The China Chamber of Commerce of I/E of Foodstuffs, Native Produce and Animal By-products published the following specifications in the brochure “Chinese Pine Nuts”.

Species Size (kernels per 100 g) Shape Color Pinus koraiensis 550-750 Long triangle Ivory white Pinus sibirica 800-1,200 - Ivory white Pinus yunnanensis 850-1,500 Oval Grey white Pinus pumila 1,700-2,400 Triangle Light yellow Pinus tabulaefomis 4,000-6,000 Oval Milk white Pinus griffithii 500-800 Cylinder -

CLASSIFICATION & QUALITY TOLERANCES

In the UNECE Standard DDP-12, the classification is made according to the defects allowed, which are listed in the following table.

Tolerances allowed* Defects allowed Extra Class Class I Class II (a) Tolerances for produce not satisfying the minimum requirements, of which no more than: 3 5 7 Not sufficiently developed, shrunken and shrivelled 1 3 5 Moldy 0.5 0.5 1 Rancid or damaged by pests, rotting or deterioration 0.5 2 3 Living pests 0 0 0 Oily, mottled, yellow peak 1 2 2 Pine nuts in the germination stage 1 2 2 Pine nuts with superficial defects or traces of seed coat 2 4 6 (b) Size tolerances For produce not conforming to the size indicated, in total 5 10 10 (c) Tolerances for other defects Foreign matter - empty shell, loose shell, shell fragments, fragments of hull, dust (by weight), of which 0.05 0.05 0.05 no more than: Empty shells, loose shell (number of pieces in 2.5 kilograms) 1 1 1 Broken kernels 1 3 10 Pine nut kernels belonging to other species covered by this standard (excluding Pinus pinea) 2 5 5

*Percentage of defective produce, by number or weight.