Aeronautics and Space Report of the President, 1976 Activities

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Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 19 76 Activities NOTE TO READERS: ALL PRINTED PAGES ARE INCLUDED, UNNUMBERED BLANK PAGES DURING SCANNING AND QUALITY CONTROL CHECK HAVE BEEN DELETED Aeronautics and Space Report of the President 1976 Activities

National Aeronautics and Space Administration Washington, D.C. 20546 Table of Contents Page Page I. Summary of U.S. Aeronautics and Space Ac- X. National Academy of Sciences, National Acad- tivities of 1976 ______1 emy .of Engineering, National Research Introduction ______1 Council ______67 Space ______1 Introduction ______67 Aeronautics ______4 Aerospace Science _ _ _ __ - ______- - - 67 The Heritage ______5 Space Applications...... 69 G Aerospace Engineering ______- - - - - 70 11. National Aeronautics and Space Administration 71 Introduction ______6 Education ______------6 XI. Office of Telecommunications Policy __i____-- 72 Applications to Earth ______72 Science ______10 Introduction ______15 International Satellite Systems ______72 Space Transportation ______72 Space Research and Technology ______18 Direct Broadcast Satellites ______19 Frequency Management ______73 Tracking and Data Acquisition ______73 International Affairs ______20 Domestic Satellite Applications ______23 XII. Federal Communications Commission ______74 User Affairs ______74 Technology Utilization ______- _ 23 Introduction ______- - - - 24 Communications Satellites ______74 NASA Energy Programs ______75 Aeronautics Research and Technology ____ 24 Specialized Satellite Services ______XIII. Department of State ...... 77 111. Department of Defense ______27 Introduction ______77 Introduction ______27 77 28 Activities within the United Nations _____ Space Activities ______International Cooperation ______78 Aeronautical Activities ______33 79 38 Satellite Services ...... Relationship with NASA ______XI\’. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency ______81 IV. Department of Commerce ______40 Introduction.. ______81 Introduction ______40 Demilitarization - ______81 Satellites in Environmental Monitoring Crisis Management and Verification ______81 and Prediction ...... 40 Space Technology ...... 81 Other Satellite and Space Applications ____ 45 XV. Department of Transportation ______82 Space Support Activities ______46 Introduction ______- _ _ - ______- - - - 82 Space and Atmosphere Physics Research __ 47 Aviation Safety ______--- 82 Data Programs ______18 Air Traffic Control and Air Navigation ___ 84 Aeronautical Programs ______48 XVI. The Smithsonian Institution ______87 V. Energy Research and Development Adminis- Introduction ...... 87 tration ______50 Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory ___ 87 Introduction ______50 The National Air and Space Museum _____ 89 Support to Space Programs ______50 XVII. United States Information Agency ______91 Satellite Power Systems ______51 Introduction ______91 52 Press and Publications ______91 VI. Department of the Interior ______91 Introduction ______52 Films and Television ______Earth Resources Observation Systems Pro- Information Centers and Exhibits ______92 92 gram ______52 Radio ______-__- Remote Sensing Activities Using Space Data 53 Remote Sensing Activities Using Aerial Data 55 Appendixes National Cartographic Information Center _ 56 International Activities ______56 A- 1 U.S. Spacecraft Record ...... 93 VII. Department of Agriculture ______57 A-2 World Record of Space Launchings Successful Introduction ______- ___ _ _ 57 in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond ______93 Remote Sensing Activity ______57 A-3 Successful U.S. Launchings--1976 ______94 100 GO B-l U.S. Applications Satellites, 1972-1976 ______VIII. National Science Foundation ______US-Launched Scientific Payloads, 1972-1976 102 60 B-2 __ Introduction _ - ______B-3 US-Launched Space Probes, 1972-1976 ______103 Astronomy ______60 C History of United States and Soviet Manned Atmospheric Sciences ______62 Space Flights ______104 IX. Environmental Protection Agency ______64 D US. Space Launch Vehicles ______106 Introduction ______64 E- 1 Space Activities of the U.S. Government ______107 Interagency Energy-Related Environmental U.S. Space Budget-Budget Authority ______107 Research and Development Program _ __ _ 64 E-2 Space Activities Budget ...... 108 Remote Monitoring ______65 Aeronautics Budget ______108 Aerospace Events in the Bicentennial Year

The United States in 1976 orbited spacecraft around Mars and landed and operated spacecraft on its surface, showed the first Space Shuttle Orbiter, launched a number of communications satellites, flight-tested research aircraft, and opened the new National Air and Space Museum.

From an altitude of 1857 kilometers, the Viking 1 orbiter photographed the meteorite crater Arantlas on Man (above) in July. Twenty-five kilometers in diameter and with a typical clearly defined rim and conical peak at the bottom, Arantlas and some other craters on Mars have one surprising feature: the ejecta la~ciaIountl it ;ippe:ti.s to have Rowed out of the crater rather than having Iiecn 1)lastctl out by the impact of the meteorite. Similar results ha\c been wen in cxpcritncntal cratering of \caterlogged ground. A closer look at the Slartinn lantlscape was affortlcd by the lander spacecraft. lhc panorama I~lowwas pltotogra~~licdeai-ly on an August morning by thc Viking 1 lander. The wind-sculpted sand dunes look much like parts of Mexico and California. The large boulder at left, about 8 meters away, measures abut 1 by 3 meters.

iv Enterprise (top), first of five Space Shuttle Orbiters for the Space Transportation Sys- tem, was rolled out of the factory at Palm- dale, California, on September 17. The joint NASA/Army experimental Tilt Rotor Research Helicopter (above) was delivered and began flight tests in 1976. At right, the Comstar 2 domestic communications satellite was being readied for mating with its launch vehicle prior to launch in July. And below, a view of the Independence Avenue side of the Smithsonian’s new National Air and Space Museum which opened July 1.

V Summary of United States Aeronautics I and Space Activities in 1976

introduction Earth Applications This bicentennial year has been one of major Communications. In August the ATS 6 experi- achievements in space and aeronautics. In space, mental communications satellite completed its the most significant accomplishments were the year-long experiment with India, where it had highly successful Viking orbiter and lander mis- transmitted educational and agricultural instruc- sions to Mars and the rollout of the first of the tion programs, prepared by the Government of Space Shuttle orbiters. These highly visible mile- India, to inexpensive receiving antennas in some stones were balanced by the growing maturity of 2400 Indian villages. As it was moved back toward the world’s space communications systems and the the US., ift participated in a NASA-Agency for In- continuing exploitation and evaluation of data ternational Development program known as Aid- from Earth resources and weather satellites. In sat, beaming programs to 24 Asian and African aeronautics, there was promising research on air- countries on the potential uses of satellite tech- craft technology ,that could lead to better fuel nology in developing nations. economy, higher performance with quieter engines, On the other side of the world, the joint and increased safety both at cruising altitudes and Canadian-US. experimental communications satel- in terminal areas. New automated equipment was lite was launched in January. The most powerful placed into operation on the nation’s airways, im- communications satellite to date, Communications proving the safety and efficiency of the current Tcchnology Satellite (CTS) 1 used its higher trans- system. This chapter briefly summarizes and high- mission power and higher frequencies to transmit lights the more detailed contents of the agency to small, inexpensive antennas in remote cominu- chapters that follow. nities. Operational communications satellite systems con- Space tinued to grow in 1976. The international INTEL- The United States had 26 launches into orbit SAT system acquired additional capacity in Jan- in 1976. A total of 34 spacecraft were orbited. uary when NASA launched Intelsat IV-A F2 as a NASA orbited 15 satellites on 15 successful backup for the first of this uprated series. Satellite launches; the Department of Defense orbited 19 technology helped Indonesia meet a national need payloads on 11 successful launches. Of NASA’s for better communications with the July launch by total, 9 were industry or government communica- NASA of Indonesia’s Palapa 1 communi,cations tions satellites-1 for INTELSAT, 5 for Comsat satellite. When it began transmitting from synchro- Corpor’ation, I for RCA, 1 for the U.S. Navy, and nous orbit in August, it was the first time the 1 communications research satellite for the U.S. thousands of inhabited islands in the archipelago Air Force; 1 was an operational weather satellite were linked by direct communication. In the U.S., for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin- the number of operational domestic communica- istration (NOAA) ; and 4 were international satel- tions satellites doubled during 1976 with the lites-1 a joint launch with Canada, 1 launched for launches of RCA-Satcom 2 and Comstars 1 and 2. West Germany, 1 for NATO, and 1 for Indonesia. A new special purpose communications satellite Three of the international launches were also com- system also came into being with the launches of munications satellites. Launches for NASA’s own Marisat 1, 2, and 3. program included a laser geodynamic satellite and Weather. The network of U.S. weather satellites a suborbital gravity probe (the latter not counted maintained its operational status with the launch in the orbital launch figures). Among the DOD of the polar-orbiting Noaa 5, allowing Noaa 3 to payloads were 2 communications research satellites be deactivated. NOAA was developing a system for and 3 scientific satellites. SMS satellite monitoring of the data-sparse Gulf

1 of Mexico for potential severe storm conditions and studied and measured by several agencies including was experimenting with 3-minute-interval images EPA, NASA, and NOAA. An example is EPA’s from the Goes 1 satellite of low-level cumulus testing of an aircraf t-mounted laser fluorosensor clouds to study their potential to become hurri- that identifies organics, including specific oils, on canes. surface water, offering a means of detecting and Earth Resources. Work continued to define and assessing industrial pollution. refine the uses and techniques of exploiting satellite sensors for gathering wide-area information on the Planetary Exploration character, conditions, and changes of land areas. A Mars. The most significant event in space during cooperative project of NASA, Department of Agri- 1976 was the successful Viking mission to Mars. culture, and NOAA, LACIE (Large Area Crop During the summer both spacecraft reached the Inventory Experiment) continued in its second planet, were slowed down, and put into orbit. Care- phase. The second phase will extend measurements ful study of the photos taken by the orbiting space- of wheat production to areas outside North Amer- craft and of the radar returns from NSF’s upgraded ica as part of the overall LACIE effort to examine radar telescope at Arecibo, Puerto Rico, narrowed the feasibility of a space-based global crop inventory the search for safe landing sites. On July 20 and system. September 3 the lander vehicles separated from the ICEWARN, the NOAA project that tracks ice orbiters and made successful landings on the Mar- formation in the Great Lakes, had a second success- tian surface. The orbiters continued photographing ful winter season, enabling uninterrupted shipping the planet, depicting mountains and canyons larger throughout the winter of 1975-1976. The Coast than any on Earth and widespread evidence of Guard has extended the technique to the coastal water and steam erosion in Mar’s geologic past. The waters of Alaska. orbiters also measured the water vapor in the at- A number of established and new demonstration mosphere and on the surface, discovering large projects used Landsat satellite data to inventory amounts of water locked in the frozen polar caps. forest, water, wildland, and range resources, as well The landers photographed the detail of the surface as deriving contemporary, wide-area data on urban around their landing sites, confirming the red color development. These demonstration projects are of the surface and the pinkness of the lower atmos- sponsored by a number of agencies, including phere; monitored the Martian weather, which to NASA and the Departments of Agriculture, In- the end of the year remained much the same from terior, and Commerce. day to day; and scooped up soil and processed it in Monitoring Air and Water Quality. An intensi- a series of biochemical tests in an effort to determine fied program of stratospheric monitoring established whether microbial life exists on Mars. Such evi- more accurate measurements of the effect of aero- dence of life is still unclear at the year’s end. In sols and other man-generated gases on the upper November the intensive phase of the missions atmosphere, including the effect of emissions from ended, and NASA began the extended missions, a forthcoming flights of the Space Shuttle. Several lower phase of activity that would continue ob- agencies, including NASA, NOM, the National serving seasonal changes until about September Academy of Sciences, the National Science Founda- 1978. tion, and the Smithsonian Institution, are cooperat- Venus. In addition to using its big radar telescope ing in the examination of this complex problem. to assist NASA in determining the roughness of In the lower atmosphere, the utility of satellites proposed Viking landing sites on Mars, NSF also and aircraft for measuring and establishing base- used the instrument to penetrate the murky atmos- lines of air pollution and experimenting with long- phere of Venus. There it found a 1,500,000-square- term techniques for monitoring changes in the kilometer flat area similar to the lunar “seas”. An- baselines was actively explored by the Environ- other discovery was a series of parallel canyons and mental Protection Agency (EPA) , supported by ridges extending unbroken for hundreds of kilometers and unlike any formations on Earth. NASA, NOAA, U.S. Geological Survey, and other Saturn. Pioneer 11, having flown past Jupiter in agencies. For example, EPA was testing an aircraft- 1974, was still using the gravitational acceleration mounted differential-absorption LIDAR (light- imparted to it by that huge planet to cross the detecting and ranging) system that constructs a solar system toward Saturn. It is due to fly by vertical profile of relative particle density, showing Saturn in 1979. the horizontal and vertical travel of smokestack emissions. Sun and Sun-Earth Interactions Similarly techniques for monitoring sea and lake Ever since the Skylab missions of 1973-1974, sci- pollution, currents, and circulation patterns were entists have been studying the. 171,000 photographs

2 of the Sun taken by the 10 instruments in the Intended to put manned and unmanned space flight Apollo Telescope Mount. Since Skylab, OS0 8 has on a more routine basis and to reduce the cost of been orbited for solar study, as well as the two putting each pound of cargo in orbit, the system West German Helios satellites, which have traveled has been designed around the concept of maximum closer to the Sun than any other man-made object. reusability of major components and regular opera- Only a preliminary analysis has been possible of tional performance. The principal element in the these more recent data, but those results were com- system is the Space Shuttle; looking somewhat like bined with Skylab data in a Skylab Solar Workshop a transport aircraft, the Shuttle will be powered by held in 1976. Important findings resulted, not only three high-pressure rocket engines burning liquid for understanding of the Sun itself, but for those hydrogen and liquid oxygen. Its cockpit area will functions of the Sun that control the solar wind contain the flight controls and the flight crew of that blows upon the outer fringes of Earth’s atmos- three astronauts. Behind the cabin will be a cargo phere and affects our weather and communications. bay, 19 meters long and 5 meters wide, that will Coronal holes, the wellspring of the solar wind, contain cargoes weighing as much as 29,250 kilo- were studied closely: temperatures at various levels grams. Though the cargo bay itself is unpressurized, were measured, locations pinned down, the nature it will be fitted with the Spacelab, a sophisticated of movements identified. Larger convectional trends set of modular units that can permit a crew of as on the Sun’s surface were tracked and better under- many as four experimenters to operate the instru- stood. Because of certain anomalies in the data, ments in the payload. future satellite missions, most importantly the At launch the three Shuttle engines will be aug- Solar Maximum Mission, were set in motion in an mented by two solid-fueled rocket boosters strapped attempt to fill gaps in the data. to the fuselage on either side of a large, external liquid-fuel tank. When the Shuttle has risen above The Universe the atmosphere, the boosters will drop off and para- The search for understanding of the origins of chute down to an ocean landing, to be recovered the Universe, its dynamics, and future has been a and reused. The external fuel tank is subsequently target of the space program since its inception and jettisoned. The Shuttle engines will carry the ve- continued in 1976. The OAO 3 satellite (also called hicle into low Earth orbit (some 320 kilometers), Copernicus) has been operational since 1972. New where it can remain as long as 30 days. In addition techniques, developed since the spacecraft was to the wide variety of experiments that can be per- launched, have extended its observational sensi- formed from the Spacelab, the Shuttle can use an tivity to objects one-sixth the brightness that it arm-like remote manipulator to lift satellites out of could originally perceive and extended its range in the cargo bay and place them in orbit, or to pick up the near ultraviolet. satellites already in orbit and place them in the NSF, in studies of the relative movement of cargo bay, where they can be repaired or returned galaxies in the Universe, discovered that our galaxy to Earth for refurbishment. For missions where a and nearby galaxies are traveling at higher speeds high-energy orbit is needed, the expendable Interim than previous theory had predicted. Upper Stage, which has rocket motors, can be at- A NASA suborbital probe, Gravity Probe A, was tached to the payload. In returning to Earth, the launched in 1976 to test an important part of Ein- Shuttle will descend through the atmosphere more stein’s general theory of relativity-the concept that gradually than previous space vehicles, using the a clock beyond the influence of Earth’s gravity field aerodynamic lift of its wings, and will flare out and would run faster than its counterpart on Earth. land on a 5-kilometer-long runway at Kennedy Extremely accurate maser clocks developed by the Space Center, Florida, or Vandenberg Air Force Smithsonian Institution were used in the 2-hour Base, California. flight that reached an altitude of 10,000 kilometers; Since presi,dential approval in 1972, the Space the results generally confirm that portion of the Transportation System has been under research, Einstein theory. development, and most recently fabrication. A Studies continued of the proposal for a space major event took place on September 17, when the telescope, intended to be an international facility first Space Shuttle orbiter was rolled out in Palm- launched and maintained by Space Shuttle missions dale, California. In mid-1977 the orbiter will begin and to provide data to be analyzed by scientists approach and landing tests at Dryden Flight Re- worldwide. search Center. In 1979 the second Space Shuttle will begin orbital test flights, preliminary to in- Space Transportation auguration of operations in 1980. When the full The Space Transportation System represents a five-Orbiter fleet is in operation, the Space Trans- major turning point in the national space program. portation System will replace most of the present

3 stable of expendable launch vehicles for NASA, The NAVSTAR Global Positioning System, a DoD, international, and commercial missions. worldwide, precision, three-dimensional navigation system based on satellites, conducted ground tests Znternationul Cooperation of prototype hardware, preliminary to the launch of the first six satellites in 1977. Until NAVSTAR Space Transportation System. International paris fully operational, the TRANSIT satellite system ticipation in the forthcoming Space Transportation will continue to provide two-dimensional naviga- System continued to grow during 1976. Spacelab, tion. the major Space Shuttle system being developed by Communication satellite systems have become the European Space Agency, passed its preliminary more and more important to DoD both for world- design review in December. The first flight unit is wide command and control and for operational to be delivered in 1979, a year before its first mis- communications. In 1976 the Defense Satellite Com- sion. In addition to this $500 million European in- munications System, the command and control vestment, Canada began development this year of system, continued operations through its satellite the remote manipulator system, a commitment in- over the Pacific and shared use of the NATO satel- volving tens of millions of dollars. lite over the Atlantic and the U.K.’s Skynet satellite Potential government, industry, and university over the Indian Ocean. The Navy Fleet Satellite users of the Space Transportation System from Communications System was preparing its Earth Europe, Canada, and Japan were briefed on capa- terminals for the launch of its first satellite in 1977. bilities, payload accommodations, and probable Production of terminals began for the Air Force terms and conditions of use. NASA and the Euro- Satellite Communications System. pean Space Agency completed preliminary studies DoD intensified its preparations for use of the of the first Spacelab payload. For the Orbital Flight test phase that will begin in 1979, invitations were Space Shuttle, which will have a major effect on the nature and cost of space operations. In addition sent out internationally for proposals of experiments. to mission planning and coordination with NASA, Communication Satellite Experiments. The ATS the Air Force initiated development of the In- 6 experimental communications satellite completed terim Upper Stage, to be used with the Space its one-year experiment of transmitting Indian Shuttle when high-energy missions are required. educational programming to small receivers in some Contracts were let for defining the Space Shuttle 2400 villages in India. Though the results are still ground facilities to be constructed at Vandenberg being evaluated, the practicality of such broadcast- Air Force Base. ing was clearly demonstrated. In August ATS 6 began its return journey toward Aeronautics the U.S. On the way it served as Aidsat, making demonstration broadcasts to 24 developing nations The broad purposes of U.S. aeronautical research and regional organizations on the possible uses of and development are to improve the performance, space technology for national development, and efficiency, and safety of current commercial and transmitting live, two-way conversations between general aviation aircraft and the airways on which local and U.S. officials and experts. they fly; to provide the technology base for future Canada’s Communications Technology Satellite aircraft; and to maintain the competitive perform- (CTS) was launched by NASA in January, and the ance of current and future military aircraft. two countries began sharing its broadcast time for In recent years increasing concern over environ- experiments in using higher power signals to trans- mental problems and oil resources has focused mit health care, education, and special service mes- much of the research on quieter aircraft with lower sages to remote, relatively inexpensive receivers. fuel consumption and emission rates. Other events of the year were the three launches by NASA of international satellites, four agreements Zmprouing Current and Futare Aircraft for instrumentation on future NASA satellites, and 173 proposals for experiments from 15 countries The Aircraft Energy Efficiency program was es- and agencies for 14 flight opportunities on future tablished by NASA in 1976. It seeks technology that NASA satellites and Space Shuttle flights. will reduce fuel consumption of future commercial transport aircraft by 50 percent, as compared to current aircraft. Research will principally center in Defense three areas: (1) redesign of components in large In space operational systems, as well as research turbofan engines to reduce specific fuel consump- and development, the Department of Defense tion; (2) combining new aerodynamic technology, moved ahead in 1976. such as the supercritical wing and winglets, with

4 active flight controls that allow significant reduc- Defense tion of structural weight: and (3) substituting In 1976 DoD improved the combat aircraft inven- composite materials in place of metal in certain tory, continued research and testing on next-genera- structures, for a weight savings of some 30 percent. tion aircraft and components, and worked with Other research on improving future aircraft in- NASA on several research aircraft. cluded a NASA contract to build a Quiet Short- The first F-16 air combat fighter, being produced Haul Airplane, wind-tunnel testing of a supersonic in concert with five European nations, was de- transport model that promised a 30 percent im- livered; the F-15 fighter reached full production; provement in supersonic lift-over-drag ratio over and F-14As were arriving aboard carriers. the 1971 U.S. supersonic transport design, and pro- In research and development, the F-18 fighter viding design information for a second low-speed entered full development, and the B-1 bomber airfoil of improved lift and drag characteristics for neared the end of flight testing. All three services general aviation aircraft. increased the number of aircraft components that were being studied or tested for use of composites Improving the Operdiortal Emthmltt in place of metal to reduce structural weight. The Laser Obstacle Terrain Avoidance Warning System Aircraft noise and particle emissions from en- was flight-tested and found sensitive enough to gines were the principal subjects of this research. detect obstacles as slender as a small wire. Simula- A computer program has been constructed that can tor development continued for helicopter flight predict the takeoff and landing noise generated by characteristics under instrument flight conditions current and conceptual aircraft. Further validation for the CH-47 and AH-1 aircraft. will refine this program. Comprehensive studies of In joint DoD-NASA programs the two agencies community response to aircraft noise are identifying completed design of the joint Highly Maneuverable the types and levels of aircraft noise that cause most Aircraft and began fabrication of two remotely concern in communities near airports. piloted research aircraft. In both joint experimental In emission control, NASA’s Experimental Clean helicopter programs-the Rotor Systems Research Combustor program for gas turbine engines reached Aircraft and the Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft- the hardware demonstration phlase. Preliminary re- aircraft were delivered for flight testing. sults from ground tests of complete engines suggest Details of the events summarized will be found major reductions in emissions during takeoff and in the succeeding chapters. landing and significant reduction in nitrogen oxide emission at high-altitude cruise. The Heritage Another major area of research is in improving This bicentennial year, which witnessed the be- the efficiency and safety of terminal and airways ginning of a new chapter in the history of flight operations. NASA worked with the Federal Avia- with the Viking landings on Mars and the rollout tion Administration (FAA) on reducing wake of the Space Shuttle Orbiter, also became the year vortices that trail behind large aircraft, on defining of commemoration of the past history of flight. On the conditions likely to cause low-altitude wind July 1, the Smithsonian Institution opened the new shear near airports, and on improved safety report- National Air and Space Museum. Situated on the ing. The two agencies also demonstrated to the Mall in Washington, the museum displays the actual International Civil Aviation Organization the first craft that made flight history, from the Wright application of all-digital controls in a commercial Brothers’ airplane to the Apollo 11 spacecraft that transport aircraft. A number of hands-off landings carried men to the first landing on the Moon. Ex- were made with the system controlling approach hibits in 23 bays tell the story of the technology, and the landing flare. The FAA also inaugurated a science, and history of flight. Public response was long-term project to automate and streamline their immediate; more than five million persons visited nationwide network of Flight Service Stations. the museum in the first six months.

5 I National Aeronautics 11 and Space Administration

Introduction Applications to Earth The National Aeronautics and Space Administra- The applications program continued in 1976 to tion (NASA) is the civilian agency of the United make significant strides in attaining its goals and States government charged with planning, direction, objectives through the application of space tecli- and conducting research and development activities nology in communications, environmental research, related to civilian space and aeronautics pro- weather forecasting, and improving man’s under- grams. In carrying out these respon,sibilities, the standing of the Earth. Satellites continued to im- agency works with many other civilian Federal prove our ability to locate, inventory, and manage agencies that have research or operational interest our planet’s resources. Efforts to improve the tech- in these fields and also interacts with and provides nology transfer process also continued. research and development assistance to the Depart- ment of Defense, which conducts the military space Coinmunications and aeronautics program. In its space program, NASA has since its incep- Applications Technology Satellite 6 (ATS 6). tion in 1958 pursued several broad goals: develop- The ATS 6 satellite completed two years of suc- ment of technology for space operations, demon- cessful orbital operations on May 30, 1976. India’s stration of practical applications of space systems Satellite Instructional Television Experiment and technology, and discovery of new scientific (SITE), completed on August 1, 1976, was con- knowledge about the origin, evolution, and pro- ducted by the Indian Government to provide in- cesses of the universe, our solar system, near space, structional television via the ATS 6 satellite to and the complexities of the Earth’s atmosphere. about 2400 villages, reaching some 3 million While emphasis has fluctuated from time to time, viewers regularly. Areas of instruction included the broad intent has remained constant. family planning, health and hygiene, agriculture, In our bicentennial year of 1976, NASA made and national development. In August 1976, ATS G significant advances toward these objectives. In started moving slowly back to the U.S. for an space, a combination of space research and opera- experimental program in the societal, communications produced a NASA launch total of 16 satel- tions, and technological disciplines. En route, ATS lites and probes, 14 of which supported new or 6 supported the U.S. Agency for International De- existing commercial, national, and international velopment in a project to demonstrate application systems, while 2 supported NASA R&D initiatives. of communications and remote sensing technology Two major milestones in NASA’s R&D program to developing countries, via direct satellite broad- were the successful landings and long-duration op- casting to more than two dozen countries. erations of the Viking 1 and 2 spacecraft on Mars Communications Technology Satellite (CTS-l).The and the rollout of the first Space Shuttle Orbiter. CTS-1 satellite, a cooperative program with Cana- Meanwhile a large network of previously launched da, was launched on January 17, 1976, to experi- satellites and instruments continued to operate suc- ment with technology for satellite communications cessfully-from Earth-focused satellites returning to low-cost ground stations at the 12 GHz frequency, data on crops, population distribution, sea state, allocated specifically for satellite broadcasting with- weather warnings; to greatly increased information out power limitations. By December 1976, eleven of about the planets of the solar system, the Sun, and eighteen experiments had started operations over the new discoveries in the galaxies-pulsars, quasars, a wide range of educational, health, social services, black holes. In aeronautics, research continued on and information-exchange investigations. improvement of current commercial aircraft, of Advanced Communications Research and Tech- future higher performance aircraft, and of the nical Consultation. Research was expanded on the safety and performance of current airway systems. higher regions of the radio frequency spectrum.

6 Studies continued on frequency allocations, band- ground station was installed in Pakistan to obtain width and orbit requirements, and the opening of data from that part of the world without placing new regions of the communications spectrum for undue demands on the one operable tape recorder future missions. Research to improve space com- on Landsat 2. Development of Landsat-C and its munications components and technologies con- sensors progressed on schedule to meet a projected tinued, and new capabilities were demonstrated late 1977 launch date. using experimental hardware for voice, data, and During 1976, good progress was made in the on- educational television. The objective was more going Applications Systems Verification and Trans- efficient use of the available spectrum through new fer projects and five new ones were initiated. The bandwidth-compression techniques. purpose of these projects is to develop, demonstrate, Technical consultation to the Federal Communi- and transfer technology to managers and planners cations Commission on satellite systems evaluations in the public and private sectors. In addition, in- and design reviews was completed as new commer- terest and participation by the public and private cial applications for satellite services were filed. A sectors steadily increased, in many cases independ- special effort was the preparation for the 1977 ently of NASA and without Federal funding. World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC) The Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment on Broadcast and Fixed Satellite Services. NASA operated during its second wheat-growing season, also increased its support to the Department of and measurements were extended to more areas State, Federal Communications Commission, and outside North America. The ICEWARN project, the Office of Telecommunications Policy in prepa- which provided information on ice conditions in ration for the 1979 WARC. the Great Lakes for the second straight year, was an important factor in having uninterrupted ship- Data Collectiolz via Satellite ping on the lakes through the winter of 1975-1976. The Corps of Engineers continued to use data The technique was also used by the Coast Guard collection platforms reporting through Landsat 1 along the north coast of Alaska. A project in the and 2 to collect hydrologic data in New England. western U.S. gave indica(tions of potential benefits Also a joint NASA-California Division of Forestry resulting from use of Landsat data for snow map- protot ype-opera ti onal demonstration began in July ping. The Corps of Engineers examined the fea- 1976 to test a satellite-aided automated fire-weath- sibility of producing computer-generated 1,and er data system as an aid to predicting the onset and cover classification maps for the entire natilon, based location of forest fires. Wind velocity, air temper- on Landsat data and using NASA-developed tech- ature and humidity, solar radiation, and the mois- niques. The Pacific Northwest Regional Land ture of the ground fuel were measured by 24 instru- Inventory Project achieved positive results in all mented platforms at remote California sites and the the discipline areas (urban, land use, agriculture, data regularly sent via the Goes 1 spacecraft to the water resources, forestry, and range). Division of Forestry in Sacramento for analysis and New Applications Systems Verification and decision making. Transfer projects initiated in 1976 were: Satellite-Aided Search and Rescue. NASA studies 0 a Water Management and Control project in continued on a space concept to detect and locate cooperation with the Corps of Engineers to endangered aircraft and ships equipped with Emer- use Landsat data to predict water run-off in gency Locator Transmitters. Satellite-aided search flood-prone areas. and rescue feasibility experiments employing the Oscar VI1 (Amateur Radio) spacecraft have dem- 0 a Ccnsus-Urbanized Area projeot in collabora- onstrated that emergency signals can be relayed tion with the Census Bureau to monitor urban through a satellite to ground stations hundreds of and suburbsan growth. miles away and provide useful positions informa- 0 a Forest Resource Inventory System in collab- tion. oration with the S!t. Regis Paper Company to quantify forest resources, using Landsat data. Earth Resources a Wildland Vegetation Inventory project in cooperation with the Bureau of Land Manage- Satellites contribute important information to ment t'o develop techniques by which the Bur- the search for necessary resources and the preserva- eau can classify and inventory the 1,918,000 tion of the environment. square kilometers of land in Federal ownership. During 1976, the Landsat 1 and 2 satellites con- a Land Cover Change Detection Survey, in tinued to operate satisfactorily, providing almost cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey, total global coverage every 9 days. A portable to develop a capability for using Landsat data

7 in the Bureau of Land Management’s Land aircraft, rocket, and balloon measurements have Use and Data Analysis program. contributed to understanding the seasonal and geographical variations of ozone, aerosols, and nitric Weather and Climate oxide (a by-product of high-altitude aircraft operations) . Advanced techniques have been developed The Weather and Climate Program is directed to- and demonstrated for the measurement of other ward research on the detection and monitoring of important trace gases, including nitrogen dioxide, severe storms, the development of improved opera- nitric acid, and the hydroxyl radical. These tech- tional satellite systems in support of the National niques will provide new tools for regulatory agen- Weather Service, and continued support of the in- cies such as the Environmental Protection Agency ternational Global Atmospheric Research Propam (EPA) and state environmental agencies. The (GARP) . NASA water quality program attacks four general Applying the unique capability of geostationary problem areas: ocean dumping, red tide detection, weather satellites to monitor most of the North lake water quality classification, and the definition American continent and its bordering oceans, the of off-shore ocean and Great Lakes water quality in- NASA-developed Synchronous Meteorological Sat- dicators. NASA and EPA executed an interagency elhe, SMS-2, and Geostationary Operational En- agreement which provided the framework for more vironmental Satellite, Goes 1 (launched in October extensive cooperative projects between NASA and 1975), have been used by NOAA to detect the pres- EPA. A joint working group was then formed to ence and predict the movement of severe storms help focus NASA technology development in re- such as hurricanes. The NASAdeveloped Noaa 5 sponse to FPA monitoring requirements. satellite was launched on July 29, 1976, into polar orbit and it is providing global quantitative atmospheric and sea data. The Atmospheric and Ocean- Earth Dynamics Monitorilzg adForecasting ographic Information Processing System has been completed and placed into operation at the God- The objectives of the Earth Dynamics and Fore- dard Space Flight Center. casting Program are to demlonstrate the use of space In preparation for the First GARP Global Ex- technology for gravity and magnetic field mapping, periment (FGGE) to be conducted in 1978-1979, for resource assessment, for geodetic surveying in- unique global weather data sets have been obtained cluding the monitoring of subsidence, for detection during both summer and winter data systems {tests. of crustal motions in faulted regions, and for im- FGGE research is designed to improve the reliability proved determination of polar motion and Earth and length of time over which weather forecasts rotation. can be made. Analysis of satellite-to-satellite tracking data ac- At the Gcddard Space Flight Center, a processing quired during the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project was project has been established to process and distri- used to funther define the large gravity anomaly in bute Nimbus 4 gllobal ozone data to scientific users. the Indian Ocean. Work continued on the development of accurate global geoids using satellite tracking djata and Ocean geoid data acquired with the Environmental Qdity Mon-ttoring Geos 3 altimeter. The Environmental Quality Monitoring program In response to a need for global magnetic field concentrates on developing and demonstrating the data for updating field models and magnetic field technology €or measuring and monitoring those en- charts for navigation and resource assessment, NASA vironmental parameters which affect the quality of and the U.S. Geological Service have undertaken the Earth’s atmosphere and water. the development of a Magnetic Field Satellite For the upper atmosphere, emphasis is on devel- (Magsat) for launch in late 1979. The data acquired oping a space-based capability €or monitoring with Magsat, in combinations with gravity field data stratospheric ozone, trace gases, and aerosols. The and imagery acquired by Geos and Landsat, should Stratospheric Aerosol Measurement (SAM) , flown make it possible to develop a map of potentially in 1975 on the U.S./U.S.S.R.Apll~40y~i~ mission, interesting areas for resource exploration. demonstrated the usefulness of the solar occulta- The Laser Geodynamic Satellite (Lageos) was tion technique for measuring aerosols from orbijtal launched in May 1976. Lageos is intended for use distance. Advanced versions of the SAM instrument as a nearly permanent reference point in space €or will be flown on the Nimbus G satellite and the Ap- laser ranging from Earth. Observations have verified plications Explorer Missilon-B/Stratospheric Aero- the stability of its orbit; its predicted orbital posi- sol and Gas Experiment scheduled for launch in tion does not vary more than a few meters over 1978 and 1979, respectively. During (the past year, many weeks. This year, ,as in 1972 and 1974, mobile lasers were During 1976 definition studies of materials re- deployed on either side of the San Andreas faullt to search payloads for the early missions of the Space determine any motion of the tectonic plates which Shuttle and Spacelab were completed and facilities form the fault boundaries. were identified for the initial Shuttle missions involving space processing; these are planned for Ocean Condition Monjtorircg and Forecasting 1980-1981. Pending the availability of the Shuttle, space processing experiments have been continued The Ocean Condition Monitoring and Forecast- using sounding rockets under the Space Processing ing program supports research and experimentation Applications Rocket prognam. These rocket flights associated with the use of space techniques for can carry 6 to 10 experiments each and provide monitoring and forecasting sea state conditions, about five minutes of weightlessness. The first two ocean currents and circulation patterns, accurate flights were conducted in 1976; three flights are measurement of the sea surface topography, and the planned for 1977. incorporation of data on the energy exchange at Ground-based studies were also conducted on a the air/sea interface into short and long range variety of potential applications, including separa- global weather forecasting. tion of white blood cells for medical purposes, Data acquired with Geos 3 have been used to growth of electronic crystals in special shapes, pro- demonstrate the acquisition of sea state information duction of high-power-laser glass, and manufacture and have shown that ocean currents can be detected of low-cost solar cells. by the change in radar reflectivity of the moving water and a small depression (about one meter) of Technology Applications the height of mean sea level. Seasat-A, the first experimental ocean satellite de- A one-million-gallon-per-daypilot plant, using signed to provide the global data needed to validate the NASA/ JPL-developed Activated Carbon Treat- the use of remotely sensed ocean data, continued un- ment System for wastewater, was completed in der development and is scheduled for flight in mid- Orange County, California. Initial operation of the 1978. Seasat-A will carry both active and passive plant verified the technical and economic feasibility microwave instruments and an optical radiometer. of converting sewage sludge into activated carbon Diata from these instruments will provide informa- by means of pyrolysis and using the resulting carbon tion on wave height and direction, ocean surface to treat incoming wasttewater. temperature, sea surface topography, and sea ice. Another wastewater treatment system being de- NASA and the U.S. Navy's Fleet Numerical veloped uses water hyacinths to absorb large quan- Weather Central have entered into an agreement tities of nutrients, heavy metals, and other pollu- for (the Navy to process and use Seasat data in its tants as the final filtration agent in sewage treatment ocean forecasting programs. Cooperative agreements lagoons. This past year produced experience with were being developed with other agencies and with an operational system in Mississippi. When used ap- commercial interests. Work also progressed on the propriately, this Vascular Aquatic Water Treatment' definition of experiments to demonstrate the use System has proven to be an effective, low-cost means of Seasat data for routing of commercial shipping, of meeting EPA water quality standards. large-scale fishing, various other off-shore activities, A means of determining conformance with EPA and coastal fishing surveillance. water quality standards was also being developed by NASA. This automated Wa,ter Monitoring System, which evolved from research on life support systems MItterkls Processing in Space for long-duration manned flights, monitors water The goals of this program are to develop and quality parameters in near-real time. The system demonstrate the use of the space environment for would be field tested in FY 1977 in cooperation activities in materials science and technology and to with the Gulf Coast Waste Disposal Authority. encourage privately funded efforts in these areas. NASA was also developing the Agro-Environ- Previous experience with Skylab and ASTP ex- mental System, which ties pertinent environmental periments and analytic studies identified a number measurements at a number of Virginia Agriculture of organic and inorganic products that appear to be Experiment Stations into the computter system of feasible to produce in space, either at lower cost the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Uni- than now possible on Earth or with substantilally versity. This information would be used to optimize improved characteristics. It is also evident that the the time of application and amounts of pesticides, low-gravity, high-vacuum environment of space herbicides, fertilizer, and irrigation water to maxi- presents a unique opportunity for materials re- mize yield and minimize cost. Two of the projected search. eight stations of the system were instrumented to

9 verify the crop management models which are key inputs and verification from laboratory experiments elements of the system. and field measurements, these models were central to efforts aimed at assessing potential stratospheric Science changes caused by man’s activities. Assessment Activities. During the past year, efforts Study of the Earth’s Upper Atmosphere directed at assessing the potential impact of Space During 1976 the Upper Atmospheric Research Shuttle exhaust emissions of stratospheric ozone Office of NASA pursued its program to acquire a culminated in a Space Shuttle environmental work- sufficient understanding of the chemical and physi- shop on stratospheric effects. The major conclusion cal processes occurring in the Earth’s atmosphere of this workshop held that a Space Shuttle system so that (1) perturbations in the stratosphere caused with 60 launches per year could be expected to re- by man’s activities can be accurately assessed, and sult in an ozone depletion of only 0.2 percent. Pro- (2) associated changes in the transmission of solar gram activities in the formal assessment procedures, radiation through the stratosphere to the surface as well as in the basic science elements required as can be determined. A program plan was published inputs, were under way for the assessments of air- which emphasized the development of a long-term craft operations and CFM releases. For example, basic science program involving field measurements, NASA convened an international conference on the laboratory experiments, and theoretical studies, but stratosphere and related problems in September focused in the near-term on assessing the strato- 1976 to review and update scientific findings related spheric impacts of (1) Space Shuttle operations, (2) to stratospheric perturbations and to focus on the aircraft operations, and (3) chlorofluoromethanes social and political implications of stratospheric (CFMs) . The institutional base for this program pollution. was drawn from an evolving combination of NASA Life Sciences. A major effort in Life Sciences in field centers and the university and industrial com- 1976 was the work on Life Sciences payloads for muni ties. Spacelab and on medical standards for the Shuttle crew. This is discussed in the section on Space Basic Science Program. Implementation during Transportation. 1976 of the basic science elements of field measure- The biological experiments provided to the ments, labovatory experiments, and theoretical stud- U.S.S.R. for flighlt on the Kosmos 782 satellite were ies led to a number of positive results. The first recovered successfully last December after 19.5 days measurements of atomic chlorine (Cl) and chlorine in orbit. A joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. scientific report from monoxide (C10) , providing direct evidence of the the flight experimenters was in final preparation. reaction of C1 with ozone in the stratosphere, were Plans were being formulated for similar cooperative made, using a resonance fluorescence instrument on programs to fly experiments on the U.S.S.R. bio- a high-altitude balloon. Measurements of CFM con- satellite scheduled to be flown the last quarter of centrations at various locations and altitudes estab- 1977. lished their present levels. Altitude profile meas- The biological experiments flown as part of the urements of hydrogen chloride, an important ele- Viking Mars mission were providing data in sup- ment in stratospheric chlorine chemistry, were made port of continuing search for life forms beyond the over different seasons and latitudes. Continuing Earth’s atmosphere. Initial results of data analysis measurements of these and other important strato- indicated apparently new chemical systems but were spheric constituents, as well as the development of not conclusive as to existence of life on Mars. new (and i,mproved measurement techniques, were being emphasized. Study of the Moon and Planets Laboratory experiments addressed the need for improved measurements of photochemical param- An intensive synthesis of data from various eters and reaction rates of vital stratospheric reac- sources in the last few years has led to a greatly tions, particularly those reactions involving chemical improved understanding of the solar system. Pho- radicals. Rates for a number of chemical reactions togeologic techniques have been used to obtlain rela- involving OH, C1, and C10 were measured during tive ages of features on Mercury and Mars, and these 1976. These new and improved dota were neces- were combined with ages computed from samples sary for theoretical studies that emphasized the de- of meteorites and terrestrial and lunar rocks to development and verification of one-, two-, and three- velop a chronology of the evolution of the solar sys- dimensional models for simulation of the strato- tem. In this chronology the planets formed approxi- sphere. The models, which incorporated both chem- mately 4.8 billion years ago and the larger bodies ical and dynamical processes in varying degrees of underwent differentiation which was completed complexity, were being continually improved. With some 4.4 billion years ago. They swept up the larger

10 meteorites during the period 3.5-4.0 billion years a very rocky surface and confirm that the planet ago and have been proceeding on their independent is truly a reddish color. evolutionary paths since then. Evidence from the instruments on the orbiters and The Moon. The Moon has been shown to have landers, to the extent that it has been studied thus only a small, parcilally molten core-if it has any at far, portrays a Mars that at some time in its past was all. Remanent magnetic fields found in the lunar in several ways more like the Earth than it is now. samples, however, indicate that at one time the Orbiter photographs reveal massive volcanic moun- Moon's core was sufficiently active to generate a tains and canyons deeper than any on Earth; the magnetic field. Sample ages have shown thlat the now-quiescent Mars once was the scene of major Moon produced lava flows during the period 3.1-3.8 seismic events, and running liquid-probably water billion years ago. At present the explanation is that -eroded the deep canyons. Near the Viking 1 lander the low volatile content of the Moon gave its in- sites are evidences of sevmal episodes of flooding terior a higher melting point than that of the Earth that mlarkedly shaped the landscape. Unlike the and that the nadioactive elements present were un- craters on the Moon and Mercury, a number of able to produce enough energy to create and main- large Martian craters are surrounded by an unusual tain a molten core. lobate apron of ejecta. Whereas the debris from The Planets. Mercury, which is very similar in Moon and Mercury craters was thrown oustballisti- appearance to the Moon, has a very large magnetic cally in a circle, on Mars there seems to have been field. Since we have little compositional information, action by a lubricating agent that made the material it is not yet possible to explain this difference. flow out from the craters like a fluid, as if the soil were soft and wet when the meteor struck. The atmosphere of Mars has eroded some of the If water existed as a liquid on Mars, the atmo- craters created by ancient meteor strikes, although spheric pressure must have been notably higher than not as severely as they have been on the Earth. It is it is now. The gases that Viking instruments have clear from the Viking photographs that water ero- identified in the atmosphere-nitrogen, oxygen, sion has !also taken place on Mars, but probably 3 argon, krypton, and xenon-indicate that a much billion years ago. The large volcanoes on Mars denser atmosphere did indeed once exist. show that interior melting took place, but the en- All this adds up to an intriguing question: what ergy was not sufficient to create the tectonic plate combination of circumstances caused changes of motion that exists on the Earth. Studies of (the this magnitude to occur on Mars? Martian surface composition and atmospheric dy- The weather stations on the landers show the namics are just beginning, and similar studies of weather has been very repetitious day-to-day since Venus and the Gallilean satellites have yet to be the landings. No storms have been encountered as started. yet. No significant seismic events have been ob- Viking Visits Mars. Two Viking spacecraft, each served. The biological and organic analysis experi- consisting of an orbiter and a lander, were launched ments, while having already yielded large amounts late in the summer of 1975 on Titan-Centaur launch of significant data, still had some critical tests to vehicles. AEter trawling some 11 months, each space- complete before any conclusions can be drawn from craft reached Mars and was injected into an orbit them. about the planet. The two Viking landers success- The basic mission ended in November 1976, at fully descended to the surface on July 20 and Sep- which time all program objectives were completed. tember 3, 1976. NASA is conducting an extended mission to observe To date the Viking flights have produced a large seasonal changes, at a much reduced level of effort. volume of new data on the structure and composi- The extended mission will end about September tion of the Mars atmosphere and on the physical 1978. and chemical nature of the surface. The 4000 pic- Future Planetary Missions. Mariner Jupiter/ tures obtained from the orbiters revealed extensive Saturn 1977 (MJS77) Mission. The proof test details of the effects of tectonic activity and weath- model (PTM) spacecraft was assembled and system ering in shaping the surface. Other instruments on tests, including vibration and thermal/vacuum test- the orbiters have furnished data on the thermal ing, were completed at the Jet Propulsion Lab- gradients on the surface and water vapor distribu- oratory. After additional testing at the Kennedy tion in the atmosphere. These measurements indi- Space Center and Eastern Test Range, the PTM cate that very large amounts of water are stored in hardware 8 will be refurbished and used for flight the polar ice caps, to the extent that in proportion spares. The assembly and test of the first flight space- there may be as much water on Mars as on Earth. craft began in November 1976. Hundreds of black and white, color, and stereo pic- Detailed development of science observation se- tures have been obtained on the surface. These show quences was performed along with the development

11 of navigation and maneuver design. Flight trajec- Study of the Stln ,vnd Sun-Emth Relationships tories were selected and the associated launch strat- The NASA physics and astronomy program is was developed for each day of the August/ egy directed toward the investigation of the Earth, the September 1977 launch period. Most of the software Sun and the solar system, galactic and extragalactic was completed for both test and operations and for phenomena, and how they interrelate. The tech- the flight subsystem hardware. Development of cap- niques and tools used include theoretical and lab- abilities for flight mission operations emphasized oratory research, aircraft, balloons, sounding rock- launch and early mission activities and ground data ets, small Explorer spacecraft, large automated ob- systems required for launch. servatories, and manned spacecraft. Research teams The Mariner Jupiter/Saturn 1977 mission con- are located at NASA field centers, other government sists of two spacecraft that will reach Jupiter in laboratories, universities, and industrial laboratories. 1979 and Saturn in late 1980 and 1981. In addition NASA also conducts a number of cooperative proj- to video observations, scientific studies will be made ects with foreign countries. of both planets, their moons, and the rings of Sat- Significant accomplishments during 1976 included urn, as well as of interplanetary and interstellar the launches of the Helios 2 mission and the Gravity space. Probe-A mission. The Helios 2 mission is part of a The second spacecraft to arrive at Saturn will cooperative program between the Federal Republic either make a science-intensive flyby or it may con- of Germany and the United States for obtaining in- tinue to Uranus. The decision will depend on the creased understanding of fundamental solar proc- scientific data returned by the first spacecraft to esses and solar-terrestrial relationships. The objec- reach Saturn, the operational status of the second tive of the Gravity Probe-A mission was to confirm craft, and the adequacy of its attitude-control fuel with improved accuracy the gravitational red shift for the additional four-plus years flight from Saturn predicted by Einstein’s theory of relativity. In addition to these launches, several discoveries were made to Uranus. as a result of observations with the 90-centimeter Pioneer 10 and 11. The first flyby of Jupiter, ac- telescope carried on the NASA Airkrne Observa- complished by Pioneer 10 in December 1973, pro- tory. The sounding rocket and balloon programs vided excellent data. Rather than repeat the mis. also made important scientific contributions. sion, Pioneer 11, trailing one year behind Pioneer Studies of the Sun. Orbiting Solar Observatories 10, was placed on a different trajectory to provide (OSO) . After over a year in orbit, all nine experi- new information. The new track had an additional ments in the OS0 8 satellite continue to work well. feature; as Pioneer 11 passed Jupiter, the massive Both high-resolution ultraviolet spectrometers planet altered the spacecraft’s )trajectory to one that housed in the OS0 8 sail reached stable operating would send the craft to a flyby of Saturn in 1979. plateaus after experiencing some initial reduction in sensitivity. The spatial resolution capabilities of Both spacecraft continue to work well. At the end these instruments remain extremely good and both of 1976 Pioneer 10 was 11 Astronomical Units from are still measuring material motions and oscillations the Sun on its way out of the solar system: Pioneer in a variety of solar features. 11 was well on its way to Saturn. Despite continuing emphasis on mission oper- Pioneer/Venus. The primary objective of the ations, some preliminary data analysis is under way. Pioneer-Venus program is to study ‘the Venusian A comparison between OS0 8 and sounding rocket atmosphere using four entry probes and an orbiting data showed that while the outflow of material spacecraft. The probes will enter at the same time, from coronal holes can be detected in coronal emis- but a,t widely separate locations. Because the atmos- sion lines, no sign of any such motion is observed phere of Venus is much hotter and denser than in ultraviolet spectra from lower-lying levels. A range of altitudes in which this outflow commences Earth’s and because Venus rotates very slowly, at- has thus been identified. mospheric dynamics should be very different and the results could help scientists understand the Another interesting finding is that a general atmosphere of Earth. downflow of material is frequently observed throughout the solar height range observable by The program started in FY 1975 and develop- OS0 8 (from the photosphere through the low ment testing is almost completed. Much of the flight transition region) . These downflows are heterogene- hardware is being built. Two similar spacecraft are ous and occur preferentially in regions of high mag- planned, one to carry the probes, the other to per- netic field strength located at the boundaries of the form the orbit mission. Launch will be by Atlas- supergranulation network. Flow speeds of the order Centaur vehicles in 1978. of 2-3 kilometers per second have been detected.

12 Some evidence of upward flow inside the supergran- the structure of the solar wind impinging on the ulation cell has also been reported. This identifica- Earth. tion of the general circulation through the chro- This field divergence, which is a general property mospheric network is important for understanding of all coronal holes, has also been shown to pro- convection in Ithe solar atmosphere. duce supersonic (100 kilometers per second) wind A result that is proving difficult to interpret is the velocities at only 1 to 2 solar radii above the solar apparent detection of a persistent horizontal flow surface-a concept completely new to solar wind in the transition region. This is seen as a relatively theorists. constant shift in the position of selected spectral There is also, now, evidence that the one-million lines which appears always in the same direction, in- K temperature which is observed low in the corona dicative of a flow of material continuously directed within coronal holes may not be the maximum tem- towards the observer. It is possible that some mech- perature attained. Both theory and experiment anism other than motion is producing this effect but point to the possible existence of a temperature its nature is currently unknown. Small-scale, high- maximum of the order of 3 to 5 million K situated speed motions in the vicinity of sunspots have defin- at a height of several solar radii above the surface. itely been observed by both the ultraviolet instru- Additional experimental and theoretical studies are ments. required. One of the prime purposes for OS0 8 was the in- Another solar phenomenon receiving consider- vestigation of atmospheric heating mechanisms. To able attention in the analysis of ATM data is flares. date, both spectrometers have successfully measured The ATM experimenters are in general agreement the 5-minute photospheric oscillations both as in- that the hottest portions of a flare are within one tensity and as velocity fluctuations in a variety of or two small, law-lying loops within an active re- spectral lines. Shorter period fluctuations (3 and 1.5 gion. Typical dimensions of these loops are on the minutes) have also been detected in lines formed in order of a few arc seconds (approximately 4100 the chromosphere and low transition region. Pe- kilometers) and their height is somewhere in the ridcities of 35 seconds and 15 minutes, which ap- range 1800-5000 kilometers above the solar surface. pear in the data, are now believed to be spacecraft The temperature reached by the heated plasma var- disturbances. ies from flare to flare and is on the order of 20 It is interesting to note that at the highest levels million K or more. observable from OS0 8 the 3- and 5-minute periodic- These observations indicate the presence of a ities are still detectable in the strength of the lines variety of different magnetohydrodynamic instabil- emitted from these regions, but there is little or no ities which are considered to be the source of the evidence of velocity variations. flare. Some experimenters think the cause to be instabilities within the loops, while others favor The widths of the lines may, however, contain instabilities in the “neutral sheets” between neigh- important inform(ation on the broad-band spectrum boring loops. Both explanations may be correct. of random fluctuations which will also be important A major disagreement now exists between the in determining the chromospheric and coronal ATM scientists, who are constrained to study the energy transport and heating processes. This pos- “thermal phase” of a flare, and experimenters ob- sibility will be analyzed during the coming months. serving the high energy x-ray and gamma ray emis- Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) . After three sions originating from the flare-induced beams of years of intensive activity in the reduction and analy- high energy particles that are accelerated by the sis of the 171,000 photographs and the 2292 hours of disruption of the magnetic field. The x-ray and photoelectric dlata collected during the manned Sky- gamma ray experimenters generally favor a primary lab program (1973-1974), the impact of this pro- field disturbance high in the corona, while the gram on solar physics is becoming visible. The ATM scientists are convinced that the main flare recently completed Skylab Solar Workshop, which occurs at lower levels in the solar atmosphere. An brought together ATM scientists, ground based ob- attempt to reconcile the two viewpoints will be servers, solar experimenters, and theoreticians in a made at the second Skylab Workshop. It may be, comprehensive attack on the problem of coronal however, that opinion will remain divided until holes, advanced our understanding of the Sun-solar the Solar Maximum Mission, when the high energy wind interface and, hence, of the effect that coronal and “thermal” emissions from flares can be studied holes have on the terrestrial environment. simultaneously. Among the more exciting results of the study has Out-of-Ecliptic Mission. The growing acceptance been the discovery that polar holes can be connected of the link between some solar parameter and ter- to equatorial solar latitudes by virtue of their highly restrial weather and climate has further stimulated divergent, open magnetic fields and can hence affect research in the nature and variability of solar wind

13 and in the Sun-wind interface. A great deal of prog- orative program of flare radiation and particle ress has been made in the latter area as a result of measurements with the International Sun-Earth Ex- the recent Skylab Coronal Hole Workshop. A num- plorer-C spacecraft. The SMM Solar-Terrestrial ber of attractive new theories have been devised Program will also include measurements of the linking coronal holes with high velocity streams long-term variability of total solar emission (the and explaining the observed variations of these “solar constant”) and of the full Sun ultraviolet streams as a function of the solar cycle. Verification spectrum. Instruments are currently being selected of these theories, which involve the influence of infor this purpose. ecliptic wind streams by high-latitude coronal Helios. Helios is a cooperative space project be- holes, requires direct measurement of wind condi- tween the Federal Republic of Germany and the tions at high solar latitudes. Plans are, therefore, United States designed to provide increased under- under way for an Out-of-Ecliptic Mission, the standing of fundamental solar processes and solar- prime objective of which will be to measure the terrestrial relationships. Both Helios 1, launched in pmperties of the solar wind, magnetic fields, and December 1974, and Helios 2, launched in January particle ejecta as a function of solar latitude from 1976, are still operational. These spacecraft will the solar equator to the polar regions. travel closer to the Sun than any previous space- The mission, which involves two Pioneer-class craft. Germany built the spacecraft and seven of the spacecraft, is a joint venture of the European Space experiments; and the United States provided three Agency and NASA. During 1976 some preliminary experiments and the launch vehicles, as well as definition studies were undertaken by both agencies technical, launch, and flight operations support. Al- and a scientific working group was formed to define though analysis of the data is still under way, two in detail the payload required to achieve the inis- of the interesting results so far from Helios indicate sion’s primary objectives. More detailed studies are that (1) high-speed solar wind streams are asso- planned for Fiscal Year 1978, prior to an official ciated with coronal holes which are usually at high new start for hardware in Fiscal 1979. The two solar latitudes rather than with hot spots near the spacecraft will be launched by a four-stage Space equator, and (2) the acceleration of the high- Shuttle in February 1983 and will use the gravity energy streams which has been observed for some of Jupiter to propel them to high solar latitudes. time, but not understood, appears to be associated Solar Maximum Mission. During the past year with large amplitude ion-acoustic waves that were work has continued on the definition of the basic measured by Helios in a region between two high- spacecraft and the experiment package that to- speed solar wind streams. gether form the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) . The seven major flare instruments were selected early in 1976. By observing the entire flare spec- Studies of the Universe trum, from gamma rays to white light emission, Orbiting Astronomical Observatory. The Orbit- using SMM and complementary ground-based in- ing Astronomical Observatory-3 (OAO 3, also strumentation, the various physical processes that named Copernicus), launched in August 1972, re- combine to produce flares will be studied. Of par- mained operational through 1976, providing ac- ticular interest will be the determination of the curately stabilized automated facilities for observ- temporal and spatial relationships between the ing celestial objects and interstellar space in the hard x-rays, produced when beams of particles are accelerated as a result of magnetic field instabilities spectral range from the x-ray through the ultraviolet and into the visible region. As a result of new early in the event, and the soft x-rays and extreme techniques, the usefulness of this satellite has been ultraviolet emission, which are thought to be pro- expanded: objects one-sixth as brilliant those duced when the beams of particles impinge on the as relatively cool chromosphere, causing it to evapor- that could be observed after launch can now be observed, and the useful spectral range has been ate and heat. Some new theories concerning flares, which are being formulated by Apollo Telescope extended in the near ultraviolet. Many new classes Mount experimenters, require that the two types of of objects can now be studied by OAO 3. radiation originate from the same low-lying region Small Astronomy Satellite. The last of the Small in the solar atmosphere. Scientists specializing in Astronomy Satellites, SAS-C, launched in May 1975, the higher energy aspects of the flare event would is still operational. With its complement of four favor a higher-level source of the flare’s hard x-ray x-ray instruments, this spacecraft is the most power- emissions. SMM should resolve this disagreement. ful x-ray mission yet flown. The most exciting ac- In addition to investigating the flare process, complishments of this satellite have been the de- SMM will study the effects of the flare ejecta on tailed studies of bursters and other transient x-ray the terrestrial environment by conducting a collab- sources, leading to their optical identification and

14 to an increased understanding of the extraordinary the universe and observe both stellar and galactic physical conditions producing them. phenomena. Significant contribu.tions are expected High Energy Astronomy Observatory. The basic from the study of early stages of star formation and scientific objective of the High Energy Astronomy from observations of such highly evolved objects as 0bserva.tory (HEAO) program is to explore the supernovae remnants and white dwarfs. previously inaccessible regions of celestial x-ray and gamma-ray sources and cosmic ray flux. This pro- Sounding Rockets, Balloons, and Aircraft gram should increase our understanding of newly discovered energy processes, of the creation of mat- Sixty sounding rockets were launched from sites ter, and of phenomena such as quasars, pulsars, in the United States (Wallops Flight Center; novae, supernovae, and black holes. The first phase White Sands Missile Range; Poker Flat Research of the program consists of three observatories to be Range, Alaska; and Wauai Range, Hawaii), Cana- launched on Atlas-Centaur rockets; larger obser- da (Fort Churchill), Sweden, and Norway; some vatories are being studied by NASA as possible pay- 50 research teams from universities, private indus- loads to be launched by the Space Shuttle. try, foreign governments, NASA field centers, and Considerable progress was made during 1976 in the other U.S. government agencies w&e involved. A development and fabrication of the first three cooperative program between NASA and DoD spacecraft and experiments, with primary emphasis launched 26 sounding rockets from the Wallops on the HEAO-A mission, scheduled for launch in Flight Center in January in support of the Winter 1977. D-Region Campaign, a coordinated program to study winter days of “normal” and “anomalous” Iltter~ionalCooperative Satellites electron densities in the ionospheric D region. The NASA balloon program supported the Work continued on the International Ultraviolet launch of 50 balloons from the United States and Explorer (IUE), a joint project involving NASA, Canada, and involved 20 research organizations. the United Kingdom, and the European Space One of the most significant events involved the Agency (ESA), planned for launch in 1977. Pro- successful flight of a joint NASA/Netherlands ul- curement of hardware and subsystem fabrication traviolet payload which obtained new results on was completed during 1976 and systems integration stellar chromospheres and evidence of mass loss and testing started. and hot, high-luminosity stars. Another highly Progress also continued on the International successful flight carried a very sensitive infrared Sun-Earth Explorers (ISEE), a joint project be- telescope (from the University of Arizona) which tween NASA and ESA. Three spacecraft, two pro- detected, for the first time, a continuous band of vided by NASA and one by ESA, with a cambina- diffuse emission around the galactic plane. This tion of instruments provided by both parties, will enabled scientists to measure the energy associated be used. ISEE goals include study of the Earth’s with the dust in the plane of our galaxy and there- magnetosphere, effects of the solar wind on the by contributed to the understanding of the struc- magnetosphere, and interaction of cosmic rays with ture and physical conditions existing in our own the solar wind and magnetosphere. Emphasis dur- galaxy. ing 1976 was on fabrication of spacecraft and experiments for the ISEE-A and B missions sched- The NASA Airborne Science Program employs uled for launch in 1977. two aircraft for infrared astronomical research at altitudes above 90 percent of the Earth’s atmosphere. A C-141 aircraft carries the Kuiper Airborne Space Telescope Observatory, consisting of a 90-centimeter telescope, The Space Telescope reached an advanced state while a Lear Jet carries a 30-centimeter telescope. of design as a result of work conducted during During 1976, the principal scientific investigations 1976. The major objective of the Space Telescope were in three areas: emission spectroscopy of the is to provide a long-term 2.4-meter astronomical interstellar medium, stellar formation using far- observatory in space above the obscuring effects of infrared photometers, and planetary atmosphere the Earth’s atmosphere, where it will have the capa- spectroscopy with high spectral-resolution inter- bility to observe objects at greater distances than ferometers. can the largest Earth-based telescopes. The Space Telescope, designed to be placed in a low Earth Space Transportation orbit by the Space Shut,tle, would be operated as an international facility, providing continuous cov- Space flight activities provide the transportation erage in wavelengths from the far ultraviolet to the and related capabilities necessary to conduct both near infrared. Scientific instruments would explore manned and unmanned operations in space. These

15 activities include the Space Shuttle program for structural requirements of the Space Shuttle mis- the development of a reusable manned Earth-to- sions. orbit space vehicle, U.S. participation with the The solid rocket booster will provide the addi- European Space Agency (ESA) in a cooperative tional thrust necessary during launch by burning program for the European-funded development of in parallel with the main engines. Progress has a Spacelab to be used in the Shuttle, development been satisfactory on all parts of the rocket motor, and supporting activities for other elements of the directional controls, structural components, and Space Transportation System, development of new the recovery subsystem. The first motor segments component and subsystem technology, conceptual for initial development static firings were delivered. studies and research on future space operations, Major milestones met during 1976 at the Ken- and launch operations and support for expendable nedy Space Ceqter included completion of the launch vehicles for automated space missions. orbiter landing facility, delivery of the initial launch processing systems, and timely progress on Space Shuttle a number of other launch and landing facilities. Orbiter 1 is scheduled for approach and landing The Space Shuttle is the cornerstone of the Space tests in 1977. The orbiter is to be carried to test Transportation System (STS) . It will provide rou- altitude on a Boeing 747 aircraft and released for tine two-way access to space starting in the 1980s. unpowered approach and landing. Fabrication pro- A major breakthrough in manned space systems, it ceeded on the second orbiter, to be used for the eliminates the constraints imposed by present first manned orbital flights in 1979. modes of space operations. With the Space Shuttle, manned and unmanned experiments can be con- Space Transportation System Operations ducted within a single mission, advanced payloads and satellites can be deployed into orbit, spacecraft The Space Transportation System (STS) in- can be retrieved for reuse with updating and re- cludes the Space Shuttle, the Spacelab, and an furbishing either taking place in space or back on upper stage. It is a standardized yet flexible sys- Earth, and laboratories can be launched into Earth tem, capable of accommodating a wide variety of orbit. The versatility and reusability of the Space payloads and mission requirements. Plans for man- Shuttle will provide great cost benefits for users. agement, operation, and use of the system when it becomes operational in the 1980s are far ad- Space Shuttle development continued on plan vanced, taking into account user development, and within the cost estimates. During 1976, the mission planning, payload integration, flight and major milestones of qualification and ground tests, ground operations, and financial management. manufacture of test articles, and assembly of the A pilot User Development Program was initiated orbiter were met. Progress was highlighted by the and a contract was awarded to the Battelle Me- rollout of Orbiter No. 1 on September 17, 1976, at morial Institute to define approaches for encourag- Rockwell International’s Space Division in Palm- ing and accommodating commercial users of the dale, California. STS. After the pilot program ends in February The Rockctdyne Division of the Rockwell Cor- 1977, a full-scale user development program will poration progressed in development of the liquid- be initiated. fueled rocket engines. These engines have an ad- Since NASA’s present complement of active vanced, high-pressure design and provide the main pilots and scientist astronauts is insufficient to fly propulsion systems for the Space Shuttle orbiter. the planned 60 STS flights per year, NASA an- Major milestones were reached in development and nounced opportunities for additional pilots and ground tests. Three test engines have been deliv- mission specialists. Selection and appointment ered, installed, and tested over one hundred times would not be made until 1978. at the National Space Technology Laboratories in A number of studies were undertaken to de- Mississippi, demonstrating the capability of the termine STS operating costs and to establish user main engine. charges for STS flights. These studies led to a policy Manufacture of the external tank, which con- in which each class of user will pay equitably for tains the cryogenic propellants for the orbiter main use and service. engine, continued as planned. Major assembly milestones were met and all major welding tools Spacela b were installed at the Michoud Assembly Facility in Mississippi. After assembly, the ground test tanks The Spacelab Program is a joint venture between will be tested at the Marshall Space Flight Center NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) to to provide confidence that they can withstand the produce the Spacelab, a reusable space laboratory.

16 It would be flown to and from Earth orbit in the astronauts. Ground-based studies were assessing the cargo bay of the Space Shuttle. Participating Euro- deconditioning effects of gravitational stress on a pean nations are paying for the design, develop- population broadly representative of the potential ment, production, and delivery of the first Spacelab payload specialist group, while other research flight unit to NASA. Scheduled to become opera- sought to develop countermeasures for cardiovas- tional in the 198Os, it would be available to an cular deconditioning and space motion sickness. international community of users. Project planning was completed for an experi- In 1976, design reviews were completed and ment in support of research on space motion sick- development hardware was being manufactured. ness. The plan called for a self-contained unit to Integration of the hard mockup was initiated. test vestibular reaction of small animals when ex- Manufacture began on the engineering model, posed to zero gravity for periods up to twenty days. which is to be delivered to NASA prior to delivery of the flight unit. Spacelab Science Payloads. In preparation for the Space Shuttle era, possible Spacelab science NASA evaluated proposals for a Spacelab inte- payloads were studied. Two of the six orbital flight gration contract. Part of this contract would cover test missions of the Space Shuttle will provide early design, development, and manufacture of most of demonstration and verification of the Space Shut- the Spacelab hardware for which NASA is respon- tle’s scientific research capabilities. Payloads on sible. A major item of this hardware is the tunnel these flights will include selected experiments in that will connect the Spacelab to the Shuttle Or- space astronomy; high energy astrophysics; life biter. Design of the tunnel is scheduled to begin sciences; solar physics; and atmospheric, magneto- in 1977. spheric, and plasma physics. Spacelab Life Sciences. The response to the an- Two Spacelab missions are already scheduled nouncement of flight opportunity for Spacelab 1 for flight after the Shuttle becomes operational. continues to reflect the high interest of the Life Sciences community in Space Shuttle/Spacelab Spacelab 1 is a joint undertaking by NASA and the missions. Real-time Life Sciences missions, in a European Space Agency (ESA) , ESA participation mockup of the Spacelab, have been simulated using in the Spacelab 2 missions is still under negotia- experiments of the type being selected for Space- tion. The primary objective of both missions is lab. The simulation was in support of payload verification of Spacelab performance and capabili- planning, to provide a method by which science, ties and the measurement of the induced environ- engineering, and operational evaluations could be ment. The secondary objective is to obtain valuable conducted on the ground to ensure maximum ef- scientific, applications, and technology data. Two fectiveness in space. The evaluation included pay- announcements oE opportunity were issued by load synthesis, equipment integration, operational NASA in 1976 and experiments will be selected concepts, and crew training. for both Spacelabs 1 and 2 in 1977. Detailed studies of instruments for future Spacelab missions are The program to develop a basic complement of also being carried out, with major emphasis on flight-qualified medical laboratory equipment for class experiments by principal investigators. repetitive use on Spacelab flights was initiated ’in 1976 and procurement began of items requiring long-lead-time development. Primary among these Interim Upper Stage items is the spaceflight-qualified specimen/biological holding units. Another long-lead-time- develop- The Interim Upper Stage (IUS) will propel pay- ment is the specimen refrigeration compartments loads to destinations beyond the capability of the capable of maintaining - 70°C temperature for Shuttle alone. NASA would use it primarily for preservation and storage of Life Sciences specimens lunar and plantary exploration and other high-en- and tissues. Conceptual design studies of a free- ergy missions. DoD has the responsibility to define flying Life Sciences satellite for the conduct of long and develop the IUS, with NASA defining design duration, isolated animal experiments also were and operational requirements that are unique to completed. NASA and other non-DoD missions. A DoD/NASA Two sets of medical standards were prepared, assessment of five study contracts in 1975 led to the NASA Class I and 11, to be used for establishing decision to use a multi-stage solid propellant de- the medical fitness of the Shuttle Pilot and Mission sign. Early in 1976 a requist for proposal for the Specialist Astronauts, respectively. A third set of IUS validation phase was issued. The Boeing Aero- standards for payload specialist/scientist passen- space Company was awarded that contract in Sep- gers was drafted, requiring less restrictive physical tember. The IUS is expected to be operational in conditioning and stress handling abilities than for mid-year 1980.

17 Spinniq Solid Upper Stages Delta. The Delta continued to be the most frequently used vehicle. It successfully launched nine Complementary to the Interim Upper Stage, satellites in 1976: a cooperative communications Spinning Solid Upper Stages are to be primarily satellite for Canada, three maritime communica- used for the smaller, commercial-user payloads tions satellites (Marisat A, B, and C) for the Com- whose missions require synchronous orbits. sat Corporation, a Laser Geodetic Satellite Mounted on a spin table in the cargo bay of the (Lageos) for NASA, a weather satellite (ITOS-H) Space Shuttle flying in low Earth orbit, the stage for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin- and its payload would be set spinning; springs istration, a domestic satellite (RCA-B) for RCA, would separate it and propel it a safe distance one communications satellite (NATO-I11 A) for from the Shuttle, where its solid rocket motor NATO, and another (Palapa-A) for Indonesia. The would ignite. The spinning stabilizes the stage, SO Indonesian satellite for the first time connected it is unnecessary to have an expensive guidance more than 3000 islands with telephone, telegraph, system. As many as four of the Delta-class or two and teletype services. of the Centaur-class stages can be mounted in the A tlas-Centaur. This vehicle successfully launched Shuttle cargo bay on a single flight, one of the Comstar A and B, domestic communication satel- several economies that will substantially reduce lites; and Intelsat IV-A F2, an international com- launch costs from the cost of using the present munication satellite, for the Comsat Corporation. expendable boosters. They will also provide early, Titan ZZZ-Centaur. This is the largest of NASA’s easy transition to the Shuttle for existing satellite current family of launch vehicles. It successfully series now using expendable boosters. Another launched Heli,os-B, a cooperative solar probe satel- saving to the government is that McDonnell Doug- lite, for the Federal Republic of Germany in 1976. las Corporation has agreed to develop and build It was also the Titan III-Centaur which launched the Delta-class Spinning Stage at its own expense Viking 1 and Viking 2 to Mars in 1975. and initiative. Discussions are underway with Boe- ing and McDonnell Douglas on a similar scheme of Space Research and Technology industrial development of the Centaur-class stage. The NASA Space Research and Technology Advanced Studies program seeks to advance the technology used in scientific instruments and in systems that transport, The Advanced Studies program defines require- power, control, and communicate with spacecraft. ments for future space systems and develops long Some of the resulting technology has terrestrial range plans for advanced space systems concepts. applications as well. Among the several studies in 1976 was one of a space station to be used as an operating base for Space Propulsion Technology erecting large structures. Ways and means of erect- NASA space propulsion technology is dedicated ing large structures were examined, as was the to advancing concepts in liquid, solid, and electric possibility that these structures could be part of propulsion that will enhance future mission capa- a space solar power experiment. Other studies in- bilities while reducing costs. vestigated solar electric propulsion applications, Liquid Propulsion Technology. Testing of turbo- Shuttle improvements, and concepts of space in- machinery and a regeneratively cooled thrust dustrialization. chamber for a small, reusable, high-performance oxygen-hydrogen engine started in 1976. The pur- Expendable Lwnch Vehicle Programs pose is to demonstrate the technology of advanced propulsion systems suitable for future reusable Expendable launch vehicles continued to pro- Orbital Transfer Vehicles. A key component, the vide transportation services to a variety of users liquid hydrogen pump, was successfully run for and missions. NASA will use these launch vehicles 800 seconds at various test conditions, including until most or all are replaced by the Shuttle in the speeds up to 91,800 revolutions per minute. 1980s. Most of the 16 launches in 1976 were con- Solid Propulsion Technology. Methods were ducted for activities which reimbursed NASA for demonstrated for recovering the active ingredients launch services and the vehicles: from the scraps and waste that result from produc- Scout. During 1976 three satellites were success- tion of solid propellants. The active ingredients fully launched by the Scout vehicle: an Air Force can be used in subsequent production at consider- test communications satellite (USAF P 76-5), the able cost saving. NASA scientific relativity probe, and the Navy’s Electric Propulsion Technology. Both the aux- Transit navigation satellite. iliary ion thruster (to produce one-half milligram

18 for stationkeeping of geosynchronous spacecraft) radio navigation techniques. Significant fuel sav- and the primary ion thruster (to produce four- ings resulted thmugh fewer, smaller trajectory cor- teen milligrams for planetary exploration) prog- rections. ressed during the past year. Engineering model Data Acquisition. NASA’s charge-coupled sensor thruster designs of both systems were firmly estab- permitted the first high-resolution infrared images lished and are being fabricated for flight qualifica- of the planet Uranus. These images revealed a 7 tion. Thermal vacuum breadboard power pro- percent error in previously accepted values for the cessors were fabricated and successfully operated diameter of that planet. with prototype thrusters. Data Storage. A solid-state data recording system, featuring a magnetic bubble domain memory, was Space Energy Systems Technology demonstrated. Because this device has no moving parts, it has 10 times the expected life, uses half the Spacecraft of the future will require increasing power, and weighs half as much as conv.mtiona1 tape amounts of energy to power more sophisticated recording systems. experiments and higher data-transmission rates. NASA’s technology effort for space energy systems Materials and Structures Technology is directed at providing such advanced performance at lower cost. Improvements are sought in Advancements in materials and structures have generation, storage, conversion, transmission, and shown great potential for more efficient and lighter management of power. space vehicles and orbiting structures for antenna Solar Cell Arrays. During 1976, full-scale system arrays and space platforms. This not only increases design and critical component tests of a 12.5-kilo- mission capabilities per launch, but effectively re- watt, lightweight solar array were completed. This duces cost for both the vehicles and their payloads. array would produce twice the power of a conven- Structures. A new concept for truss elements per- tionally designed array of similar weight. Tests mits high packaging densities for transport to space also demonstrated the feasibility of a high-voltage and has greater structural efficiency than the com- ion thruster operating directly from a solar array. monly used cylindrical columns. When transported Such a system would eliminate the need for com- in the Shuttle and assembled in space, the newly de- plex and costly conditioning for major power loads. veloped tapered element could form large truss struc- Chemical Energy Conversion and Storage. Prog- tures capable of supporting antennas, solar cell ress was also made in advanced non-gassing arrays, or other large systems. nickel-cadmium batteries which, after more than a Advances in non-destructive testing techniques led year of testing, continued to demonstrate improved to the development of the first inexpensive, portable, reliability for space operations. highly accurate system for applying the correct strain Thermomechanical Energy Conversion. The to bolted fabrications. Use of this system would re- demonstration of long-lived rotating machinery is sult in higher reliability, lighter weight through less an essential prerequisite to dynamic space power. overdesign, and increased safety through properly In 1976, after 21,000 hours of failure-free opera- stressed bolts. tion, a 2-to-IO kilowatt Brayton-cycle rotating unit Materials. Significant progress was made in space- was inspected and found free of wear. Thermal Conversion Systems. Preliminary ma- craft heat shields. A new protective coating was developed from improved glasses and pigments that terials tests during 1976 suggested that it may be permitted reductions in the manufacturing costs for possible to increase thermionic converter effi- ciencies by 30 percent, a gain that would reduce the Space Shuttle heat shields. This new coating ex- the cost and size of thermal energy sources. hibits a significant increase in reliability and a doubling of useful lifetime. Guidance, Control, and Information Technology Tracking and Data Acquisition NASA’s 1976 efforts in guidance, control, and information technology were directed at improv- Efficient and reliable tracking, data acquisition ing the operational characteristics and data and processing, and communications are essential handling efficiency of a wide spectrum of elec- for all NASA flight programs if they are to attain tronics systems while reducing their size, weight, their specific objectives. The main types of support power requirements, and cost. provided are tracking for orbit or trajectory deter- Navigation. An optical navigation system in the mination, acquisition of engineering and science Viking Mars spacecraft determined the position of telemetry data, transmission of commands from the the craft relative to planet/star-field reference with ground to space vehicles, processing of acquired better than twice the accuracy of conventional data, and interconnecting voice and telecommunica-

19 tions links to widely separated ground locations employed in the radar surveys that were instru- engaged in flight ,support. mental in selecting the landing site for Viking 1. The majority of this support is rendered by two Since the resolution of the orbiter cameras was not worldwide networks of statiions. The Deep Space sufficient to detect all terrain features that might Network is specialized to handle planetary and in- have damaged the lander, analysis of the radar terplanetary missions at great distances from Earth. echos helped to determine the roughness of the sur- The other network, the Spaceflight Tracking and face area and minimize risk to the mission. Data Network, supports Earth-orbital and suborbital programs. Both use a complex communications Preparation for Fzlture Missions network to tie their distant locations together. Facil- Several events of this year point significantly to ities include massive 64-meter-diameter antennas continued evolution of the network and communica- and the large computer complexes necessary for mis- tions systems to support future flight programs. The sion control and data processing. telemetry facility at Dryden Flight Research Center has been modified to support the Shuttle approach Lugeos and landing tests beginning in 1977. Modification of The laser tracking system used with the Lageos the Deep Space Network 26-meter antennas was satellite is the newest development in precision initiated to add an X-band capability; this will sig- tracking and ranging. To apply the science of plate nificantly help avoid the increased crowding at tectonics to studying continental drift and the proc- lower frequencies and provide new means to handle esses that create earthquakes, precision measure- long duration, deep space navigation and data re- ment of slight Earth crustal movements is required. trieval tasks. Improvements to telemetry data pro- The very stable orbit of the Lagoes satellite provides cessing systems and advances in image processing a reference from which these minute shifts can be facilities for satellites such as Landsat round out ac- determined. Laser tracking is far more precise than tivities in progress to provide responsive, reliable, conventional high-frequency radio ranging tech- and efficient tracking and data acquisition in the niques. There are currently four-operating ground future. stations, three of which are mobile. Using these experimentally with earlier satellites refined the laser TDRSS system to the point where these stations, and the five Another important step forward in the procure- additional mobile stations under construction, ment of the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite Sys- should be able to obtain measurements accurate to tem (TDRSS) was the award of a contract to West- within five centimeters. ern Union Space Communications, Inc. The In addition to providing precision ranging data corporation will provide telecommunications serv- from Lageos, which will be utilized in studying ices via TDRSS for support of Earth-orbital space- Earth crustal motion, the mobile equipment will be craft. Under the fixed-price contract, Western Union moved to various locations to calibrate sensitive al- Space Communications, Inc., will provide TDRSS timeters on satellites such as Geos and Seasat. services to NASA for a ten-year period beginning in 1980 at an annual contract cost of $79.6 million. Viking The system will involve two satellites in synchronous orbit acting as two-way relay stations between The most exciting space event of the year, the a single ground station and all satellites in low landing of Viking on Mars, was supported from Earth orbit. When TDRSS is operational, many of launch through the continuing return of lander the present tracking stations will be closed. science data by the Deep Space Network. For the first time, a spacecraft on the surface of another International Affairs planet was successfully commanded, controlled, and interrogated. Another first was the support of four The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 spacecraft at interplanetary distances. The rapid provides that the space activities of the United States and flexible responses provided by the network shall be conducted so as to contribute materially to made the Viking adaptive mode, in which subse- cooperation by the United States with other nations. quent operations depend on the results obtained Following are examples of the international coop- the day before, a success in terms of scientific pro- eration achieved in the past year. ductivity and rapid solutions to unexpected problems. Space Transportation System In addition to operational support, the large 64- Increasing emphasis was given in 1976 to future meter antennas of the Deep Space Network were international use of the Shuttle-based Space Trans-

20 portation System (STS) . Potential users-govern- Satellite (CTS), developed jointly by NASA and ment, industry, and university-in Canada, Europe, the Canadian Department of Communications. A and Japan were briefed on capabilities, payload later development than ATS 6, CTS is designed to accommodations, and probable terms and conditions transmit higher powered signals to small, relatively of use. Solicitations were distributed internationally inexpensive ground terminals at higher frequencies. for proposals for Shuttle experiments in the Orbital Its broadcast time, divided equally between U.S. Flight Test Phase, in the first two Spacelab missions, and Canada, is being used for experiments in edu- and in a planned free-flying Long Duration Expo- cation, health care, community and special service sure Facility. Preliminary studies for the first Space- broadcasting, and communications technology. lab payload, jointly planned by NASA and the European Space Agency, were completed. Final selection is expected in early 1977. Stratospheric Research The development of Spacelab, the European con- NASA’s intensified upper atmospheric research tribution to STS and currectly valued at $500 mil- program has focused on the possible threat to the lion, passed the midpoint in 1976. Completion of Earth’s stratospheric ozone shield from fluorocarbon the preliminary design review in December was a compounds widely used as refrigerants and aerosol major milestone toward the delivery of the first propellants. Because of the global implications, Spacelab flight unit to NASA in mid-1979, a year NASA made special efforts in 1976 to inform the before its first mission. world scientific community generally and to pursue Development was begun this year on the Canadian its stratospheric research activities cooperatively. contribution to STS-the Remote Manipulator Sys- For instance, a French infrared absorption spec- tem for the Space Shuttle orbiter. That system is trometer was among instruments carried on NASA’s valued at several tens of millions of dollars. CV990 aircraft in November 1976 to measure trace constituents and compare stratospheric concentra- Broadcast Satellite Experiments tions in the northern and southern hemispheres. On July 31, 1976, India completed a one-year Arrangements were also made to take complemen- Satellite Instructional Television Experiment using tary measurements of ozone and other atmospheric NASA’s ATS 6 satellite to transmit educational TV trace constituents from a NASA U-2 aircraft in co- programs directly to some 2400 villages. The TV ordination with flights of instrumented Canadian programs, ground transmitting station, and village balloons. receivers were all funded and developed by India. To foster international coordination of strato- Evaluation is under way, but the experiment has spheric research and policy planning, NASA already demonstrated the practicality of satellite- co-sponsored an International Conference on the based instructional broadcasting for developing Stratosphere and Related Problenis at Utah State countries and has aroused interest throughout the University, September 15-17, 1976. world. Initial reports indicate an increase in school attendance and enthusiastic acceptance of the new New and Ongoing Cooperative Satellite Projects instructional tool by village teachers as well as adult audiences. Programs containing practical instruction Of the 25 international satellites that have so far -in agriculture and animal husbandry, for instance been launched by NASA on a cooperative (as dis- -were particularly popular and apparently effec- tinguished from reimbursable) basis, 8 remained tive. active and returning data’ in 1976. Most significant On August 1, ATS 6 began its return passage to were the two German Helios solar probes which, in the Western Hemisphere. As it passed over Africa four perihelion passages in 1976, flew closer to the and Latin America, NASA and the Agency for In- Sun than any other spacecraft-less than one-third ternational Development conducted a three-month the Sun-Earth distance. Measurements by Helios of project using ATS 6 for demonstration broadcasts the solar atmosphere, magnetic fields, and particle to 24 developing countries and regional organiza- emissions have generated new data on solar-terres- tions. The broadcasts included films on the uses of trial interactions. space technology for development and live, two-way NASA concluded an agreement with Aerospace discussions between panels of U.S. officials and ex- Research Center of the University of Rome to de- perts and local host government officials in receiving velop the next generation of San Marco satellites for countries. continued investigations of processes at the interface Another project in experimental satellite broad- between space and the upper atmosphere. San casting for remote areas began in 1976 with the Jan- Marco D is also expected to contribute importantly uary launch of the Communications Technology to the current study of the Earth’s ozone layer.

21 International interest in contributing experiments backup launch in 1978 or 1979; with TELESAT of to NASA spacecraft continued. Agreements were Canada for launch of the fourth Canadian domestic reached with Germany, the U.K., the Netherlands, communications satellite in 1978; and with the Fed- and France on instrumentation for the NASA Solar eral Aviation Administration for two launches of Maximum Mission and the Pioneer Venus Orbiter the international aeronautical satellite. Aerosat, in and Probe. 1979 and 1980. During 1976, NASA announced 14 opportunities to participate in future space missions and received Overseas Tracking Facilities over 173 proposals from 9 European countries, the European Space Agency, Australia, Canada, India, During 1976, the agreement providing for NASA’s Japan, and Socth Africa. The proposals concerned use of Canada’s Churchill Range upper atmosphere infrared astronomy, space processing, atmospheric research facilities was extended until June 1979. cloud physics, lcnar surface studies, stratospheric Agreement was also reached with the Government aerosol and gas investigations, interplanetary and of Pakistan for temporary placement of a NASA planetary physics, and multidisciplinary opportun- portable Landsat receiver station near Rawalpindi. ities planned for future Shuttle and Spacelab flights. An agreement between CNES (the French space agency) and NASA for reimbursable tracking support was extended until December 1977. Reimburs- Earth Resources able tracking arrangements with Japan were also During 1976 NASA began to charge foreign Land- concluded, providing telemetry and tracking support sat station operators an initial token share of the for Japanese launchings by the University of Tokyo annual cost of operating the satellites. Such stations, and NASDA (the Japanese space agency). receiving data directly from the satellites, were operating in Canada, Brazil, and Italy. Agreements had U.S./U.S.S.R. Cooperation in Space Science and been reached for stations in Zaire, Iran, and Chile. Applications Still other stations were being negotiated. This growing interest in direct reception is related Cooperative work in space science and applica- to the significant benefits reported by researchem in tions proceeded under the 197 1 Bilateral Agreement more than 100 countries currently using Landsat (incorporated by reference in the 1972 Summit data. Bolivia, for example, recently discovered de- Agreement). posits of lithium and potassium as a result of com- In planetary explorations: (1) U.S. and Soviet puter-axisted interpretation of Landsat data. A new specialists met on June 10 in Philadelphia and ex- iron ore deposit was discovered recently in Egypt changed information on results of the Soviet Venera using Landsat data. 9 and 10 missions, US. radar observations of Venus, and on plans for the U.S. 1978 Pioneer Venus mis- Reimbursable lnternutionul Launches sions; (2) two Soviet scientists participated at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center May 36Juiie The following reimbursable (as distinguished 13 in joint analysis of Soviet Mars gamma-ray spec- from cooperative) launchings took place from the trometer data; (3) steps were initiated in September Eastern Test Range in 1976: by NASA to obtain soil samples from the Soviet Intelsat IV-A F2, an international communica- Luna 24 probe pursuant to previous agreement; and tions satellite, Atlas-Centaur vehicle, January 29 (4) NASA prepared to share preliminary results of NATO IIIA, an operational communications the Viking missions to Mars. satellite, Thor-Delta vehicle, April 22 In other areas, the two sides coniinued coordi- 0 Palapa-A, the first Indonesian domestic com- nated magnetometer observations by the NASA Ap- munications satellite, Thor-Delta vehicle, July 8 plications Technology Satellite and Soviet ground A reimbursable launching contract was concluded stations. The Space Biology and Medicine Joint with the Science Research Council of the U.K. for a Working Group met in Yerevan, U.S.S.R., in Sep- Scout launch of UK-6 scientific satellite in early tember and finalized plans for the flight of five 1978. Contracts to use the Thor-Delta vehicle were U.S. biological experiments on a Soviet satellite to signed with the European Space Agency for launch be launched in the fall of 1977. A coordinated of OTS, a geostationary communications test satel- rocket meteorology ‘study of diurnal variations un- lite, in mid-1977 and Marots, a geostationary mari- der different geomagnetic conditions was conducted time test satellite, in 1978. Launch service contract in August. In November, two joint working groups negotiations were begun with EMBRATEL of on satellite and rocket meteorology met in Moscow Brazil for launch of two domestic communications to plan further projects and cooperative efforts, in- satellites in 1979: with NASDA of Japan for a cluding coordinated experiments in atmospheric

22 temperature sensing and microwave sensing and im- Policies Board, and the Pacific Northwest Regional plementation of a sounding rocket intercomparison Commission, to develop alternative strategies con- test. The cooperative study of the natural environ- cerning user/ NASA roles, responsibilities, and finan- ment moved into a second and important phase in cial commitments. Interaction with the private sec- the spring of 1976 when the Soviets began providing tor included presentations and discussions with user ground truth data for the remote sensing of vegeta- communities such as petroleum and mineral ex- tion. These data will be useful in the U.S. Large ploration firms and the suppliers of data analysis Area Crop Inventory Experiment aimed at develop- equipment and services. ing a capability for world wheat crop prediction. In October a delegation from the U.S.S.R. Acad- Technology Utilization emy of Sciences’ Intercosmos Council met with Low Cost Space Systems NASA representatives in Washington to continue discussions aimed at defining major cooperative The Low Cost Systems Office was established to projects that might follow the successful rendezvous reduce the cost of space systems through develop- and docking of the Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft in ment of standard components that will satisfy a 1975. majority of anticipated mission requirements. To date, 17 spacecraft components have been declared standard, including: tape recorders, hydrazine User Affairs thrusters and valve assemblies, power regulator, The Office of User Affairs under the Office of spacecraft computer, inertial reference unit, pyro- Space Applications identifies user needs and require- technic initiator, transponders for both near-Earth ments; disseminates information to potential users and deep space missions, star tracker, reaction wheel, of NASA’s space technology; and plans and imple- telemetry and command components, and a pyrogen ments technology transfer in space applications. igniter. In November 1976, NASA sponsored a conference Under evaluation were 24 additional candidates at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena con- for standardization, including not only components cerning recent advances in image processing tech- for spacecraft maintenance functions, but also the nology and new computer applications to stimulate experiment and instrument interface support equip- the development and transfer of this technology to ment and ground support equipment. Some items industry and commerce. Additional symposia co- under evaluation were: solar cell panels, central sponsored by NASA in 1976 were the William T. power regulator, Sun sensors, solid state star tracker, Pecora Memorial Symposia on Earth resources sur- magnetometer, universal articulation system, mag- vey techniques in Sioux Falls, South Dakota, and netic bubble memory, phased array antenna, Global the Conference on Remote Sensing for Land and Positioning Satellite receiver/ processor, commpn Resource Management in the South and Southwest sensor subsystems, scanner-chopper drive system, test at Texas A & M University in College Station. sets, spacecraft checkout system, and a spacecraft To devise better means for transferring NASA simulator. technology outside the agency, four Application As standard hardware becomes available, flight Survey Groups were formed from experts in the fol- projects can obtain flight-qualified equipment at lowing areas: land inventory, inland water resources, significantly less expense than in the past. Cost sav- agriculture, and mineral and petroleum exploration. ings have already been realized in the Mariner Because of successful experience with these groups, Jupiter/Saturn, Tiros-N, Nimbus G, Seasat, Sage, planning got under way to develop a process for a and Solar Maximum Mission projects. These savings permanent advisory structure consisting of represent- will continue to accrue as additional standards are atives from the Federal, state, and local governments, used by future projects. private industry, and the universities. Interaction between users also increased. A Fed- Disseminating Technology aptd Benefits eral Interagency Decision Team and Working Since its inception in 1962, the NASA Technology Group, comprised of representatives from the U.S. Utilization Office has relied heavily on its publica- Departments of Interior and Agriculture, Army tions to facilitate secondary use of NASA technology Corps of Engineers, Agency for International Devel- in commerce and industry. More than 10,000 inno- opment, and NASA, was created to identify needs vations judged to have commercial potential have and potential applications for future Earth resources thus been made available to industry. The format satellites. To improve technology transfer to state, fos the familiar NASA tech brief was changed sig- regional, and local users, NASA worked with a va- nificantly in 1976. Tech briefs and related NASA riety of user organizations, including the National technical innovations and improvements are now Conference of State Legislatures, Southern Growth disseminated in a quarterly journal, NASA Tech

23 Briefs, which also includes information on new cells, solar heating and cooling, coal energy extrac- product ideas and technology utilization services. tion, industrial gas turbines, and advanced ground In 1976 the university-based Industrial Applica- propulsion. tions Centers expanded the products and services to In addition, NASA also had a number of proj- better serve non-aerospace clients. Likewise, technol- ects to identify and evaluate the applicability of ogy coordinatocs, experienced in NASA research and aeronautics and space capabilities to energy prob- development programs, were located at four NASA lems. The process of technology identificatiron and field centers to assist the Industrial Applications verification is designed to lead to soundly con- Centers by matching their client’s problems to ap- ceived technology plans in selected areas forming propriate NASA scientific and engineering expertise. the basis for possible reimbursable activities in The purchase of improved NASA-developed fire- support of ERDA, the Department of Interior, and fighter’s breathing systems by the Boston Fire De- other agencies. Areas of interest included work in partment marked the successful culmination of that fuel cell systems, magnetohydrodynamics, .energy important technology applications project. Another storage systems, combustion technology, and ma- achievement of note in 1976 wals the construction of terials and heat exchanger technology. the NASA Technology Utilization House at Lang- ley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia. Tech Aeronautics Research and Technology House, as it is called, integrates N‘QSA technology, recent commercial building techniques, and other Aeronautics Research and Technology progi ailis innovations into an energy-efficient home that of- are directed at developing technology to (1) im- fers the potential of savings to the individual family prove the energy efficiency of aircraft, (2) reduce and national benefit in energy conservation. Opened the undesirable environmental effects of aircraft to the public in June 1976, Tech House will be such as noise and pollution, (3) improve aviation evaluated when a family is selected to occupy it safety and terminal area operations, (4) advance early in 1977, at which time all energy conserving long-haul and shopt-haul aircraft systems, and (5) systems will be monitored by NASA engineers. provide technical support to the military in maintaining the superiority of military aircraft. Scientific and Technical Information improving the Energy Efliciency of Aircraft NASA’s publication of the results of its own aerospace research and development, together with During 1976 NASA initiated the Aircraft Energy its acquisition of worldwide aeronautics, space, and Efficiency program with the objective of providing related literature, created a broad and growing the technology for future commercial transport national information resource. Remote terminals aircraft with 50 percent lower fuel consumption located at NASA centers, the congressional Office than current aircraft. This major program ex- of Technology Assessment, Industrial Applications panded NASA’s efforts in technology developments, Centers, and a number of state universities per- particularly those associated with engine systems, mitted on-line literature searching of a centralized aerodynamics and active controls, and structural computer data bank containing over 1.5 million composite materials. report, book, and journal citations. International Engine Systems. Engine component evaluations cooperation in the generation of useful aerospace have indicated the feasibility of improving the per- information continued, with the European Space formance of components to increase fuel efficiency Agency processing European literature for direct in future large turbofan engines. In 1976 tests oE entry inlto the NASA data bank, while providing a new engine mixer component, for example, Western Europe with on-line computer access to measured a two to three percent reduction in spe- a NASA-furnished portion of the data bank. cific fuel consumption. Energy Eficient Transport. NASA initiated the NASA Energy Programs energy efficient transport program to evaluate aero- The purpose of NASA’s energy program is to dynamic features such as the supercritical wing and assure the effective use of NASA technologies and winglets, singly and in conjunction with active con- experience in support of national energy needs. A trols. Active control systems would allow reduction substantial part of the 1976 activities resulted from in the size of the horizontal tail by electronic con- projects assigned t.0 NASA and reimbursed by the trol of aircraft stability and reduction of the Energy Research and Development Administration weight of structural components by control of the (ERDA) and other agencies having direct respon- structural loads experienced by aircraft. sibilities in the energy field. Included was work in Composite Primary Aircraft Structures. Future wind energy, conversion systems, low cost solar applications of composites, with the potential to reduce fuel consumption by 10 to 12 percent, were Improved Safety and Terminal Area Operations being demonstrated. On May 27 the composite DC-10 upper aft rubber segment was certificated by Wake Vortex Reduction. Trailing vortices from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). As of large aircraft pose potential hazards to following September, four rudder segments had been in- smaller aircraft. Controlling the spacing between stalled on commercial airline transports and a total aircraft provides safe operations but tends to reduce the capacity of busy airports. To restore of about 2000 flight hours had been achieved. The composite component weighs about 30 percent less capacity, NASA is exploring ways to minimize the than the metallic component it replaces. A second trailing vortex strength by aerodynamic means. composite component, the L-1011 Vertical Fin, is Wind tunnel model and flight tests with a B-747 entering the ground subcomponent test phase. aircraft demonstrated that selective deflection of wing spoilers can cause a significant reduction in vortex strength. Model tests with other widebody Reducing Undesirable Environmental Eflects transports have also indicated equivalent vortex Noise Prediction. Analytical techniques have reductions with spoiler deflection. NASA is con- been developed to predict aircrafit noise caused by tinuing to investigate other vortex minimization the multiplicity of noise sources on aircraft. These concepts and to assess the potential operational methods have been computerized into a program impacts associated with their practical application. capable of predicting ground noise levels from Wind Environment. Large variations in wind existing and conceptual aircraft. More sophisticated direction and speed (wind shear) along aircraft approaches are under development and will be take-off and approach paths have been factors in incorporated into the existing program. Coiiipari- aircraft accidents. NASA has identified conditions son of analytical with experimental data continues favorable to low-altitude wind shear around air- t'o validate the predictive capabilities of the pro- ports and has developed hazard definition inodels gram. applicable to aircraft design and operations. Psychoacoustics Studies. Comprehensive studies Improving Terminal Area Operations. NASA's have been made to determine how a person's pre- 737, equipped with display, navigation, and flight vious experience with aircraft noise affects annoy- control systems that represent the first application ance. Two findings are noteworthy. First, a rela- of all-digital systems to a conventional transport tionship between acceptabililty and annoyance has aircraft, was engaged in a cooperative program been identified. Second, labsoratory subjects tend with the FAA to demonstrate a newly developed to judge as equivalent those test cdnditions compar- Microwave Landing System to the International able to 'their worst day-at-home experiences. Future Civil Aviation Organization. This aircraft made studies will build upon these findings to provide many fully automatic (hands-off) landings using better methods for assessing and predicting com- the new equipment for approach and flare guid- munity response. ance. Piston Engine Emissions Reduction. Emissions Aviation Safety Reporting System. The Aviation from current piston engine aircraft have been Safety Reporting System began collecting reports characterized for ten representative general avia- in mid-April. In addition to report analysis, the tion engines. Tests reveal that some reductions in system forwards to FAA reports dealing with criti- pollutant emissions are attainable by leaning the cal areas of information. Both the quantity and fuel/air mixture, but suggest that engine modifica- quality of the reports indicate the system's accept- tions may be required to attain acceptably low ance by the aviation community. emission levels. Results were presented in a symposium hosted by NASA and attended by general Advancing Long-Haul and Short-Haul Aircraft aviation industrial firms, governmental regulatory Systems agencies, and interested parties from the scientific Research continued to focus on identification and academic communities. and study of advanced aircraft systems and the Gas Turbine Emissions Reduction. NASA's Ex- technologies necessary to make development of perimental Clean Combustor program for modern advanced commercial aircraft systems possible. gas turbine engines has reached the hardware Supersonic Cruise Aircraft Research. Progress demonstration phase in ground tests of complete continued in the technologies pertaining to the engines. Preliminary results suggest that major re- environmental compatibility and economic via- ductions in emissions during landing and takeoff bility of supersonic transports. During 1976, an may be realized, as well as a significant reduction advanced 2.4-mach transport model test completed in oxides of nitrogen during high-altitude cruise in a NASA Ames Research Center wind tunnel operation. showed a significant 30 percent increase in super-

25 sonic cruise lift-to-drag ratio over the U.S. 1971 General aviation aircraft designers were exploring supersonic transport design. Various variable-cycle applications of these new data. or multi-cycle engines, aimed at optimizing performance over the range of flight regimes en- Technical Support to the Military countered by a supersonic aircraft, have been iden- In addition to the continuing broad-based sup- tified and studied extensively. During 1976, the port of military aircraft technology, a number of critical components of two most promising engine notable accomplishments occurred during 1976. concepts were identified for component testing. The joint NASA/Air Force Highly Maneuverable Quiet Propulsive-Lift Technology. In February Aircraft Technology program completed its design 1976 NASA awarded a contract to the Boeing phase and began fabrication of two remotely Commercial Airplane Company for the design, piloted research aircraft. During the design phase, construction, and test of a Quiet Short-Haul Re- the application of several design methodology in- search Airplane. The experimental aircrafqt, sched- novations resulted in an aerodynamic performance uled for delivery in 1978, would perform flight re- twice as efficient as current vehicles and developed search to obtain design certification data for future in half the time at a third of the cost. NASA was quiet short-haul transport aircraft. conducting two joint experimental aircraft programs with the Army-the Rotor Systems Research Low Speed Airfoils. Complete design information Aircraft and the Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft. Fab- has been developed for a second low-speed airfoil rication for both vehicles was completed during in the General Aviation Wing series. The new 1976. The Rotor Systems Research Aircraft began airfoil, thinner than its predecessor, demonstrated flight testing in 1976, with the Tilt Rotor Research higher maximum lift and lower drag characteristics. Aircraft scheduled to begin in 1977.

26 III Department of Defense

Introduction tween the US. and the North Atlantic ‘Ireaty Organization (NATO), by use of the NATO IIIA The Department of Defense maintained empha- satellite. The Skynet IIB satellite is used in the sis on important advances in space systems and Indian Ocean by arrangement between the U.S. aeronautics in 1976. These Defense efforts include and the United Kingdom (U.K.). New, large technology investigations and development of op- terminals are available for operational use. The erational systems to improve the security of the US., U.K., and NATO have signed an agreement United States during the 1980s and beyond. for a post-1975 SATCONI arrangement to exchange The NAVSTAR Global Positioning System con- satellite capacity on a contingency and day-to-day tinued as a major development effort within the basis. Significant progress has also been made to- Department of Defense. It is a system using satel- ward establishing the US.-U.S.S.R. Direct Com- lites which will provicie continuous, all-weather munication Link via communications satellites. positioning information on a global basis. Suitably equipped users will be able to obtain their positions Contracts for construction of the first two space- to within 10 meters in three dimensions and velocity craft of the Navy Fleet Satellite Communications to wichin 0.03 meter per second in real time. During System (FLTSATCOM) have been awarded and 1976, prototype satellites were built in preparation a decision has been made to procure three addi- for the launches of the first six satellites in 1977. tional spacecraft for a total of five. The first FLT- An inverted test range was installed on the desert SATCOM launch is scheduled for late 1977. A pro- near Yuma, Arizona, initially using satellite trans- duction contract for AFSATCOM strategic terminals mitters on the ground to act like satellites for air- was awarded in November. The Air Force Satellite borne user tests. As satellites are launched, the Communications System provides command and ground transmitters will be turned off. Several gen- control communications for strategic forces. The eral demonstration models have been produced for Army is developing ground terminals for use by all testing purposes. If the concept is validated, plans the services. Terminals for ground mobile forces were are to deploy a limited system (for navigation only) tested and are being procured. Engineering devel- during the early 1980s. The system is expected to opments continue on manpack and vehicular termi- achieve full operational status in the mid-1980s. nals. The Navy Navigation Satellite System (TRANSIT) DoD maintained close liaison with NASA on the will continue as a major system for providing posi- Space Shuttle program during 1976. The Space tion fixing information to strategic submarine forces Shuttle holds great promise for reducing the cost until the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System is of future space operations, and DoD requirements operational. have been incorporated in the Shuttle design. A solid-fueled Interim Upper Stage was chosen by the DoD has placed increasing emphasis on satellite Air Force, because of its reliability, safety, and communications systems to support its diverse re- lower cost, for development and use wilth the quirements of worldwide military communications. Shuttle. The Interim Upper Stage will be used be- The Defense Satellite Communications System ginning in 1980 for DoD and civil payloads from (DSCS) supports requirements for worldwide mili- Kennedy Space Center which require low-inclina- tary command and control and was used effectively tion or high-altitude orbits. The Space Shuttle in the Korean Demilitarized Zone action and the launch and landing capability at Vandenberg Air Beirut evacuation. The space segment of the DSCS Force Base (AFB) will be ready for Operational continues to function with full use of the one use in December 1982. A contract was awarded in Phase I1 satellite in the Pacific, augmented over July to define Shuttle ground support systems at the Atlantic Ocean, through mutual agreement be- Vandenberg.

27 Equally important to DoD is the aeronautical Space Activities research and development that leads toward: lower costs for buying and maintaining aircraft, Space Systems and Programs new operational concepts and capabilities, and mod- Defense Satellite Communications System. The ernization of the operational aircraft inventory. primary mission of the Defense Satellite Communi- The first development F-16 air combat fighter cations System (DSCS) is to provide rapid, reliable, rolled off the assembly line in October. The air- and secure satellite communications for the Na- craft is being produced in partnership among five tional Command Authorities and World-Wide countries: U.S., Belgium, Denmark, Norway, and Military Command and Control System. The sys- The Netherlands. Full production of the F-15 air tem provided exceptional communications support superiority fighter was reached in April 1976. Tac- to the National Command Authorities in control- tical Air Command received more than 130 F-15s ling the U.S. response to the North Korean action in the Demilitarized Zone. The DSCS also allowed by the end of 1976. Fleet deployment of F-14As Washington to closely monitor evacuation of U.S. aboard carriers and the newly selected F-18 combat dependents from Beirut, Lebanon. fighter now entering full development will provide The initial Defense Communications Satellite naval weapon systems to counter a broad range of Program (Phase 1) provided a limited operational threats in the future. system from 1966 through 1974, primarily out of The Air Force continued its program to mod- research and development assets. Phase 1 is no ernize the strategic bomber force through develop- longer operational. ment and procurement of B-1 aircraft. Deployment Two synchronous-orbit satellites, launched in of this aircraft will strengthen the triad of strategic December 1973, make up the present DSCS Phase retaliatory forces by providing a more capable and 11 space segment. One satellite is positioned over survivable successor to the B-52 to perform the the western Pacific Ocean and one over the At- manned bomber mission. lantic Ocean. The Pacific satellite is functioning satisfactorily. The Atlantic satellite experienced All three services made significant progress in some anomalies in September 1975, recovered in 1976 in advanced composite structures and materials October 1975, and functioned satisfactorily until technology. The Air Force tested a graphite/epoxy it again experienced difficulties in September 1976. structure for the B-1 horizontal stabilizer which is The impact has been minimized by rerouting cir- lighter and cheaper than the metal components cuits through other defense communications facili- previously used. The Navy completed development ties, the use of commercial systems, and the use of testing of composite materials components for S3 the NATO IIIA satellite. spoiler, F-14 ovenving fairing, and F-14 main land- In 1975 the Air Force contracted for six more ing gear door, as well as a replacement for the DSCS I1 satellites (numbers 7 through 12). De- H-46 metal rotor blade. The Army expanded re- livery was accelerated so that the first two satellites search into advanced hybrid composite concepts of this group are scheduled for launch in April for primary helicopter components including 1977. This dual launch will provide one satellite blades, hubs, airframes, landing gear, and drive for Atlantic Ocean coverage and one for western shafts. Pacific Ocean coverage. The present Pacific satellite will be repositioned 'to provide either eastern DoD made advances on other fronts in aero- Pacific or Indian Ocean coverage. In addition, dur- nautical research and technology as well. The Army ing 1976, the Air Force completed negotiations for developed computer programs for prediction of the procurement of four additional Phase I1 satel- helicopter flow fields to improve the accuracy of lites (numbers 13 through 16) in order to replenish air-launched missiles. Also, the Laser Obstacle Ter- the DSCS space segment in the 1978-1979 time rain Avoidance Warning System was flight-tested in frame. The latter satellites will upgrade the per- 1976 and successfully detected obstacles as minute formance of DSCS by incorporating higher power as a small wire. In addition, a Synthetic Flight and a defocused antenna for wider coverage. Training System successfully simulated helicopter During 1976, a total of eight new 19-meter termi- flight characteristics under instrument flight condi- nals became available for operational use. Addi- tions. In aircraft propulsion, advanced gas generator tional digital modulation equipment procured by programs continued to seek increased performance the Army represents progress toward an all-digital and life expectancy at reduced cost. The services system. also pursued the development of alternative avia- A conceptual design of the next generation tion fuels. (Phase 111) DSCS satellite was developed and made

28 compatible with the Space Shuttle. Critical por- The terminals that provide mobile multi-channel tions of the satellite were fabricated, and parts of communications for ground mobile forces using the ground segment were tested. DoD plans to con- DSCS satellite completed all operational testing and tract for the development of two R&D spacecraft in are being procured. Engineering development con- 1977. tinues on ultra high frequency (UHF) manpack Fleet Satellite Communications System. The pur- and vehicular terminals. pose of the Fleet Satellite Communications System Znternational Cooperation in Space. During (FLTSATCOM) is to develop, procure, and imple- 1976, the United States and (the United Kingdom ment a satellite communications system to satisfy continued to operate under an agreement whereby the most urgent, worldwide, near-term tactical and the U.S. and the U.K. would exchange an essen- strategic communications requirements of the Navy tially equivalent amount of sotellilte power between and Air Force, respectively. Contracts for the first U.S. DSCS and U.K. Skynet satellites and to inter- two FLTSATCOM spacecraft were awarded and a operate with each other’s Earth terminals. decision on the production of three additional The U.S., U.K., and NATO have signed an spacecraft has been made. The first FLTSATCOM agreement for a post-1975 SATCOM arrangement. launch is scheduled for late 1977. Installation of The parties will exchange satellite capacity during fleet broadcast receivers is virtually complete. In- specified conditions and will allocate channels stallation of shipboard transceivers and information temporarily on a day-to-day basis if SATCOM exchange systems is on schedule. Two leased Mari- difficulties are experienced. sat spacecraft, also called Gapfiller, became opera- Another agreement was signed in September tional in 1976, with a third Marisat scheduled to 1976 between the U.S. and NATO which will per- be operational in early 1977. The shipboard mit the U.S. to use the NATO IIIB satellite. In terminal equipment will be operated through the return the U.S. will provide NATO with equivalent Marisat spacecraft until the FLTSATCOM is DSCS satellite capacity at a time to be designated operational. by NATO and agreed to by the U.S. Significant progress has been made toward estab- Air Force Satellite Communications System. The Air Force Satellite Communications System lishing the U.S.-U.S.S.R. Direct Communication Link, which uses satellite communication circuits (AFSATCOM) will provide command and control communications for strategic forces. The AFSAT- via Intelsat and Molniya satellites. The link was COM space segment includes transponders on the created in accordance with the 1971 Strategic Arms Limitations Talks between the U.S. and U.S.S.R. Navy FLTSATCOM spacecraft, the Air Force Satel- lite Data System, and other DoD satellites. The Since August 1976, the Molniya system has been usable 24 hours a day, and end-to-end testing is now AFSATCOM terminal segment will consist of air- being conducted, using both Intelsat and Molniya. borne terminals and ground mobile and fixed Navigation Satellite Activity. The Navy Naviga- terminals. Initial operational testing of strategic terminals was completed in 1975; production be- tion Satellite System, referred to as TRANSIT, operated for its eleventh year in 1976. TRANSIT gan in November 1976; and Satellite Data System provides the Navy with a worldwide, two-dimen- capability was available in 1976. sional system for position fixing to an accuracy of Army Satellite Communications Activities. The better than one eighth of a kilometer-primarily in Army is developing strategic and tactical satellite support of strategic submarines. The five satellites communications ground terminals for use by all in operation provide an opportunity at least every services. Two major projects are DCSC Phase I1 two hours, depending upon the latitude, for a user and the Ground Mobile Forces Tactical Satellite to fix his position. Usage has expanded both mili- Communications. The Army has completed the tarily and commercially. It has been adapted for modification of all existing DCSC ground terminals use in such diverse activities as offshore oil explora- to upgrade their reliability and communications tion and to measure the drift of ice over the poles. capability. An AN/FSC-78 heavy transportable Since the early 1970s, a TRANSIT Improvement terminal is operational at Fort Detrick, Maryland. Program has been under way. Improved satellites Additional heavy terminals were contracted for to with greater survivability are to be launched to satisfy the needs of the Defense Satellite Com- join the operational constellation; however, the munications System and have been installed at first two test satellites in 1975 and 1976 experienced locations worldwide. The antenna for the AN/ partial failure. Plans for future improvement are MSC-61 medium terminal is undergoing engineer- currently under review. ing development. The AN/TSC-86 light transport- NAVSTAR Global Positioning System. The able terminal completed development and opera- NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) is a tional testing. joint service development to fulfill the position-

29 finding needs of all the services and DoD agencies development. NASA participated in source selection beginning in the 1980s. It will provide continu- and a contractor was selected in September 1976 ous, worldwide, all-weather coverage using a com- to define the design in the validation phase con- mon grid to enable suitably equipped users to tract. The solid-fueled IUS should provide advan- passively determine their positions to within 10 tages in cost, reliability, and safety, and will be meters and velocity to within 0.03 meter per sec- used with the Shuttle by both DoD and NASA for ond. For routine navigation, a relatively inexpen- missions requiring low-inclination, high-altitude sive receiver will provide less accurate information orbits. The Interim Upper Stage will be available (100-200 meters). The system may also be used to in 1980 for launch from Kennedy Space Center. provide worldwide precise time transfer. The op- DoD plans to construct new facilities or to mod- erational NAVSTAR GPS will consist of 24 satel- ify existing facilities at Vandenberg AFB, Cali- lites in three orbital planes at 20,400 kilometers fornia, to provide a West Coast Shuttle launch and altitude, a ground segment for calibration and landing capability. The planned operational date control of the satellites, and 25,000 to 35,000 user of the Vandenberg facilities is December 1982, when equipments of various classes. DoD and civil payloads requiring polar or near- NAVSTAR GPS is in the concept validation polar orbits will begin using the Shettle. In July phase with the launch of six satellites and initiation 1976, Air Force contracted for definition of Shuttle of extensive field testing of all classes of user equip- ground support systems at Vandenberg AFB. ment scheduled in 1977. User equipment to be Space Boosters. The DoD family of space boost- tested will include high performance, low cost, and ers is comprised of the Atlas and Titan I11 stand- manpack models designed to satisfy a variety of ard launch vehicles and the surplus IRBM SM-75 DoD requirements. During 1976, the Joint Program Thor and surplus ICBM Atlas E/F vehicles. These Office conducted qualification testing of prototype boosters launched 11 space missions during 1976: 8 satellites and environmental testing of working re- Titan IIIs, 2 SM-75 Thors, and 1 Atlas F. One of ceivers. Increasingly detailed information was the Thor launches was unsuccessful by DoD cri- exchanged with interested civil agencies and with teria. The mission was in orbit long enough, how- NATO. ever, to be considered successful by the Cospar Defense Meteorological Satellite Program. The definition. Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) Space Test Program. The Space Test Program continued to provide high quality visual and in- provides spaceflight test and evaluation of DoD frared imagery and other specialized meteorological experimenltal and advanced development payloads. data to support military operations. The DMSP During 1976, three missions were flown. In March, provides weather data for the entire Earth four four satellites were placed in orbit by a single Titan times a day using two satellites in polar orbits. One IIIC launch vehicle. Two of these satellites, LES collects early morning and evening data and the 8 and 9, were developed by MIT Lincoln Labora- other collects noon and midnight data. These tory to evaluate advanced satellite communications weather data are stored aboard the satellites and techniques. The other two satellites, called Solrad later transmitted to Air Force Global Weather Hi, were developed by the Naval Research Labora- Central in Nebraska and the Fleet Numerical tory to measure solar x-rays, ultraviolet light, and Weather Central in California. The imagery is particle emissions. In May 1976, a single satellite, also transmitted in real-time to transportable read- called Wideband, was launched to collect informa- out stations at key locations worldwide to support tion on effects of ionospheric scintillations on a tactical operations. During 1976, a new temperature wide range of communications frequencies. In sensor and other specialized meteorological sensors July 1976, the third in a series of small S-3 satellites were developed. Satellite reliability and life have was launched under the Space Test Program as a also been improved. secondary payload on a DoD vehicle. This satellite DoD continued to cooperate with NASA and carried five Air Force Geophysics Laboratory and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- two Office of Naval Research space experimenfts to tion in development of the Tiros-N domestic orbit. These experiments are measuring the in- weather satellite. The Tiros-N will be an adapta- tensity, distrihutioii, and effects oi protons, elec- tion of the DMSP Block 5D satellite. trons, and alpha particles in space. Space Shuttle. The Air Force maintained close liaison with NASA during 1976 to ensure that DoD Space Ground Support requirements are incorporated in the evolving Range, Tracking, and Data Acquisition Facilities. Shuttle design. An expendable, solid propellant DoD space activities are principally supported by Interim Upper Stage (IUS) concept was chosen by the Air Force’s Eastern Test Range, Space and the Air Force in September 1975 for validation and Missile Test Center, Satellite Control Facility, and

30 Arnold Engineering Development Center; the completed in February 1976. Several mission con- Army's White Sands Missile Range: and the Navy's trol centers were relocated, and two new ones were Pacific Missile Test Center. A wide variety of test developed during 1976. Studies are continuing on and evaluation activities is supported by these facili- the configuration and use of SCF resources in sup- ties which are available to DoD, other Federal com- port of the Space Transportation System. ponents, industry, and international agencies. Arnold Engineering Development Center Eastern Test Range (ETR). The mission of the (AEDC). AEDC has 40 test facilities that simulate Air Force ETR is to provide support to DoD space flight environments on the ground. Over half of and ballistic missile operations, NASA space pro- these facilities are unique because of one or more grams, and commercial communications sattellite of the major test parameters they simulate. The launches. An improvement program at ETR is types of work range from basic research and devel- directed toward correcting operational deficiencies opment associated with environmenltal testing to created by extended use of equipment beyond its full-scale flight hardware testing. In 1976, AEDC expected life and providing increased operational provided over 45,000 test hours on major programs capability consistent with support requirements. such as B-1 and F-16 aircraft, Air Launched Cruise Current emphasis is on enhancing telemetry, radar Missile, Sea Launched Cruise Missile, and support tracking, range safety, real-time data, and adapta- to the Energy Research and Development Admin- tion of selected instrumentation to a mobile con- istration. In 1977, AEDC will begin acquisition of figuration. During 1976, launch and data acquisi- the Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility which tion support was provided to the NASA Viking provides the capability to simulate the severe flight Mars Lander program, communications satellites environments in which present and future aircraft for commercial organizations and foreign govern- engines must operate. With the new facility, air- ments, as well as several scientific and operational breathing propulsion systems can be fully tested on space payloads for DoD and NASA. The ETR was the ground prior to flight, thus minimizing the need also actively engaged in planning to support the for extensive flight tests and avoiding possible costly Space Shuttle which will be launched initially from modifications to complete propulsion systems. the Kennedy Space Center in 1980. White Sands Missile Range (WSMR). In 1976, Space and Missile Test Center (SAMTEC). The the Army's WSMR supported DoD and NASA aero- mission of SAMTEC is to operate the Western nautics and space programs by providing ground Test Range and to support development and op- and flight safety, surveillance, command and con- erational testing on aerospace vehicles for the DoD, trol, data acquisition, and analyses. NASA program NASA, and others. During 1976, the SAMTEC support included calibration and upper at- workload increased, primarily because of the com- mospheric sounding rocket programs using the plexity of user systems and requirements for greater Aerobee, numerous smaller rocket systems, and a quantities and higher quality of test data. Through variety of astronomical test programs. DoD efforts programmed system upgrading such as the Telem- included sounding rockets and balloon measure- etry Integrated Processing System and refinements ments. in scheduling, SAMTEC can meet current and pro- Pacific Missile Test Center (PMTC).The PMTC jected test requirements. SAMTEC supported many supported DoD and NASA missile, aeronautics, programs during 1976, including Minuteman 11 and and space programs in 1976. PMTC provided sup- 111, Airborne Warning and Control System, B-I, port range services for most launches from Van- F-15, F-16, Trident I, and various space launches. denberg, including the NASA satellites Lageos and Planning for the Space Shuttle program at Vanden- Itols-G. PMTC aircraft provided real-time telemetry berg AFB continued. reception and data transmission from the ATS 1 Satellite Control Facility (SCF) . The SCF sup- and ATS 3 satellites to the NASA Rosman, North ported 23 launches (15 DoD and NASA, 8 bal- Carolina, tracking site for real-time relay through listic) , 51,000 satellite contacts, and 55,000 network the NASA computer network. support hours during 1976. The SCF tracking station at Guam was severely damaged by typhoon Space Research and Technology Pamela on May 21, 1976, but the station was re- stored to a minimum capability within two and Space Research. Air Force space-related research a half months. Permanent restoration is in progress and development is directed toward defining the with completion expeoted in 1977. Work continues space environment and assessing its effect on the on an improved communications and data system performance of Air Force systems operating within for the worldwide tracking network and is expected it. Programs to measure atmospheric densi,ty and to be completed in 1977. Replacement of the on- composition include rocket observations and ac- line computers at the Satellite Test Center was celerometers on satellites. Atmosphere Explorers

31 C, D, and E are providing data to define the Air Force scientists are also participating in changes in atmospheric density resulting from large rocket and satellite observations of solar ultraviolet geomagnetic disturbances. Rocket flights gather (UV) emissions. Working closely with NASA scien- data on the chemical composition of the atmosphere tists, Air Force personnel are studying the variation at alrtitudes from 90 to 160 kilometers. Detailed of solar UV observed by spectrophotometers on the measurements on the ion and neutron composition ,4tmosphere Explorer C, D, and E satellites. Rocket changes during auroral activity have been made Hights designed to measure solar UV flares between and are being used to develop models of those 250 and 1220 Angstroms have been made in con- processes. junction with satellite measurements to develop Another area in which the Air Force is actively models of the solar UV emission spectrum. involved concerns the measurements and monitor- The Solrad Hi project is a significant part of the ing of charged particles and electric fields in space. Navy’s effort to measure and forecast solar param- Data from satellite S72-1 have been used to im- eters and their effect on electromagnetic systems. prove models of the particle population of the Two satellites were launched on March 14, 1976, Earth’s radiation belt. A series of measurements into 112,000-kilometer circular orbits on a single from the recently launched S3-2 satellite are being Titan 111 booster as part of the Space Test Pro- used to study the details of the energy input into gram. The Solrad Hi data are being received at the the upper atmosphere. Instruments designed and Naval Research Laboratory ground station at built under Air Force sponsorship to measure Blossom Point, Maryland. The data are transmitted charged particle fluxes, particle densities, and elec- to the Naval Electronic Laboratory Center, La tric and magnetic field intensities at the S3-2 orbital Posta Astrogeophysical Laboratory, in California altitude are currently providing the data to support and to the NOAA Space Environmental Laboratory, this investigation. Measurements of the space en- Boulder, Colorado. Selected information is trans- vironment, obtained from these satellites and other mitted by La Posta to the Naval Communications satellite programs, are being used to improve the Station, Stockton, California, to include predictions estimates of charged particle dosage rates that orbit- of propagation phenomena affecting very low fre- ing spacecraft will experience under operational quency radio and navigation systems, ultra high conditions. This information is needed to determine frequency satellite systems, and sensors that respond shielding requirements, satellite lifetime, and over- to solar induced variations in the Earth’s magnetic all life-cycle costs. field. Environmental Remote Sensing. The Air Force The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency Geophysics Laboratory is monitoring space environ- (DARPA) is pursuing advanced sensor technology ment-induced effects as observed at the surface of for strategic surveillance from space. New concepts the Earth. Using transmissions from beacons on in optics, detector arrays, and signal processing are both orbiting and geostationary satellites, iono- being investigated. The technology development ac- spheric scintillation and signal time delay are being tivities are supported by signature measurements measured at a number of ground stations around and sensor design efforts to supply a solid phenom- the globe. These measurements indicate signal sta- enological base for the application of these tech- tistics (fade margins, message reliability) for sat- niques to detection of a wide variety of strategic ellite communications systems and positional accu- vehicles. Space experiments are being planned to racy for navigation satellite systems and Air Force evaluate the optimum concepts as well as provide surveillance radars. relevant data from a real environment. The Navy Environmental Remote Sensing Pro- Solar Monitoring. As part of the Air Force tech- gram explores the potential of satellites to provide nology program in propagation environment pre- a global data base for an integrated air-ocean prediction, solar processes are being investigated and diction system for strategic and tactical fleet sup- solar emissions are measured. The programs in solar port. A coordinated research and development emissions include the theoretical study of the proc- effort is assured through a continuous overview by esses leading to solar flares. The Air Force Geo- the Navy Environmental Remote Sensing Coordin- physics Laboratory works closely with the National ating and Advisory Group. Activities in 1976 in- Science Foundation’s Sacramento Peak Observatory. cluded application of data from space and aircraft Air Force scientists are developing techniques to platforms as well as collection, analysis, and dis- forecast the time-history of high energy solar par- semination for operational fleet usage. The effect- ticles that may impact the Earth following a major iveness of coastal surveys was improved using ther- solar flare. The Air Force is designing and installing mal, infared, and visual imagery with sea surface a worldwide Radio Solar Telescope Network for use temperature maps. Installation has begun of a cen- with the Solar Optical Observing Network. tral Satellite Data Processing Center at Fleet Nu-

32 merical Weather Central and of readout equipment More than 18,000 flying hours have verified the aboard aircraft carriers for acquiring, analyzing, superior performance indicated by the F-15 during and disseminating data for strategic and tactical developmental testing. operations. The analysis of altimetry data from F-18 Carrier-Based Strike Fighter. The F-18 is a Geos 3 and Skylab, along with passive microwave new Navy fighter and attack aircraft to replace the data, contributed to development of sensors for F-4 and A-7 aircraft and to complement the F-14 global all-weather measurements at sea. Cooperative aircraft, The development of this new aircraft planning continued with NASA and NOAA to en- stresses the use of the latest proven technology and sure effective use of the data from future satellites new thresholds of reliability and maintainability. such as Tiros-N, Nimbus-G, Seasat-A, and Goes. The Secretary of Defense approved full-scale de- Meteorological Satellite Applications. The Army velopment in December 1975; detailed design of meteorological satellite applications research pro- the aircraft, wind tunnel testing, testing of engine gram is examining ways to provide data in directly components, and fabrication of component test usable form to operational commanders in support. articles. The design reviews will extend through of nuclear fallout predictions, air operations, artil- October 1977. In 1978, the preliminary flight rat- lery, and ground mobility activities. Comparison ing test of the engine will be completed and the tests conducted at White Sands Missile Range have radar test bed will enter evaluation. Flight test of demonstrated that vertical temperature profile the F-18 will begin with the first flight in September radiometers on Sun-synchronous, polar-orbiting 1978. meteorological satellites produce vertical tempera- F-14A Carrier-Bused Tactical Fighter. The F-14A ture, density, and wind structure information at Tomcat continues to prove its versatility as an ad- 15 to SO kilometer altitudes as accurate as or better vanced missile platform and as a highly maneuver- than balloon sounding techniques. A direct readout able fighter. F-14A squadrons are now routinely de- ground station at White Sands Missile Range has ployed on carriers of the Atlantic and Pacific Fleets. provided the research information from SMS/ Ten operational and two training squadrons have GOES satellites for use in designing a minute-by completed transition to this aircraft, and two addi- minute observational system to provide mesoscale tional squadrons are programmed to receive the meteorological data required by the Army. Re- Tomcat in 1977. search efforts are now concentrated on techniques F-4G Wild Weasel Avionics. During 1976, the for observing the intensity of severe storms, includ- F-4G Wild Weasel completed development as a re- ing areas of high turbulence, precipitation, and placement for the F-105G and F-4C Weasel air- icing. craft. The object of this Air Force program is to provide an enhanced defense suppression system to Aeronautical Activities search out and destroy hostile air defense weapons. The first F-4G (a modification of the F-4E fighter) Aircraft and Aircraft Systems was delivered to the Air Force in October, and the F-16 Combat Fighter Program. In 1976, F-16 de- second entered the depot facility for modification velopment progressed according to schedule and in November. Subsequently, a significant number included YF-16 flight test of many major avionics of new F-4E aircraft will be modified to the F-4G components. The first full-scale development air- Weasel configuration by Air Force personnel. With craft rolled off the assembly line in October. Al- its improved avionics, the F-4G will employ ad- though the prime airframe and engine contractors vanced guided munitions and improved antiradia- are located in the United States, the F-16 is being tion missiles. produced as a partnership among five countries: AV-8B V/STOL Light Attack Aircraft. The AV- the United States, Belgium, Denmark, Norway, and 8B aircraft, an advanced version of the Marine The Netherlands. On July 14, 1976, the initial co- Corps AV-8A Harrier, will provide significant production subcontracts were signed with the in- range/ payload improvements over the AV-8A dustries of the European Consortium. through design refinements and aerodynamic F-15 Air Superiority Fighter. The F-15 air su- changes. The AV-8B will replace both the AV-8A periority fighter development is essentially com- and A-4M light attack aircraft and will provide the plete, with only limited systems integration and Marine Corps with a flexibility especially suited ground support equipment testing remaining. Full for support of amphibious assault. The improved production of nine aircraft per month was reached Harrier will permit quick reaction in support of in April and more than 130 F-15s were delivered troops ashore while operating from ships off the to the Tactical Air Command by the year’s end. coast during initial landing phases, or from austere The first. F-15 Tactical Fighter Wing at Langley landing pads ashore during later phases of the AFB, Virginia, became operational in October. battle. A-IO Close Air Support Aircraft. The A-10 is be- quests for proposals were released to industry on ing built to support ground forces. The research August 27, 1976, for procurement of the ATCA and development phase of the program is drawing although first procurement has subsequently been to a conclusion as production rates increase to the delayed until at least 1979. As a result of previous planned 15 aircraft per month. Approval has been commercial development of wide-bodied freighter given for the first 195 of the planned 733 produc- aircraft, ATCA will be procured without the re- tion aircraft. Reports from the initial operational search and development normally associated with units have been favorable, and maintenance goals acquisition of a new weapon system. The Air Force are being met so that an anticipated low support intends to make only those changes necessary to the cost appears to be achievable. Test of the new selected commercial aircraft to provide an air re- GAU-8 gun, carried by the A-10, against armored fueling capability and to make full use of existing vehicles clearly demonstrated the lethality of this cargo carrying potential. The Air Force expects to new weapon against tank-type targets. The A-10 is reduce costs further by contracting with private in- a major element in the modernization of our tacti- dustry for logistical support. By taking full advan- cal air forces. tage of the existing worldwide support system for B-1 Bomber Program. The Air Force is continu- wide-bodied aircraft, the Air Force will avoid large ing its program to modernize the strategic bomber costs associated with setting up a separate system of force through development and procurement of its own. the R-1 aircraft. As a key element of the nation’s Utility Tactical Trunsport Aircraft System strategic triad of manned bombers, land-based mis- (UTTAS). The UTTAS helicopter is designed to siles, and sea-launched missiles, the new bomber replace a portion of the Army’s UH-1H to provide will support the nuclear deterrent objectives of the increased payload capability, increased survivability, United States through its ability to deliver heavy and reduced maintenance as compared to the UH- payloads over long ranges and through a hostile 1H. The UTTAS will transport 11 combat-equipped environment. troops, resupply them in combat, and perform aero- Three research, development, test, and evaluation medical evacuation. Contracts were awarded for aircraft are currently flying in the test program at production of three prototypes in August 1972. Edwards AFB to measure overall performance, to Each prototype design was flown approximately gather data on air loads, and to evaluate the offen- 1400 hours and a decision on the final prototype sive avionics subsystem. Primary emphasis has been design was made in December 1976. placed upon low altitude penetration to test terrain- CH-53E Helicopter. The two CH-53E produc- following equipment, weapons delivery capabilities, tion prototypes were completed in early 1976 and navigation, and communications. entered flight test. Correction of deficiencies on the Production of a fourth B-1 development aircraft horizontal stabilizer and improved rotor blades was was begun in August 1975, and this aircraft, to be required during Navy Preliminary Evaluation delivered in August 1979, will be used primarily (NPE) 11, and changes made to the analog auto- for defensive avionics testing. Congressional ap- matic flight control system verified the need for proval has been given for production of aircraft 5, development of a digital control system for increased 6, and 7. reliability and maintainability. The CH-53E com- Advanced Medium STOL Transport (AMST). pleted NPE I11 during September and began initial The AMST prototype program is designed to prove Board of Inspection Trials in November. The CH- STOL (short takeoff and landing) technology, 53E will significantly enhance the heavy lift capa- demonstrate operational utility, and provide an bility of amphibious forces. option for modernization of our tactical airlift Advanced Attack Helicopter (AAH). The com- forces. The AMST will provide an option to mod- petitive airframe development program (phase 1 ernize tactical airlift forces and meet both current of 2 phases) made major progress during 1976. and forecast tactical mobility requirements for sup- Both contractors completed their developmental port of Army combat forces. flight tests, and the four prototype aircraft were Both the YC-14 and YC-15 (advanced develop- delivered to the Army in May for competitive tests. ment prototypes of the AMST aircraft) were flight- The tests were completed in early October. A Phase tested during 1976. The two YC-15s completed 1 airframe contractor was selected in December for their initial tests with over 450 flight hours accumu- engineering development, including development lated. The YC-14 had its first flight in August 1976, and integration of weapons and target acquisition and the second aircraft followed in October. Exten- systems. Early in 1976, the Army decided to replace sive performance tests are now being conducted the Tube Launched Optically Tracked Wire with the two YC-14 aircraft. Guided (TOW) missile system on the AAH with Advanced TankerlCargo Aircraft (ATCA). Re- the Hellfire laser terminal-homing missile. This

34 will result in a far more lethal weapon system and amended budget request, procurement funds for 3 will enhance AAH survivability significantly. aircraft are requested, as well as advance procure- CobralTO W.The Cobra/TOW program, includ- ment funds for 3 aircraft in FY 1979. The planned ing retrofit of some existing Cobra helicopters and initial operational capability date of September purchase of new aircraft with the highly effective 1977 remains unchanged. TOW missile, continued in 1976. Deliveries of 290 Activity continued in various NATO forums re- retrofitted Cobra/TOW helicopters began in June garding potential NATO procurement of a variant 1975 and will be completed in July 1977. Upgraded of the USAF E-3A (the NATO Airborne Early engine, transmission, and dynamic components will Warning and Control (AEWC) aircraft). The pre- be incorporated in new aircraft delivered in early viously approved project definition studies, begun 1977 and will be installed in the field on 290 retro- in June 1975, were completed in June 1976 and sup- fitted Cobra/TOWs. The Army’s plans include the ported by a draft letter of offer and acceptance. The retrofit of an additional 200 Cobra helicopters and NATO Defense Ministers reviewed the results of the a modernization program of the Cobra/TOW fleet. NATO contract definition activities on June 10, The modernization program will increase the 1976, and again on December 8, 1976. They en- Cobra’s secondary armament and enhance reliability dorsed in principle joint funding by interested na- substantially. The modernization program also in- tions for preparatory research and development that cludes a new composite structure main rotor blade will preserve the option to buy a NATO AEWC that will increase hover performance and surviv- force before the Air Force AWACS production line ability and will double blade life. is terminated. A new family of warheads for the 2.75-inch Fold- E-4A/B Advanced Airborne Command Post. The ing Fin Aerial Rocket (FFAR) is being developed. E-4 will provide a modernized, highly survivable This family includes screening smoke, illumination, capability for command and control of our strategic and multipurpose submunition warheads. The forces on a continuous basis before, during, and fuzing for these warheads will be set remotely by after any nuclear attack on the U.S. The three the pilot from the cockpit of the aircraft. A 100 interim E-4As have been operational in support of percent increase in accuracy and a 30 percent in- the National Command Authorities since Septem- crease in range will increase the overall effectiveness ber 1975. The test-bed aircraft is being equipped of the FFAR five-fold. This new family of 2.75-inch with advanced command, control, and communica- FFARS will be compatible with the delivery systems tions equipment that has been developed for inte- for both Cobra/TOW and the Advanced Attack gration into this aircraft as the first E-4B. Helicopter. EF-IZIA Tactical Jamming System. The EF-111A CH-47 Modernization. The CH-47 modernization Is being designed to provide ground and airborne program is designed to increase the life of older radar jamming in support of all tactical air mis- CH-47A, B, and C aircraft and to improve per- sions. The peacetime mission will be to provide formance of A and B models. The current CH-47 training in electronic countermeasures for our own fleet will be modernized through development and air defense and tactical forces. The final aircraft testing of seven systems: rotor, drive, hydraulic, and avionics designs were completed in August electrical, advanced flight control, cargo handling, 1976. Airframe modification (less avionics) .for the and auxiliary power unit. Integration of these first of two prototypes was completed in December. changes will improve reliability and reduce vulner- Initial software and qualification testing and an- ability. The development contract was awarded tenna pattern testing were also accomplished dur- June 4, 1976. ing 1976. First flight test for flight stability is E-3A Airborne Warning and Control Systems scheduled for February 1977. (AWACS). The E-3A provides a unique capability Tactical Airborne Signals Exploitation System for all-altitude surveillance over land and sea (TASES).The Navy requires a carrier-based, land- coupled with appropriate command, control, and compatible TASES to improve effectiveness of fleet communications functions. It is rapidly deployable weapon systems. The TASES program objective is worldwide to provide a survivable surveillance, to develop a multi-source tactical electronic war- command, and control capability for either tactical fare support system in a carrier aircraft. TASES control or air defense roles. will collect communicatiohs intelligence, electronic Following the Secretary of Defense’s February intelligence, and radar surveillance data: analyze it; 1975 certification of E-3A cost effectiveness, Con- and provide pertinent real-time information to the gress authorized production of 6 aircraft in FY officer in tactical command. TASES is required to 1975, 4 in FY 1976, and 6 in FY 1977, with ad- exploit, correlate, and corroborate electronic emis- vanced procurement funds made available for 6 sions used by hostile forces in communications, sur- more aircraft in FY 1978. In the FY 1978 DoD veillance, acquisition, tracking, targeting, guidance,

35 and reporting. Electronic communications, infrared, ment for the H-46 metal rotor blade. The fiberglass acoustic intercept, and radar sensors will be inte- blade is designed to be corrosion resistant and in- grated into the S-3A aircraft. The three crewmen sensitive to small defects. Predictions are that it will be assisted in processing and correlating inter- will require only visual pre-flight inspections and cepted data by a highly automated sensor manage- will increase the mean time between removal by ment system to overcome the complexities of elec- 500 percent. The development will significantly in- tronic warfare in the 1980s and 1990s. A feasibility crease the effectiveness of the H-46 helicopter fleet. demonstration model using one S-3A aircraft is be- The Army efforts over the past years have re- ing developed under the TASES program to demon- sulted in development of composites with identified strate TASES capabilities in an “at sea” test. basic structural, fatigue, and manufacturing char- Joint Tactical Information Distribution System acteristics. Specific programs to fabricate and com- (JTZDS) . The JTIDS program objective is to de- pletely test blades of advanced composites have velop a data link to satisfy multiple tactical opera- led to a manufacturing capability within industry. tional users. When deployed it will provide a high Rotor blades incorporating this technology are capacity, jam-resistant, low-probability-of-intercept used in prototype helicopters for UTTAS and data link to interconnect participants in an area of AAH competition. Replacement blades for AH-1Q tactical military operations. JTIDS employs mod- and CH-47 emphasizing increased life, improved ern spread spectrum and time division multiple- performance, and reduced radar cross section will access technology to provide jam-resistant communi- use composite technology directly evolved from cations as well as accurate relative navigation with Army programs. other cochannel transmissions. Advanced blade concepts continue to be devel- All services are participating in this program and oped to further reduce fabrication and life cycle a joint program office has been established. Initial costs and improve survivability. Advanced hybrid operational application of the early phase of JTIDS composite concepts are being considered for other will be in the Airborne Warning and Control Sys- primary components. These include rotor hubs for tem aircraft. Compatibility with existing and antici- reduced cost, weight, and vulnerability; airframes pated systems will be stressed. for reduced cost, weight, and maintenance; landing gear for increased crashworthiness; and drive shaft- Aeronuutical Research and Techmology ing for reduced cost and weight. A metal matrix composite structure is being considered for lighter, Aircraft Structures and Materials Technology. quieter transmission cases. All three services made significant progress in ad- Aduanced Helicopter Rotor System. The basic vanced composite structures and materials tech- objective of the Navy’s Advanced Helicopter Rotor nology during 1976. The largest graphite/epoxy System is to prove flight feasibility of the Circula- structure fabricated to date is the composite B-1 tion Control Rotor (CCR) concept-a non-articu- horizontal stabilizer developed by the Air Force. lated rotor in which aerodynamic angle of attack Appreciable weight and cost savings are predicted. is achieved by boundary layer control, The 42- Other developments addressing secondary structures month, incrementally funded program for the feasi- also appear to have impressive weight and cost bility demonstration continued on schedule during advantages. 1976. The X-wing concept, incorporating CCR Beyond weight and cost considerations, the Navy technology and high-speed rotor technology (Re- is evaluating structural systems consisting primarily verse Velocity Rotor), was started in development of composite materials to improve corrosion resist- by the Navy and DARPA in 1976. The X-wing ance and battle damage tolerance. Components program will demonstrate high-speed rotor feasi- which have completed development testing include bility in parallel with the CCR program. Both the S-3 spoiler, F-14 overwing fairing, and F-14 programs are scheduled for completion in 1979. main landing gear door. Development is continuing Helicopter Acoustics Research. The YO-SA quiet on a composite wing for the Marine Corps AV-8B. aircraft has been instrumented with microphones Hardware verification of critical wing assemblies on wing tips and tail to provide an in-flight, far-field will be completed in 1977 with fabrication and acoustic measurement system which will allow for structural test of a full-scale wing in 1978. Future triangulation on acoustic phenomena, This system development work will expand to include assemb- will provide data which can be compared with lies for fuselage, landing gear, and engine nacelles scale-model acoustic data from the Army 2.1 x 3- for future vertical/short take-off and landing air- meter wind tunnel. Results of this program have craft. been applied to both civil and military helicopters. The Navy continued development during 1976 Advancing Blade Concept (ABC) Demonstration of a fiberglass composite rotor blade as a replace- Aircraft. The ABC development program, initiated

36 by the Army in 1971, included fabrication and Army is assessing the potential of charged coupled flight test of two aircraft to verify and demonstrate devices to provide a lower cost solution to the wire the concept of elimination of a tail rotor and a detection problem. The AN/ASN-128 Doppler hingeless main rotor. The ABC demonstrator is navigation subsystem neared the end of competitive, equipped with two coaxial, counter-rotating, hinge- design-to-cost engineering development in Septem- less rotors. Flight tests of the second aircraft total- ber 1976. Starting in October 1976, the AN/ASN- ing 52 hours have been completed at level flight 128 was procured for installation in Utility Tactical speeds up to 160 knots. Maneuvering capabilities Transport Aircraft Systems and AH-IS helicopters up to 2.5 g have been established. The concept has and provides an accurate, self-contained naviga- demonstrated alleviation of retreating blade stall tion capability. at speeds and altitudes where this is normally en- Synthetic Flight Training System (SFTS) . The countered, good hovering performance, rapid con- UH-1H SFTS, which simulates helicopter flight trol response, low noise, and generally acceptable characteristics under instrument flight conditions, vibration characteristics. Current plans are to com- has been sent to the field. A prototype program is plete flight testing of the vehicle in its pure heli- underway for development of a CH-47 and AH-1 copter configuration in early 1977. simulator. Both systems will have a television Helicopter Rotor Aerodynamics. A number of model-board visual system that will permit simula- aerodynamic investigations are under way to im- tion of the full range of flight characteristics for prove efficiency, drag, and vibration characteristics both helicopters. The AH-1 simulator will also that affect helicopter performance and structural have a weapon system simulation capability using life. The dynamic stall phenomenon is being in- model-board and computer-generated imagery. A vestigated to develop techniques to reduce high prototype program for a UTTAS simulator was dynamic blade loads and to develop theoretical begun in September 1976, with delivery expected means for determining aerodynamic behavior of in September 1978. Research now in progress will airfoils which penetrate the stall regime. A proto- lead to development of an Advanced Attack Heli- type in-flight rotor blade angle-of-attack sensor has copter simulator with full weapon systems simula- been fabricated to determine blade/vortex inter- tion. The prototype program will begin in 1979, action and to define quantitative time-dependent with delivery expected in 1981. angle-of-attack variations. Development of a three- Reseawh in Aircraft Propulsion Systems. A major axis laser velocimeter has been initiated and a milestone in the T700 engine development program velocity survey has been conducted on a static was reached in March 1976, when the 150-hour en- stalled airfoil section using the current laser veloci- durance demonstration of the military qualification meter. A method to predict hub drag is being de- test was completed. A program was initiated in 1976 veloped to identify important parameters, model to design, fabricate, and test advanced transmission the three dimensional flow field, and determine components such as gears, bearings, shafts, and seals interference effects. A hub fairing, designed to re- to achieve a 20 percent reduction in weight, a 100 duce drag, will be tested in a wind tunnel to verify percent increase in mean time between removals, the design. and a 20 percent reduction in costs. Helicopter Aerodynamic Launch Environment. The Small Turbine Advanced Gas Generator An attack helicopter experiences numerous trans- program demonstrated improvements in specific ients, such as vibration, rotor downwash, and rota- fuel consumption of 30 percent at typical helicopter tion and translation of the aircraft. These factors cruise conditions and increases in specific horse- particularly affect the launch of weapons. During power of 45 percent relative to current production the first few meters of missile flight, the helicopter engines. Gas generators have been used as test ve- rotor induces a downwash about the missile which hicles for other programs and have provided tech- influences its accuracy. Computer programs for nology for the proposed 800-shaft-horsepower ad- analytical prediction of this effect are now devel- vanced technology demonstrator engine program oped. The experimental program is being carried which is to start in 1977. out by Army Aviation Engineering Flight Activity In the Aircraft Propulsion Subsystems Integra- and data are being processed by Army Missile tion program, advanced low spool (fan and fan Command. turbine) turbine engine components are integrated US. Army Avionics. The Laser Obstacle Terrain with the Advanced Turbine Engine Gas Generator Avoidance Warning System (LOWTAWS) was (ATEGG) to form complete propulsion systems. flight tested in 1976 and successfully detected ob- Technology demonstrator engines are assembled stacles as delicate as a small wire. The addition of and tested to obtain the additional critical com- other functions to LOWTAWS, such as terrain ponent assessments required to demonstrate that following and range finding, is being examined. The advanced turbine engine component technologies can be confidently transitioned to engineering de- The NASA/DoD Memorandum of Understand- velopment. The Joint Technology Demonstrator ing on Management and Operation of the Space Engine (JTDE) is an Air Force/Navy program to Transportation System, which was signed last year, assess the advanced turbine engine technologies for has been updated. It will be the basis for more a broad range of military missions. The initial detailed documentation further defining manage- JTDE demonstration will occur in 1979. ment and operations concepts and the specific roles The ATEGG program will integrate the most and responsibilities of each agency. advanced turbine engine component technologies The Board is now examining the question of into a gas generator in which the performance, reimbursement for Shuttle services provided to cost, and lifetime characteristics of advanced tech- DoD. In June 1976, NASA provided DoD with a nologies can be assessed under realistic conditions. proposed preliminary policy for detailed examina- Design for reduced life cycle cost has become an tion. NASA also briefed the Office of Management integral objective of this program. Future emphasis and Budget, congressional committees, and person- will be directed toward incorporating dedicated nel from the General Accounting Office. DoD com- gas generators into a structural/life testing pro- ments have been provided to NASA and negotia- gram. tions are under way. The alternate fuels program is part of a long This past year the Aeronautics Panel was re- term coordinated effort among the services, NASA, quested to develop a recommended power-aug- and ERDA to ensure that liquid fuels obtained mented ram wing technology program. Consider- from domestic resources such as oil, shale, tar sands, able interest has developed in this technology. and coal will be acceptable in high performance Analyses, supported by very recent model test data, engines. The initial DoD effort is an experimental indicate a good vertical take off and landing capa- program to produce aviation turbine fuels from bility for surface effects vehicles. Funding is now three shale oils and two coal liquids. Results ob- included in the budgets of both agencies to examine tained to date provide encouraging evidence that this technology in more detail and to evaluate its the aviation industry can use fuel produced from applicability to a variety of potential Navy ant1 the vast U.S. oil shale resources. Air Forces uses. The Board maintained overview of the National Relationship with NASA Aeronautical Facilities Program (NAFP) which Aerolwltics and Astrwzuutics Coordinating Board was defined and submitted to Congress last year. Congress appropriated in FY 1977 $437 million for The Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating Board (AACB) met four times during the past the Air Force Aeropropulsion System Test Facility year. The AACB primarily addresses major policy (ASTF) under the Defense Military Construction issues of interest to the DoD and NASA in space Bill. The Corps of Engineers has issued requests and aeronautics. It Serves as the highest level formal for proposals for construction starting in 1977. coordination mechanism between the two agencies. ASTF will be in operation in 1982. The two other On January 23, 1976, the AACB Co-Chairmen facilities which comprise the NAFP are the NASA agreed to work together to resolve the Space Shuttle 12 x 24-meter Subsonic Wind Tunnel modification orbiter procurement issue. Joint studies were un- and the NASA National Transonic Facility, both dertaken by Air Force and NASA to examine the of which should be in operation in 1981. The Aero- requirements for Space Shuttle orbiters based on nautics Facilities Subpanel reviewed the initial national traffic projections for space launches, al- Transonic Facility test section design and recom- ternatives and implications of procuring fewer than mended redesign to achieve a greater angle-of-attack five orbiters, and funding alternatives, On June 8, test capability to meet future test needs. The Board 1976, the Office of Management and Budget form- will continue to assess design and construction cost ally advised DoD and NASA that more information implications of recommended changes. A manage- would be required on procurement of additional ment and test funding plan for National Aero- orbiters and requested an expanded joint DoD/ NASA study. The requested joint study concluded nautical Facilities is also in preparation. that five orbiters constitute the minimum fleet size Joint Programs needed to support the National Space Transporta- tion System. The integrated Shuttle traffic model is Rotor System Research Aircraft. This joint Army/ established at 560 Shuttle flights, of which 112 are NASA program will provide an in-house research allocated to DoD. NASA and DoD agree that the capability to evaluate the potential of promising two additional orbiters needed to make up the new advanced rotor concepts, to investigate and fiveLorbiter fleet should be procured by NASA. document the characteristics of current or develop-

38 mental rotors, and to verify numerous areas of sup- specialists and submit the names to NASA in July porting research and technology. The first of two 1977 for consideration. At present, DoD has 14 aircraft was received on June 7 and first flight of officers assigned to NASA as astronauts and about this aircraft took place late in 1976. half have prior space flight experience. Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft. The Tilt Rotor Technical Development Support. DoD has de- Research Aircraft project, a joint Army/NASA tailed a number of technically trained persons to program, wiII lead to a complete flight demonstra- NASA to assist in programs of mutual interest. The tion of the tilt rotor concept and an evaluation of technological transfer back to DoD in unique func- tilt rotor capabilities with respect to mission per- tional areas is important. The total number of de- formance, survivability, and safety. On August 1, tailees under the program is 45 (33 from Air Force, 1973, a contract was awarded for design, fabrication, 3 from Navy, and 9 from Army). They are working and testing of two XV-15 Tilt Rotor Aircraft. Fab- in a variety of operational and research and devel- rication of the first aircraft is complete. The second opment programs but most are associated with the aircraft is in final assembly. First hover flight is Space Transportation System development. Their scheduled for January 1977, followed by full-scale activities include space mission planning, main- wind tunnel and extensive flight tests. tenance analysis, avionics and communications se- Spacecraft Charging Technology. The Air Force curity, crew procedures, and payloads software. Geophysics Laboratory (AFGL) is actively involved Seasat Data Processing. A DoD/NASA memoran- in the joint USAF/NASA Spacecraft Charging dum of agreement has been signed to provide for Technology program. In addition to developing a real-time user data processing experiment with theoretical and empirical models of the natural Seasat-A. Under this agreement NASA will deliver environment leading to spacecraft electrical charg- all Seasat-A data collected at Fairbanks, Alaska, to ing at synchronous altitude, AFGL is providing in- the Navy’s Fleet Numerical Weather Central strumentation to be flown on the Scatha satellite (FNWC) at Monterey, California, within six hours (P78-2) . This instrumentation includes electro- of sensing. FNWC will process these data into static analyzers and electron ion-beam emitters. Earth-located geophysical units (wave heights, sea The objective is to measure the natural environ- surface temperatures, surface winds, etc.) and use ment of near-synchronous altitudes with emphasis these in their global maritime weather analysis and on how this environment leads to the process of forecasting processes. The processed data will also spacecraft charging. be made available for NASA delivery to Seasat-A Astronaut Selection. DoD and NASA plan to users. The experiment is an important step in sev- enter a new agreement which provides for DoD- eral areas: (a) demonstrating the usefulness of wide participation in the astronaut selection cycle oceanographic satellite data in naval operations, for the forthcoming Space Shuttle program. NASA (b) providing useful information on the perform- wants at least 15 pilots and 15 mission specialists. ance and capabilities of Seasat-A sensors, (c) de- Applications will be accepted beginning in January termining methods needed to fully exploit this new 1977 with selection planned in December 1977. source of oceanographic data in weather and ocean DoD expects to nominate 90 pilots and 90 mission forecasting.

39 IV Department of Commerce

I I

Introduction Satellites in Environmental Monitoring and Prediction Within the Department of Commerce, aeronautics and space programs are carried out by the Enuironmental Satellite Operations National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- At the beginning of 1976, the National Environ- tion, the National Bureau of Standards, the Office mental Satellite Service (NESS) of the National of Telecommunications, the Maritime Administra- Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) tion, and the Bureau of the Census. was operating three polar-orbiting satellites: Essa 8 of the Tiros Operational Satellite (TOS) series and The broad goals of these agencies include pro- Noaa 3 and Noaa 4 of the Improved TOS (ITOS) grams to ensure that the environment and its re- series. On March 12, 1976, Essa 8 was deactivated sources are wisely used; to strengthen and advance after its second camera failed. Launched December science and technology and to facilitate their effec- 15, 1968, the satellitc had completed more than tive application for the public benefit; to improve 33,000 orbits and provided Automatic Picture ship communications, navigation, safety, and man- Transmission service to more than 120 nations. agement techniques; to provide specialized engi- Noaa 5 was launched on July 29, 1976, and became neering, management, and advisory assistance to the primary operational polar-orbiting satellite on other Federal agencies in telecommunications appli- September 15, 1976. At the same time Noaa 4 was cations; and to provide information on population placed on standby as the in-orbit backup. Noaa 3 trends, urban growth, and internal structure of na- was deactivated August 31, 1976. tional land areas. Development of the Tiros-N series, the third generation of operational polar-orbiting satellites, These goals are pursued by establishing and is continuing. These satellites will replace the pres- maintaining operational environmental satellite ent Itos series and provide more accurate data for systems; by continuing marine resource assessment environmental monitoring and prediction. This and prediction programs; by monitoring the ma- new system will consist of two satellites in orbit at rine environment continuously with improved 833 kilometers. Sun-synchronous, one satellite sensors on ships, aircraft, and satellites; by improv- will orbit south across the equator in the local ing weather observations and forecasts through the morning and the other north across the equator in use of automated observation stations and im- local afternoon to provide maximum daylight coverage. Tiros-N, the NASA prototype, is scheduled proved radar systems, and continued atmospheric for launch early in 1978; about six months later research programs; by conducting research in Noaa A, NOAA’s first operational version of this weather modification; by improving data collection, series, will be launched. processing, and dissemination techniques; by pro- In 1976, NESS contracted for development, in- viding basic measurement and calibration methods stallation, and test of the Tiros-N series ground sys- for operating technical systems and engineering tem. A new ground system is required because of the data for the design and construction of sophisti- change to a completely digital data system and in- cated space and aeronautics equipment; by install- creased demand by operational users for timely delivery of processed data. The major components ing, testing, and evaluating shipboard satellite of the ground system are the Data Acquisition and equipment; by conducting electromagnetic wave Control Subsystem and the Data Processing and propagation studies to improve aerospace com- Services Subsystem. munications; and by applying satellite images to No Geostationary Operational Environmental demographic studies. Satellites (GOES) were launched in 1976. On Jan-

40 uary 8, 1976, Goes 1 was positioned at 75" West Tests (DST). This concept was used to test pro- longitude to replace the Synchronous Meteorologi- posed observation, data management, and data cal Satellite, SMS 1, which was moved to 105" West utilization systems for the First GARP Global longitude on February 16, 1976, and placed on Experiment in 1978. Global sets of conventional operational standby. SMS 2 was moved to 135" and satellite meteorological observations were col- West longitude on December 19, 1975. These lected, processed, and analyzed. These data sets satellites continue to provide nearly constant view- were used in global analysis and forecast models ing of severe storms, helping weather forecasters to determine the accuracy and utility of the various to provide timely warnings to the public. observing systems. In particular, experiments were In October 1976, NESS increased to 68 the num- made to determine the impact on numerical fore- ber of experimental Weather Facsimile broadcasts cast systems by satellite-derived atmospheric tem- from Goes 1 and SMS 2. The duration of each peratures and cloud-tracked winds. During DST broadcast is 8 minutes. The products transmitted 5, Nimbus 6 temperature profiles were compared are processed visible and infrared spin-scan radi- with mean temperatures from the NMC analyses. ometer images from the geostationary satellites and The results approached the theoretical limit of processed scanning radiometer images from the remote sounding by the Nimbus 6 HIRS. Intro- polar-orbiting satellites. Plain language operational ducing these data into the NMC model demon- messages also are broadcast once a day from each strated that they provide accurate information satellite. unavailable from conventional sources. Monitoring Global Radiation. Processing of Uses of Environmental Satellite Data Nimbus 6 Earth Radiation Budget (EKB) Experi- ment data continued in 1976. Global maps and Determining Winds and Temperatures. Geosta- latitudinal profiles of albedo, longwave radiation, tionary satellite wind data continued to be provided and net radiation to space were produced. Limited to the National Meteorological Center (NMC) for comparisons of the results from ERB scanning use in their numerical weather forecast models. data agreed more closely with Noaa 4 Scanning However, research continued on automated compu- Radiometer (SR) data than with calculated Nim- tation of winds from cloud motions observed by bus 6 HIRS data. Also, monthly global net radia- these satellites. Motions were computed from tem- tion values derived from the ERB wide-angle data perature data at three levels. Objective analysis show a cyclical variation about zero, similar to was made of the computed winds at the lowest level those observed from earlier satellites. The solar to eliminate invalid estimates and improve the constant, which is important in determining net quality and quantity of wind data. Similar objective radiation, varied less than 0.2 percent during the analyses applied to upper levels provided wind first year in orbit. field information in data-sparse areas. This technique is being implemented operationally. In 1976 NOAA SR-derived heat budget informa- Wind data derived from geostationary satellite tion continued to be processed. Results from a pictures were used to study the relationship be- study comparing albedo and longwave radiation tween diverging jet streams and severe weather. data for the summers of 1974 and 1975 showed that Studies of five cases suggested that severe weather in 1975 more solar energy was available for heating occurs between the polar and subtropical jet over continental Asia, more absorbed solar energy streams but is sharply inhibited at and to the south reached North Pole regions, and more net radia- of the subtropical jet stream. tion over the eastern North Atlantic reached the Radiance measurements from the Noaa 4 and 5 sea surface. Consequently, there was increased in- Vertical Temperature Profile Radiometer were be- tensity of the Asian monsoon, decreased ice and ing used to derive polar jet stream and upper snow cover in the Canadian Arctic, and warmer tropospheric winds. Radiation from the 150 to water temperatures near the Azores. 100-millibar level provides a direct indication of Enuironmental Warning Services. Over 100 satel- the thermal wind pattern above the polar jet level. lite-interrogated platforms of the GOES Data Using these data, a wind scale giving 300-millibar Collection System (DCS) provided data and speeds as a function of radiance gradient and lati- services to users in the United States and Canada tude has been derived. These data also are used during 1976. Requests for DCS services also were routinely by the NMC in numerical weather fore- received from Chile and Bolivia. This system is casting programs. being upgraded with second-generation ground Nimbus 6 High Resolution Infrared Sounder processing equipment, and through automation of (HIRS) data were used in two Global Atmos- the operational and test function. For this purpose pheric Research Program (GARP) Data System four computers, two at NOAA's Wallops, Virginia,

41 Command and Data Acquisition Station and two transmitted each six hours to the WSFOs at New at NOAA’s World Weather Building, Camp Orleans and San Antonio. Whenever observed Springs, Maryland, have been installed and are weather conditions warrant, messages are updated now undergoing operational tests. This fully re- and transmitted off schedule. Strong emphasis is dundant system will permit continuous 24-hour placed on the early detection of small scale, short- reception except during the spring and autumn lived severe weather phenomena which can ad- equinox periods when the satellites are eclipsed versely affect oil drilling operations, boating, and by the Earth. Data will be received from 2000 plat- aviation in the Gulf. Three times each week this forms and can be expanded to handle more. The message includes an analysis of the Gulf LOOPCur- DCS provides a near-instantaneous source of infor- rent, providing information to commercial and mation for many applications such as river and flood sports fishermen on the probable locations of the monitoring and forest-fire index measurements. A most productive fishing areas with significant sav- recent test involving relay of data from a prototype ings to fishermen of both time and fuel. Shipboard Environmental Acquisition System NESS used enhanced infrared images from the demonstrated the technical feasibility of collecting geostationary satellites to develop a method for marine environmental data from ocean vessels. estimating hourly rainfall. Empirical relationships To improve reception from Data Collection were established between rainfall amounts and the Platforms located on the periphery of the com- growth, merging, and decay of cor.vective cloud munication range (Earth edge), a new DCS Ultra systems. The method, now being tested, will be High Frequency antenna is being developed; applicable to flash flood forecasting, especially in this antenna will provide maximum omnidirec- areas where there are no reporting stations. These tional gain at low elevation angles to the space- infrared images also were used to estimate hurri- craft. Two prototype antennas have been built; cane intensity, especially during nighttime. one will be placed on a buoy and the other on a NESS is developing a method to estimate winds ship for extended operational tests. by tracking low-level cumulus clouds visible in The GOES-TAP system, instituted in 1975 for one-half-mile-resolution Goes 1 images taken at distributing images received from the GOES satel- three-minute intervals. This method will provide lites, has now been expanded to more than 20 up to twice as many wind samples as obtained subscribers. This system permits Federal, state, and from longer interval images. This includes areas local agencies, television stations, universities, where no winds can be obtained from 30-minute private enterprise environmental consulting firms, images. These short-interval pictures give new in- and others to receive any of the variety of standard sight into the development, growth, and movement sectors available to the NESS Satellite Field of severe storms. Services Stations. The National Weather Service now provides this service directly from its Weather Severe drought in much of the Midwest and Service Forecast Offices (WSFO). Users near the Canada in 1976 contributed to many forest fires. local WSFOs may obtain the limited inventory of By early June more than 243 square kilometers satellite products more economically because of were on fire in a number of remote locations in shorter communication lines. Ontario. Noaa 4 and Goes 1 images were used to In 1976, the National Environmental Satellite establish the location and relative size of the fires, Service (NESS) initiated a new cloud analysis thus providing considerable assistance to the fire- chart based on geostationary infrared data. The fighters. chart was transmitted experimentally on facsimile In a cooperative effort between the National circuits once each day. Prepared primarily for Weather Service (NWS) and NESS, on nights when aviation use, it depicted the areas and types of frost is expected, the Miami SFSS provides specially clouds and cloud tops over the continental United enhanced infrared Goes 1 images and interpreta- States and adjacent oceans. tions to the Weather Service Office at Ruskin, On July 6, 1976, the Satellite Field Services Sta- Florida. This program was developed by NASA and tion (SFSS) at Kansas City started to monitor and NWS to support the Florida citrus industry. The analyze satellite photographs showing weather con- method was first successfully tested in January 1976, ditions in the Gulf of Mexico. This is an area and became operational during the 1976-1977 win- where severe weather systems go undetected because ter. The satellite images display ground tempera- of the sparsity of conventional surface and upper air tures critical to freeze predictions. Ground tempera- observations. The Kansas City SFSS combines low- tures, monitored every 30 minutes over the entire level satellilte wind data with other satellite meteo- citrus belt, are accurate to within 1°C. Heating the rological interpretations into a Gulf of Mexico Satel- citrus groves cost the growers an average of $830,- lite Interpretation Message. These messages are 000 an hour as opposed to $37,000 an hour during

42 normal operating periods. Thus more reliable fore- tures corrected for atmospheric absorption. 'To casts produce significant economic benefits. account for the amount of cloud cover, data from Search and Rescue Support. NESS provided satel- the VTPR 11.97- and 13.38-micrometer channels lite data to assist in Search and Rescue (SAR) were applied to the uncorrected SST measurements planning #throughout the U.S. Air Force Inland to determine if the data were from clear, moderately SAR area and for U.S. Coast Guard SAR missions cloudy, or heavily cloudy areas. The result of these in United States coastal waters. modifications is a 40 percent increase in the num- The Air Force Rescue and Coordination Center ber of reliable SSTs. Today, the SST field is de- used geostationary satellite cloud pictures to detect rived solely from satellite data and is no longer areas of severe weather not observed by conven- dependent on climatology for estimates in data- tional means. This information enabled the center sparse areas. to provide almost immediate aid to pilots in dis- Infrared images from Goes 1 were used by NESS tress. Satellite photographs, available every 30 to produce time-lapse films of the Gulf Stream minutes, were used to determine if certain pre- along the Florida coast. Northward propagating ferred mountain routes were open or blocked by eddies were detected at the inshore edge of the weather, and to determine if a missing pilot could current. A project was initiated to study the Gulf have flown over a storm or had to fly through the Stream deflection at 32" north. Satellite data were weather. The California wing of the Civil Air used to map the topography of the current in this Patrol has been able to reduce most of its searches area. from an average of two weeks to two days by Investigations conducted during the Arctic Ice using satellite data. Also, satellite data enable Dynamics Joint Experiment support the hypothesis SAR forces to avoid many of the hazards they that different sea ice types (multi-year, first year, normally would face during a rescue attempt. etc.) can be determined from temperature distribu- The Coast Guard has been using both polar- tions. Very High Resolution Radiometer data from orbiting and geostationary satellite data to find the NOAA satellites were compared with aircraft lost or disabled ships and aircraft. Wind velocities infrared scanner data. Aircraft and satellite data and directions, major ocean currents such as the sets show a striking similarity. Gulf Stream, low-level cloud cover and fog, and NOAA, NASA, and the Coast Guard conducted sea surface temperatures are carefully evaluated a joint remote-sensing ice reconnaissance experi- from satellite data. Using this material, NESS per- ment along the north coast of Alaska. A Coast sonnel can suggest to the Coast Guard the areas Guard C-130 aircraft demonstrated the feasibility with the greatest potential for successful search of observing ice conditions with a Side-Looking and rescue operations. Airborne Radar. The ice data proved valuable to Determining Ocean Conditions. NOAA has pre- the barge operators resupplying Prudhoe Bay. In pared a Program Development Plan and estab- addition, the Anchorage Satellite Field Services lished within NESS a special project to coordinate Station supplied ice charts from satellite data for research and applications of Seasat-A data. Seasat- use by the barge and oil companies in their daily A is a NASA oceanographic satellite scheduled for planning. launch in 1978. Planned research includes experi- Determining Lake Condition. The NOAA Great ments on surface winds, waves, sea surface tempera- Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory tures, ice, tides, and geoid determinations, and a (GLERL) and NESS continued their studies of demonstration element directed toward applying whitings (chemical precipitation of calcium car- Seasat-A data in near-real time to meteorology and bonate). Comparisons of aircraft, ship, and satellite oceanography. data show that whitings occur just below the lake NESS continues to sponsor development of tech- surface in relatively warm water and are most niques to use satellite data to measure ocean color evident in late summer following periods of up- and chlorophyll-a, an important chemical indicator welling. The whitings, which can continue for of ocean productivity. These data will be obtained several months, serve as a tracer mechanism for from a Coastal Zone Color Scanner to be carried assessing horizontal circulation in the Great Lakes, on the Nimbus-G satellite. and also are useful in studies of carbon dynamics NESS has developed a technique to improve the and the distribution of nutrients in the Lakes. accuracy of sea surface temperatures (SST) derived GLERL used Landsat and in situ data to detect from polar-orbiting satellite scanning-radiometer sediment transport patterns to verify circulation measurements. The calibrated Vertical Tempera- models for western Lake Erie, Lake St. Clair, and ture Profile Radiometer (VTPR) water vapor the St. Clair River. Landsat data, used to study the channel (18.69 micrometer) data and SST data influence of the spring runoff into Lake Michigan, were used in new equations to produce tempera- show the shape of the river plumes in the Lake

43 and the distribution of sediment, carbon com- emergent vegetation. Algerian control teams ex- pounds, and nutrients. amined these areas to determine if insecticide GLERL used NOAA satellite data to monitor spraying was needed to inhibit the development ice formation, growth, decay, and distribution on of migratory swarms. This application of satellite the Great Lakes. In addition, these data are being data to locust control shows promise and may used to support ship operations, and for research eventually be applied to the entire desert locust on the geographical extent and physical properties zone, covering about 3 1 million square kilometers of ice. from Dakar, Senegal, to Daccah, Bangladesh. NESS has demonstrated that the Multi-Spectral The Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment, a Scanner data from the Landsat satellite can be used cooperative effort of NOAA, NASA, and the De- to assess the coverage of chlorophyll-a in the Great partment of Agriculture, is designed to develop Lakes when concentrations exceed 10 micrograms technology to provide accurate and timely crop per liter. Use of ‘these satellite data enables scien- production estimates. Computer-assisted analyses tists to obtain information on nutrient productivity of archived meteorological satellite data are used and to describe surface current circulation. to develop mathematical models to relate weather Determining Hydrological Conditions. The to crop yields. In 1976, the Environmental Data NOAA geostationary satellites continued to play Service Center for Climatic and Environmental an important role in monitoring snow cover in Assessment developed mathematical models for United States and Canadian river basins. The num- Russia, Argentina, Brazil, Australia, and India and ber of snow basins mapped during the 1975-1976 refined existing yield models for the United States winter season was increased to 22. Images from and Canada. Goes 1 and SMS 2, every 30 minutes, increase the Fisheries Monitoring. To help tuna and salmon chances of obtaining a cloud-free view of the Earth. fishermen find productive fishing grounds along These geostationary satellite images are superior the California coast, chart coverage was expanded to polar-orbiting satellite data for delineating small during 1976 to include the area between the Strait bodies of water such as lakes and reservoirs. NESS of Juan de Fuca and Point Concepcion, California. hydrologists forward daily interpretations of snow These charts, based on Noaa 4 and 5 and SMS 2 cover conditions to the National Weather Service images, depict the ocean surface thermal structure. River Forecast Center in Kansas City. These data They are produced by the San Francisco Satellite are used to forecast river levels and issue flood Field Services Station and transmitted experimen- warnings and also are critical to irrigation plan- tally to fishermen by NOAA’s Sea Grant Advisory ning, hydro-electric power generation, and reser- Agent. The National Marine Fisheries Service voir regulation. (NMFS) and Western Fishboat Owners Associa- Snow and ice charts of the Northern Heniis- tion transmit this information operationally by phere, derived from satellite data from 1966 single-sideband radio. through 1975, were used by NESS to determine In another effort to assist fishermen, the Inter- the extent of snow cover in Eurasia and North American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC), ‘4merica. These analyses showed no significant in cooperation with the NMFS Southwest Fisheries overall increase in snow cover but larger fluctua- Center, correlated NOAA and Landsat satellite tions occurred in Eurasia than in North America. images with surface-truth data to determine the Using satellites to monitor worldwide snow cover feasibility of using satellite data to identify up- provides important information on global tempera- welling areas and ocean frontal boundaries. Alba- ture and albedo, each of which has an impact on core migration in the eastern North Pacific has hydrology, agriculture, and weather forecasting. been found to be associated with ocean fronts. Monitoring Agricultural Conditions. In coopera- NMFS, state agencies, and private industry tion with the Great Plains Council, NESS is in- demonstrated that the distribution of menhaden vestigating the ability of geostationary satellites to and thread herring can be inferred from Landsat gather insolation data. These data will be com- Multi-Spectral Scanner data. A test conducted in pared with data collected at ground test sites. July 1976 used color differentiation in Landsat Insolation is an important parameter in yield images to determine high-probability fishing areas. models for many Great Plains crops such as Reports from the fishing industry indicated that sorghum and wheat. most of the predicted high-probability fishing areas Noaa 4 satellite data were used in the develop- produced good fish yields. ment of a method to control locusts in southern Environmental Monitoring Using Data Buoys. Algeria. The U.N. Food and Agricultural Organi- The NOAA Data Buoy Office (NDBO) expanded zation used Very High Resolution Radiometer its capability to acquire environmental data from images to locate rainfall areas and hence areas of oceanic areas by advancing data buoy technology. In June 1976 the NDBO conducted a pilot data activities. Negotiations have begun with NASA communication demonstration between a Pacific for an Advanced Systems Verification Test Ocean buoy and thc World Meteorological Center, (ASVT) based on the results of studies in the Suitland, Maryland, using the GOES satellite as a Washington, D.C., and Austin, Texas, metropoli- communications link instead of standard radio tan areas. The goals of the ASVT are to develop links. All NDBO meteorological buoys used this an operational program for delineating urban satellite communication link by the end of 1976. fringe zones and to transfer this technology to the Marine meteorological information from data- Census Bureau, and to implement a land-use in- sparse areas is obtained from deep ocean, conti- formation system to integrate 1980 census data with nental shelf, and drifting buoys. The deep ocean Landsat images for monitoring changes in the geo- buoys provide three-hourly data for national and graphic structure of urban areas following the international weather services. Continental shell 1980 census. and drifting buoys provide environmental data tq the scientific research community, offshore indus- Weather Modification tries, fisheries, environmental protection groups, and recreational interests. During 1976, the NDBO The NOAA N.ationa1 Hurricane and Experi- had nine deep ocean and eight continental shelf mental Meteorology Laboratory (NHEML) ex- buoys operating in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans panded its use of satellite data in research on the and the Gulf of Mexico. Over 80 drifting buoys modification of hurricanes and tropical convective were deployed in the oceans of the world. clouds. Using geostationary satellite data, real-time estimates of rainfall from Atlantic Ocean tropical Other Satellite and Space Applications storms were made for the National Hurricane Center and the River Flood Forecast Offices of the International Cooperation National Weather Service. Sharing Data. NESS expanded assistance in the NHEML also used satellite and aircraft data to form of satellite views of major disaster areas to construct sea surface temperature patterns in ad- the Office of Foreign Disaster Relief Coordinator vance of and in the wake of eastern Pacific hurri- of the Agency for International Development canes. These measurements were used to calibrate (AID), Department of State. This information was satelli te-determined temperatures used in the study used to plan relief operations for and aerial photo- of air-sea interactions in and near hurricanes. graphic surveys of disaster areas, including earthquakes in Italy and Guatemala, floods in Nica- Commercial Satellite Service ragua, Typhoon Pamela in Guam, and Typhoon The Maritime Satellite (MARISAT) consortium Ruby in the Phillipines. launched three satellites in 1976 to provide com- The United States and the Soviet Union con- mercial satellite communication for ships. The tinued to exchange environmental satellite data satellites cover an area between 75" North and 75" in 1976. Russia received data from Noaa 4 and 5, South latitudes. Full service from Atlantic and and the U.S. received data from Russia's Meteor Pacific Ocean satellites was initiated in August series. Russia launched Meteor 23, 24, 25, and 26 1976, with Indian Ocean service begun by the end in 1976. of the year. By reducing the time required to con- The National Weather Service, under the Volun- duct ship operations, satellite communications have tary Assistance Program of the World Meteorologi- significant potential for improving ship safety and cal Organization, has established Automatic Pic- increasing cargo throughput, thus enhancing profits ture Transmission (APT) stations with improved from merchant vessels. The Maritime Administra- satellite video capability in Ethiopia and Trinidad. tion and six participating shipping companies are These stations can receive data from both polar- evaluating this new service, and the MARISAT orbiting and geostationary satellites, and are the consortium is providing no-cost support to this prototype for eventual replacement of most of the evaluation. older APT equipment. Demographic Studies. The Bureau of the Census, under AID auspicies, continued to support Bolivia Determination of the Earth's Shape and and Kenya in the application of Landsat satellite Gravity Field data to demographic studies. The Census Bureau The National Ocean Survey (NOS) Geodetic is aiding these countries in preparing maps for Kesearch and Development Laboratory (GRDL) estimating population and land use. used NASA's Geos 3 satellite altimeter data to The Census Bureau also continued to study the measure large-scale features of the Earth's gravita- potential use of Landsat data in domestic census tional field. A system was developed to handle data

45 from Geos 3 and the planned Seasat-A satellite. using low cost antennas may be made more readily GRDL prepared plans to use Seasat-A data experi- available to public service institutions. mentally for computing precise satellite positions Time Services. The National Bureau of Stand- and for obtaining m,ore accurate determinations ards (NBS) completed the development of a time of the geoid commensurate with the expected 10- code for the GOES Data Collection System: ac- centimeter precision of the Seasat-A altimeter. curacy is within 100 microseconds and is available NOS continued to evaluate the use of Lageos continuously from Goes 1 and SMS 2. NBS also satellite laser observations and very long base-line developed an inexpensive decoding clock for use radio interferometry to monitor temporal varia- with the time code. This clock is capable of coin- tions in horizontal and vertical positions, polar pensating automatically for the approximately motion, and Earth rotation. One application of 260-millisecond propagation delay between the these methods is to provide more accurate informa- Wallops Command and Data Acquisition Station tion on the slope of mean sea level along the US. and any point on the Earth’s surface via the Pacific coast; the Sea Level Observation and Pre- satellite. diction Experiment has been initiated for this Lunar Ranging. NBS continued to obtain new purpose. Another study showed that adding Dop- information by analysis of laser distance measure- pler observations to a ground network improved ments to the Apollo retroreflectors on the Moon. the accuracy of horizontal positioning. Doppler Analysis of six years of lunar ranging data shows satellite stations were established at 67 United a negligible difference between the gravitational States locations including 6 on offshore oil plat- and inertial mass of the Earth. This demonstrates forms. that the Earth’s gravitational self-energy contrib- utes equally to its inertial and passive gravitational mass. Analysis of data on the Earth’s rotation, for Satellite Communications which the estimated median accuracy of 194 single- Mathematical Modelling. The Office of Telecom- day determinations of the Earth’s angular position munications (OT) undertook the qualitative and in space was 0.7 milliseconds, agreed closely with quantitative description of electromagnetic trans- the expected 2-millisecond uncertainty of the 5- mission characteristics for satellite communications day averages obtained by classical techniques. in frequency bands above 10 GHz. OT began the Little evidence was found for very rapid variations development of a mathematical model of atmos- in the Earth’s rotation. pheric turbulence, terrain reflection, and ionospheric depolarization effects for satellite-terrain Space Support Activities interaction. Weather Support Propagation Modelling. OT developed theoretical considerations for inclusion in a propagation The National Weather Service (NWS) assisted model of space communication links, taking into Johnson and Kennedy Space Centers in preparing account atmospheric time variants. These consider- background and planning studies for the Space ations include study of bandwidth limitations to Shuttle flights. NWS also worked with the Jet electromagnetic transmisfions imposed by clear air Propulsion Laboratory in predicting potential turbulence; the impact on the far-field of rainfall weather effects on signals from the Mariner Jupiter- that occurs within the near-field of the antennas; Saturn mission scheduled for launch in 1978. prediction of radio frequency spectra for propaga- Weather support was provided to the Wallops tion through a random, complex, turbulent med- Flight Center for its rocketsonde and atmospheric ium; atmospheric influence on the digital bit-error- ozone measurement programs. rate above 10 GHz; and the transfer function of a gaseous, cloudy, and rainy atmosphere in the 10- to Solar A ctiuit y 40-GHz band. The Space Environment Services Center (SESC) , Small Earth-Stations. Present-day communication operated jointly by NOAA and the U.S. Air Force, satellites transmit a wide beam that covers the en- is the National and World Warning Agency for tire United States. The next generation of satellites disturbances in space and the upper atmosphere. will have higher power and narrower beams, which SESC provided forecasts and warnings of adverse will focus on smaller regions of the country. This effects of solar and geomagnetic activity to military will permit the use of smaller, less expensive an- command and control systems; scientists perform- tennas on the ground. OT has begun a study of ing diverse experiments with balloons, rockets, and how to lower regulatory, technical, and economic satellites; operators of communication satellites; barriers so that satellite communication systems the Federal Aviation Administration; electric

46 power utilities; and geophysical exploration groups. Cryogenic Measlcrements and Data Interference with geosynchronous satellite opera- NBS has pioneered in providing NASA with actions by the type of geomagnetic storms that occur curate data on the cryogenic fluids used as propel- most often near solar sunspot minimum continued lants and for life support and power generation to be a frequent problem. The SESC uses data systems. The initial data, needed in the design and from a variety of space and terrestrial sensors, re- operation of the Gemini and Apollo programs, are lying primarily on information from the SMS/ now being extended for use in the Space Shuttle GOES Space Environment Monitors, the Noaa 4 program. NBS provides benchmark data on the and 5 Solar Proton Monitors, and the NOAA-Air properties of oxygen and hydrogen used by all Force Global Flare Patrol network. NASA centers and their industrial contractors. Ex- Space Processing Research amples include data on the life support consum- ables aboard the Space Shuttle, design data for the NBS continued to support NASA’s effort to de- Space Shuttle main engine, and data for the design velop the Space Shuttle as an orbital workshop of the New National Transonic Facility (cryogenic for materials science. Data and instrumentation wind tunnel). have been provided for designing and evaluating processing procedures to obtain materials of higher Space and Atmospheric Physics Research purity and more uniform properties. Studies are under way on the rate of preferential evaporation Space Physics of impurities, growth from the melt of nearly per- Interl,lanetary Physics. The NOAA Space En- fect metal crystals, stable limits in floating zone vironment Laboratory (SEL) performed numerical systems, surface tension gradient forces, and vapor simulations of the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) transport synthesis for improved processing of solar wind stream interaction and shock propaga- ionic materials. tion for comparison with data from several spacecraft. Skylab observations of the solar corona also Measurements and Calibrations were simulated with steady-state, nonradial flow NBS provides NASA with radiometric standards models of MHD solar wind dynamics in the and calibrations from the infrared to the extreme corona. The simulations produced information on ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum. the temperature and magnetic field in coronal holes. Spectral irradiance standards, an electrically cali- As a result of a cooperative theoretical study with brated ultraviolet photodiodes were supplied to the University of Mexico, the viscous-like solar NASA investigators and contractors. The NBS wind interaction observed by $the Soviet spacecraft synchrotron ultraviolet radiation facility is being Venera is now well understood. The theory is used by NASA investigators to calibrate spectrom- especially applicable to Venus because of its weak eters and detectors. magnetic field. NBS has extended the near-field measurement techniques for directive microwave antennas. This Atmospheric Physics approach will be applied to large antennas used for satellite ground communication systems and Ionospheric Physics. The ATS 6 geosynchronous for pre-launch assessment of the total performance satellite, moved to a location near India from July of satellites using complicated multi-antenna con- 1975 to August 1976, observed the seasonal and figurations. The technique is very accurate for diurnal variations of equatorial ionospheric and obtaining data on gain, pattern, polarization, and plasinaspheric electron content. Indian scientists, side-lobe levels for antennas associated with sys- in cooperation with Stanford Research Institute tems such as the Intelsat V and the Defense Satel- scientists, also studied the severe scintillation of lite Communications Systems. ATS 6 satellite radio signals in equatorial regions. Studies also have been carried out to develop These scintillations affect satellite-to-ground tele- measurement techniques using radio stars to char- communications. acterize the performance of large ground-based Magnetospheric Physics. On the basis of SEL antenna systems. These techniques are used to analysis of Explorer 45 and ATS 6 data, it is now measure the degradation of antenna gain for large believed that portions of the Earth’s radiation belt operational antennas and to measure the Effective is composed of ions heavier than protons. A pro- Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) of a satellite. posed theory is that many of the energetic radia- The EIRP is an important measure of satellite tion-bel t ions, once believed to have originated performance and is used in determining incentive from the Sun, actually originate from the Earth’s clause payments under contracts. ionosphere.

47 The analysis of rocket data taken over an auroral Data Programs arc was used to describe the electrical currents that flow in the Arctic ionosphere. Results indicate that Environmental Data these currents are not necessarily strongest in the International Magnetospheric Study. The World highest conducting portion of the ionosphere. Also, Data Center-A for Solar and Terrestrial Physics of ionospheric winds may exert strong control of the NOAA’s Environmental Data Service (EDS) es- currents flowing near auroral arcs and consequently tablished an International Magnetospheric Study may influence currents flowing in the outer niag- (IMS) Central Information Office to gather and netosphere. distribute information about IMS investigations. Atmospheric Photochemistry. Carbon tetrachlor- The IMS, scheduled from January 1976. through ide (CC1,) is one of the important chlorine- 1979, is a study of the structure, time change, and containing substances that diffuse from the Earth’s physical processes of the outermost parts of the surface. CCl, absorbs solar radiation and decom- Earth’s atmosphere; emphasis is on simultaneous poses in the stratosphere. NBS showed that under measurements by groups of satellites and includes simulated stratospheric conditions, decomposition complementary experiments and monitoring by at lower wavelengths produces two chlorine atoms, rockets, balloons, aircraft, and ground-based as opposed to one chlorine atom at a high wave- sensors. length. The chlorine atoms released would be Satellite Rainfall Estimates. Scientists at the EDS available to react with ozone, producing modifica- Center for Experiment Design and Data Analysis tions of the stratosphere similar to those postulated (CEDDA) are cooperating with NASA’s Goddard for industrial chlorofluorocarbons. It has been Space Flight Center, the University of Wisconsin’s demonstrated that the lifetime of CCl, in the Space Science and Engineering Center, and troposphere exceeds ten years. Assuming that no NOAA’s National Hurricane and Experimental tropospheric sinks exist, then over 99 percent of Meteorology Laboratory to evaluate and calibrate CCl, released at ground level will diffuse up to the techniques for using visible, infrared, and micro- stratosphere. wave satellite data to estimate rainfall over tropi- NBS determined the rate constants for the re- cal ocean areas. The program is based on very action of chlorine atoms with methane, ethane, accurate precipitation estimates derived by CEDDA methyl chloride, and methyl fluoride. This infor- scientists from shipboard digital radar data for a mation is of current interest for the possible role 125,000-square-kilometer area over the eastern that naturally occurring or man-made chlorine tropical Atlantic, collected as part of the Global compounds might play in controlling ozone levels Atmospheric Research Program’s Atlantic Tropical in the stratosphere. Experiment. NBS conducted studies of the reaction products of the interaction of ozone and olefins (unsaturated Aeronautical Programs organic compounds) to determine the reaction Aeronuutical Charts mechanism in the troposphere. These data are useful in making worst-case predictions of the fate Concern for the environment together with the of ozone as a pollutant in the lower atmosphere. sustained growth of air traffic have added to the complexity of managing the national airspace. Con- sequently, the National Ocean Survey has intro- Atomic and Moleculur Data duced new aeronautical charts and products to keep pace with increased requirements. In addition to NBS measures, compiles, and publishes data on the continuous maintenance of existing charts, atomic spectral lines and energy levels, atomic chart services for video maps, instrument approach transition probabilities, and infrared and micro- procedures, and terminal areas were expanded and wave transitions and molecular constants. These disseminated to airspace users and controllers. data are frequently used to interpret planetary, Also a prototype Alaska Planning Chart was de- solar, stellar, and interstellar spectra. Data on at- veloped and submitted to the Federal Aviation mospheric constituents such as nitrogen dioxide Administration for evaluation by the Alaska region. and ozone have been used to interpret upper atmosphere measurements obtained from telescopes Use of Sensor Data from Aircraft and instrumented balloon flights. The microwave spectrum of chlorine nitrate was studied recently Outer Continental Shelf Studies. The NOAA to aid in a spectroscopic search for this molecule Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment in the upper atmosphere to determine if it can Program scientists used remote-sensing data from affect the chemistry of atmospheric ozone. the Landsat and NOAA satellites and aircraft data obtained by the Cold Regions Research and Engi- vertical wind shear, the distribution and strength neering Laboratory, the National Ocean Survey, of up and down drafts, and turbulence, all of and the Environmental Research Institute of Mich- which can be hazardous to aircraft. NSSL also igan to conduct scientific investigations in the made Single-Doppler radar measurements of 1QW- Arctic. Side-looking airborne radar and thermal level wind shear in clear air as part of a continued infrared images were used to study large scale geo- effort to develop the use of pulsed-Doppler radar logical features and ice activity along the Arctic for flight safety. coast. Low-level optical color and color-infrared The Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry Lab- images of the western Alaskan coast from the oratory continued development of an infrared, Yukon Delta to Cape Lisburne were used to assist water-vapor band, clear air turbulence radiometer. in mammal and bird inventories, habitat studies, Tests conducted aboard NASA's C-141A aircraft and geological investigations. Low-level, high directed the radiometer forward at an elevation resolution data from a multi-spectral scanner and between 7" and 22" above the horizon. These tests color mapping camera were compiled to support gave from 4 to 14 minutes of advance warnings of inshore emlogical studies in the northwest Gulf clear air turbulence. of Alaska. NRS assisted the Federal Aviation Xdministra- Safety Services for Aeronautics. The NOAA Na- tion in a study of factors that control the vertical tional Severe Storm Laboratory (NSSL) used data separation of aircraft. A mathematical model of from a 460.meter instrumented tower, closely the height-keeping process was developed; the spaced surface weather stations, aircraft, and model includes principal measurements, equip- Dual-Doppler radar to measure the outflow regions ment, information flow, and control logic. The of thunderstorms for development of an improved results of the study will be used to set vertical three-dimensional gust-front model. The multi- separation standards for safer and more efficient observational system measures both horizontal and air traffic control.

49 Energy Research and V Development Administration

Introduction Viking The Viking Mars Landers, which were deployed The Energy Research and Development Admin- on the surface of the red planet on July 20 and istration (ERDA) has a significant role in numer- September 4, 1976, have pursued their assignment ous missions in the nation’s space program. of characterizing the Martian surface, atmosphere, Through its Office of Space Applications in the and weather conditions, and of performing num- Division of Nuclear Research and Applications, erous experiments in the search for vestiges of life ERDA provides essential mission support, includ- or life-related materials. Today, the precise detail ing the development and production of nuclear of Viking landing sites on the pla.ins of Chryse and electric power generators and specialized com- Utopia are as familiar to the television viewing ponent heaters. By efficient transfer of isotope de- public as were the presumed canals of Mars to cay heat to sophisticated thermoelectric converters, astronomers, Space nuclear power sources provided a long-life, reliable energy supply is made available power for this striking achievement. for spacecraft navigation, operations, telemetry, scientific studies, and analysis, as well as for trans- Lincoln Experimental Slttellites mission of televised pictures of planetary surface detail. Also, in 1976 ERDA’s Division of Solar The Lincoln Experimental Satellites, launched Energy acquired a new space-related mission when for the U.S. Air Force in March 1976, carry new the responsibility for studying Satellite Power Sys- and more powerful generators to supply a min- tems was transferred from NASA to ERDA. imum of 250 watts on each of two units for a duration of five years or more. Communications between satellites and from satellites to Earth over this in- Support to Space Programs terval will be used to demonstrate and evaluate performance, reliability, and survivability of such Apollo Inrnar Surface Experiments systems in a hostile environment. The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments obtained and transmitted data on Moon temperature and Marilcer ]upiter/Saturn gravity, seismic activity, and meteorite impact. Radioisotope heaters were required to maintain The Mariner Jupiter/Saturn (MJS) spacecraft, operating capability of the solar-powered instru- to be launched by NASA in August and September ments during the extremely cold lunar nights. 1977, will continue and extend outer-planetary ex- These units are still operating effectively. ploration into the farther reaches of the solar system. Building upon the experience gained in prior missions, NASA and ERDA anticipate im- Pioneer Missions proved performance and reliability as well as an The Pioneer 10 spacecraft, launched in March expanded scope of scientific data retrieval for this 1972, which performed close-up studies of Jupiter mission. Each of the two spacecraft will be powered and its moons, now is more than one and one-half by three radioistope generators to supply a total of billion kilometers from Earth, on its way out of at least 450 watts initially, to satisfy all electrical the solar system. Its mate, Pioneer 11, was launched energy requirements. in April 1973, and after a Jupi,ter fly-by was tar- Following interplanetary flights, the MJS space- geted for Saturn encounter in 1979. Both units are craft will make near-equatorial passes of Jupiter on supplied over 120 watts of radioisotope power for trajectories to Saturn, approximately 1.3 billion their overall electrical requirements, and continue kilometers from Earth. The scientific objectives of regular data transmission to Earth. the MJS 1977 mission are to conduct exploratory

50 investigations of the Jupiter and Saturn planetary essentially double that of the Pioneer, Viking, or systems and the interplanetary medium out to MJS generators. The competition begun in 1975 Saturn and to return these data to Earth for analy- for the Brayton and Organic Rankine Cycle dy- sis. Both spacecraft will escape the solar system namic power systems and culminating in ground following the Saturn encounter. demonstrations in 1978 is expected to produce To ensure operational capability of a variety of further improvement, to an efficiency of 20 to 25 data sensors and devices in the deep cold of outer percent. space, 21 one-watt thermal heater units will pro- The static isotope systems are expected to deliver vide local warmth in a number of sen.sitive areas up to 500 electrical watts over their mission life- of each MJS spacecraft. These, too, are fueled with time, whereas the dynamic isotope systems should Pu-258 radioisotope for compactness, reliability, supply one to two kilowatts. and long operating life. The radioisotope thermoelectric generators Satellite Power Systems (RTGs) discussed above were developed and produced by the ERDA laboratory and industrial Satellite Power Systems (SPS) in geostationary contractors’ organizations. During the year, five of orbit, which convert solar energy to microwave the seven multi-hundred watt generators and all of energy for transmission to Earth and ultimate use the radioisotope heater units were produced, with as a terrestrial energy source, were first suggested the balance of two flight units to be delivered early in 1968 and have been under study by NASA. In in 1977. In addition, numerous test units were pre- the FY 1977 budget, the responsibility for this en- pared and evaluated in detail, in support of safety deavor was transferred from NASA to ERDA. To assessments. meet this new responsibility, the ERDA Adminis- trator established a task group on SPS to review Development the NASA work and recommended an ERDA policy position and program. This group was formally The trend toward higher power, improved per- appointed on March 15, 1976, provided an interim formance, and greater reliability at reduced cost is report to the Administrator on June 24, a final accompanied and supported by technology develop- briefing report on August 12, and a final draft ment in both static thermoelectric and dynamic report in September. generator systems. By application of novel selenide The Division of Solar Energy within ERDA thermoelements in static converters, efficiency of presently has the task group recommendations un- power output is expected to rise to 10 to 14 percent, der review.

51 VI Department of the Interior

introduction data collected by U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) aircraft, by National Aeronautics and Space Admin- The Department of the Interior is responsible for istration (NASA) research aircraft, and by Landsat, the Nation’s public lands and for maintaining a bal- Skylab, Apollo, and Gemini spacecraft. Training ance between the use and conservation of natural and user assistance in applying remote-sensor data resources on these lands. Effective resource manage- are also major functions af EDC. ment and research require accurate and timely data, To facilitate regional applications, the EROS whether collected on the ground, from high- or low- program operates seven Applications Assistance Fa- altitude aircraft, or from satellites. In some investi- cilities where the public may view microfilm of gations data firom more than one level of imagery available at EDC and receive assistance in observation and from various sensors such as mul- searching and ordering data via computer terminal tispectral scanners, cameras, and radars can be use- link to the central computer complex at EDC. ful. To collect data, the Department relies on aircraft for acquiring aerial photography, carrying Applications Demmtratiorc md Research experimental airborne instruments, and executing programs such as selection of utility corridors, cadas- The objective of this activity is to demonstrate tral surveys, and resource inventories. and document applications of remote sensing to The need for surveying and repetitive monitoring significant resource and environmental problems, of vast and often inaccessible areas has also created with emphasis on the use of NASA and National a growing interest in the Department in satellite Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) data, primarily from the experimental Landsat sys- satellite data. Results indicate that remote sensing tem because of its synoptic, repetitive, and uniform is a potentially useful tool for resource and envir- coverage. Digital Landsat data have made posrsible onmental problem solving. Eighty-five experiments the extraction of information by computerized tech- on the application of Landsat data to Earth re- niques. Because of the flexibility that digital data source mapping, monitoring, and inventory were offer in collecting and managing large volumes of published in 1976 in USGS Professional Paper 929 information, resource managers in some bureaus of entitled ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet. the Department are incorporating this new technol- Ninety-two authors from the USGS, other Interior ogy into their activities. Bureaus, NOAA, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and several universities contributed to the 562-page il- Earth Resources Observation Systems Program lustrated report.

The purpose of the Interior Department’s Earth User Assistmce and Training Resources Observation Systems (EROS) program is to develop, demonstrate, and encourage applications Technical training programs at EDC range in of remote-sensing data acquired from aircraft and length from a few days to one month and stress the spacecraft which are relevant to functional respon- use of remotely (sensed data for particular applica- sibilities of the Department. The primary areas of tions such as forest inventories or mineral explora- activity are: tion. As an adjunct to formal courses, EDC operates a Data Analysis Laboratory which contains state-of- 1) applications demonstration and research the-art analysis equipment such as interactive coni- 2) user assistance and training puter systems for the analysis of digital Landsat and 3) data reproduction and dissemination. aircraft data, as well as densitometers, additive color The key facility of the EROS pmgram is the viewers, zoom transfer scopes, and stereo viewers. EROS Data Center (EDC) in Sioux Falls, South Experienced machine operators and resource scien- Dakota, the principal archive for remotely sensed tists provide technical assistance to new users.

52 The Sixth and Seventh International Remote EDC during Fiscal 1976. Among the customers, priv- Sensing Workshops, each of 4 weeks in length and ate industry was the largest single purchaser with 22 stressing the fundamentals of remote sensing, were percent of the total dollar value; followed by agen- held at EDC in 1976. Since 1973, 160 scientists from cies of the Federal government with 21 percent; non- 53 countries have attended this series. In response U.S. customers, 17 percent; NASA principal to continued high interest, two more workshops are investigators, 16 percent; academia, individuals, and scheduled for 1977. In addition, the EROS program state and local government agencies accounted for presented short courses during 1976 in Saudi Arabia, the remainder. Somalia, Ethiopia, Argentina, and Turkey. During 1976, more than 30 workshops were con- Remote Sensing Activities Using Space Data ducted for resource managers from various Federal and state agencies. Personnel trained included rep- Viking Mission to Mars resentatives from the Bureaus of Land Manage- ment, Reclamation, Mines, and Indian Affairs, and The USGS provided scientific leadership and ex- the Fish and Wildlife Service of the Department tensive technical support for the Viking mission in of Interior; Forest Service of the Department of the following areas: mission planning, orbiter and lander imaging, geologic interpretation, landing-site Agriculture; the Army Corps of Engineers and the Defense Mapping Agency of the Department of selection, and analyses of geochemistry and physical Defense; the Atlanta Regional Commission, North properties of the surface materials. Geologic inter- Dakota State Water Commission, and the Pacific pretations and topographic maps made from pic- Northwest Regional Commission. In total, approxi- tures taken by the Viking orbiters were used to select mately 500 domestic resource scientists and land and certify safe and scientifically significant sites for managers participated in these workshops. the two Viking landers. Cooperation among the Pacific Northwest Ke- gional Commission, NASA, USGS, and the states Other Planetary Studies of Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, demonstrates multidisciplinary assistance. After training periods USGS support of other planetary exploration includes analysis and synthesis of data from the Moon, at EDC and Ames Research Center, resource mana- Mars, and Mercury and participation in planning gers from the three states completed maps and over- lays displaying soils, land use and ownership, drain- and design of future missions to Mars, Venus, the age, and energy features. Moon, and the moons of Jupiter and Saturn. The USGS seeks to ensure that exploration of the solar system will contribute a maximum to the under- Data Reprodaction and Distribation standing of geologic phenomena. Comparison of Photographic reproductions and magnetic com- geologic materials, processes, and history of the puter tapes are processed and distributed and other other planets with those of the Earth provides new services are provided by EDC to domestic and for- insight on the development of the Earth’s crust and eign users at prices which will be raised to amounts on processes that affect land, mineral, and energy equal to the full cost of labor and materials. To im- resources. prove the quality of Landsat data products and shorten delivery time to users, a digital image pro- Geology cessing system is being installed at EDC. As of June 30, 1976, there were over 6.5 million images in the Magnetic data from the Polar Orbiting Geophysi- data base, including over 800,000 frames of Landsat cal Observatory (POGO) series were compiled by images and Landsat data in the form of computer- USGS scientists to show the gross worldwide mag- compatible tapes. Aerial and space imagery holdings netic character of the Earth’s crust. The detection increased at an average rate of 38,000 frames per of the Bangui magnetic anomaly in POGO data of month, of which 20,000 were Landsat imagery. central Africa led to field investigations of the re- The demand for reproductions increased rapidly gion to determine the extent of ferromagnetic and in 1976. In Fiscal 1976, EDC distributed 26 percent associated minerals. The need for a magnetic model more frames of Landsat imagery than in 1975, but of the Earth prompted NASA to begin planning a in addition, sales of computer-compatible tapes in- new satellite, Magsat, to map the Earth’s magnetic creased from 729 to 2289, an increase of 213 per- field from low orbit. cent. This indicates an increased trend toward use USGS studies of thermal infrared emission and of digital processing of Landsat data by users. Land- of microwave scattering and emission are expected sat and other satellite products constituted 70 to provide a basis upon which to interpret the data percent of the $2,464,554 value of data produced by from the Heat Capacity Mapping Mission satellite

53 and from the radar on board the Seasat satellite, related resource problems in the Central Atlantic both scheduled for launch in 1978. Regional Ecological Test Site and in the Census USGS geologists are interpreting linear and cur- Cities Projects. These efforts indicate that several vilinear features as seen on Landsat mosaics of the Level I1 subdivisions of categories of land use and U.S. produced by the Department of Agriculture in land cover, such as residential, of the Level I cate- cooperation with NASA. The initial interpretation gory, urban and built-up areas, and some Level I11 is being repeated independently by several scientists subdivisions such as single-family residential of the to assess the level of confidence in the results. The Level I1 category, residential, can be obtained from close relationship of some of these features to oc- the Skylab photography in sufficient detail to be currences of minerals, petroleum, geothermal useful for state or regional planning purposes. sources, and seismic events is being investigated. In an investigation in the Nabesna quadrangle, Hydrology Alaska, large linear features too long to be recognized on conventional aerial photographs have The USGS has continued to research applications of Landsat imagery to the study ground- been correlated with known mineral deposits. Com- of water hydrology. The USGS, in cooperation with puter interpretations of enhanced images suggest the Soil Conservation Service, has used Landsat that 56 percent of all known metallic mineral oc- digital tapes to prepare 15 quadrangle maps that currences in this quadrangle lie within approximately 1 mile of Landsat-identified linear features. depict hydrologically related land-cover categories covering 1000 square kilometers of the New River About 70 percent of the known mineral occurrences Basin, Tennessee. The maps were used to select sub- in the study area appear as color anomalies on com- basins for intensive study as part of a 5-year energy puter-enhanced Landsat imagery. development program to evaluate the impact of strip mining on hydrologic processes involving Cmt.tography geomorphology and water quality (especially sedi- In using the advantages of space systems in the ment). Results of the New River study will be used national mapping program, the USGS has con- as the basis for analysis of other drainage basins of tinued to produce experimental cartographic the region. products from Landsat and Skylab images. A sec- The USGS has broadened the scope of evaluating ond experimental edition of the satellite image map satellite Data Collection Systems (DCS) as a PO- of Upper Chesapeake Bay was compiled from a tential operational hydrologic monitoring tool. For Landsat image enhanced by IBM Corporation us- several years data-transmitting radios have been ing computer processing techniques. In cooperation tested through the Landsat DCS, and in 1976 they with the state of Georgia, a 1:500,000-scale satellite were tested through the NOAA Geostationary image mosaic of the state was published, incorporat- Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) DCS. ing 14 Landsat images. Landsat image maps of se- USGS and COMSAT General Corporation will con- lected areas of Antarctica have been printed at duct a 6-month demonstration of a DCS in 1977 scales of 1 :250,000; 1 :500,000; and 1: 1,000,000. Sky- using an existing geostationary commercial com- lab pictures were mosaicked to compile a 1:250,000- munication satellite integrated with USGS sensor scale gridded photomap of the Hartford quadrangle networks and computer facilities to simulate opera- (lo by 2"), which covers most of Connecticut. tional data collection. Analyses of the ability of Landsat wavebands ro penetrate shallow water, conducted in cooperation Water Managemetzt with NASA and the Defense Mapping Agency, demonstrated that large underwater reefs and bottom To develop ,techniques and procedures for opera- details could be located to depths of 22 meters tional use in water-resources projects, the Bureau under very favorable conditions. Analysis of satel- of Reclamation is using digital analysis of com- lite images taken at night revealed that concentra- puter-compatible tapes to inventory the total sur- tions of light flux indicate population centers and face water area on the Columbia Basin Project. the locations of gas and oil fields tvhere gas flaring The Bureau of Reclamation is also cooperating is practiced. Experiments with mirrors for identi- wilth the Soil Conservation Service in a project fying the location of control points on Landsat sponsored by NASA to monitor the extent of images have been conltinued. mountain snow cover to aid in runoff forecasting. Under the High Plains Cooperative Program, a Lud Use Analysis and Mapping Landsat data collection platform is being used to Research has been completed on applying Sky- relay data from several remote rain gages. NOAA's lab imagery and data to land-use mapping and GOES satellite is being used to collect cloud photo-

54 graphs in near-real-time, which are then used to €orest cover classification from automated inter- direct aircraft to cloud formations most promising pretations of original Landsat digital data. for seeding. GOES is also being used as a data relay platform. PEACESAT Project

Sea Ice The Pan Pacific Education and Communication Experiments by Satellite located at the University USGS scientists are cooperating with other agen- of Hawaii operated 18 hours a week to provide cies in ice dynamics and energy-release studies education and social communication experiments using data from near-polar orbiting satellites. Data to 14 Pacific territories and countries utilizing from ground sensors and aircraft are also utilized. NASA's ATS 1 satellite.

Lad Management Remote Sensing Activities Using Aerial Data The need to collect and handle large quantities Wetlands Mapping of information concerning the National Resource Lands has committed the Burelau of Land Manage- Remotely sensed data, primarily color infrared ment (BLM) to a program of information systems aerial photographs, are being used by the USGS in management. A strategic long-range plan which several departmental and interagency research will adopt the latest in automatic data processing projects on wetlands hydrology, classification, and remote-sensing technologies has been put into delineation, and mapping. effect. Wildlife Management Surface Mining The Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, A pilot study using Landsat computer-compatible U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, is assessing the tapes to identify active and inactive kaolin surface utility of aircraflt and spacecraft data for defining mines in Aiken County, South Carolina, was under- continental migratory bird habitats. taken by Bureau of Mines, EROS, and various state agencies in assessing Landsat technology. Digital Aeromagnetic Swueys area calculations from the Landsat dota were compared with planimetric calculations of the same Aeromagnetic surveys show distribution of rocks areas. Accuracies over 99 percent were achieved poltentially related to mineral deposits. During when comparing areas of over 360,000 square 1976, the USGS used aircraft for 114,000 traverse meters, whereas approximately 88 percent accuracy kilometers of aeromagnetic surveys in the Eastern was achieved in comparisons of 72,000-square-meter Coastal Plain, 18,000 traverse kilometers in Alaska sites using low-alltitude photographs. Mining areas under the minerals program, 18,000 traverse kilom- disturbed over a one-year period were also calcu- eters in Arizona and New Mexico for BIA, 6400 lated using Landsat imagery taken one year apart. traverse kilometers off the California coast under the reactor hazard program, and 5300 traverse Wildlife Management kilometers for a geological investigation of the state of Washington, as well as 1600 traverse kilometers Contract research was begun through the West- of gamma ray and aeromagnetic surveys under the ern Energy and Land-Use Team of the U.S. Fish uranium program. and Wildlife Service to define, in quantitative terms, the utility of digitally processed Landsat Airborne Experimental lnstruments imagery. USGS aircrafzt were used during field studies as- The Migratory Bird Management Office of the sociaited with various experimental instruments, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service used data from including a muhichannel infrared scanner, micro- Landsat and the very high resolution radiometer on wave and infrared radiometers, an airborne resistiv- NOAA's Tiros to monitor the melting of the lake ity system, and a Fraunhofer line discriminator. ice in the Canadian arctic and thereby predict nest- ing success and game production of Arctic geese. Aerial Photography and Radm

Natural Resource Znformution System (NRZS) In 1976, the USGS contracted for more coverage by aerial photography for the national mapping Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) has delivered a program than ever before-1,350,000 square kilom- final report to the northwest Indian tribes showing eters, 10 percent more than in 1975. More than

55 75 percent consisted of high-altitude, quad-centered photography acquired. The orthophoto base map- photographs for support of orthophotoquad pro- ping, for which the photography is used, is now 70 duction as well as for aerotriangulation and other percent complete. photogrammetric applications. National Cartographic Information Center Hydrologic Studies The National Cartographic Information Center The USGS, in cooperation with various state and (NCIC), a facility of USGS located at Reston, Vir- Federal agencies in Arizona, used low- and high- ginia, is a focal point for information on aerial altitude aerial photographs and orthophotoquads in photography and cartographic data from Federal, flood-hazard mapping, geologic and ground-water state, and private organizations, as well as data col- reconnaissance studies, and snowcover distribution lection plans of those organizations. The Aerial analyses. Orthophotoquads, prepared from aerial Photography Summary Record System, an auto- photographs of south Florida, are similarly being mated system to catalog most U.S. aerial photo- used in hydrologic studies. graphy planned, in progress, and completed, is now operational. The archive at EDC is a major com- Ice Studies ponent of NCIC. In cooperation with other agencies, the USGS conducted Arctic sea-ice dynamics and energy-release International Activities studies. The energy exchange is primarily through The USGS participates in an expanded program open-water leads in the ice, and passive and active of scientific cooperation with other countries, in- microwave (all-weather) data from NASA’s Convair cluding long-range technical assistance programs. 990 aircraft are used to identify open areas. In 1976, the Office of International Geology of USGS met with representatives of more than 20 Vegetatiolz Studies countries to discuss applications of satellite and Aircraft were used extensively for data collection, aerial remote sensing data in support of natural re- cloud seeding, and observation in the Bureau of source studies, development projects, and environ- Reclamation% High Plains Cooperative Program, men tal protection programs. These discussions were which is developing precipitation management tech- both technical and administrative, and included the niques to increase rainfall from summer showers, exchange of scientific knowledge as well as technol- of great importance to agriculture in the Great ogy transfer and technical assistance. Plains. The USGS will lead a new project, “Kemote Aircraft were used to obtain multispectral scanner sensing and mineral exploration”, which has been imagery of a portion of the Colorado River between approved as part of the International Geological Arizona and California for an inventory of riparian Correlations Program (IGCP) . The IGCP is jointly vegetation and for archeological surveys. The data sponsored by the International Union of Geological are being retained on tapes for computer analysis or Sciences and UNESCO. A U.S. National Commit- generation of film products. tee of 20 representatives of Federal and state gov- BIA agreements with NASA and USGS to obtain ernments and university and industry groups has high-altitude photography over all Indian reserva- been formed to work with international participants tions continued in effect, with 95 percent of the to identify features related to mineralization.

56 VI1 Department of Agriculture

Introduction conditions, using Landsat and other sources of digital spectral data. Spectral categories can be The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) related to crop yields, plant maladies, environ- has a continuing interest in improving its agriculture mental stresses, and growing conditions. The activities dealing with crops, forests, range arid system has been modified and tested by periodically wildlife management, soil surveys, watershed man- classifying the crop and land uses in a 3900-square- agement, land use classification and management, kilometer county that has diverse agricultural environmental protection, outdoor recreation, and enterprises. man-environment interactions. As one of the steps Functionally independent physiological and in meeting its responsibilities, the USDA in 1976 spectral models developed at Temple and Weslaco, continued to develop and evaluate the use of aero- Texas, are being tested by ARS to determine how space remote sensing technology as a means of more well the output from each augments and cross accurately and in a more timely fashion checks the predictions of the other. Data sources (1) improving the inventorying and quantita- and procedures are amenable to eventual deploy- tive predictions of the food, feed, and fiber ment of such models for improving crop concli- resources of the U.S. tion information and yield estimates for extensive (2) evaluating land productivity areas, such as the Great Plains. (3) monitoring changes affecting the total pro- The proximity of Mediterranean fruit fly in- duction and quality of our resources and festations in Guatemala provides a sense of urgency environment. in establishing a barrier zone that will prevent this serious pest from moving up into the major fruit Remote Sensing Activity producing regions of Mexico and ultimately the U.S. ARS is determining the density and distribu- Recognizing that aerospace remote sensing offers tion of host plants of the Medfly in the Isthmus of a means toward the improvement of many USDA Tehuantepec by means of aerial color infrared functions, the Department continues to seek tech- photography . nically feasible and economical remote-sensing systems that are effective for inventorying, protect- Recognizing its need for a dedicated remote sensing, and managing our agricultural, forestry, and ing research airplane, the ARS recently acquired wildlands resources. The following represent a a Cessna 1825 high-wing aircraft outfitted with a number of significant developments and applica- turbo-charged system, short take off and landing tions during 1976 using remote-sensing techniques: conversion capability, an autopilot with altitude hold, radio and naVigatiQna1 equipment (including Research and Development a transponder with an encoding altimeter), a closed-circuit television system for accurate map- The Agriculture Research Service (ARS) is de- ping, and aerial cameras. While in the photo- veloping a practical method for more accurate graphic mode the airplane will carry two persons, assessment of the water status of crop plants by one an ARS pilot-photographer. remote measurement of plant canopy temperatures concomitant with air temperatures, using infrared Applications scanners. More precise plant-water stress data would improve crop yield predictions and also The Forest Service-NASA cooperative Forestry improve the scheduling and amount of irrigation. Applications Program (FAP) completed its pilot The ARS is also completing a system of com- project on 6500 square kilometers of East Texas puter-aided operations that will provide agricul- “flatwoods” land. The two specific objectives were tural crop and soil surveys and delineate growing accomplished and are documented in a Johnson

57 Space Center publication (JSC-1 143). Coniputer- radio signal from the site to its point of use, is aided Landsat data classification procedures for expected to be operational in early 1977. This inventorying forest and rangeland by administra- new system, which partially replaces a manual net- tive boundaries were developed and tested. Pro- work that has been in operation nearly 40 years, cedures were developed and tested also for using a will provide near-real-time data to SCS field offices sampling approach to inventorying and evaluating for use in developing improved water supply fore- results of computer-aided automatic analysis of casts and reservoir operation, primarily for agri- Landsat data. As part of the Forestry Applications cultural purposes. Program’s interest in large-area multi-resource in- The SCS is also testing the use of Landsat ventory, FAP is now testing and modifying its pro- imagery to interpret the extent of snow cover and cedures for use in 10 major ecosystems throughout its changes throughout the snow accumulation and the continental U.S. melt season for selected river basins in Colorado. Public Law 93-378, the Resources Planning Act This information, combined with the near-real- of 1974, requires that the Forest Service prepare a time snow data, will be used to determine whether natural resources assessment. This assessment is to the accuracy of water supply forecasts can be sig- be updated in 1979 and after that on a 10-year nificantly improved. cycle. The Forest Service Resource Evaluation Use of aerial black and white and false color Techniques Program has been established in the infrared photography provided by the states and Rocky Mountain Forestland Range Experiment ranging in scale from 1: 15,840 to 1 :48,000 is being Station to develop the procedures for updating the evaluated by SCS for seleoted areas in Illinois and assessment. Since there are approximately 6,500,000 Minnesota as a tool to accelerate the soil survey square kilometers involved, aerospace remote sens- and to improve the quality of mapping. ing is expected to play a significant role in gather- The Rural Electrification Administration has ing information. The Resources Evaluation Tech- funded two projects utilizing Landsat imagery for niques Program is coordinating with FAP to de- locating transmission-line corridors and alternative velop remote sensing procedures applicable to the routes, as well as for developing environmeiital Resources Planning Act requirement. data for locating plant sites. Large amounts of timber have been killed by insects and disease in the National Forests of the The Agriculture Research Service (ARS) has Rocky Mountains. The Forest Service is using determined that high resolution thermal data from aerospace remote sensing techniques t’o assist in satellites, such as Noaa 4, SMS 2, and Defense the dead timber assessment. The study area covers Meteorological Satellites, can identify local varia- 26,000 square kilometers and will be put onto a tions in surface temperature across the Lower Rio cartographic base of 7.5’ quadrangle sheets. Grande Valley of Texas. Practical application of The Economic Research Service (ERS), in co- the information was tested by relating the severity operation with the Department of Natural Re- of sugarcane freeze damage to satellite-indicated sources, Cornel1 University, has completed a study temperatures for 45 commercial fields. Average of land-use change (1961-1970) in 53 rapidly ur- sugar content in these fields was found to be re- banizing counties distributed over the continental lated more closely to the satellite-indicated tem- US., using airphoto interpretations. Inventories peratures of the fields than to air temperatures comprising 7 rural and 5 urban categories of land extrapolated for those fields from ground observa- use were developed for 1961 and 1970; and changes tions. among the 12 categories were identified and quanti- ARS used Landsat multispectral digital data from fied. An April 1976 bulletin, “Dynamics of Land ;t December 11, 1973, overflight to estimate the Use in Fast Growth Areas” reports the results of sugarcane acreage in Hidalgo County, Texas. The the study. ERS and Cornel1 will use Landsat computer-aided estimate was 89 square kilometers imagery to identify cropland development in 130 compared with the Texas and Livestock Reporting sample countries in the Southeast and Great Plains. Service estimate of 82 square kilometers for the A unique application of remote sensing as ap- 1973-1974 crop year. Although there were errors plied to an operational problem is the Soil Con- of omission-harvested fields that were identified as servation Service’s (SCS) snow telemetry (SNOW- base soil and some citrus and native vegetation TEL) system that is being installed in the 11 West- that were mistakenly identified as sugarcane-the ern states. Remote sensors to measure snow and mapped location of the sugarcane fields in the related information (temperature, precipitation, county compared favorably with their location on wind, etc.) have been installed at 260 high moun- the thematic map generated by the computer. tain sites. A communication system, utilizing the ARS has also found that areas of cotton root-rot meteor-burst phenomenon for transmitting the can be readily delineated on aerial photographs, and the acreage so aEected can be accurately de- mounds within an area at a iiiucli lower cost ant! termined by optically planimetering the photo- with 80 percent accuracy. graphic transparencies. Because chemical control The walnut caterpillar has been defoliating pe- with a commercial fumigant is costly, the photo- cans over large areas in south-central and east graphs can reduce costs considerably by guiding Texas. The most widespread activity and subse- the applicators to only those portions of fields that quent defoliation occurred in August 1973, over are affected. some 78,000 square kilometers. Subsequent defoliation has been associated primarily with recur- The spread of the imported fire ant throughout reni infestations in the area originally affected. the southeastern U.S. and along the Gulf Coast Investigation of walnut caterpillar defoliation has from Florida to Texas has become a major concern resulted in the development of techniques by the to agricultural interests and the general public. ARS to identify pecans in mixed-tree native stands Currently, fire ant infestations are spread over in south-central Texas through the use of aerial 5 10,000 square kilometers. Present ground surveys color infrared photography. This capability should cover only 2 percent of the infested area and are be of value to the pecan industry in identifying very costly. The ARS has found that aerial color total acreage for potential pecan production, and infrared photography is a useful tool for establish- in locating pecans that may be endangered by ing the location, number, and size of fire ant exogenous insects.

59 VIII P National Science Foundation

introduction in a radio-quiet valley near Arecibo, Puerto Rico, is the primary NAIC instrument. A 305-meter- The National Science Foundation, the only Fed- diameter, spherical, aluminum-panelled reflector, eral agency with the express mission to advance a suspended feed platform, and associated receivers basic scientific knowledge, supports research in and transmitters comprise the telescope. Interfero- several areas related to aeronautics and space sci- metric observations are made with the addition of ence. The majority of this research is in astronomy a 30-meter-diameter antenna located 10 kilometers and atmospheric sciences, which benefit substan- from the 305-meter antenna. tially from the work done by staff and visitors at the NSF-supported National Research Centers. This past year was the second full year of operation of the S-band (2380 MHz) planetary radar Astronomy transmitter and maser receivers. During the week of July 4, 1976, NAIC produced last-minute maps General of Martian landing sites for NASA’s Viking 1. The The need for both ground-base and space ob- new maps allowed NASA to change the projected serving in astronomy is dictated by the varying course and avoid a possibly disastrous landing in ability of photons at different wavelengths to pen- rough terrain. In another project, the first de- etrate the Earth’s atmosphere. The atmosphere is tailed contour maps of a large area of the cloud- more or less transparent to visible light and longer covered surface of Venus revealed some surprising wavelengths-millimeter, radio, and some infrared. features. There is a large 1,554,000-square-kilo- It is, therefore, economically and technically pos- meter basin which appears similar to lunar “seas.” sible for astronomers to use large, sophisticated The 19-kilometer horizontal resolution of the radar instruments for ground-based observing at these also depicted parallel canyons and ridges extending wavelengths. But because x-rays and ultraviolet for hundreds of kilometers-geologic features un- photons are absorbed by the atmosphere, astron- like any on Earth. omers must depend on rockets, balloons, and satellites to carry detectors above the atmosphere. Sacramento Peak Observatory Complete understanding of stars, radio galaxies, quasars, and other objects requires that they On July 1, 1976, the Sacramento Peak Observa- be observed at all wavelengths. Space observing tory (SPO) was transferred from the U.S. Air programs, therefore, complement ground-based Force to the National Science Foundation. SPO is programs, which still account for most of the work an excellent solar observatory, with a 100-meter- done by astronomers. NSF, which is responsible high solar vacuum tower telescope, located in the for approximately two-thirds of the Federal support Sacramento Mountains of New Mexico. It is also for ground-based astronomy in the United States, equipped with an echelle spectrograph, a digital coordinates its support with other agencies that are diode array, and a universal birefringent filter primarily supporters of rocket and satellite pro- capable of simultaneous real-time images of the grams. NSF also supports some aspects of data Sun in separated wavelength bands. There are also analysis related to these programs. two 40-centimeter aperture coronagraphs, a 40- centimeter telescope with a solar magnetograph, Nationul Astronomy and Ionosphere Center and several smaller instruments. NASA operates a 30-centimeter evacuated fixed telescope feeding a The National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center multiple line photoelectric spectrograph at SPO. (NAIC) is a visitor-oriented facility for research SPO scientists are participating in several space in aeron,omy and radio and radar astronomy. The missions, including the design of ultraviolet and world’s largest single radio/radar telescope, located extreme ultraviolet spectrometers for the Solar

60 Maximum Mission, design of a Space Optical Tele- Daily magnetograms of solar observations con- scope for the Space Shuttle, membership on the ducted with the solar vacuum telescope continue Space Shuttle Facility Definition Team, and the to be provided to NASA. The magnetograms indi- Skylab Solar Workshop. cate magnetic fields on the Sun and are used by Last year, SPO staff made a number of valuable NASA in support of its orbiting solar observatory contributions to solar astronomy, including: opti- (OSO-H) program. cal evidence that magnetohydrodynamic waves cool sunspots; detection of coronal h’oles at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory east edge of the Sun, which can now give us 9- or IO-day advance notice of an impending geomag- The National Kadio Astronomy Observatory netic disturbance on Earth; and a several-month (NKAO) , headquartered in Charlottesville, Vir- study that shows coronal holes to move rigidly ginia, provides the large radio telescopes, auxiliary across the face of the Sun. equipment, and support services required to conduct advanced research in radio astronomy. The Kitt Peak Natiod Observatory three telescopes at the principal observing site in Green Bank, West Virginia, operate in the wave- The Kitt Peak National Observatory (KPNO) length range between a few meters and one centi- provides facilities for research on the solar system, meter. Of these, the 91-meter transit telescope is on stars and nebulae in our own Milky Way especially suited for sensitive surveys of radio Galaxy, and on galaxies outside our own. KPNO, sources; the 43-meter telescope is used primarily near Tucson, Arizona, has the largest collection of for studies of spectral lines at centimeter wave- modern optical telescopes and auxiliary instrumen- lengths and as an element in very long baseline tation in the world, including a 4-meter telescope. interferometer networks; and the four-element in- Kitt Peak is also the home of the McMath Solar terferometer is used to measure positions and map Telescope, the largest telescope designed especially the radio structure of sources. Observations over for observing the Sun. Other instruments include a the wavelength range between 1 centimeter and 2 solar vacuum telescope; a 2.1-meter telescope with millimeters are conducted with an 11-meter tele- a 1-meter feed telescope for the main spectrograph; a 1.%meter cassegrain reflector; two 92-centimeter scope on Kitt Peak, near Tucson, Arizona. Early in coude feeds; two 41-centimeter telescopes used Fiscal Year 1977 research will begin with NRAO’s primarily for photoelectric photometry; and a 30- partially completed Very Large Array interfero- centimeter Schmidt telescope. meter, located on the Plains of San Augustin, 80 kilometers west of Socorro, New Mexico. KPNO staff and guest investigators conduct major programs related to space sciences. One of During the year, NRAO contributed 21-centi- KPNO’s objectives is to increase our knowledge of meter wavelength observations to a program the structure, constituents, and radiation character- employing both optical and radio telescopes to istics of the planets, including the Earth, using obtain radio velocities and magnitudes for an all- ground-based observational instruments. In addi- sky sample of 200 distant high-luminosity spiral tion, KPNO scientists have joined in several galaxies. The aim of the programs was to determine NASA-sponsored space programs, including the if the Hubble expansion of the universe is uni- contribution of experiments aboard NASA satel- form in all directions as observed at the Sun. As a lites that are designed to determine the concentra- result, not only has a nonuniform Hubble expan- tion of the main constituents in the atmosphere of sion for these galaxies been ruled out, but a new Jupiter, Saturn, and Titan; and to investigate the atmospheres of Venus and Mercury. In addition, and unexpected component has been discovered in KPNO scientists serve on NASA Mission Definition the motion of our own Milky Way Galaxy. The Study Teams to define the scientific objectives best composite of this and other velocities (for example, related to specific satellite planetary programs. the component due to galactic rotation) is so large as to be of considerable interest to cosmologists. In support of the NASA infrared telescope to be This is because measurements of the -270°C COS- constructed on Muana Kea, Hawaii, KPNO scientists and engineers provided a conceptual design mic background radiation (which, according to and KPNO is grinding, polishing, and providing the most generally accepted theory of the origin of the final figure of the telescope’s 3.2-meter primary the universe, is the 15-billion-year-old remains of mirror and two secondary mirrors. The telescope the Big Bang) infer a lower velocity than these will, at appropriate times, furnish observations of newer measurements for the galaxy and its local the planets in support of NASA space probes. group of galaxies.

61 Atmospheric Sciences tion, improve predictions ot‘ scvere weather, determine trends and influences on air quality, Meteorology understand climatic trends and their causes, and This program investigates the dynaniical and understand solar processes and their ultimate ter- physical behavior of the atmosphere by means of restrial influences. field observati,ons, laboratory experiments, and The Tropical Wind, Energy Conservation, and theoretical and numerical analysis. There is also Reference Level Experiment (TWERLE) , a joint considerable support for the development of re- project of NCAR, the University of Wisconsin, and mote sensing techniques and support for research NASA, was carried out between June 1975 and on the interpretation of satellite data for severe- February 1976. In that period, 411 TWERLE bal- weather analysis. loons carrying weather sensors and signaling equipment were launched from tropical and subtropical Solar Terrestrial Research sites: information on tropical atmospheric circulation gathered by the balloons was relayed to the In 1976 further progress was made in implenient- ground by the Nimbus 6 satellite. The TWERLE ing the Internati,onal Magnetospheric Study, an scientific team’s preliminary data analysis is turning intensive cooperative effort for the period 1976- up significant differences between tropical and 1979. It will further our knowledge of the near- temperate-zone air circulation patterns. The bal- Earth environment and the way it is influenced by loon sensor system has proved to be a sensitive the Sun. Studies will include auroral particle pre- probe of a region of the atmosphere (at about 14 cipitation, geomagnetic perturbations, hydromag- km) not easily studied by other means. netic wave propagation, plasma physics, and electric Another kind of balloon was used to carry fields. In anticipation of increased solar activity NCAR’s cryogenic sampler high into the strato- during 1979-1980, planning of speci*alsolar experi- sphere in a continuing program of measurements ments was undertaken in 1976. that is shedding light on the physics, chemistry, and dynamics of the upper atmosphere. During the Aeronomy past year, a coordinate program of in situ sampling Aeronomy is concerned with the Earth’s high- and remote sensing of the upper atmosphere (with altitude atmosphere and its interactions with the lasers and from satellites) has given NCAR scient- lower atmosphere and with the space environment. ists considerable information on the behavior of The Foundation supports theoretical, laboratory, chlorofluorocarbons (used as aerosol spray propel- and field studies of phenomena that occur in this lants and refrigerants) and their influence on the region, including airglow, aurora, ionospheric dy- ozone layer in the stratosphere. namics and instabilities, and chemical processes. In A group of solar researchers at NCAR spent the addition to the general ongoing work, particular past year working together with 60 colleagues in emphasis is currently placed on high latitude in- the Skylab Solar Workshops, a program devoted vestigations related to the International Mag- to obtaining scientific results from the battery of netospheric Study. solar telescopes operated by the astronauts aboard Skylab. The workshops were devoted to the topic Atmospheric Chemistry Program of coronal holes, areas of dramatically reduced density compared to the ambient plasma in the This new program is concerned with the chem- solar outer atmosphere or corona. These are be- istry of both the lower and upper atmosphere. lieved to be the source of the high-speed streams Considerable effort is directed at stratospheric of solar wind observed at the distance of the Earth chemistry, and both modeling and observational -a steady stream of electrons, protons, and ionized efforts are supported. atoms given off by the Sun. The workshops have yielded a theoretical picture of the conditions un- Natiolzal Center fm Atmospheric Research der which coronal holes form, grow, and decay and (NCAR) a picture of the dependence of these phenomena on the solar activity cycle. NCAR plans and carries out atmospheric re- In the field of atmospheric technology, a new search programs in cooperation with universities mesoscale weather-reporting system was put into and other institutions. It develops and operates the field for the first time, where it turned in a special research facilities in support of the national superior performance. The Portable Automated atmospheric research effort. NCAR’s long-range Mesonet (PAM) was developed at NCAR in an goals include producing knowledge that will help effort to improve on the current generation of sur- to extend the range and quality of weather predic- face weather-station networks used in severe storm

62 research and other mesoscale investigations. In these capabilities. Siple was evacuated and closed PAM, remote stations measure rainfall, tempera- in December 1975 because of a hepatitis case just ture, pressure, humidity, and other parameters and before the winter isolation was to begin, but it was transmit their information to a base station, where reopened in late 1976 for year-round projects that a computer processes and displays the information will contribute to the International Magneto- from the whole network simultaneously. The spheric Study, 1976-1979. synchronous sampling and the instant display permit scientists to study surface weather patterns Materials Research over a wide area in real-time. The system was successfully used this past summer in the National Progress in aeronauitics and space technology de- Hail Research Experiment, an NCAR-led effort to pends critically on the availability of materials investigate the causes of hailstorms and the feasi- with optimum combinations of properties, par- bility of modifying them. ticularly for advanced structural applications. Materials research provides information that will The Solar Output and Its Variatiort advance the state of the art for materials used in the construction of aircraft, space vehicles, and Climatologists, meteorologists, and solar physi- attendant devices and instrumentation. Current re- cists share an abiding interest in the amount and search includes high-temperature mechanical and form of the solar output of radiation and particles. thermochemical behavior of both metals and ce- The need for a quantitative description of solar ramics, studies of erosion by particulate matter, the radiation at all wavelengths and for the ability to hydrogen embrittlement of metals and alloys, predict variations in solar output is strongly felt in amorphous metallic alloys, photovoltaic materials, many physical sciences. high-strength low-density polymers, and ion im- A summary of the most authoritative informa- plantation. tion and a projection of the measurements still Several areas of research in condensed matter are needed will be published in the spring of 1977. The also of interest because they underpin research and Solar Output and Its Variation, the result of a development work for aeronautical and space ac- conference held at NCAR in April 1976 under the tivities. One of these is the effect of radiation on joint sponsorship of the Sacramento Peak Observa- materials, and in this context the formation of tory, NOAA, NASA, and NCAR, will serve as a various kinds of defects and their properties arc reference volume for scientists in climatological, being studied. Another area of importance is that aeronomical, and solar research. of solid-state effects that can be used as sensors for various aeronautical and space applications. Ex- Polur Research Programs amples under study are photovoltaics, photocon- ductors, and millimeter-wave detectors. Finally, The Foundation supported investigations of the research on superconductivity and liquid helium is upper atmosphere, the ionosphere, the magneto- important to the development of possible aero- sphere, and the interplanetary medium from four nautical and space devices that may use cryogenic Antarctic stations (McMurdo, South Pole, Siple, components. and Vostok) and from Siple’s geomagnetic con- jugate point near Roberval, Quebec. Analysis of these studies, centered on very low Education Activities frequency waves, auroral particle precipitation, In Fiscal Year 1976, the Foundation made 37 electric fields, and geomagnetic perturbations, is in awards totaling $399,000 for activities relating to progress. Intensity variations of relativistic pri- the aeronautic and space sciences. Most of these mary cosmic rays were monitored at McMurdo funds were devoted to the training of graduate and South Pole. students and postdoctoral scientists. Assistance was Siple has a 21-kilometer-long antenna that re- also provided to two- and four-year college and ceives and transmits very low frequency signals university faculty members to help upgrade their propagating through the plasmapause region of the subject-matter background relating to the aero- magnetosphere. It is the world’s only station with nautic and space sciences.

63 Environmental Protection Agency

Introduction NOAA, and NASA. The purpose is to establish a multi-year, multi-media pollutant baseline in areas The major activities of the Environmental Pro- of the western U.S. where major new energy devel- tection Agency (EPA) which are associated with opment is planned over the next ten years. the utilization of aerospace technology in 1976 Resides monitoring and analyzing air and water were centered in the Office of Research and Devel- pollutants, synoptic monitoring is being carried opment (ORD). These activities lie within two out by EPA’s Environmental Monitoring and Sup- distinct program areas of ORD, namely, the port Laboratory/Las Vegas (EMSL/LV) with air- Energy-Related Environmental Research and De- craft using standard color and infrared photo- velopment Program of the Office of Energy, Min- graphic techniques. The purpose is to characterize erals and Industry (OEMI) and the Remote the general local ecosystem and drainage patterns Monitoring Program of the Office of Monitoring at sites where development is planned and to eval- and Technical Support (OMTS) . uate pollutant control practices already under As a segment of the second year effort of the development. These sites include coal strip mines multi-agency R&D program which it administers, and power plants; in the future, oil shale, coal OEMI is funding the development of advanced gasification, and geothermal development sites will synoptic monitoring techniques which are applic- also be monitored. able to a variety of energy-related environmental Aircraft are suited to this problem because of problems. In addition, OEMI is supporting re- the need for frequent coverage over a relatively search by elements of EPA, NASA, and NOAA in broad area surrounding sites which are generally pollutant measurement by long-path instruments. very far apart. However, as more sites are de- OMTS is continuing its remote monitoring pro- veloped and as further leasing occurs in the next gram in support of a variety of national environ- few years, regulatory decisions must be made mental needs. rapidly. The time-consuming process of photo interpretation could cause a bottleneck in the in- Interagency Energy-Related Environmental formation flow to decision and regulatory processes. Research & Development Program To remedy this anticipated problem, EPA and The Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry NASA have developed an agreement whereby (OEMI) is responsible for administering a $100 advanced, automated multispectral analysis tech- million per year, 17-agency, energy-related environ- nology will be transferred from NASA’s Earth mental R&D program whose objective is to provide Resources Laboratory (ERL) to EPA/EMSL/Las a scientific basis for protecting the environment Vegas for application to western and other en; while expanding and developing U.S. energy re- vironmental problems. This automated interpreta- sources and advanced energy technologies. Aero- tion technique has been demonstrated by ERL at space technology is being applied to energy-related two designated strip mine sites in Wyoming and environmental problems in two distinct areas- New Mexico. advanced synoptic monitoring techniques and ad- Developmental efforts related to these two west- vanced pollutant identification, measurements, and ern “type sites” have centered on identifying tracking methods. spectrally differentiable classifications and correlating the accuracy of these classifications with Western EwgylEmironmnt Monitoring Study ground truth data. An aircraft-mounted laser geo- dolite has also successfully demonstrated its ability One major activity now underway is the Western to give an accurate record of mine contour. This Energy /Environment Monitoring Study involving capability is directly applicable to enforcement of various elements of EPA, U.S. Geological Survey, reclamation regulations.

64 ‘Technology transfer will be effected during 1977. Gaseous Pollutants. NASA Langley Research Broad field testing will begin in 1978, after whi,ch Center is developing a multipollutant, differential operational use is planned. This will be a qualita- absorption research LIDAR for dispersed plume tive step upward in EPA’s land use monitoring measurements of sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, capability . carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, In concert with this effort, ERL is examining and methane. Construction is near completion and the utility of Landsat imagery as a low-resolution field tests will then begin. The purpose is to technique for detecting large scale, long term alter- demonstrate a mobile, highly accurate system for ations of land use, vegetation, and drainage pat- several important pollutants. In addition to avoid- terns due to energy-related developments. ing lengthly setup procedures, the tunability feature will enable monitoring of several stack gases which at present require distinct sampling and Energy-Related Polbtan$ Monitoring and analysis systems. In an operational system, this Tracking Methods R&D should prove highly cost effective compared to OEMI is sponsoring a number of projects in the present systems used for systematic monitoring. development of pollutant monitoring and tracking Furthermore, the LIDAR device provides informa- techniques which are aimed at increasing mission tion on plume dispersion which is beyond the flexibility of multi-source sampling programs for capability of existing systems. purposes such as enforcement. Compared with ex- NASA Langley is determining the feasibility of isting procedures, these devices can increase system using heterodyne detector techniques as a high- cost effectiveness by performing many more sensitivity receiver of laser radiation from natural sampling missions in a given time period and by topographical targets. This would make possible providing near-real-time analysis. the use of integrated path laser systems in aircraft In addition, the adaptation of such devices to for measurement of the total burden of a pollutant, aircraft can yield real-time information and track- such as ozone, in a vertical plane from a given ing capability for studies of aerosol long-range height. Present integrated path measurement sys- transport and transformation (e.g., the sulfur par- tems depend on a mirror-retroreflector and their ticulate complex) . The tracking of pollutant flexibility is therefore limited. plumes is crucial to research in pollutant disper- Water. Pollutants. EMSL/Las Vegas is testing sion and transformation and will be important in the application of a laser fluorosensor system for future regional enforcement and significant de- identifying organics, including specific oils, on terioration situations involving large areas. surface water. This is important in view of the The following projects are being supported by need to rapidly detect the location and assess the OEMI: extent of industrial pollution. This has application in enforcement and cleanup actions and in Particulate Aerosol. EMSL/Las Vegas is testing given situations can provide an indicator for the its aircraft-mounted downlooking differential- optimum setup of ground-base water monitoring absorption LIDAR (light-detecting and ranging) networks. system which will give a vertical profile of relative particulate density in the path beneath the aircraft. This tracking capability, with real-time readout, Remote Monitoring will be of great significance to EPA’s studies of Oil Spills power plant plume transport and aerosol transformation. The Enviorninental Monitoring and Support NOAA/Boulder has demonstrated, with a Laboratory, Las Vega, continues to respond to ground-base research LIDAR scattering system, reque.sts for information on oil spills. Data have the ability to differentiate between fugitive dust been supplied to the Coast Guard, essentially in and particulates from power plants at distances real-time, not only on the extent of river, coastal, of several kilometers. This is important for an- and estuarine spills but also on the best routes for ticipated significant-deterioration measurements. ground crews to get to the polluted areas. The spill While this research instrument is n,ot a real-time response effort included information on: (1) a system, it is being used in field work at two coal- sunken tanker in the Delaware River with many fired power plant sites. A simplified adaptation, additi,onal oil pollution sources visible, (2) the calibrated to the basic scattering data ascertained Saint Lawrence Seaway oil spill survey, (3) oil with the NOAA system, could eventually be de- pollution on the Hackensack River (New Jersey), veloped as an enforcement tool for monitoring (4) a sunken barge on the Chesapeake Bay, (5) a dispersed plume particulates. sunken barge in Puerto Rico.

65 Ocean Dumping Data processing and information from Alvin, the deep sea submersible research vessel. Aerial photographic imagery of a chemical spill Interpretation of aerial photography in con- in the New York Bight was obtained at the request nection with the effect of silviculture and agricul- of EPA’s Region 11. ture practices on the river water quality in Ground truth data for remote sensing of the Wenatchee National Forest. Camden-Philadelphia chemical dump site off the New Jersey coast was obtained by the Environ- mental Research Laboratory, Narragansett. This Basin Study consisted of detailed water and biota analyses in An extensive study has been planned lor the the wake of the barges during and after the clump- Apalachicola River Basin in Florida. This is ;I ing. multifaceted program to monitor the effects of river dredging, silviculture, agriculture, chemicals, Air Pollution Effects and flow control on a relatively pristine estuarine Significant outputs in this area include: area which is the principal source (90 percent) oE Airborne LIDAR was used to study particulate Florida oysters and involves NASA, EPA (Region source and receptor areas within New York City. IV), the University of Florida, and the Environ- The study was intended to collect additional data mental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Las to relate plumes from point sources industrial areas Vegas. and automobile traffic to the observed high concentrations of suspended particulates. lnter~ionulCooperation A report showing ozone and ozone precursor distribution over the Gulf Coast states was pre- At the request of the Remote Sensing Committee pared from airborne measurements made by the of the Swedish Board for Space Activities, a pack- Environmental Monitoring and Support Labora- age of technical data and application reports was tory, Las Vegas, aircraft. The object of the program delivered describing the existing developments in was to establish a cause for the widespread high instrumentation and methods for remote sensing values of ozone in that area. of air and water pollution. Documentation for air emission sources in the Worcester, Massachusetts, area. Other Enwironme7ttal Protection Agency Studies Wide aerial monitoring was conducted in support of the intensive Washington, D.C., oxidant There is an ongoing program to relate land use study. inventories to water quality in five rivers emptying into the Great Lakes. EPA’s Region V and NASA’s Lewis Research Center are cooperating on this WaJte Pollution and Effects program as an assignment from the International Information to assist the Regions in monitoring Joint Commission as defined by the United States} and enforcement include: Canada Water Quality Agreement. EPA has pro- Reports of possible leaching from landfill and vided the ground truth data for the five-river bulk storage sites. survey.

66 r 1 National Academy of Sciences X National Academy of Engineering National Research Council -

Introduction The SSB is assisted in its work by specialized committees and panels. The Committee on Space As- The National Academy of Sciences is a private tronomy and Astrophysics is preparing a long society of scholars in scientific and engineering re- range strategy for space astronomy. The Committee search, dedicated to the furtherance of science and on Space Physics is working on a strategy for space its use for the general welfare. Its charter, an Act physics. The Committee on Planetary and Lunar of Incorporation passed by Congress, calls upon it Explorations is planning for the exploration of the to serve as an official advisor to the Federal govern- inner planets (to complement the outer planets ment on any question of science or technology. strategy published in Report on Space Science, 1975, The National Academy of Engineering is a par- National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., allel organization of engineers that shares with 1976). The Committee on Space Biology and Med- the Academy of Sciences the responsibility for ad- icine is planning a study (to be completed in 1977) vising the Federal government. of biological and medical experiments ,that could Most of the activities undertaken by the two be Conducted in the Space Shuttle. The Exobiology academies are carried out through the Commissions Panel completed a report on quarantine considera- and the Assemblies of the National Research Coun- tions for Titan, Uranus, and Neptune and mon- cil, which draws upon a wide cross-section of the itored the progress of the life-detection experiments nation’s leading scientists and engineers. on the Mars-Viking landers. During 1976 the SSB created a Committee on Aerospace Science Earth Sciences (CES) to consider the space science Space Science Board aspects of climate dynamics, geodynamics, geodesy, and other areas in Earth sciences. The CES The Space Science Board (SSB) is concerned organized a Coordinating Committee to assist with helping to formulate the most effective na- NASA in planning its climate research program, tional program in space research. The Board also drawing on personnel from other National Re- represents the National Academy of Sciences to search Council groups. the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) of The 19th Plenary Meeting of COSPAR took the International Council of Scientific Unions. place in Philadelphia, June 9-19, 1976, at the Uni- In January 1976 a study cosponsored by the versity of Pennsylvania, with the SSB serving as host National Academy of Sciences and the European on behalf of the National Academy of Sciences. Science Foundation (ESF) was conducted by the A special feature of the meeting was a symposium Space Science Board and the ESF’s Space Science on the future of space science that included papers Advisory Board. Its purpose was to consider how by in ternationally known scientists. the Space Telescope could be used by the international scientific community. Geophysics Research Board Two special studies were undertaken in 1976. One dealt with institutional arrangements for the The Geophysics Research Board (GRB) was Space Telescope. The study reported on the general established to effect participation by US. scien- principles applicable to those ground-based facil- tists in the activities of international geophysical ities needed to provide the productive interaction organizations and to stimulate and encourage re- between the Space Telescope and the scientific user search in geophysics and related fields. The Board’s community. The second study examined space work is conducted largely through a number of plasma physics to identify future directions of re- committees and panels; the principal ones involved search in this field and to recommend an appropri- in space-related activities are the Geophysics Study ate role for NASA. Committee, the Balloon Study Committee, the

67 Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Research and its Geophysical Data Centers: Impact on Data-Inten- Panel on the International Magnetospheric Study, sive Programs (National Academy of Sciences, and the Committee on Data Interchange and Data Washington, D.C.), was issued in 1976. Centers. The Geophysics Study Committee oversees the Committee on Atmospheric Sciences work of a number of panels, each of which is preparing a ministudy intended to aid Federal de- The Committee on Atmospheric Sciences were re. cision making on societal problems that involve quested by NASA in 1976 to review the program geophysics. Studies on energy and climate, upper areas that were being considered for development atmospheric geophysics, geophysics of estuaries, of the measurement of the Earth radiation budget and water and climate have advanced to the point by means of satellite instrumentation. that the papers have been presented at suitable In response to this request, the committee estab- public forums (American Geophysical Union or lished an ad hoc panel that met with scientists of American Association for the Advancement of NASA, NOAA, and universities who had direct Science). involvement in several parallel studies for measur- The Balloon Study Committee was appointed ing the Earth radiation budget from space. early in 1975 as a joint activity of the GRB and The panel concluded that in order to develop the Space Science Board. Its objective was to re- valid radiative parameterization schemes, investiga- view past scientific achievements and the future tions were needed of large-scale, long-term radia- promise of this technique and to obtain highquali- tive heating and energy transports and of the ty scientific data at low cost (as compared with sat- smaller space and time scales as well. It was be- ellites and other platforms). lieved this information would be necessary if atmos- The Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Research pheric scientists are to achieve significant advances (CSTR) reviews and makes recommendations on in weather prediction and in better understanding the national program in solar-terrestrial physics and of climate and climatic changes. The panel findings through international bodies, participates in the resulted in specific recommendations on the ap- organization and planning of international research proach, and they were incorporated in the proposed in solar physics, interplanetary medium, planetary Earth Radiation Budget Satellite System. atmospheres, and the magnetosphere. The Govern- ment-Wide Plan for the International Magneto- Committee on Impacts of Stratospheric Chmge spheric Study, which was prepared by the Science The Committee on Impacts of Stratospheric Advisor of the National Science Foundation and Change (formerly the Climatic Impact Committee) is now being implemented by government agencies, completed work on its assessment of the extent to is largely based on recommendations of a joint which fluorocarbons used largely as spray-can pro- study by CSTR and the Space Science Board in pellants and refrigerants could affect the Earth‘s 1973 and a report by the CSTR Panel in 1974. The ozone layer. Two reports, Halocarbons: Eflects on chief objective of the International Magnetospheric Stratospheric Ozone (Nation.al Academy of Sci- Study is to obtain a comprehensive, quantitative ences, Washington, D.C., 1976) and Halocarbons: understanding of the dynamical processes operating Environmental Effects of Chlorofluoromethane Re- on plasmas in the geomagnetic field. The opera- lease (National Academy of Sciences, Washington, tional basis is an international plan of coordinated D.C., 1976) were released. The reports concluded observations from spacecraft, ground-based facili- that “Selective regulation of chlorofluoromethane ties, aircraft, balloons, and rockets. uses and releases is almost certain to be necessary The Committee on Data Interchange and Data at some time and to some degree of completeness. Centers was established to meet problems of inter- Neither the needed timing nor the needed severity national exchange of geophysical data ‘through can be reasonably specified today.” The committee the World Data Centers and to advise the GRB recommended a research program to elucidate the and the Director of the U.S. Center on policies needed timing and severity. and effectiveness of the service to the U.S. scientific community of both the U.S. complex (eight disci- Committee on Toxicology pline-based subcenters and the Data Center Coor- dination Office) and other US. data centers and The Committee on Toxicology has established services. The committee is concerned with coordina- a subcommittee on Fire Toxicology to evaluate the tion of these services and their improvemen,t, es- state of knowledge in methodology for toxicity pecially in regard to effective use of the centers, screening of the combustion pyrolysis products of quality control of the data, and services to the polymeric materials used in aircraft and spacecraft, scientific community. The most recent publication, to characterize the parameters of an “optimum”

68 test system for screening the toxicities of decomposi- Federal government on the use of remote sensing tion products, and to evaluate toxicological data on from spacecraft and aircraft for natural resource selected polymers. The committee has delivered to surveys and environmental monitoring. NASA a Six-Month Progress Report listing require- During 1976, the committee completed an eval- ments for an optimum screening test for toxicity of uation of a proposed follow-on sensor, the The- combustion products. matic Mapper, planned for launch in 1981. As The Committee on Toxicology has revised the proposed, the Thematic Mapper is to provide a emergency exposure limits for hydrogen chloride repetitive matrix of high-quality land cover or veg- and ammonia and is planning revisions for the hy- etation data as a basic information product for use drazines and rocket fuel oxidants. by resource managers. The committee reviewed the characteristics of the sensor and concluded that by Space Applications making some changes in the cut-on’s and cut-offs of the spectral bands in the scanner, the effectiveness Space Applications Board of these bands for vegetation classification can be The Space Applications Board (SAB) was estab- enhanced. Furthermone, these adjustments will also lished to advise the Federal government on ma‘tters increase the utility of the sensor system for geologi- related to the practical applications of space sys- cal exploration, water management, land use man- tems. During 1976 the Board continued to bring agement, and the study of coastal processes and to the attention of appropriate persons in the pri- oceanography. The committee also concluded that vate and the public sector the 15 reports resulting the Thematic Mapper, with the suggested modifica- from its 1974 summer study of the Practical Appli- tions, could serve as the basic operational Earth- cations of Space Systems. Distribution, now essen- resource sensing system. The committee recognized, tially completed, has reached about 30,000 potential however, the some users will require supple- users interested in space applications. The SAB has mentary data that may be best acquired from begun follow-up meetings between Federal agencies another spacecraft with a different sensor and orbit and certain of the summer study user panels to re- characteristics. view what has happened as a result of the study and what activities now deserve emphasis. Committee on Radio Frequencies In the conduct of the summer study, one panel The Committee on Radio Frequencies (CORF) examined the national program of research and and its Subcommittees on Space Science and Radio development on processing materials in the space Astronomy coordinate the views of the U.S. scientific environment.. The panel concluded that the sci- and engineering communities on radio frequencies entific basis for the program needed strengthening. needed for research. CORF worked closely with The SAB decided, in concert with the National Study Group 2 of the U.S. National Committee for Research Council’s Solid State Sciences Committee, the International Radio ConsuItative Committee National Materials Advisory Board, and Division (CCIR) in preparing documents on space research of Biological Sciences, to study in more detail the and radio astronomy for the CCIR Study Group 2 future course of the program for materials process- held in Geneva. CORF also worked closely with ing in space. A study, to be completed in late 1977, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has been undertaken. in developing and documenting the requirements At the request of NASA, the SAB established a for radio astronomy in preparing for the 1979 Committee on Satellite Communications to examine World Administrative Radio Conference. Scientists the question, “Should the Federal government re- recommended by CORF served on the FCC Radio sume research and development in satellite com- Astronomy working group, formed to assist the munications and, if so, what should the Federal role FCC in preparing the U.S. position for the 1979 be?” The committee was constituted of technol- conference. ogists, communications system operators, satellite communication users, communications policy spe- Committee on Seismology cialists, and regulatory economists. A final report The Committee on Seismology reviewed its pro- summarizing the findings of the committee is ex- gram in relation to new advances in the field and pected to be released in early 1977. changing emphasis in government agency missions. The fundamental objectives for 1976 through 1978 Committee on Remote Sensing Programs for Emth have been defined as follows: Resource Surveys (a) to maintain active surveillance of major The Committee on Remote Sensing Programs for trends in seismology and related develop- Earth Resource Surveys provides advice to the ments in allied scientific and technical fields:

69 (b) to provide special studies for government Space Engineering Board (ASEB) continued to agencies on appropriate problems; emphasize the need for a research and development (c) to maintain liaison with international seis- program that would lead to improved commercial mological activities; aircraft of all kinds. (d) to provide advice to government agencies on During 1976 the Board placed special emphasis the operation of Federally-supported seismo- on reviewing NASA’s Aircraft Energy Efficiency Pro. graph networks and data dissemination fa- gram. The Board’s ad hoc Committee on Aircraft cilities. Fuel Conservation considered the means by which In addition, the following four issues were selected future aircraft could be made not only more fuel for immediate action: conservative but also more cost competitive and environmentally compatible. Special emphasis was Changing trends in seismology, in particular, placed on alternative fuels technology that would the shifting Federal missions in the field, with be necessary should the need arise to replace pe- implications for academic research; troleum as a basis for aircraft fuels. Operation and support of U.S. government- The ad hoc Committee on Supersonic Research sponsored seismograph networks; and Technology reviewed progress being made in Collection, storage, and dissemination of seis- this area and noted the advancements that had mographic data, particularly data for the new been made during the year in several related tech- digital stations, and data from arrays; nologies. 0 Assurance of appropriate response of seismolo- The ad hoc Committee on Turbine Engine Test gy to the public welfare in regard to earth- Facilities completed its deliberations, taking into quake prediction and control, geothermal consideration not only the essential requirements energy, earthquake engineering, geodesy, geo- for national turbine engine test facilities but also logical hazards, land-use planning, and offshore the ways by which the competence existing at geological exploration. NASA’s Lewis Research Center could support The first of a series of reports confronting these facets of the national energy program that are now issues was published in July 1976, and two more the responsibility of the Energy Research and De- are expected to be released in early 1977. The re- velopment Administration. ports are: The Board has commended NASA on the steps Predicting Earthquakes: A Scientific and Tech- taken to implement previous suggestions on recom- nical Evaluation-wit h Implications for So- mendations made by the ad hoc Committee on the ciety, National Academy of Sciences, July 1976. Management of Space Program Costs. The Board Trends and Opportunities in Seismology: Part is considering the creation of another committee to I. Opportunities and Benefits, Part ZZ. Back- examine the balance between research conducted ground and Progress. in NASA centers and that supported in the aca- Global Earthquake Monitoring: Its Zmportance demic and industrial sectors by NASA grants and and Support Requirements. contracts. This committee will also consider how the NASA-academic community relationship could The work of all U.S. government agencies has been be improved to ensure that sound basic research in reviewed and referenced in the above reports. support of broad national aeronautical objectives Sources of support for the committee’s work in- could be attained in a timely manner. clude the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- ministration, U.S. Geological Survey, Defense Ad- National Materials Advisory Board vanced Research Projects Agency, U.S. Nucear Regulatory Commission, U.S. Energy Research and The activity of the National Materials Advisory Development Administration, National Science Board covers the entire life cycle of materials from Foundation, National Aeronautics and Space Ad- their origin as natural resources, through their ap- ministration, and U.S. Air Force Office of Scientific plication for social purposes, to their disposal or Research. reclamation back into the materials cycle. The studies undertaken by the Board contribute to the Aerospace Engineering materials science and engineering data base. Several studies completed in 1976 should contribute di- Aeronatctics and Space Engineering Board rectly to aerospace technology:

In order to focus the energies and talents of the 0 The report of the ad hoc Committee on Me- engineering community on important aerospace chanical Properties of Infrared Transmitting policies and programs essential to a strong aero- Materials assessed the probability of improv- nautical base in this country, the Aeronautics and ing the erosion resistance of radome materials without sacrifice of their optical properties. Education e Rapid Inexpensive Tests for Determining Fracture Toughness, (National Academy of Commission on Human Resources Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1976) examined the potential of various rapid, inexpensive The Commission on Human Resources of the methods for determining fracture toughness of National Research Council awards research ap- production materials for quality control pur- pointments to doctoral engineers and scientists who poses. pursue research at participating centers of the Na- e The first volume of the report by the ad hoc tional Aeronautics and Space Administration. Committee on Fire Safety Aspects of Polymeric Materials examined natura1 and synthetic poly- In NRC-NASA Postdoctoral Associateship pro- meric materials in the presence of fire. Subse- grams, able investigators conduct research projects quent volumes will address the fire safety that contribute to the goals and programs of NASA aspects of polymers in specific applications. and that also provide research experience-often oE One of the volumes, soon to be published, is a unique kind-to the investigators. On August 31, devoted to aircraft systems. 1976, there were 212 Associates in tenure.

71 XI Office of Telecommunications Policy

Introduction natural resource. During the year, OTP, in cooperation with the FCC and the Department of The Office of Telecommunications Policy (OTP) State, has been preparing for three important up- was created in 1970 as an independent agency coming international conferences on frequency within the Executive of the President. OTP Office allocation for aeronautical, space, and terrestrial has two major functions: (1) to serve as principal telecommunications systems. The conferences are advisor to the President on communications policy; sponsored by the International Telecommunica- and to formulate policies and provide coordi- (2) tions Union, a specialized agency of the United nation for the Federal government’s communica- Nations. tions system. As specified in its charter, OTP develops plans, policies, and programs with respect to communica- INMARSAT tions designed to promote the public interest, sup- An International Convention establishing an port national security, contribute to the economy INMARSAT organization was concluded in late and world trade, promote the interests of the 1976 incorporating U.S. requirements that a two- United States in its relations with foreign nations, part agreement be signed specifically delineating and foster effective and innovative telecommunica- the rights and responsibilities of designated operat- tions technology. ing entities. During the past year, OTP was active in a Recently, OTP proposed designation of the U.S. broad range of telecommunications issues involving entity in INMARSAT through legislation. It was the domestic and international application of aero- proposed that this same entity be designated for nautics and space technology. future aeronautical as well as maritime satellite systems. This draft legislation is entitled the “Inter- International Satellite Systems national Mobile Satellite Telecommunications Act OTP has been involved in the development of of 1976.” specialized and regional telecommunications system throughout the world. In particular, since the Direct Broadcast Satellites beginning of international activity in 1972, OTP has been directly involved in the formulation of The fundamental difference between the pro- U.S. policies and positions on the establishment of posed direct broadcast satellites and conventional an International Maritime Satellite System (IN- communications satellites is the former’s capacity MARSAT). to broadcast direotly into home receivers, avoiding In addition, during the past years, OTP, as part expensive ground stations. The use of receivers de- of a U.S. Government triumvirate including the signed for direct broadcast satellite reception offers FCC and the State Department, has been provid- the potential for radical changes in the way tele- ing guidance and instructions to Comsat (as U.S. communications satellites may be employed. Signatory in INTELSAT) as required by applicable Active debate on direct broadcasting satellites legislative and Executive Order requirements. began in the U.N. in 1966 at the time of discussions The possibility of the use of telecommunications of the Outer Space Treaty. The basic political satellites for broadcast of television programs di- issue is the conflict between the view of the ma- rectly into home receivers continues to generate jority of states that DBS cannot be allowed to international debate in the United Nations and operate without permission of the receiving state has demanded OTP involvement as well. and the view of a small minority of states which The Office also continually reviews the demands advocate free and unlimited operation subject, of for use of the radio spectrum, which is a limited course, to applicable technical limitations. Four

72 differing draft agreements are before the Outer view and revise all of the international radio Space Legal Subcommittee. regulations, particularly those dealing with OTP, along with other interested U.S. agencies, allocation of the radio frequency spectrum. participated in the deliberations of both the Legal The last ITU conference to have such broad Subcommittee and the Outer Space Committee authority was held in 1959. The development during the year, and it will continue to contribute of satellites and ather sophisticated telecom- to the formulation and presentation of U.S. policy munication technology, combined with the views on the issue. rapid growth of the organization since 1959 and the ensuing political atmosphere will pre- Frequency Management sent the U.S. with pater challenges than any ITU-sponsored conference in the history of The radio frequency spectrum is a finite resource. the organization. Its application is subject to the laws of physics; and it is shared by all nations and by all classes At the initiative of OTP, detailed examinations of radio equipment. Discrete segments of this radio of planned and proposed aeronautical radionaviga- spectrum are used by navigational aids, radars, and tion and satellite systems have been undertaken all non-wire forms of communications, e.g., AM, jointly with the sponsoring government agencies to FM, and TV broadcasting: satellite transmission; evaluate their electromagnetic interactions with and mobile communications generally. Increasing each ather and with existing systems. As a result, spectrum use increases the potential for interfer- a number of design adjustments in planned sys- ence. Avoiding such interference is a function of tems have been made by the FAA, NASA, and frequency management and spectrum planning. DoD to avoid the inestimable expenses in hard- International speotrum planning is done within ware replacement or retrofit which might have the framework of the International Telecommuni- otherwise been necessary. cations Union (ITU), a specialized agency of the United Nations, located in Geneva, Switzerland. Domestic Satellite Applications The international radio regulations negotiated at As a result of the recent ATS 6 program of conferences of the ITU, when ratified by the U.S. NASA, considerable interest has developed in using Congress, have the force of treaty. In addition to advanced communications satellites with low-cost the relevance of the ITU regulations to national Earth stations in the delivery of health and edu- use of the radio frequency spectrum, they have cational services. an explicit impact on international communica- OTP, in conjunction with HEW and NASA, has tions and commerce. OTP, the FCC, and the De- encouraged the transfer of this technology to the partment of State are preparing work for three private sector. While NASA has eliminated many major ITU conferences: of the technical barriers associated with this type 0 A World Administrative Radio Conference to of satellite, questions of demand and how to bring be convened January 10, 1977, to establish all the many potential users together into a useful technical sharing criteria for the Broadcasting economic market prevented any major private sec- Satellite Service in the 11.7-12.2 GHz fre- tor initiative in this area. quency band, taking into account the fixed, To correct this situation, OTP and HEW sup- mobile, and other broadcasting operations to ported the concept of a user consortium that could which that band is also allocated; collect all the various user needs for such service 0 A World Administrative Radio Conference into a single package. As a result, the Public planned for later in 1977 to revise the plan- Service Satellite Consortium was formed early in ning for the Aeronautical Mobile Service use 1975 to make high-powered communication satel- of high frequencies on the world’s air-route lite services available to public and private institu- communication systems; tions concerned with the delivery of health, e A World General Administrative Radio Con- educational, and other public services. OTP conference to be held in the second half of 1979. tinues to be supportive of the PSSC in its develop- This conference will have the authority to re- mental efforts.

73 XII Federal Communications Commission

Introduction Domestic Satellite Service Commercial satellite telecommunications services The number of operational domestic satellites expanded substantially during 1976 to meet the in- doubled during 1976, with the launch of three creasing demand of the public for national and satellites, one (Satcom 2) by RCA American Com- international communications. Two additional munications, Inc., and two (Comstar 1 and 2) by countries joined the International Satellite Corpora- Comsat General Corporation for the American tion (Intelsat) in 1976, bringing the total member- Telephone and Telegraph Company and GTE ship to 93. Three domestic satellite systems were Satellite Corporation. In little over a year the in operation, broadening the services offered to the Commission has authorized over 100 receive-only public to include communications services to cable Earth stations for reception of television via do- television operators, offshore drilling, and other mestic satellites. Also 69 bush stations in Alaska areas not normally accessible through standard have been authorized by the Commission to pro- communications services. Maritime-mobile satellite vide message service to remote areas. A selected communications was initiated in the Atlantic and number of these areas will be provided television Pacific Ocean areas during 1976, and an application service in the near future. was filed by the U.S. co-owner of the AEROSAT The Commission is evaluating proposals sub- aeronautical-mobile satellite system. mitted by AT&T and RCA to determine who shall provide Alaska's space communications segment. Communications Satellites Until a decision is reached, RCA has been granted INTELSAT authority to carry the Alaska traffic on SATCOM On September 21, 1976, INTELSAT contracted on an interim basis. for the procurement of seven advanced technology Construction of the AT&T/GSAT domestic satel- satellites known as the Intelsat V series. Each of lite system has been completed and commercial use the new satellites would nearly double the capacity was authorized in July 1976. The authorization of one of the present generation of Intelsat IV-A called for accelerated integration of Hawaii and satellites by utilizing higher frequency bands, fre- Alaska telephone rates and for rate integration for quency reuse, and dual polarization. The Intelsat V Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. The Interna- contract sets the delivery of the first satellite in mid- tional Record Carriers have also been authorized 1979. This satellite is capable of being launched by to use the Comstar satellites for provision of their the Atlas-Centaur vehicle, as well as by NASA's authorized services between the mainland and Space Transportation System. Hawaii. INTELSAT's global system consists of two op- Applications for a new domestic satellite system erational Atlantic Ocean satellites (one Intelsat were filed by Satellite Business Systems (SBS), a IV-A and one Intelsat IV) and one operational proposed partnership between Comsat General Intelsat IV each in the Pacific and Indian Ocean Business Communications, Inc. (a wholly owned regions. This space segment is complemented by subsidiary of Comsat General Corporation), In- a ground network of 140 antennas at 112 sites in formation Satellite corporation (a wholly owned 78 countries. Besides providing international com- subsidiary of International Business Machines munications, INTELSAT provides satellite ca- Corporation) , and Aetna Satellite Communications, pacity to meet the domestic communications re- Inc. (a wholly owned subsidiary of The Aetna quirements of several countries. The continued Casualty and Surety Company). The proposed sys- construction of Earth station facilities is just one tem would begin operations in the 12 and 14 GHz indication of the growing reliance on satellites for bands during 1979 to provide wideband switched international as well as domestic communications. private communications networks to large industrial

74 sild governmental users on a common carrier basis was also granted to launch the third Markt for voice, data, and image traffic using integrated satellite to serve the Navy in the Indian Ocean digital transmission techniques between Earth sta- region. The Commission has adopted rules for tions located on customer premises through the 48 licensing commercial ships to operate in this system. contiguous states. The Navy communications services are provided The Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB) in the UHF band on a lease basis for a period be- and the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) have ginning in 1976. The.Navy has agreed to subscribe submitted thirteen applications from public televi- to full UHF service for two and a half years from sion licensees for construction permits for receive- the Indian Ocean Marisat satellite beginning Janu- only Earth stations and one application from PBS ary 1, 1977, as well as committing itself to exercise for a main origination terminal. These applications options for full UHF service in the Atlantic and are the first of what may be as many as 165 appli- Pacific Marisat satellites through March 1979. How- cations for Earth stations. They represent the ever, when the Navy service is completed the entire ground segment of a domestic satellite system of satellite capacity can be devoted to commercial mari- interconnection for all public television stations in time service. the United States, including Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The space seg- Aeronuutical Mobile-Satellite Service ment of the interconnection is the subject of a separate application filed by the Western IJnion In the fall of 1974, a memorandum of under- Telegraph Company for authorization to provide standing was signed by the Department of Trans- satellite service to public broadcasting at reduced portation/Federal Aviation Administration, the rates, pursuant to Section 396 (h) of the Communi- European Space Research Organization, now the cations Act of 1934. European Space Agency, and the Canadian Govern- ment on the basic arrangements for an experimental Specialized Satellite Services aeronautical satellite system in the North Atlantic area. Comsat General Corporation has been chosen MIwitime Mobile-Satellite Service as the U.S. co-owner in the space segment of the system, which is to be placed into operation during The Commission is continuing to work both na- 1979. tionally and internationally to develop maritime The objectives of the program are to gain experi- mobile communications in terms of accuracy, re- ence and to evaluate and experiment with the use liability, speed, and a variety of transmission modes of satellite capacity in providing voice and data which will, eventually, enhance maritime safety and communications between aircraft and land stations. management . The system will use frequencies at C-band for Internationally, the Intergovernmental Maritime communications between ground stations and satel- Consultative Organization, through the Panel of lites. It is anticipated that this initial system will Experts on Maritime Satellites, completed its final provide limited VHF capability (the frequencies meeting in September 1974, looking toward the now used by aircraft over land) in addition to an establishment of an international maritime mobile L-band capability between satellite and aircraft. satellite service. Operational requirements have been stated and initial economical, technical, and Broadcasting-Satellite Service financial studies have been completed. Three intergovernmental conferences considered The United States, in conjunction with the In- the report of the Panel of Experts, discussed ar- dian government, conducted a series of experiments rangements for the establishment of the Intanation- in public service broadcasting with the Applica- a1 Organization for a Martime Satellite System tions Technology Satellite (ATS) during 1975- (INMARSAT) , established a Preparatory Commit- 1976, after which it was moved to a position to serve tee to make preparations for the Organization, and the Unted States with continued experimental in September 1976 opened the proposed establish- education programming. Action on requests to ment of INMARSAT the signature agreements. authorize 4 U.S. government stations and 16 non- In preparation for those conferences, the Commis- government stations to use ATS 6 is expected by sion instituted an inquiry to help formulate the early 1977. Approximately 40 additional requests U.S. position on the establishment of an interna- for operating authorization are expected in 19.77. tional maritime satellite system. Additional experimentation is taking place with Currently maritime service is being provided the joint United States-Canada Communications through the MARISAT system, which presently Technology Satellite (CTS) , launched in January serves the U.S. Navy and commercial shipping in 1976. There are 14 U.S. government stations author- the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean regions. Authority ized to use the CTS and 16 non-government sta-

75 tions. At least 20 additional authorizations are Joint Meeting of the International Radio C;u;..sul- expected in 1977. tative Committee (C.C.I.R.) in the second half of The Commission is investigating the require- 1978, to consider technical factors in preparation ments for a Broadcasting-Satellite Service for coin- for the 1979 General Radio Conference. munity and individual reception. As part of its Because of the wide scope of the conference, the preparation for the 1977 World Administrative extensive preparatory work required is well under Radio Conference on planning for the Broadcasting- way. This work will take into account the fre- Satellite Service in the 11.7-12.2 GHz band, the quency requirements of all radio services and the Commission has issued its Report and Order in a many other technical and operating aspects that proceeding to develop the proposals of the United will be involved. The Commission has initiated a States to this conference. These proposals have proceeding and has already issued two notices of been finalized and forwarded to the International inquiry to obtain public comments to assist in the Telecommunications Union in Geneva. Also, a re- development of U.S. proposals. port entitled, “Satellite System Interference Model- Preparatory work has continued for the Aero- ing (1 1.7-12.2 GHz) ”, which considers factors nautical World Administrative Radio Conferencc, pertinent to the planning of this band, was issued which will deal with matters relating to the Aero- by the Office of Chief Engineer in September 1976. nautical Mobile Route Service, including the revi- sion of their frequency allotment plan on the basis Internutionul Telecommunications Uniott (ITU) of single-sideband operation. This conference, originally to convene in March 1977, was postponed During 1976, the Commission’s activities in- until February 1978 by the ITU Administrative creased considerably internationally in advance Council. publication, coordination, and notification of space systems, in accordance with provisions of the ITU Frequency Allocation and Coordination Radio Regulations. This increase stemmed from the several domestic satellite systems and the U.S. A draft report and order to add a new footnote, government (including military) systems in use US222, to the Table of Frequency Allocations has or under development, the significantly increased been prepared and action is expected in the near number of systems in planning or under develop- future. The proposed new footnote would permit ment by foreign countries, and actions taken by the use of the frequency band 2025-2035 MHz by the ITU radio conferences, It also resulted from government Earth stations for Earth-to-space trans- U.S. responsibilities to carry out these functions on missions for tracking, telemetry, and telecommand behalf of INTELSAT countries. at Wallops Island, Virginia; Seattle, Washington; The Administrative Council of the ITU, which and Honolulu, Hawaii. The action was requested met during the summer of 1976, reconfirmed the by the Office of Telecommunications Policy to allow convening of a General World Administrative the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satel- Radio Conference and set September 1979 for the lite System (GOES) to operate in the 2025-2035 start of the ten-week conference. This major con- MHz band. GOES will be used in short range fore- ference will deal with overall revisions to the cur- casting and warning of weather, ocean, and solar rent international Radio Regulations governing all hazards, providing nearly continuous, detailed ob- radio services, including many aspects of a Special serva tions.

76 Department of State

I I

Introduction issue ot the exploration and exploitation of Moon’s natural resources, although consensus has been International space cooperation in support of reached on other outstanding issues. foreign policy objectives and the goals of the Na- The Legal Subcommittee has made significant tional Aeronautics and Space Act continued to be progress in its effort to establish principles for the a matter of high priority to the Department of use of artificial Earth satellites for direct television State during 1976. Attention was focused both on broadcasting. It reached agreement on nine prin- cooperation with individual countries and on en- ciples dealing respectively with (I) purposes and deavors with multilateral and international organi- objectives; (2) applicability of international law; zations. (3) rights and benefits; (4) international coopera- Particular progress was seen in the continued tion; (5) state responsibility; (6) duty and right cooperation of NASA with ten European countries to consult; (7) peaceful settlement of disputes; in their development of a large space laboratory (8) copyright and related rights; and (9) notifica- for use with the U.S. Space Shuttle system. Canada tion to the United Nations. It also decided not to agreed to provide a remote manipulator for use formulate principles relating to spill-over and dis- on the Shuttle. Bilateral relations with U.S.S.R. ruption. There was a continuing exchange of views continued through discussion of post Apollo-SoyuL on consent and participation, program content, and activities and scientific exchanges. International co- unlawful/inadmissible broadcasts. The committee operation for peaceful uses of space by all mankind agreed that the Legal Subcommittee should con- was advanced in the communications satellite pro- tinue giving priority to the formulation of these grams, the emerging maritime and aeronautical principles, with a view toward concluding an in- satellite programs, and the continued interest in ternational agreement or agreements . space matters in the United Nations. The United The most challenging issue before the committee Nations, through its Outer Space Committee and was remote sensing of the Earth’s resources and various working groups, has continued to be a natural environment by satellite. The committee prime forum for the formalization of multinational agreed with the report of the Scientific and Tech- viewpoints and programs to advance cooperation nical Subcommittee that the widespread operation in the uses of outer space. of remote sensing was imminent, and that the data thus gathered would become integral to the econ- Activities within the United Nations omies and planning activities of states. The com- inittee also noted the need to define the term Outer Space Committee “data,” as it is used in discussions of remote sens- The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer ing. The Legal Subcommittee continued to wrestle Space met in New York from June 21 to July 2. It with the questions of data dissemination and the reviewed the work of its two Subcommittees-Legal, legal implications of remote sensing. and Scientific and Technical-on four principal The committee also noted that work had begun topics: (a) the draft treaty relating to the Moon; on the question of the definition and/or delimita- (b) the use of artificial Earth satellites for direct tion of outer space and outer space activities. The television broadcasting; (c) the survey of Earth Legal Subcommittee requested the Secretariat to resources by remote sensing satellites; and (d) the prepare synoptic tables including the various pro- definition and/or delimitation of outer space and posals that relate to the framework of the commit- outer space activities. tee’s work. The Scientific and Technical Subcum- The committee noted the work of its Legal Sub- mittee continued its deliberations on the options committee on drafting a Moon treaty. The relating to a possible United Nations Conference on subcommittee has still not resolved the complex Outer Space.

77 The committee also took note of other related tion was adopted unanimously by the Genera: activities including exchange of information be- Assembly on November 8. tween states on space activities and the need for more comprehensive programs in public informa- International Cooperation tion. The committee expressed satisfaction on the work carried out at the Thumba Equatorial Coopedion with Europe Rocket Launching Station in India with the During 1976, relations with Europe were char- CELPA Mar del Plata Station in Argentina, rela- acterized by continuing development of existing tive to the use of sounding rocket facilities for projects and by discussions of new projects made international cooperation and training in the possible by advances in technology and space peaceful scientific exploitation of solar energy transport. through space technology. Discussions with the European Space Agency The committee decided, against the recommenda- (ESA) led to a tentative selection of experiments tion of the U.N. Committee on Conferences, to for the first joint ESA-NASA Spacelab Mission continue to meet annually and scheduled its next scheduled for 1980. Progress was made toward session for June 13-24, 1977. It agreed to General early agreement on the Space Telescope, the major Assembly discussion of the committee’s system of payload in astronomy for the Space Shuttle. Addi- alternating annual sessions of the subcommittees tional details regarding the planned launch of between New York and Geneva. joint ESA-NASA Sun-Earth Explorer satellites were worked out. Bilateral programs experienced renewed activity General Assembly in 1976. In September, NASA signed a memorandum of understanding with Italy on a San Marco The First Committee of the General Assembly D cooperative satellite planned for launching in considered the two traditional outer space items, 1979-1980. In addition to continuation of existing “International cooperation in the peaceful uses of projects, new bilateral activities included discus- outer space” and “Preparation of an international sions with the West Germans on a probe to Jupiter convention on principles governing the use by in 1983, with the British on several Explorer satel- States of artificial earth satellites for direct tele- lites, and with the Dutch on an infrared astronomy vision broadcasting” during 18 to October. 22 satellite. Priority items included remote sensing of the Earth from outer space, and the principle of prior consent for television broadcasts from space. Cooperation with Canada On October 21, the First Committee unanimously An agreement was signed on June 23, 1976, in adopted a draft resolution (sponsored by 40 coun- Washington whereby Canada will build and pro- tries including the United States) which recom- vide a Remote Manipulator System to be attached mended that the Legal Subcommittee should, as to the Space Shuttle, in return for which the U.S. matter of high priority, (a) continue to consider will provide for the use of the Shuttle by Canada a draft Moon treaty, (b) consider completing the and will also cooperate with Canada in certain re- elaboration of draft principles governing the use lated activities. by states of artificial Earth satellites for direct television broadcasting, and (c) give detailed consider- Cooperation with Japan ation to the legal implications of remote sensing of the Earth from space with the aim of formulating Space cooperation between the U.S. and Japan, draft principles on the basis of common elements as authorized by the U.S.-Japan Space Cooperation identified by it. The resolution also recommended Agreement of 1969, continued at a brisk pace dur- that the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee ing 1976 and peaked with the second successful pursue its work on matters before it, giving priority launching of Japan’s N launch vehicle. The gen- to (a) questions relating to remote sensing of the erally cooperative atmosphere was enhanced this Earth by satellite, (b) the United Nations program summer by the U.S. worldwide sharing of informa- on space applications, and (c) consideration of the tion on the Viking mission. options relating to a possible United Nations Con- Future plans call for further collaboration in ference on Outer Space matters. The resolution such projects as the launching of three Japanese also endorsed the other recommendations of the satellites in FY 1977, the continuing analysis of Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, data from the Landsat Earth resources surveying including those calling for further studies and re- system, and analysis of lunar samples. Also, Japan ports by the Secretary General. The draft resolu- has proposed a joint experiment in plasma accelera-

78 tion undertaken for the first Spacelab mission. Control involved transfer under the United dates- Chief among Japan’s priorhies is a program to de- Japanese Space Cooperation Agreement and ex- velop, with U.S. assistance, an improved N-series ports to Europe. The Department continued to launch vehicle. emphasize the export of hardware rather ‘than the technology to produce the hardware. Cooper&iota with the Soviet Union Following the publicly acclaimed Apollo-Soyuz Remote Sensing Test Project (ASTP) of 1975, cooperation in the The Department of State conducts and supports space field with the Soviet Union continued in negotiations for agreements whereby certain coun- 1976 through a variety of highly technical projects. tries provide facilities for reception and processing Some of *theseprojects are using data collected dur- of Landsat data and pay a fee, in return for which ing the test project-for example, the study of the the U.S. government provides Landsat data trans- effect of zero gravity on the resolidification proper- mitted directly from the satellite while over the ties of selected ma,terials, which in turn affect the coverage region of the station. This region is a electrical and mechanical properties of these ma- circle of about 3000 kilometers radius on the terials, and the feasibility of using the resonance Earth’s surface. The countries presently operating absorption technique for determining the chemical such stations are Canada, Italy, and Brazil. Agree- compition of the Earth’s atmosphere. ments have been reached with Iran, Zaire, and Projects not directly related to ASTP included Chile. During 1976 the renewal of a ground station the exchange of information on exploration of agreement with Brazil was negotiated, as was an Venus, with Soviet scientists reporting the results agreement with Canada for a second station in that of the Soviet Venera 9 and 10 missions, and US. country. scientists describing radar observations on Venus and the planned 1978 Pioneer (U.S.) Venus mis- Satellite Services sions. Soviet spectrometer readings of gamma radiation from Mars were analyzed by NASA and re- Communications Satellites sulted in the identification of trace amounts of The definitive agreements establishing the Inter- three additional elements (iron, oxygen, and car- national Telecommunications Satellite Organiza- bon) beyond those already found by Soviet analysis tion (INTELSAT) entered into force February 12, (thorium and potassium). Coordinated mag- 1973, and membership in INTELSAT reached netometer observations of Earth by the NASA ninty-five as of September 30, 1976, with the com- Applications Technology Satellite (ATS 6) and pletion of membership requirements by Bangla- Soviet ground stations continued. Both U.S. and desh, Mali, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. Soviet experiments will analyze ground and space- The agreements consist of an Intergovernmental craft magnetometer information using full produc- Agreement and an Operating Agreement. The U.S. tion runs of processed data tapes. The U.S. is profit- government is a party to the former, and the ing from the lunar sample exchange, since the Communications Satellite Corporation (COM- Soviet lunar exploration program, the latest being SAT) is the U.S. signatory to the latter. INTEL- Luna 24, extends to areas not reached by the U.S. SAT consists of an Assembly of Parties, a Meeting and there are no NASA programs for obtaining of Signatories, a Board of Governors, and an additional lunar material. Executive Organ under the direction of a Secretary Several programs, in preparation for some time, General responsible to the Board of Governors. only began to bear fruit during the year. Remote During 1976 COMSAT participated in the fifth sensing of agricultural crops and natural vegetation session of the Meeting of Signatories and repre- at analagous U.S. and U.S.S.R. test sites is proceed- sented the United States at the meetings of the ing according to schedule. Soviet ground truth in- Board of Governors held approximately every two formation, plus their aircraft data from the Kursk months. The Secretary General continued to pro- test site, will be most useful in the U.S. Large Area vide financial, legal. and administrative support, Crop Inventory Experiment aimed at world wheat and COMSAT provided certain technical and op- crop prediction, announced by the Secretary of as erational management services to INTELSAT State at the World Food Conference in Rome. under a contract that runs through February 11, 1979. Also during 1976, the United States govern- Technology Transfer ment participated at the Assembly of Parties held In 1976 the bulk of license requests for export of in Nairobi from September 27 to October 1. space-related hardware and technology processed In July 1976, the Board of Governors, after re- by the Department of State’s Office of Munitions viewing several proposals, authorized COMSAT as

79 Management Services Contractor to negotiate with the INMARSAT Conference. The agreements con- the Aeronutronic Ford Corporation for the Intel- sist of a Convention and an Operating Agreement. sat V program. The Board of Governors at the The Convention has been opened for signa,ture. August meeting authorized COMSAT to contract The United States is in the process of developing with Aeronutronic Ford for the procurement of the domestic procedures that would be necessary for Intelsat V spacecraft. These satellites will have a formal U.S. participation in the organization. capacity of approximately 12,000 two-way voice circuits plus two channels for color television, Amornutical Satellites almost doubling the capacity of the Intelsat IV-A satellites now being utilized. The first Intelsat V is Negotiations regarding the establishment of an scheduled for launch in 1979, and present plans experimental aeronautical communications satel- call for using the Shuttle launch vehicle for the lite system (AEROSAT) culminated with the entry last three launches in 1980-1982. As of September into force on August 2, 1974, of a Memorandum of 30, 1976, there were 150 Earth-station antennas Understanding between the Federal Aviation Ad- providing full-time service at 119 Earth stations in ministration (FAA), the European Space Research 79 countries. Organization (ESRO, now known as the European Space Agency, ESA), and the government of Mmrithe Smtellites Canada. The program to be undertaken is designed to test the use of communications satellites for air For a number of years it has been realized that traffic control and civil aviation purposes. ESA has a communications satellite system might be the selected the Communications Satellite Corporation solution to the inadequacies of the present system (COMSAT), a United States company, to be co- of communications with and between ships at sea. owner with it and Canada of the space segment to To this end the United States participated during be provided; COMSAT, in turn, will lease com- the past few years in a series of international meet- munications capabilimties to the FAA. It is planned ings convened by the Intergovernmental Maritime to launch two satellites in the late 1970s. These will Consultative Organization (IMCO) to consider a be placed in geostationary orbit over the Atlantic global maritime satellite system. The agreemenlts Ocean. It is thoughit that an operational system establishing a new International Maritime Satellite could be in place by the mid-1980s. AEROSAT Organization (INMARSAT) were comple,ted in Council meetings have been held periodically in September 1976 at the third and final session of 1976. Arms Control and XIV Disarmament Agency

Introduction end of 1976, 72 countries had ratified it and 35 countries had signed but not yet ratified. The Arms Control and Disarmament Agency is concerned with implementation of the broad goals of U.S. space policy in three areas: first, maintain- Crisis Management and Verification ing space as an environment free of military forces Using space for peacekeeping activities such as and weapons: second, preserving the use of space crisis management is an important ACDA interest for the purposes of peacekeeping, and crisis man- and has been reflected in several international agree- agement; and third, ensuring that other countries ments. The 1971 Agreement on Measures to Im- will not use space technology and equipment to prove the U.S.-U.S.S.R. Direct Communication develop strategic offensive weapons. In each of Link and the technical annex to that agreement these areas, ACDA participates in the formulation provided for a secure and direct “hotline” link of U.S. policy, in the negotiation of international between the U.S. and Soviet governments via space agreements, and in evaluating the effect of such satellite for the transmission of urgent information policies and agreements on arms control and dis- and requests for information in situations requiring armament issues. prompt clarification. The space-based communications link between the two governments, exploiting Demilitarization the capabilities of the Intelsat and Molniya com- One of the most fundamental objectives of U.S. munication satellite systems, became operational in policy relative to space is to ensure that it is not 1976. This is a significant step in the continuing used as an arena for the testing or deployment of efforts by ACDA and the U.S. Government as a military forces or weapons. Two treaties relate to whole to reduce the risk of outbreak of nuclear war. this goal. The Limited Test Ban Treaty (Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, Space Technology in Outer Space and Under Water) prohibits nuclear weapon tests or any other nuclear explosion Finally, ACDA is active in the formulation of in outer space. The Treaty was opened for signing U.S. policy on bilateral and multilateral interna- in 1963. As of the end of 1976, 105 countries had tional programs for the peaceful use of space. ratified it and 16 countries had signed but not yet ACDA seeks to discourage other countries from ratified. The Outer Space Treaty (Treaty on Prin- utilizing space technology and hardware for the ciples Governing the Activities of States in the development of strategic offensive weaponry, and Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the it participates in the reviews that precede the ex- Moon and Other Celestial Bodies) specifically bans port of U.S. space technology and hardware as well the emplacement of weapons of mass destruction in as those concerned with the export of U.S. avionics Earth orbit, on celestial bodies, or elsewhere in systems. ACDA seeks to institute and maintain outer space, and it forbids the establishment of safeguards that will minimize the possible exploita- military bases, the conduct of military maneuvers, tion of such technology and hardware for military or the testing of weapons on celestial bodies. The applications, while not curtailing legitimate trade treaty was opened for signature in 1967. As of the or discouraging international cooperation.

81 XV Department of Transportation

Introduction vided conflict alert in the high altitude sectors above 5500 meters; at year’s end, the system was The basic responsibilities of the Federal Avia- operational at 19 centers from an altitude ot 3800 tion Administration (FAA) are to ensure the safe meters and above. By the middle of 1977 all and efficient utilization of the nation’s airspace, by .ARTCCs are expected to operate the ATC system both military and civil users, and to foster the de- with a conflict alert capability extending upward velopment of civil aeronautics and air commerce. hom the base of radar coverage. To support these responsibilities, the Administra- The conflict alert system is a computer progam tion conducts a wide range of research and devel- that has been added to the centers’ central coni- opment activfties. These activities can be grouped puters, which provide service to aircraft flying into two categories: those concerned wi’th enhanc- under instrument flight rules. The system projects ing aviation safety and those designed to increase what the flight paths of aircraft will be in the next the efficiency of air navigation and air traffic con- two minutes. When their paths are projected to be trol facilities. closer than the required horizontal or vertical niinimunis established by FAA, the data tags that Aviation Safety identify the aircraft (which appear on the con- FAA’s research, development, and engineering trollers’ radar scope) begin to blink and the words programs in aviation safety include activities de- “conflict alert” appear next to a separate display signed to demonstrate the technical, operational, of aircraft identities. The controller is thereby and economic feasibility of improving the opera- alerted to the possibility of a conflict and radios tional performance of aircraft, as well as efforts to one of the pilots to give him a new heading or raise the performance standards for pilots and altitude to keep the aircraft safely separated. FAA other airmen. A program looking into means of standards require a 9-kilometer horizontal separa- deterring or preventing acts of terrorism or other tion or a 300-meter vertical separation between violence aboard aircraft and at airports is being aircraft flying in controlled en route airspace in vigorously pursued. An applied research program the contiguous 48 states. in aviation medicine seeks to identify and eliminate biomedical factors in aviation accidents and to im- Wind Shear prove the performance, health, and safety of pilots, ground personnel, and passengers. The knowledge Since early 1971, six air carrier accidents have acquired in all of these programs enables the occurred in which wind shear was a major con- agency to improve contemporary and future air- tributing factor. Wind shear-the change in speed craft and ensure the issuance of appropriate new or direction of wind encountered by descending standards, certification criteria, and regulations. or ascending aircraft-can have an immediate and dynamic effect on an aircraft; at a low altitude, it Conflict Alert can be extremely hazardous. During 1976, FAA collected data to define the hazard and to find Early in 1976 FAA completed the installation of ground-based and airborne solutions. Several prom- its confliot alert system, which flashes a warning ising methods were investigated in flight simula- signal on the radar displays used by air route tors; these methods will be employed during 1977 traffic controllers to alert them when aircraft are in flight tests. A ground based detection and warn- potentially in conflict with each other. By January, ing system was installed at Dulles International all 20 Air Route Traffic Control Centers Airport. In addition, the agency made arrange- (ARTCCs) in the contiguous 48 states had comments with the National Weather Service to under- pleted the initial step of the program, which pro- take the prediction of wind shear conditions at

82 several east coast airports during the 19761977 fall Auktion Security and winter seasons. FAA’s civil aviation security program is designed to prevent or deter acts of terrorism or sabotage- Fire Safety i.e., hijacking, bomb threats, and actual bombings -aboard aircraft and at airports. The objectives of If the severity of postcrash fires could be reduced, the time for emergency evacuation would be in- the R&D phase of this program are to conceive, creased. During 1976, FAA completed laboratory design, develop, test, and evaluate new devices and ancillary equipment, as well as evaluate and assess burn tests of materials currently used in cabin interiors. The gases generated by these materials existing devices, that will detect dangerous objects -handguns, explosives, and other weapons. During were ranked according to degree oE toxic hazard. 1976, FAA Concurrently a fire management study established the relative merilts of various methods of prevent- Conducted a one-year airport operational eval- ing or controlling post-crash fires. An attempt was uation of an automatic device designed to made to determine the pantition geometry required detect handguns and explosives hidden in to interrupt the spread of fires (including flash handcarried luggage. The device employed fires) and determine the adverse effects of fresh air x-ray absorption #technology.The development feeding a cabin fire. A mathematical model was of a similar device for checked baggage is un- developed to simulate cabin fire propagation on a derway. computer; after refinement, this model will predict Evaluated a personnel explosive detector based cabin flammability characteristics quickly without on vapor-sensing technology. actual burn tests. Full-scale burn tests were con- Completed a laboratory determination of ex- ducted on a surplus C-133 transport fuselage to plosive vapor characteristics. verify the concepts. The fire hazard potential oE Experimented with locker designs in an effort typical flight attendant uniforms was also tested to to determine how t.0 minimize the exposure improve fire safety standards for these garments. of people to explosions at airports. At year’s end, FAA was in the process of establish- Studied the feasibility of a thermal neutron ing a permanent full-scale fire-test facility. explosive detector system and a nuclear mag- In another fire-research project, FAA and the netic resonance explosive detector system and U.S. Navy conducted small-scale crash simulation began ,the development of engineering proto- tests using modified fuel to assess the range of crash types. conditions in which the crash fireball could be prevented. Aviation Medicine The primary purpose of FAA’s medical research General Aviation Safety program is to increase pilot and aircrew effective- FAA’s research and development efforts are ness. This is a high priority objective because directed at a variety of general aviation safety human error or failure ranks as a major cause of problems-crash survivabilimty, pilot competence, aircraft accidents. An additional objective of the and flight safety. Primary emphasis is placed on program, also of high priority, is the search for improving the crash-worthiness of light planes, the improved means for aircrew and passenger surviv- need for flight safety improvements to prevent ability during various emergencies. crashes, and reducing pilot-related causes of crashes. Among Ithe more significant aeromedical studies During 1975 and 1976, FAA developed a mathe- conducted during 1976 were the following: matical technique for analyzing the responses ot A study was conducted on the supplemental- light-aircraft airframes to the dynamic loads that oxygen needs of working flight attendants occur during a survivable crash. The technique during decompression. Men and women flight will be validated by full-scale crash tests in co- attendants were exposed, both while at work operation with NASA. Concurrently, a technique and at rest, to the decompression profile re- for predioting occupant, seat, and restraint-system ported for a DC-10 decompression in 1973 over responses to crash loads, which had been validated Albuquerque, New Mexico. The study showed earlier, was integrated into the airframe model. that even mild to moderate work markedly This study is expected to provide the basis for reduced the time of useful consciousness; this revised structural standards for light aircraf’t; it was equally true for males and females. The is also expected to provide a mathod that can be study further showed that to remain conscious used to demonstrate compliance with the new during that decompression, attendants had to st andar$s. obtain supplemental oxygen within 15 seconds.

83 Recommendations for flight attendant pro- vices by 1985 and a near tripling of demand in cedures during decompression have been made. 1990. Much of the equipment now in use is de- Computerized data from medical examinations teriorating and/or obsolete. Although advanced of airmen were studied to determine the value technology has been successfully utilized to auto- of periodic medical assessments. Particular at- mate the en route and the terminal elements of tention was paid to the frequency with which the air traffic conltrol (ATC) system, none of this safety-significant medical information had available technology has been applied to flight ser- been discovered for various age groups. The vice stations. Weather data are distributed by tele- results of the study, and a companion review type and displayed on flight service specialists of medical literature dealing with periodic clipboards-a most awkward and inefficient opera- medical examinations, will be used in de- tion. The importance of accurate and timely weather termining the optimum frequency for airman reporting to the safety of general aviation flights examinations. should be stressed. One study has shown that from Studies of National Transportation Safety 1964 through 1972, 2026 weather-involved accidents Board Data have shown thlat the greatest per- killed 47 14 persons. These fatal weather-involved centage of aircraft accidents occur during the accidenlts represent 36.6 percent of the total general approach4to-landing phase of flight operations. aviation accidents for the period studied. Misperception and incorrect judgments oE Simply stated, the major problem facing the distance and altitude are major factors. FAA FSS is to provide means to satisfy the demand on conducted certain baseline studies on pilots the system in a more efficient, less costly manner performing approach and landing operations while at the same time enhancing safety. in a visual flight simulator. The resul’ts of this Recognizing the growing urgency of the prob- and similar studies will help in improving lem, the Department of Transportation in the fall visual approach slope aids for airports. of 1971 formed the joint Office of the Secretary (OST) /Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Air Traffic Control and Air Navigation Flight Service Station Evaluation Team to analyze FAA’s R&D is also directed at improving the existing and projected FSS functions and develop Federal airways system by applying existing tech- recommendations for an improved FSS design. The nology to air traffic control and air navigation prob- report of the OST/FAA (team recommended a new lems. The aim is to keep (the current system FSS concept employing automation to replace the operating safely with maximum efficiency and to existing labor-intensive system. A key feature was provide for the expansion of the system to meet flight plan filming through remotely located ter- foreseeable future needs. minals with little or no assistance from a flight service specialist. Automation would disseminate the vast amount of weather data in a more efficient Flight Service Station Modmrzktion manner, improving service, safery, and cost. In October 1976, FAA’s Flight Service System Building on this conceptual base, FAA initiated (FSS) was composed of 292 stations in the con- a program of system design analyses backed up by tiguous 48 states with an authorized staffing of selected experiments. A very significanlt step in this 4653 flight service specialists. The system was sup- system development was the design, fabrication, ported by 147 radio direction finder locations, 54 and evaluation of a flight service specialist automa- remote and 476 limited-remote airlground com- tion system designated AWANS (Aviation Weather munications outlets, and 861 VOR/VORTAC and NOTAMs System). AWANS has two principal navigation facilities. In FY 1975, the system pro- objectives: first, to improve the timeliness and vided approximately 58 million flight services, of usability of the weather and NOTAM (Notices to which 16 million were pilot weather briefings; 8 Airmen) information to the flight service specialist million flight plans were filed. These services were (and t’o the ultimate user, the pilot); second, to provided to all of the flying public including sched- improve the productivity of the system by making uled air carriers and the military; however, the all of the data necessary for a briefing readily largest customer by far fur the FSS is general avia- available to the briefer. The system employs mini- tion, now approximately 161,000 aircraft. computers to accept, process, and store the required Present operations are highly labor-intensive. In alphanumeric infomation available in today’s sys- too many cases a pilot must be provided a weather tem. This information can be called up for im- briefing for his intended route of flight by a flight mediate use on cathode ray tube video displays by service specialist. The problem is compounded by flight service specialist. The system also accepts the projected doubling of demand for flight ser- and provides a video display of weather radar information available from National Weather Service link will be the basis for a ground-based collision radars. This system is currently in operation at the avoidance service called Intermittent Positive Con- Atlanta Flight Service Station and has received trol. Air traffic control computers will track aircraft enthusiastic acceptance by the flight service spe- using transponder and other information and flash cialists there. The installation is serving as a a warning when potential traffic conflicts are de- functional prototype for further system develop- tected. Moreover, since DABS has a much higher ad- ment. dress capacity than present radar units (16,777,216 The next step in system development was the versus 4096), it will permit the assignment of a co-location and consolidation of the Washington permanent identity code to all aircraft presently Flight Service Station at the Washington Air Route in operation and to those to come in the foresee- Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) at Leesburg, able future. Virginia. The consolidation has two objectives: In March 1976, FAA ordered $11.9 million (1) demonstration of the operational concept ot worth of DABS equipment, including three ground co-locajting a flight service station with an sensors and 30 airborne transponders. The ground ARTCC, sensors will be co-located with radars at FAA’s Na- (2) demonstration of the concept of performing tional Avialtion Facilities Experimental Center the functions of several FSS facilities at a (NAFEC) at Atlantic City, New Jersey; Philadel- single site. phia International Airport; and at Elwood, New Jersey. The airborne transponders will be installed This project consists of several phases: in air carrier and general aviation aircraft. Multi- (1) relocate and reestablish the Washington site testing of the three engineering models is not flight service station into existing space in expected to begin before 1978. the Washington ARTCC (completed) , (2) install an interim (off-the-shelf) video dis- Microwave Landing System (MU) play system (completed), (3) replace the interim video display system with This system is one of the most important ele- an automated system identical to the Atlanta ments of FAA’s Upgraded Third Generation ATC AWANS, System. The present instrument landing system (4) remote the functions of several adjacent (ILS), which is based largely on (the technology of flight service stations into the relocated the 1940s, has a number of drawbacks: it can pro- Washington flight service station, all to be vide flight path information for only one approach completed by the summer of 1977. path; terrain, structures, and aircraft interfere with Discrete Address Beacon System (DABS). This its signals; its limisted number of frequency chan- system is a key element of FAA’s plans for the nels cannot meet future growth demands. The evolutionary upgrading of its automated air traffic MLS, presently under development by FAA, over- control system to accommodate the projected traffic comes all of these limitations. Development began loads of the 1980s and beyond. Essentially, DABS in the early 1970s and is now in its $third phase- is an advanced version of the present air traffic prototype development and evaluation. control radar beacon system-also known as “sec- Over the last 24 months, FAA has been testing ondary radar”-in which an airborne transponder an experimental MLS configuration at NAFEC. In signals aircraft identity and altitude when triggered mid-1976, the agency took delivery of two proto- by signals from ground interrogator antennas type MLS configurations from each of two con- mounted on a radar reflector screen. This informa- tractors. One configuration (the secalled Basic tion is processed and displayed directly on the Narrow Configuration) is designed for use at air radar scopes used by air traffic controllers. The carrier airports; the other (the Small Community chief advantage of DABS is ilts capability to interro- system) is designed for use at general aviation air- gate and receive a transponded reply from a specific ports. One Small Community Configuration and aircraft rather than from all aircraft in the zone of one Basic Narrow Configuration were deployed at coverage, as is the case with the present radar NAFEC; the second Basic Configuration was in- beacon equipment. This would help eliminate one stalled at Crow’s Landing, California. The second problem in high-density traffic areas-the over- Small Community system will be delivered to lapping and garbling of transponder replies from NAFEC early in 1977. The Configurations are be- aircraft flying close to one another. ing deployed to provide maximum participation in Since DABS addresses aircraft on an individual the testing and demonstration by both military and basis, it provides a natural means for a data link civil pilots. between aircraft and the ground-a link that can Meanwhile, in December 1975, the United States be used for aultomatic communications. The data submitted its adopted version of the microwave landing system-a configuration employing a time- NAS En Route Stage A reference scanning beacon technique-to the Inter- Steps were also taken to enhance the capabilities national Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) for of the automated en rouste system, NAS En Route consideration as the standard international system. Stage A, which is operational at all 20 ARTCCs in During 1976 ICAO’s All Weather Operations the contiguous 48 states, by launching a long- Panel witnessed demonstrations of the U.S. system. term software development program. Several types ICAO is expected to select an international stand- of computer program developments were con- ard during 1977. tracted for. One involves a redesign of the present computer program to improve efficiency and to Atctolnated Radar Terminal System ZZZ (ARTS) increase computer storage and processing capacity. The additional capacity is needed to accoinmodatc In 1975, FAA completed the installation of air traffic growth and allow addition of new auto- ARTS 111, its automated terminal system, at 61 mation functions. Other development activities in- major terminal areas in the contiguous 48 states. volve software changes required to accommodate In 1976, the agency took the initial step in enhanc- 5UCh upgraded features as DABS, collision avoiding the capabilities of this system when it con- ance, and FSS automation. tracted to provide 29 of the higher density termi- Additionally, the contractor will develop the fol- nals with primary radar tracking and improved lowing new ATC automation functions: beacon tracking. In addition, all 61 ARTS I11 Flight Plan Conflict Probe. This will provide systems will be provided with continuous radar controllers with computer assistance in the long- recording capabilities. range planning of conflict-free paths through en At present, ARTS 111 displays alphanumeric route airspace. The computer will update flight data tags on radar scopes only for those aircraft plans, check an aircraft’s intended flight path, de- equipped with a transponder for automatic report- termine potential conflicts, and suggest alternatives ing of identity and altitude. The data tags show to correct potential conflicts. this information as well as the computed ground Contiol Message Automation. This will process speed of the aircraft. The enhanced ARTS I11 will two-way communications with aircraft using data enable controllers to put data stags on the radar link. The system will generate a variety of aircraft scope for aircraft without a transponder, per- control messages such as ATC command, restric- mitting continuous identification. tions, and weather advisories. At the same time, FAA contracted for the instal- Conflict Resolution. This is an extension of the lation of an enhanced ARTS I11 system in the Conflict Alert program (see that heading). It will New York terminal radar control room (TRA- use flight plan and tracking data to give the con- CON). The New York ARTS I11 will have troller suggested resolutions to potential conflicts. all the enhanced capabilities mentioned above, En Route Meteiing. This function will help plus the capability to process data from four radar regulate air traffic passing from en route to termi- and beacon systems. Ground-breaking for ‘the New nal airspace conltrol. Because acceptance rates may York TRACON building took place in July at be exceeded by many nearly simultaneous arrivals Mitchel Field, Long Island. The new installation during bad weather, smoothing the traffic flow is will replace the present Common IFR Room at needed to prevent overloads in the terminal area John F. Kennedy International Airport, which and to minimize fuel consumption. Metering will controls aircraft approaching and departing Ken- aid the controller in sequencing traffic en route nedy, La Guardia, and Newark Airports as well as and adjusting the rate of flow into the terminal several small airports in the New York area. airspace.

86 XVI The Srnithsonian Institution

Introduction identified and an expanded map of the heavens as seen in x-ray range was prepared. The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and An x-ray experiment using a two-dimensional the National Air and Space Museum, as bureaus low-resolution mirror and imaging system was of the Smi,thsonian Institution, contribute directly flown aboard a rocket. In addition to observations to national goals in aeronautics and space science of extragalaotic x-ray sources, the experiment ob- both through active research in geophysics and tained data that produced the first x-ray map of the astrophysics and programs of public education and Perseus cluster of galaxies, showing both extended information. emission regions and the galaxy NGC 1275. That galaxy is the most intense source of x-ray emission Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory discovered. The research programs of the Smithsonian Astro- Work continued on the experiments scheduled physical Observatory are coordinated wilth those of for flight aboard the upcoming NASA series of the Harvard College Observatory in a cooperative High Energy Astron,omy Observatory (HEAO) venture known as the Center for Astrophysics. satellites. the first of which is planned for late 1977. With over 140 scientists and 300 supporting staff A major efforlt has been devoted to construction of members both in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and the cosmic x-ray telescope aboard the HEAO-B, at field stations around the world, the center repre- due to fly in 1978. This telescope will be capable sents this nation’s largest observatory. The joint of detecting tens of thousands of x-ray sources, some scientific program includes investigations in most more distant than the most distant galaxies now major topics of modern astronomy, with special seen from ground-based telescopes. emphasis on space science projects in the fields of high-energy astrophysics, optical and infrared Geoastronomy astronomy, lunar science, solar and stellar physics, and geoastronomy. The Observatory operates a worldwide network of tracking stations equipped with both optical High Energy Astrophysics telescopes and laser ranging systems to observe the precise positions of artificial satellites and uses the The first deteotion of giant bursts of x-ray emis- resulting data to extract dnformation about the sion from the centers of globular clusters of stars Eanth’s shape, gravitational field, and upper atmos- was made by Observatory scientists working with phere. data taken by an experiment aboard the Astro- Lageos, an extremely dense, mechanically and nomical Netherlands Satellite (ANS) . The sudden electrically inert satellite fitted with retroreflectors burst of energy, comparable to the 30-fold bright- designed by Observatory scientists, was launched ening of an optical object, was seen from a cluster by NASA on May 4. The satellite, which has an in the constellation Sagittarius. Subsequently, at orbital lifetime estimated in millions of years, will least another dozen of these so-called “x-ray serve as a stable reference for ground-based laser bursters” were identified, primarily by a team from tracking stations, including those of the Observa- the Massachusetts Institute of Technology using tory, thus providing data on crustal movements, data from the Small Astronomy Satellite (SASS), polar motion, and variations in the rotation of the but also by Observatory scientists using ANS and Earth. At an altitude of 5900 kilometers and with a Uhuru data. magnitude of 13, the Lageos satellite was thought Smithsonian scientists also participated in the too faint to be acquired by the network’s cameras; reduction of data returned earlier from the Uhuru however, the station at Hawaii photographed the x-ray satellite. Some 50 new x-ray sources were satellite on its first orbit, just 90 minutes after

87 launch, and other nctwork cameras photographed was devoted to removing propagation errors from the object shortly thereafter. The Mt. Hopkins, raw measurements of the relative velocity between Arizona, laser obtained returns within 3 days after the Apollo spacecrafit and the ASTP docking launch, and, within two months, more than 16,000 module, with the resulting data to be inverted into range measurements were achieved by the Observa- gravity-field anlomalies. These data also represent tory’s laser network. During the nexit four years, valuable horizontal sounding samples of the iono- geophysicists hope to obtain range data (laser-to- sphere at the 220-kilometer orbital height. satellite distance) accurate to 10 centimeters, with Raw data on thermospheric composition ob- the distances between the ground stations measured tained by the gas analyzer on the polar-orbiting to comparable accuracies. By the 1980s, this ac- satellite Esro 4 were reduced for use in an analysis curacy is expected to be 2 centimeters, m about of upper atmosphere properties. In studies of the the distance that Europe and North America are disturbed thermosphere, the increase of the exo- suspected of drifting aparlt annually. spheric temperature over quiet conditions was On June 16, an Observatory-designed-and-built found to be a function of the planetary geomag- hydrogen maser clock, so accurate ‘that it varies netic index K, and of the magnetic invariant only 1 second in 10 million years, was launched by latitude. Local changes in temperature are accom- NASA on a 2-hour suborbital flight to test. the panied by variations in the height of the homo- equivalence principle, a cornerstone of Einstein’s pause, which, in turn, caused large changes in theory of general relativity. In the test, time aboard composition. The atmospheric perturbation propa- the spacecraft was measured against a duplicate gates toward the equator, where a density wave is ground-based clock to an accuracy of 1 part in observed 8 hours after a magnetic disturbance. According to theory, the space clock should run faster once free of the Earth’s gravitational field. Solar and Stellar Physics The payload reached an altitude of 10,000 kilometers with a flight time of 1 hour 56 minutes. The Observatory scientists continued their analysis of probe maser functioned properly throughout the solar data obtained by Harvard experiments aboard flight, as did the ground-based equipment. Initial the Skylab satellite during the 1973-1974 flights. analysis of the data, considered some 100 times Thousands of photographs were taken by two dif- more accurate than any previous ground-based ex- ferent instruments-one sensitive t’o ultraviolet periments, indicates that the principle of equiva- emissions, the other to x-rays. The analyses have lence is correct to high accuracy. resulted in detailed numerical models describing In support of research in geodesy, geophysics, the physical mechanisms for energy flow in the and the upper atmosphere, satellite-tracking opera- Sun’s corona and the acceleration of the solar wind. tions were conducted in close cooperation with It has been found that the solar wind, which NASA, the Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales, and strikes the Earth, is contr’olled by a magnetic field the Institut fur Angewandte Geodasie. As coordi- deep within the Sun. This discovery has major nator of all internaticonal laser networks, the Ob- implications for understanding physical processes servatory provided orbital elements, scheduling, and motions below the solar surface. Moreover, this and general operational support for all the over- discovery may allow Earth-bound investigators to seas lasers participating in the campaign to track predict periods of solar-wind activity through ob- the Geos 3 satelhte. Laser data were also acquired servations of changes in the Sun’s suSface. on a number of other retroreflector satellites for Laboratory studies of atomic and molecular pro- use in the development of the gravity field and cesses were used in theoretical studies of the geodetic models of the Earth. thermosphere of the Earth, for comparison with An analytical theory for determining the non- the in situ measurements obtained by the NASA gravitational effects of solar radiation pressure, Atmospheric Explorer Satellite system, to obtain albedo pressure, and infrared pressure on artificial a quantitative understanding of the physical and satellites was developed for the first time. The chemical processes. The absorption of solar extreme primary theory of satellite motion was carried to ultraviolet radiation and photoeleatrons in the at- third order, with the potential development of an mosphere and the phot’ochemical equilibrium in accuracy of better than 1 centimeter for satellilte concentrations have been calculated. Using the applications in geodesy and geophysics. satellite observations, information on the free oxy- Ionospheric data collected by the Doppler track- gen concentration, the total ionization rate due to ing experiment on the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project to the solar ultraviolet flux, and the thermal budget (ASTP) of 1975 were reduced. This experiment of the ionosphere can be obtained. Some prelimi- was designed to detect large concentrations of mass nary studies of the upper atmosphere of Jupiter in the Earth beneath the satellites. Work this year and Mars have been carried out.

88 Lam Scieme orbiter; and the Apollo 11 spacecraft, Columbia, which carried the first men to a landing on the The Observa,tory continues its research on lunar Moon. and meteorite samples, with Observatory scientists instrumental in organizing two consortia to coordi- The National Air and Space Museum uses its nate research in lunar geology. One of these, the collections in twenty-three major exhibition galleries Consortium Indomitabile, worked on samples from to tell the story of flight. Gallery names include a large lunar boulder; the other, the Consortium Exhibition Flight, the Hall of Air Transportation, Imbrium, was formed to study ejecta from the World War I Aviation, Benefits from Flight, Space Imbrium basin. In addition, the analysis of solar- Hall, Flight Technology, and Life in the Universe, wind gases trapped in the lunar materials has to cite a few. placed an upper limit on the amount of tritium The efforts of research and design leading to the in the solar wind and has allowed a positive iden- new museum are believed to constitute by far the tification of carbon 14. largest and most ambitious single museum development program ever mounted. The galleries have Optical and lnfrured Astronomy been developed to present the many dimensions of flight in ways understandable (and frequently en- - Ground-based optical observations have been joyable) to the visitor, and ‘to supply much infor- made in conjunction with x-ray data provided by mation about the technology, science, and history satellites to study the properties of highly con- of flight never presented before to the general densed objects interacting with normal companions public. in binary systems. An identification of these bodies and studies of their variability were made, both on Two major presentation centers augment the short and 1,ong time scales. Intensive studies were museum’s exhibit complex, providing visual siniu- made of the centers of globular clusters that emit lations of aeronautical and space flight not pre- x-ray bursts in a search for optical clues to this viously available. These are the Spcearium, a unusual phenomenon. A study of abundances in 21-meter d’omed chamber housing a planetarium Sirius has been conducted to see whether mass and many additional projectors for astronomy and transfer between it and its companion could have space (travel presentations, and the Theater, in affected nucleosynthesis in this system. Ultraviolet which a five-story-high motion picture is projected studies of x-ray sources will be made with the In- to convey the realities of flight. The automated ternational Ultraviolet Explorer satellite. planetarium was presented to the Unilted States by the Federal Republic of Germany as their bicen- A 1-meter ballmn-borne telescope program con- tennial gift. tinues with support from NASA. Although both scheduled flights in 1976 were cancelled due to Public acceptance of the new museum was in- failure of the gyropointing control, future flights stantaneous and dramatic. One million visitor? will carry a four-color far-infrared photometer were recorded during Ithe first 3$$ weeks; three developed by the University of Palermo and a high million during the first 3 months; and between 5 resolution Fourier transform spectrometer designed and 6 million during the museum’s first six months, and constructed by the Observatory with NASA breaking all records for museum attendance. The support. museum is in full operation, encompassing an aeronautical and space flight library, an education op- The National Air and Space Museum eration with programs directed at all ages, and a research program directed at studies and publica- July 1, 1976, marked the opening of the National tions about the technology and history of flight. Air and Space Museum building on the Mall in Washington. This new facilicy of the Smithsonian Flight Experiments Institution was developed to present and exemplify to the public the technology, science, and history of Museum scientists coordinated the analysis ol flight. Its opening, on time and wi,thin budget, both verbal descriptions and some 1400 photo- constituted a major bicentennial event. graphs of terrestrial features made by crew meni- The museum was developed around the national bers on the 1975 Apollo-Soyuz mission. These data collections of aircraft and spacecraft which include were used to support research in the fields of geol- the first airplane in the world, the Wright Brothers’ ogy, oceanography, hydrology, and meteorology. Kitty Hawk Flyer; Lindberg’s Spirit of St. Louis; The analysis program was pursued in cooperation the X-1, the first supersonic airplane; Friendship with USGS, NOAA, and several other research 7, which was the first American manned earth- institultions in the United States and abroad.

89 Lunur Research are also applicable to major basins elsewhere on the Moon well on Mars arid Mercury. Photogeologic studies of the Mare Smythii region as as on the east limb of the Moon continued. The Cooperation continued with NASA in the lunar Smythii basin is of geologic interest because it is mapping program, particularly through participa- located between the Moon’s near and far sides and tion in the “Lunar Photographic and Cartographic because it is only partially filled with basaltic Committee,” to choose sites for future mapping. lavas. Several unusual multi-ringed craters occur Museum personnel also contributed to the interna- within the basin; and studies of the most well- tional program to name the Moon’s surface features. developed crater, Haldane, indicate these features Nomenclature proposals were presen,ted at the 16th may have resulted from extensive modification by General Assembly of the International Astronomical volcanism, with many aspects common to terres- Union. A computer program was devised for the trial calderas. lunar nomenclature file used by both government The Museum’s extensive collection of lunar and private cartographers. photographs and maps was also used to study sinuous rilles in the Harbinger Mountains region Comparative Planetology of the Moon. The data indicate a slope-controlled orientation and a genetic relation to volcanic fea- Studies of desert landforms were begun as the tures, thus lending support to the theory that the first step in a program of comparative planetary rilles formed as lava channels or tubes. research. Specifically, a synthesis of photogeologic The southeastern Mare Serenitatis area of the interpretations and ground-truth information was Moon has been mapped at a scale of 1:250,000. Data made on eolian landforms .in ‘the Western Desert of sources included Apollo photographs, analyses of Egypt. Photographs of this desert display some dune samples from the Apollo 17 site, and results of shapes and wind-blown features reminiscent of Apollo orbital geochemical and geophysical sensors. dunes and streaks formed by wind action on Mars. Based on struotural relationships within this area, Correlations between these similar features proved a geologic history of the Serenitatis basin was de- significant in understanding photographs returned duced. The resul ting sequences of tectonic events by the Mariner and Viking spacecraft.

90 XVII United States Information Agency

1 I

Introduction Secret of Mars,” etc. Other space-related magazine articles focused on communications and weather The United States Information Agency (USIA) satellites, Mariner and Pioneer space exploration, maintains United States Information Service (USIS) and the new Air and Space Museum in Washington. posts in 112 countries with 253 information centers Over 500 copies of a news packet, “Space: the and libraries and domestic support facilities for New Frontier,” were distributed to overseas posts press, radio, TV, and film. The Agency’s Voice of and to foreign correspondents in New York and America operates 113 transmitters with broadcasts Washington. This packet contained articles and in 36 languages. The agency also produces sixteen pictures, including a preview of the Viking project. worldwide and regional magazines, TV programs, and major exhibits. USIA officers serving at posts The AIDSAT demonstration program was an- abroad provide a link with local opinion leaders other space event which received continuing sup- and promote contact between U.S. and local experts. port. In July a special new packet, “Satellite Tech- Space and aeronautics are important matters in the nology Benefits Developing Nations,” was sent to Agency’s public affairs mission, since they are a mark the 35 posts involved in the demonstration, and of U.S. expertise in science and technology. copies were distributed to foreign correspondents in the U.S. Agency articles on this project received In USIA programming the three most significant excellent placement in the foreign press. US. space events in 1976 were the NASA Viking landing on Mars, the AID demonstration in developing countries of satellite technology (AID- Films and Television SAT), and the USIA worldwide, satellite-beamed, bicentennial TV program “Salute by Satellite.” A Fifteen “SaluLe by Satellite” programs which review of foreign media reaction to ‘the Viking land- covered bicentennial celebrations of various ethnic ing showed that the world press gave prominent groups were produced and beamed in July as a part coverage of the landing. USIS pasts advised and of the bicentennial. An introduction by President assisted on Ithe AIDSAT project in countries in East Ford was transmitted to 32 countries; Vice President Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America. As a Rockefeller hosted the Spanish-language programs demonstration of the benefits of satellites for survey- for Latin America. These programs were carried by ing natural resources and for communication to TV stations around the world and were seen by an remote areas, the project was a media success. audience of approximately 100 million. Twelve monthly issues of the film and TV pro- Press and Publications gram “Science Reprt” were produced and distributed. Six of these had a NASA topic-the Apollo- Fifty-three of the 92 space-related press stories Soyuz Iink-up, Mariner 10, Landsat satellites, prepa- sent to USIS posts via the Agency Wireless File were rations for the Space Shuttle, and an introductory on Viking. Most were written by staff science writ- story on the Viking project. The sixth report, on ers, but some were commissioned articles from such the touchdown of Viking 1 and the preliminary authorities as Carl Sagan, Isaac Asimov, Arthur C. Clarke, and Wernher von Braun. The remaining scientific results from Mars, was the first oompre- items were on weather and communications satel- hensive TV account to be released worldwide. It lite programs, other NASA space research, and the was telecast in 81 countries and shown as a film in Space Shuttle. many others. Most Agency magazines carried Viking stories USIA produced special programs on solar energy, this year, Titles give some idea of the content: “Mis- spin-offsfrom the space program, satellite communi- sion to Mars,” “Viking on Mars,” “Probing the cation, and the opening of the National Air and

91 Space Museum. The= were distributed on video peared at the 25th anniversary observance of the casettes. One 60-minute casette-“Satellites, Ser- Hermann Oberth Society in Bremen, Germany. vant, from the Sky”-was shown in the American Press conferences on Viking Mars explorations were Pavillion in Yugoslavia at the Zagreb Space Exhibit. arranged for Cornel1 Universi,ty astronomer Carl In addition the Agency continued to distribute Sagan in Paris and London. abroad documentary films such as NASA’s “Mission of Apollo-Soyuz” and the National Science Founda- Radio tion’s “Invisible Universe.” Voice of America (VOA) in 1976 reported on Information Centers and Exhibits the here-and-now benefits and future directions of The U.S. crew of the historic Apllo-Soyuz mis- space research. Features, interviews, and discussion sion traveled to North Africa and the Middle East programs covered topics ranging from astronaut- under USIA auspices. In public appearances and type meals for the elderly to prospects for a space private meetings the crew explained the scientific station; from the use of satellites for locust control work accomplished during the flights and their ob- in Algeria to their role in uniting the world through servati’ons from space of several of the nations they communications. During the year there were more visited. The astronauts were received by heads of than 800 different features and reports in various state and other high government officials, top scien- languages on US. space activities. Months before tists, and academic leaders. Dr. Farouk El Baz of the the Viking landings, VOA interviewed NASA offi- Smiithsonian National Air and Space Museum ex- cials who described the Viking spacecraft and mis- plained the potential economic and scientific values sion. The landing of Viking 1 was described, live of the Apollu-Soyuz mission. from Pasadena, on broadcasts in English, Russian, A live demonstration was given in six countries Chinese, and Spanish. Correspondents at the Jet in Southeast Asia on the educational use of modern Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) gave spot-reports on communications technology for developing nations. the progress of the search for life on Mars. As the In Zagreb, five U.S. specialists joined Yugoslav spe- first picture from the surface of Mars appeared strip cialists to discuss applications of satellites and space by strip on the JPL screens, scientists explained for technology in contemporary problems. VOA listeners what was being seen by man for the A satellimte communications exhibit was pant of first time. Millions of Central and South American the U.S. exhibit at the Zagreb Trade Fair. Two listeners heard the VOA Spanish “simulcast” as re- other exhibits, both entitled “Treasures of Space,” layed by their own local radio and television sta- were shown in ten cities in Africa and the Middle tions. Similar coverage was given to Viking 2. A spe- East. Six Moon rocks, astronaut equipment, and cial feature, “Martian Perspective,” reviewed the re- models of satellites were shown separately in various sults of the Viking mission with scientists Gerald areas. Soffen, Michael McElroy, Carl Sagan, and Harold Skylab mission commander Gerald P. Carr visited Klein. East Berlin under USIA sponsorship. Other astro- VOA correspondents traveled to various locations nauts also lectured for USIA during the year. Alan to report on space activities in the U.S. Multi- J. Bean talked about his experiences as the fourth lingnal broadcasts covered conferences at the Ames man on the Moon and about his preparation for Research Center, California, and at Philadelphia the Space Shuttle. R’onald E. Evans spoke at the and Cape Canaveral. Michael Collins, formes opening of the European Space Technology Center astronaut and Director of ‘the new Air and Space in the Hague, and at a meeting of the Swedish Space Museum, acted as host in a special feature on the Board in Stockholm. Astronaut Karl G. Henize ap- opening of the Museum in Washington.

92 Appendixes

Earth orbit Earth escape Earth orbit Earth escape Year Year Success Failure Success Failure Success Failure Success Failure

1957 ...... 0 1 0 0 1967 ...... 78 4 10 0 1958 ...... 5 8 0 4 1968 ...... 61 15 3 0 1959 ...... 9 9 1 2 1969 ...... 58 1 8 1 1960 ...... 16 12 1 2 1970 ...... 36 1 3 0 1961 ...... 35 12 0 2 1971 ...... 45 2 8 1 1962 ...... 55 12 4 1 1972 ...... 33 2 8 0 1963 ...... 62 11 0 0 1973 ...... 23 2 3 0 1964 ...... 69 8 4 0 1974 ...... 27 2 1 0 1965 ...... 93 7 4 1 1975 ...... 30 4 4 0 1966 ...... 94 12 7 ‘1 1976 ...... 33 0 1 0 Total ...... 862 125 70 15

APPENDIXA-2 World Record of Space Launchings Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond

Japan RepublicPeople’s Australia KingdomUnited United U.S.S.R. France Italy Year States of China ...... 3 ...... 6 ...... 20 ...... 1964 ...... 57 30 ...... 1965 ...... 63 48 ...... 1 ...... 1966 ...... 73 44 ...... 1 ...... 1967 ...... 57 66 ...... 2 ...... l...... 1 ...... 1968 ...... 45 1969 ...... 40 1970 ...... 28 1971 ...... SO ...... 1 1972 ...... So 74 ...... ‘1 ...... 1 ...... 1973 ...... 23 86 ...... 1974 ...... 22 81 ...... ’2 ...... l...... 1975 ...... 27 89 ...... 3 ...... 1 ...... 2 ...... 1976 ...... 26 Total ...... 671

Includes foreign launchings of U.S. spatecraft. spacecraft. Some launches did successfully orbit multiple NOTE:This tabulation enumerates launchings rather than spacecraft. A~PENDIXA3 Successful U.S. Launches-1976

Apogee and perigee Launch date (G.m.t.) (kilometers) Spacecraft name Spacecraft data Period Remarks Cospar designation (minutes) Launch vehicle Inclination to equator (degrees)

Jan. 15 Objective: To investigate the fundamental solar Helio- Second West German-built satellite Helios 2 processes and solar terrestial relationships by the centric successfully launched by NASA SA study of phenomena such as solar wind, magnetic orbit into elliptical solar orbit. Space- Titan IIIE-Cerrtaur and electric fields, cosmic rays, and cosmic dust. craft orbit will take it closer to The basic mission extends from launch to the Sun than any man-made object first perihelion (approximately 0.31 A.U. and 90 has achieved to date (43 million days after launch). km) . Results will contribute more Spacecraft: Spool-shaped satellite formed by two information on the solar corona, conical solar arrays attached to a lasided cylin- physical processes active on the drical central body: the central compartment is Sun, and unexpected micromete- 1.75-m in diameter and 0.55-m high. Largest di- orite results observed on Helios 1. ameter of the solar arrays is 2.77-m and satellite All 10 active experiments have height without antenna mast is 2.12-m: with the been turned on and are func- antenna mast protruding above the solar array, tioning normally. First perihelion spacecraft height is 4.20-m. Two deployable occurred April 17, 1976. booms attached to the central body measure 32-m tip-to-tip when extended and are used as antennas for a radiowave experiment: two other deployable booms, attached to the central body and per- pendicular to the antenna booms, carry three magnetometer experiments. Solar cells located on the solar arrays above and below spacecraft body: second surface mirrors are interse among the solar cells to radiate excess heat: silver zinc batteries. Active and passive thermal control subsystem; attitude control subsystem: three antennas for communications and telemetry: carries I3 experiments. Weight: 370 kg. Jan. 17 Objective: To advance the technology of space- 36,022 Launched by NASA, the joint CTS-1 craft-mounted and related ground-based com- 33,814 Canadian/U.S. satellite is the 4A ponents and systems applicable to high-radiated- 1392 most powerful communications Thor-Delta RF-power satellites. Specific objectives of two- 0.7 satellite to date. Apogee kick way television and voice communication: wide- motor fired Jan. 20 and satellite band data transmission and data relay to small, stationed at 116O west longitude low-cost ground stations: maintain antenna point- over Atlantic Ocean in slightly ing accuracy; and obta8in1-kw of useful power to elliptical orbit. On Jan. 29 arrived the spacecraft from the unfurled solar-cell array. on station and operations handed Spacecraft: Rectangular box-shaped spacecraft, two over to Communications Research sides being curved, with a deployable 2-panel Centre, Canadian Department of solar array. Overall height and outside diameter Communications. are 188-cm and 183-cm. Solar panels are mounted on curved panels on two sides of the spacecraft. The forward platform carries the su-mr-high- frequency antennas and earth sensors. The aft platform consists of the reaction control system. The 2 extendible solar arrays are mounted on the north and south panels The total span of the satellite is 15.8-m when the 2 solar arrays are fully extended. Earth-oriented satellite receives signals at 14 GHz and converts them to 12 GHz for retransmission to the ground. Weight in orbit: 347 kg.

94 APPJLNDIX A-3-Continued Successful U.S. Launches-1976

Apogee and perigee Launch date (G.m.t.) (kilometers) Spacecraft name Spacecraft data Period Remarks Cospar designation (minutes) Launch vehicle Inclination to equator (degrees)

Jan. 29 Objective: To provide 6250 two-way voice circuits 35,869 Second in a series of improved In- Intelsat IV-A F-2... plus two television channels simultaneously or a 35,084 telsat IV-A spacecraft has twice 1OA combination of telephone, TV, and other forms 1420.2 the communications capacity of Atlas-Centaur of communications traffic. 0. I Intelsat IV series. Launched by Spacecraft: Overall height of 6.99-m and 2.38-m in NASA for Comsat Corp., manager diameter. Consists of two main elements: rotating of Intelsat. Apogee motor fired cylinder covered with solar cells contains power Jan. 31 and satellite stationed at subsystem: positioning and orientation subsystem, 29.5' west longitude over Atlan- apogee motor, and despin control subsystem: de- tic Ocean. To serve as back-up for spun Earth-oriented platfvrm atop rotating cyl- first Intelsat IV-A launched Sept. inder contains 20 communications repeaters 25, 1975. (transponders) , new antenna reflectors, and telemetry and command subsystems. Antenna reflectors are supported by a 'single tubular mast. 134.6-cm transanit and 88.9-cm receive quasi- square reflectors are constructed of a metallic mesh on an open web frame. Feed horn arrays and global horns are cantilevered from the base of the mast. Telemetry and command omni- directional bicone antenna is mounted on the mast tip. Weight at liftoff: 1515 kg. Weight after apogee motor fire: 825.5 kg. Feb. 19 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 355 Achieved only a low orbit and de- DdenW and technology. 90 cayed Feb. 19, the day of launch. 16A Spacecraft: Not announced. 89.0 Though satellite fulfilled Cospar Thor-Burner 2 98.9 rules for successful orbit, DoD does not count it as successful. Feb. 19 Objective: To launch satellite into synchronous 35,867 First in a series of maritime satel- Marisat 1 transfer orbit. Satellite to provide 24-hour real- 35,703 lites. Launched by NASA for 17A time communications between ships and shore. 1436.1 Comsat Corp. Apogee motor fired mor-Delta Spacecraft: Cylindrical shape. 380-cm high and 2.4 Feb. 21 and satellite stationed at 215-cm in diameter; spin stabilized; 44 duplex 15' west longitude over Atlantic teleprinter channels and one two-way voice cir- Ocean. During first two years the cuit: cylinder covered with 7000 solar cells con- prime user of UHF will be U.S. tains power subsystems, apogee motor, and despin Navy. Began telephone operation control subsystems. Spacecraft has 3 UHF helical July 9 and telex operations July antenna array and quad L-band array antenna 29; Navy service began Mar. 25. mounted on single pole extending from spacecraft body. Command and telemetry antenna located at end of antenna boom. Weight at launch: 6.54 kg. Weight after apogee motor fire: 327 kg. Mar. 15 Objective: To evaluate advanced satellite communi- 35,787 Still in orbit. LES-8 cations techniques. 35,707 23A Spacecraft: Communications satellite with protective 1436.1 Titan IIIC hardening and radioisotope electric power source: 25.0 Weight: 4.54 kg. Mar. 15 Objective: To evaluate advanced satellite communi- 35,787 Still in orbit. LESS cations techniques. 35,787 23B Spacecraft: Communications satellite with protective 1436.1 Titan IIIC hardening and radioisotope electric power source: 25.0 Weight: 454 kg. Mar. 15 Objective: To measure solar x-rays, ultraviolet light, 119,180 Still in orbit. Solrad HiA and particle emissions. 118,383 !UC Spacecraft: Scientific instrumentation and four solar 7344.3 Titan IIIC panels. Weight: 181 kg. 25.7

95 APPENDIXA3-Continued Successful U.S. Launches- 1976

Apogee and perigee Launch date (G.m.t.) (kilometers) Spacecraft name Spacecraft data Period Remarks Cospar designation (@nu tes) Launch vehicle Inclination to equator (degrees)

Mar. 15 Objective: To measure solar x-rays, ultraviolet light, 116,645 Still in orbit. Solrad HiB and particle emissions. 115,720 23D Spacecraft: Scientific instrumentation and four solar 71 16.7 Titan IIIC panels. Weight: 181 kg. 25.6 Mar. 22 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 347 Decayed May 18, 1976. Defense and technology. 125 27A Spacecraft: Not announced. 89.3 Titan IIIB 96.4 Mar. 26 Objective: To provide television, voice channels, 35,882 Second in a series of three RCA RC A-Satcom-2 and high-speed data transmission to Hawaii, 35,642 commercial satellites. Launched 29'4 Alaska, and contiguous United States: to operate 1434.9 by NASA into transfer orbit. Thor-Delta all 24 transponder channels at specified power 0.3 Apogee boost motor fired Mar. 29 throughout the minimum 8-year satellite lifetime. and spacecraft placed in station- Spacecraft: Box-shaped 1.2-m x 1.2-m x 1.6-m high ary orbit at 135" west longitude with two rectangular solar panels extending from over equator. Commercial oper- the spacecraft on short booms. Hydrazine propel- ations began June 7, 1976. lant tanks protrude from both east and west panels of spacecraft body; the two remaining main body panels support communications trans ponders and housekeeping equipment. During operation spacecraft is three-axis stabilized. Three nickel-cadmium batteries. Weight at launch: 868 kg. Weight after apogee motor fire: 463 kg. Apr. 22 Objective: To launch spacecraft into synchronous 35,794 First of three planned NATO com- NATO 111 A orbit over equator for use by NATO. 35,782 munications satellites. Launched 35A Spacecraft: Drum-shaped 2.2-m in diameter, 2.23-m 1436.2 by NASA for NATO. Apogee kick Thor-Delta long, with overall length of 3.1-m, including an- 2.7 motor fired Apr. 24 and satellite tennas. Weight at launch: 720 kg. Weight after stationed at 15.5O west 1ongi.tude apogee motor fire: 310 kg. due south of the westernmost coast of Africa. Apr. 30 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 1128 Still in orbit. Defense and technology. 1092 38A Spacecraft: Not announced. 107.5 Atlas F 63.5 Apr. SO Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 1129 Still in orbit. Defense and technology. 1093 38C Spacecraft: Not announced. 107.5 Atlas F 63.4 Apr. 30 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 1130 Still in orbit. DefenJe and tecqnology. 1093 38D Spacecrafr: Not announced. 107.5 Atlas F 63.4 Am. 30 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 1139 Still in orbit. D'efense and technology. 1083 38J Spacecraft: Not announced. 107.4 Atlas F 63.4 May 4 Objective: To provide permanent reference point in 5944 The Laser Geodynamic Satellite Lageos orbit for precision Earth-dynamics measurement: 5835 (Lageos) was launched success- 39A demonstrate capability of laser satellite tracking 225.4 fully by NASA. Useful life of Thor-Delta techniques; and make accurate measurements of 109.9 satellite estimated at 50 years, but Earth's rotation and movement of the crust. will remain in orbit for more Spacecraft: Aluminum sphere 60-cm in diameter than 8 million years. Operations with 426 laser retroreflectors mounted on surface began May 6. of spacecraft. To obtain density for stable orbit, two aluminum hemispheres are bolted together around a solid brass core. Weight: 411 kg.

96 APPENDIXA-3-Con hued Successful U.S. Launches- 1976

Apogee and perigee Launch date (G.m.t.) (kilometers) Spacecraft name Period Remarks &spar designation Spacecraft data (minutes) Launch vehicle Inclination to equator (degrees)

May 13 Objective: To launch satellite into synchronous 35,802 First of planned three satellite net- Comstar 1 transfer orbit. Satellite to provide contiguous 35,269 work owned by Comsat and 42A US., Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto Rico with 14,400 1423.3 leased by American Tele- Atlas-Centaur two-way high quality voice circuits. 0.1 phone and Telegraph Company. Spacecraft: Cylindrical 244-cm diameter and 610- Launched by NASA for Comsat. cm high: spin stabilized; solar cells are mounted Apogee kick motor fired May 15 on spacecraft exterior; 24 transponders, 12 hori- and spacecraft placed in station- zonmtally polarized and 12 vertically polarized per- ary orbit at 128" west longitude mit reuse of same frequencies by satellite, result- over Pacific Ocean. Commercial ing in doubling the effective capacity of each operations began July 24. spacecraft by making more efficient use of radio spectrum. Weight at launch: 1518 kg. Weight after apogee motor fire: 816.5 kg. May 22 Objective: To evaluate certain propagation effects 1058 Launched by NASA for US. Air P 76-5 Wideband of disturbed plasma on radar and communication 993 Force. Spacecraft operated as 47A systems. 105.7 planned, mission objectives were scout Spacecraft: Box-shaped spacecraft with four dT?oy- 99.7 achieved. able solar arrays. Experiment package of mu tiple antenna array. Weight: 72.6 kg.

June 2 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 39,259 Still in orbit. Defense and technology. 361 2 50A Spacecraft: Not announced. 700 Titan IIIB c.5 June 10 Objective: To launch satellite into synchronous 35,w Second in a series of maritime satel- Marisat 2 transfer orbit. Satellite to provide 24-hour real- 35,788 lites. Launched by NASA for 53A time communications between ships and shore. 1436.6 Comsat Corp. Apogee motor fired Thor-Delta Spacecraft: Cylindrical 380-cm high and 215-cm 2.5 June 11 and satellite stationed at diameter: spin stabilized; 44 duplex teleprinter 176.5' east longitude over Pacific channels and one two-way voice circuit: cylinder Ocean. During first two years the covered with 7000 solar cells containing power prime user of UHF will be US. subsystems, apogee motor, and despin control Navy. Began commercial oper- subsystems. Spacecraft has 3 UHF helical antenna ations Aug. 15, Navy service he- array and quad L-band array antenna mounted on gan June28. single pole extending from spacecraft body. Com- mand and telemetry antenna located at end of antenna boom. Weight at launch: 654 kg. Weight after apogee motor fire: 327 kg. June 18 Objective: To test Einstein's "equivalence prin- Launched by NASA into an ellipti- Gravity Probe A ciple", which is the foundation of relativity cal flight of one hour and 55 (Red Shift theory. minutes over Atlantic Ocean. ixperimen t) Probe: 114-cm long, 96-cm diameter: extremely ac- Maximum altitude l0,OOO km. sub-orbital curate hydrogen maser atomic clock: support Data substantially confirmed scout equipment consists of S-band telemetry trans- equivalence aspect of the theory. ponder, battery, and cooling system. Weight: 102 kg. June 26 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 35.860 Still in orbit. Defense and technology. 35,620 59A Spacecraft: Not announced. 1433.3 Titan IIIC 0.5

July 8 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 242 Still in orbit. Defense and technology. 159 65A Spacecraft: Not announced. 88.5 Titan IIID 97 .O

97 APPENDIXASContinued Successful U.S. Launches-1976

Apogee and perigee Launch date (G.m.t.) (kilometers) Spacecraft name Spacecraft data Period Remarks wardesignation (minutes) Launch vehicle Inclination to equator (degrees)

Objective: To measure the intensity, distribution, 8048 Carries five experiments for Air kY744 and effects of protons, electrons, and alpha par- 236 Force Geophysin Laboratory and 65B ticles in space. 179.0 three experiments for Office of Titan IIID Spacecraft: Not announced. 97.5 Naval Research. Still in orbit.

July 8 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 632 Decayed Dec. 13. Defense and technology. 628 65C Spacecraft: Not announced. 97.3 Titan IIID 96.4

July 8 Objective: To launch satellite into synchronous 35,809 Launched by NASA for Indonesia Palapa 1 transfer orbit. Satellite to provide transmission of 35,764 into transfer orbit. Apogee motor 66A television, voice, and other data throughout In- 1436.1 fired July 11 and spacecraft Thor-Delta donesia. 0.0 placed in stationary orbit above Spacecraft: Cylindrical 1.8-m diameter and 3.3-m equator at 8.5" east longitude. high; despun Earth-oriented antenna assembly First message sent via satellite by affixed to top of spacecraft. Provides 12 RF chan- President Suharto on August 17, nels, two of which will be protection channels for 1976. 10 traffic carrying channels; 23,000 solar cells. Weight at launch: 574 kg.; weight in orbit: 281 k.

July 22 Objective: To launch spacecraft into synchronous 35,747 Second of three planned satellite Comstar 2 transfer orbit. Satellite to provide contiguous US., 55,388 network owned by Comsat and 73A Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto Rico wi,th 14,400 two- 1425 leased to American Telephone Atlas-Centaur way high quality voice circuits. 0.2 and Telegraph Company. Spacecraft: Cylindrical 244-cm diameter and 610-cm Launched by NASA for Comsat. high; Tin stabilized; solar cells are mounted on Apogee kick motor fired July 24 spacecraft exterior: 24 transponders, 12 horizon- and spacecraft placed in station- tally polarized and 12 vertically polarized, permit ary orbit at 95" west longitude reuse of same frequencies by satellite. Weight at below southwestern US. Com- launch: 1518 kg. Weight after apogee motor fire: mercial operations began Sept. 816.5 kg. 13, 1976.

July 29 Objective: To place spacecraft in a Sun-synchronous 1521 Fifth operational satellite of a Noaa 5 (ITOS H) orbit having a local equator crossing time of 1505 series of second generation mete- 77A approximately 830 a.m., descending to permit 116.3 orological satellites launched by Thor-Delta regular and dependable daytime and nighttime 102.1 NASA. Part of NOAA global meteorological observations in both direct read- weather watch program. Space- out and stored modes of operation. craft functioning normally and Spacecraft: Rectangular, box-shaped spacecraft with was turned over to NOAA on a deployable 3-panel solar array. The base of the Aug. 20, 1976, for operational use. main body is about 102-cm by 102-cm and the Replaced Noaa 4 which became overall height is about 122-cm. The total area of the back-up spacecraft. the array is 4.5 sq m with each of the 3 panels measuring 93-cm by 162-cm. 3-axis stabilized, Earth-oriented satellite carries primary sensor complement of 2 Very High Resolution Radiom- eter (VHRR) instruments and 2 Scanning Radi- ometer (SR) sensors for daytime and nighttime coverage, 2 Vertical Temperature Profile Radiom- eters (VTPR) which permit determination of the Earth's vertical temperature profile over every part of the Earth's surface at least twice daily, and 1 secondary sensor, the Solar Proton Monitor (SPM) , which provides continuous measurements of proton and electron flux activity near the Earth. Thermal control system; 4 antennas. Weight: 345 kg.

98 APPENDIXASContinued Successful U.S. Launches- 1976

Apogee and perigee Launch date (G.m.t.) (kilometers) Spacecraft name Spacecraft data Period Remarks &spar designation (minutes) Launch vehicle Inclination to equator (degrees)

Aug. 6 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 39,315 Still in orbit. Defense and technology. 380 8OA Spacecraft: Not announced. 703.8 Titan IIIB 63.3 Sept. 1 Objective: To test a developmental satellite pro- 787 Third in a series of improved Transit Improvement viding improved operational characteristics for 341 Transit Navigation Satellites. Program (TIP) 3 the Transit navigation system; to be integrated 96.0 Launched by NASA for the U.S. 89A into the operational Transit system. 90.3 Navy into an elliptical transfer Scout Spacecraft: Solar panels and accordion-like boom orbit. Solar panels failed to de- deploy from main satellite b4y after insertion ploy as planned. Navy attempt- into proper orbit: hydrazine-fueled motor. ing to salvage mission. Weight: 166 kg. Sept. 11 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 848 Still in orbit. Defense and technology. 818 91A Spacecraft: Not announced. 101.6 Thor-Burner 2 98.7 Sept. 15 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 330 Decayed November 5, 1976. Defense and technology. 135 94A Spacecraft: Not announced. 89.2 Titan IIIB 96.4 Oct. 14 Objective: To launch satellite into synchronous 36,525 Third in a series of maritime satel- Marisat 3 transfer orbit. Satellite to provide 24-hour real- 35.051 lites. Launched by NASA for lOlA time communications between ships and shore. 1436.2 Comsat Corp. Apogee motor fired Thor-Delta Spacecraft: Cylindrical 380-cm high and 215-cm 2.6 Oct. 16 and satellite stationed diameter: spin stabilized: 44 duplex teleprinter over Pacific Ocean for check out. channels and one two-way voice circuit; cylinder Satellite was stationed over In- covered with 7000 solar cells containing power dian Ocean at 73" east longitude subsystems, apogee motor, and despin control in December 1976. To be used by subsystems. Spacecraft has 3 UHF helical antenna the Navy as a Tare in orbit array and quad L-band array antenna mounted should either Marisat 1 or 2 fail. on single pole extending from spacecraft body. Command and telemetry antenna located at end of antenna boom. Weight at launch: 654 kg. Weight after apogee motor fire: 327 kg. Dec. 19 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 530 Still in orbit. Defense and technology. 244 125A Spacecraft: Not announced. 92.3 Titan IIIB 96.9

99 APPENDIXB-1 U.S. Applications Satellites 1972-1976

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks

COMMUNICATIONS Jan. 22, 1972 Intelsat IV (F-4) Atlas-Centaur Third in new high capacity series. Positioned over Pacific. June 13, 1972 Intelsat IV (F-5) AtlasCentaur Fourth in new high capacity series.. Positioned over Indian Ocean. Oct. 15, 1972 Oscar VI Thor-Delta (TAT) Amateur radio relay. Nov. 9, 1972 Anik 1 (Telesat 1) Thor-Delta (TAT) launched for Canada. Apr. 40, 1973 Anik 2 (Telesat 2) Thor-Delta ITAT) Launched for Canada. Aug. 24, 1973 Intelsat IV (F-7) Atlas-Centaur ’ Fifth in high-capacity series. Positioned over Atlantic. Dec. 13, 1973 DSCS 2-3,4 Titan IIIC Follow-on to DSCS 2-1,2. Jan. 19, 1974 Skynet 2A Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for the United Kingdom in response to an agreement to augment the DSCS program. Spacecraft failed to achieve the proper orbit. Apr. 13, 1974 Westar 1 Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for the Western Union Co. to establish a domestic communications link. May 30, 1974 ATS 6 Titan IIIC Multipurpose experimental satellite especially designed for regional services in North America and later India. Oct. 10, 1974 Westar 2 Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for the Western Union Co. as part of their domestic communications links. Nov. 21, 1974 Intelsat IV (F-8) Atlas-Centaur Sixth in high-capacity series. Positioned over Pacific. Nov. 23, 1974 Skynet 2B Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for the United Kingdom in response to an agreement to augment the DSCS program. Spacecraft positioned over Indian Ocean. Dec. 19, 1974 Symphonie 1 Thor-Delta (TAT) First of two experimental satellites for France and West Ger- many. Spacecraft positioned over Atlantic. May 7, 1975 Anik 3 (Telesat 3) Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for Canada. May 22, 1975 Intelsat IV (F-1) Atlas-Centaur Eighth in high-capacity series. Positioned over Indian Ocean. Aug. 27, 1975 Symphonie 2 Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for France and West Germany. Positioned over the Atlantic. Sep. 26, 1975 Intelsat IV-A (F-1) Atlas-Centaur First of a new series double the capacity of its predecessors. Positioned over the Atlantic. Dec. 13, 1975 RCA-Satcom-1 Thor-Delta (TAT) Launched for RCA as first of their communications satellite series. Positioned over the Pacific. Jan. 17, 1976 CTS-1 Thor-Delta (TAT) Canadian-US., most powerful experimental satellite.

Jan. 30, 1976 Intelsat IV-A IF-2)\I Thor-Delta (TAl3 Positioned over Atlantic. Feb. 19, 1976 Marisat 1 Thor-Delta (TAT; For maritime use by Comsat, over the Atlantic. Mar. 15, 1976 LES a/9 Titan IIIC Experimental satellites with radioisotope power sources. Mar. 26, 1976 RCA-Satcom 2 Thor-Delta (TAT) Second of three. Apr. 22, 1976 NATO IIIA Thor-Delta (TAT) First of new series. May 13, 1976 Comstar 1 AtlaoCentaur Placed over Pacific for AT&T by Comsat. June 10, 1976 Marisat 2 Thor-Del ta (TAT) For maritime use by Comsat, over the Pacific. July 8, 1976 Palapa 1 Thor-Delta (TAT) Indonesian domestic communications. July 22, 1976 Comstar 2 Thor-Delta (TAT) Placed south of the United States for AT&T by Comsat. Oct. 14, 1976 Marisat 3 Thor-Delta (TAT) Placed over Indian Ocean.

100 APPENDIXB-1 -Con tinued U.S. Applications Satellites 1972-1976

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks

WEATHER OBSERVATION+ Oct. 15, 1972 NOAA-2 (ITOS D) Thor-Delta Second generation operational meteorological satellite. Dec. 11, 1972 Nimbus 5 Thor-Delta Provided the first atmospheric vertical temperature profile measurements through clouds. Nov. 6, 1973 NOAA-3 (ITOS F) Thor-Delta Second generation operational meteorological satellite. May 17. 1974 SMS-1 Thor-Delta First full-time weather satellite in synchronous orbit. Nov. 15, 1974 NOAA-4 (ITOS G) Thor-Delta Second generation operational meteorological satellite. Feb. 6, 1975 SMSP Thor-Delta Second full-time weather satellite in synchronous orbit. June 12, 1975 Nimbus 6 Thor-Delta To build numerical models for Global Atmospheric Research Program. Oct. 16, 1975 Goes1 Thor-Delta First fully operational synchronous weather satellite. July 29, 1976 NOAA-5 (ITOS H) Thor-Delta Second generation operational satellite. EARTH OBSERVATION July 23, 1972 ERTS- 1 Thor-Delta Acquired synoptic multi-spectral repetitive images that are proving useful in such disciplines as agriculture and forestry resources, mineral and land resources, land use, water resources, marine resources, mapping and charting, and the environment. Jan. 22, 1975 Landsat 2 Thor-Delta Second experimental Earth resources technology satellite. GEODESY Apr. 9, 1975 Geos 3 Thor-Delta To measure geometry and topography of ocean surface. May 4, 1976 Lageos Thor-Delta Laser geodynamic satellite. NAVIGATION Sept. 2, 1972 Triad 01-1 scout First experimental station-keeping Transit navigation satellite. Oct. 30, 1973 NavSat 0-20 Scout Jul. 14, 1974 NTS 1 Atlas F Navigation technology satellite. Oct. 12, 1975 Tip-2 scout Transit Improvement Program. Sep. 1, 1976 Tip-3 scout Transit Improvement Program.

+ Does not include Department of Defense weather satellites which are not individually identified by launch.

101 APPENDIXB-2 U.S.-Launched Scientific Payloads 1972-1976

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks

Jan. 31. 1972 HEOS A-2 Thor-Delta Investigate interplanetary space and high latitude magnetosphere. (International cooperative payload.) Mar. 12, 1972 TD- 1 Thor-Delta Seven ESRO experiments. Aug. 13, 1972 MTS (Explorer 46) Sc0u.t Meteoroid penetration rate study. Aug. 21, 1972 OAO 3 Atlas-Centaur Precise astronomical observation from above the atmosphere. Sep. 23, 1972 IMP 9 (Explo~d47) Thor-Delta Study cislunar space radiation environment, plus magnetic data. Oct. 2, 1972 Radcat Atlas-Burner I1 Defense scientific experiment. Oct. 2. 1972 Radsat Atlas-Burner I1 Defense scientific experiment. Nov. 15, 1972 SAS B (Explorer 48) Scout Survey of high energy gamma radiation including point sources. (Italian launched.) Nov. 22, 1972 ESRO 4 Scout Polar iono9phere studies (ESRO payload.) Dec. 16, 1972 Aeros I Scout Study of upper atmosphere and ionospheric F region. (German payload.) June 10, 1973 Radio Astronomy 2 Thor-Delta Measure galactic and solar radio noise shielded from earth by (Explorer 49) the moon, by use of lunar orbit. Oct. 26, 1973 IMP 10 (Explorer SO) Thor-Delta Study of interplanetary environment particle and fuel interactions in the distant magneto tail. Dec. 16, 1973 Atmosphere Thor-Delta Photochemical processes in absorption of solar UV. (Explorer 51) Feb. 18, 1974 San Marco 4 Scout Diurnal variations in equatorial neutral atmosphere. (Italian payload and launch.) Mar. 9, 1974 UK X-4 (Miranda) Scout Measure density of sun reflecting particles near the s acecraft, and test engineering systems. (United Kingdom paykad.) June 3,1974 Hawkeye Scout Plasma properties of the magnetosphere over the north polar.cap (Explorer 52) July 16, 1974 Aeros 2 Scout Measure aeronomic parameters of upper atmosphere and solar UV. (German payload.) Aug. 80, 1974 ANS scout Study steller UV and x-ray sources. (Netherlands payload.) Oct. 15, 1974 Ariel 5 Scout Study galactic and extragalactic x-ray sources. (United Kingdom payload.) Nov. 15, 1974 INTASAT Thor-Delta Measure ionospheric total electron content, ionospheric irregu- larities and scintillation. Spanish payload. May 7, 1975 SAS-C (Explorer 55) Scout Measure X-ray emision of discrete extragalactic sources. (Italian- launched.) June 21, 1975 OSO-8 Thor-Delta To study minimum phase of solar cycle. Aug. 9, 1975 COS-B Thor-Delta Extraterrestrial gamma radiation studies. (ESA European satellite.) Oct. 6, 1975 Atmosphere Thor-Delta Photochemical processes in absorption of solar energy. (Explorer 54) Nov. 20, 1975 Atmosphere Thor-Delta Photochemical processes in absorption of solar energy. Measure (Explorer 55) spatial distribution of ozone. Mar. 15, 1976 Solrad HiA/HiB Titan IIIC Measure radiation and particles at close to 120,OOO km circular. May 22, 1976 P-76-5 Scout Plasma effects on radar and communications. July 8, 1976 SESP 74-2 Titan XIXD Particle measurements up to Boo0 km.

102 APPENDIXB4 U.S.-Launched Space Probes 1972-1976

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks May 30. 1971 Mariner 9 Atlas-Centaur Mars orbital photographic mission. Entered orbit of Mars Nov. 13, 1971. Returned 6876 pictures and data on temperatures, elevations, and water vapor. Mar. 3. 1972 Pioneer 10 Atlas-Centaur Jupiter flyby mission. Passed Jupiter on Dec. 3, 1973, returned color pictures and data on radiation, temperatures, and magnetic fields. Accelerated toward solar system escape. Apr. 6, 1973 Pioneer 11 Atlas-Centaur Jupiter flyby mission. Passed Jupiter on Dec. 2, 1974, returning pictures and data and headed for a similar pass by Saturn I before accelerating out of the solar system. Nov. 3, 1973 Mariner 10 Atlas-Centaur Venus and Mercury flyby mission. Passed Venus on Feb. 5, 1974, returning good quality pictures. Passed Mercury again on Sep. 21, 1974, returning 500-600 good quality pictures. Passed Mercury again on Mar. 16, 1975. Other data were also returned. Dec. 10, 1974 Helios 1 Titan IIIE- Investigate properties of interstellar space close to Sun. W. Ger- Centaur man payload. Aug. 20, 1975 Viking 1 Titan IIIE- Mars lander and orbiter mission, arrived in mid-1976, orbited, Centaur landed. Sep. 9, 1975 Viking 2 Titan IIIE- Mars lander and orbiter mission, arrived in mid-1976, orbited, Centaur landed. Jan. 15, 1976 Heliw 2 Titan IIIE- Investigate properties of space close to Sun. W. German payload. Centaur

103 APPENDIXC History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights

Vostok 1 Apr. 12, 1961 Yuri A. Gagarin 1 h 48 min. First manned flight. M~reury- May 5, 1961 Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 15 min. First U.S. flight; suborbital. Redstone 3 Mercury- July 21, 1961 Virgil I. Grissom 16 min. Suborbital: capsule sank after landing. Redstone 4 Vostok 2 Aug. 6, 1961 Gherman S. Titov 25 h 18 min. First flight exceeding 24 h. Melrury-Atlas 6 Feb. 20, 1962 John H. Glenn, Jr. 4 h 55 min. First American to orbit. Mercury-Atlas 7 May 24. 1962 M. Scott Carpenter 4 h 56 min. Landed 400 km from target. vostdr J Aug. 11, 1962 Andrian G. Nikolayev 94 h 22 min. First dual mission (with Vostok 4). Vwmk 4 Aug. 12, 1962 Pavel I Popovich 70 h 57 min. Came within 6 km of Vostok 3. Mercury-Atlas 8 Oct. 3, 1962 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 9 h 13 min. Landed 8 km from target. Mrrcury-Atlas 9 May 15. 1963 L. Gordon Coaper, Jr. 34 h 20 min. First long U.S. flight. Vwk 5 June 14, 1W Valery F. Bykovsky 119 h 6 min. Second dual mission (with Vostok 6) . Vo&k 6 June 16, 1963 Valentina V. Tereshkova 70 h 50 min. First woman in space: within 5-km of Vostok 5. Voskhod 1 Oct. 12, 1964 Vladimir M. Komarov 24 h 17 min. First 3-man crew. Konstantin P. Feoktistov Dr. Boris G. Yegorov Voskhod 2 Mar. 18, 1965 Aleksei A. Leonov 26 h 2 min. First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 Pavel 1. Belyayev min) . Gemini 3 Mar. 23, 1965 Virgil I. Grissom 4 h 53 min. First US. 2-man fiight; first manual ma- John W. Young neuvers in orbit. Gemini 4 June 3,1965 James A. McDivitt 97 h 56 min. 21-min. extravehicular activity (White). Edward H.White, 2d Gemini 5 Aug. 21. 1965 L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 190 h 55 min. Longest-duration manned flight to date. Charles Conrad, Jr. Gemini 7 Dec. 4,1965 Frank Borman 330 h 35 min. Longest-duration manned flight to date. James A. Lovell, Jr. Gemini 6-A Dec. 15,1965 Walter M. Schim, Jr. 25 h 51 min. Rendezvous within 0.3 m of Gemini 7. Thomas P. Stafford Gemini 8 Mar. 16, 1966 Neil A. Amstrong 10 h 41 min. First docking of 2 orbiting spacecxaft (Gem- David R. Scott ini 8 with Agena target rocket). Gemini 9-A June 3,1966 Thomas P. Stafford 72 h 21 min. Extravehicular activity: rendezvous. Eugene A. Cernan Gemini 10 July 18, 1966 John W. Young 70 h 47 min. First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with Michael Collins Agena 10, then Agena 8). Gemini 11 Sept. 12, 1966 Charles Conrad, Jr. 71 h 17 min. First initial rendezvous; first tethered Richard F. Gordon, Jr. flight; highest Earth-orbit altitude (1372 km) . Gemini 12 Nov. 11,1966 James A. Lovell, Jr. 94 h 35 min. Longest extravehicular activity to date (Al- Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. drin, 5 h 37 min) . soyuz 1 Apr. 23, 1967 Vladimir M. Komarov 26 h 37 min. Cosmonaut killed in reentxy accident. Apollo 7 Oct. 11.1968 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 260 h 9 min. First U.S. 3-man mission. Donn F. Eisele R.Walter Cunningham soyuz 3 Oct. 26, 1968 Georgi Beregovoy 94 h 51 min. Maneuvered near unmanned Soyuz 2. Apollo 8 Dec. 21,1968 Frank Borman 147 h 1 min. First manned orbit (s) of Moon: first manned James A. Lovell, Jr. departure from Earth’s sphere of influence; William A. Anders highest speed ever attained in manned flight. soyuz 4 Jan. 14, 1969 Vladimir Shatalov 71 h 23 min. Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 cos- soyuz 5 Jan. 15,1969 Boris Volynov 72 h 56 min. monauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. Aleksey Yeliseyev Yevgeniy Khrunor Apollo 9 Mar. 3, 1969 James A. McDivitt 241 h 1 min. Successfully simulated in Earth orbit oper- David R. Scott ation of lunar module to landing and take- Russell L. Schweickart off from lunar surface and rejoining with command module. Apollo 10 May 18, 1969 Thomas P. Stafford 192 h 3 min. Successfully demonstrated complete system John W. Young including lunar module descent to 14,300 Eugene A. Cernan m from the lunar surface. Apollo 11 July 16, 1969 Neil A. Armstrong 195 h 19 min. First manned landing on lunar surface and Michael Collins sak return to Earth. First return of rock Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. and soil samples to Earth, and manned deployment of experiments on lunar surface.

104 APPENDIXC-Continued History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights

Soyuz 6 Oct. 11, 1969 Georgiy Shonin 118 h 42 min. Soyuz 6, 7, and 8 operated as a group flight Valeriy Kubasov without actually docking. Each conducted soyuz 7 Oct. 12, 1969 Anatoliy Filipchenko 118 h 41 min. certain experiments, including welding and Vladislav Volkov Earth and celestial observations. Viktor Gorbatko Soyuz 8 Oct. 13, 1969 Vladimir Shatalov 118 h 50 min. Aleksey Yeliseyev Apollo 12 Nov. 14, 1969 Charles Conrad, Jr. 244 h 36 min. Second manned lunar landing. Continued Richard ,F. Gordon, Jr. manned exploration and retrieved parts of Alan L. Bean Surveyor I11 spacecraft which landed in Ocean of Storms on Apr. 19, 1967. Apollo 13 Apr. 11, 1970 James A. Lovell. Jr. 142 h 55 min. Mission aborted due to explosion in the Fred W. Haise, Jr. service module. Ship circled Moon, with John L. Swigert, Jr. crew using LEM as “lifeboat” until just prior to reentry. Soyuz 9 June 1, 1970 Andrian G. Nikolayev 424 h 59 min. Longest manned space flight to date, lasting Vitaliy I. Sevastianov 17 days 16 h 59 min. Apollo 14 Jan. 31, 1971 Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 216 h 2 min. Third manned lunar landing. Mission dem- Stuart A. Room onstrated pinpoint landing capability and Edgar D. Mitchell continued manned exploration. Soyuz 10 Apr. 22,1971 Vladimir Shatalov 47 h 46 min. Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not Aleksey Yeliseyev board space station launched Apr. 19. Nikolai Rukavishnikov Crew recovered Apr. 24, 1971. Soyuz 11 June 6, 1971 Georgiy Timofeyevich 570 h 22 min. Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew Dobrovolskiy occupied space station for 22 days. Crew Vladislov Nikolayevich perished during final phase of Soyuz 11 Volkov capsule recovery on June 30, 1971. Viktor Ivanovich Patsayev Apollo 15 July 26, 1971 David R. Scott 295 h 12 min. Fourth manned lunar landing and first Alfred M. Worden Apollo “J” series mission which carry the James Bensen Irwin Lunar Roving Vehicle. Worden’s in-flight EVA of 38 rnin 12 s was performed during return trip. Apollo 16 Apr. 16, 1972 John W. Young 265 h 51 min. Fifth manned lunar landing, with Lunar Charls M. Duke, Jr. Roving Vehicle. Thomas K. Mattingly, 11 Apollo 17 Dec. 7,1972 Eugene A. Cernan 301 h 52 min. Sixth and final Apollo manned lunar land- Harrison H. Schmitt ing, with roving vehicle. Ronald E. Evans Skylab 2 May 25, 1973 Charles Conrad, Jr. 627 h 50 min. Docked with Skylab 1 for 28 days. Repaired loseph P. Kerwin damaged station. Paul J. WeiU Skylab 3 July 28, 1973 Alan L. Bean 1427 h Docked with Skylab 1 for over 59 days. Jack R. Lousma 9 min. Owen K. Garriott soyuz 12 Sept. 27, 1973 Vasiliy Lazarev 47 h 16 min. Checkout of improved Soyuz. Oleg Makamv Skylab 4 Nov. 16, 1973 Gerald P. Carr 2017 h Docked with Skylab 1 in continuing long Edward G. Gibson 16 min. duration mission. William R. Pogue Soyuz 13 Dec. 18, 1973 Petr Klimuk 188 h 55 min. Astrophysical, biological, and Earth resources Valentin Lebedev experiments. Soyuz 14 July 3, 1974 Pave1 Popovich 377 h 30 min. Docked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew Yuriy Artyukhin occupied space station for over 14 days. Soyuz 15 Aug. 26,1974 Gennadiy Sarabnov 48 h 12 min. Rendezvoused but did not dock with Sal- Lev Demin yut 3. Soyuz 16 Dec. 2, 1974 Anatoliy Filipchenko 142 h 24 min. Test of ASTP configuration. Nikolai Rukavishnikov Soyuz 17 Jan. 10, 1975 Aleksey Gubarev 709 h 20 min. Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station Georgiy Grechko during a 29-day flight. Anomaly Apr. 5, 1975 Vasiley Lazarev 20 min. Soyuz stages failed to separate; crew re- Oleg Makarov covered after abort. Soyuz 18 May 24, 1975 Petr Klimuk 1511 h Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station Valeriy Kubasov 20 min. during a 63-day mission. Soyuz 19 July 15, 1975 Aleksey Leonov 142 h 31 min. Target for Apllo in docking and joint ex- Valeriy Kubasov periments ASTP mission. Apollo July 15, 1975 Thomas P. Stafford 217 h 28 min. Docked with Soyuz 19 in joint experiments Donald K. Slayton of ASTP mission. Vance D. Brand Soyuz 21 July 6, 1976 Boris Volynov 1182 h Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station Vitaliy Zholobov 24 min. during 49-day flight. soyuz 22 Sep. 15,1976 Valeriy Bykovskiy 189 h 54 min. Earth resources study with multispectral cam- Vladimir Aksenov era system. Soyuz 23 Oct. 14. 1976 Vyacheslav Zudov 48 h 6 min. Failed to dock with Salyut 5. Valeriy Rozhdestvenskiy

105 APPENDIX D U.S. Space Launch Vehicles

Thrust Max . Max . Payload (lb) Vehicle Stages Propellant 8 cngOd;'ciia . Height First lbs) (ft) (ft) Zri? launch Scout ...... 1. Algol IIIA ...... Solid ...... 108.3 3.67 72.0 4104 854 '1972 (SO) 2. Castor IIA ...... Solid ...... 63.2 3. Antares IIB ...... Solid ...... 28.5 4 . Altair I11 ...... Solid ...... 5.9 Thor-Delta 2900 1. Thor plus LOX/RP-1 ..... 205 8 116 3.9004 1.050 4 1973 (SO) series ...... nine TX 354-5 ... .Solid ...... 99' 2. Delta (DSV-3) .....N,O, /Aerozine .. 10.3 3. TE 364-4 ...... Solid ...... 15 Atlas F/TE 364-4 .... 1. Atlas booster and sustainer (Atlas F) ...... LOX/R P.l ..... 443 10 85 3. 300' 2. TE 364-4 ...... Solid ...... 15 Atlas-Agena ...... 1. Atlas booster and sustainer (SLV/SA) ...... LOX/R P.1 ..... 503 10 133 6.OOO ' 1.OOO' 1968 (SO) 2. Agena ...... IRFNA/UDMH . 16 Titan IIIB-Agena ....1. LR-87 ...... N,O, /Aerozine .. 520 10 159 7. 1005 1W6 1966 2. LR-91 ...... N,O, /Aerozine .. 100 3. Agena ...... IRFNA/UDMH . 16 Titan IIIC ...... 1. Two 5-segment 120411 diameter ...Solid ...... 2. 10x30 133 26.5004 7. 000' 1965 2. LR-87 ...... N,O, /Aerozine .. 520 3. LR-91 ...... N,O, /Aerozine .. 100 4 . Transtage ...... N,O, /Aerozine .. 16 Titan IIID ...... 1 . Two 5-segment 120-in diameter . .Solid ...... 2.m 10x30 154 6,500 ' 1971 2. LR-87 ...... N,O, /Aerozine .. 520 3. LR-91 ...... N'OJAerozine .. 100 Titan IIIE-Centaur . . 1. Two 5-segment 120-in diameter ...Solid ...... 2.600 10x30 160 11.3004 1974 2. LR-87 ...... N,O, /Aerozine .. 520 3. LR-91 ...... N,O, /Aerozine .. 102 4 . Centaur (Two RL-IO) ...... LOX/LH ...... 30 Atlas-Centaur ...... 1 . Atlas booster and sustainer .....LOX/RP ...... 503 10 131 10.3004 2. 5004 1967 (So) 2. Centaur (Two RL-IO)' ...... LOX/LH ...... so Saturn IB ...... 1. SIB (eight H-1) ...LOX/RP ...... 1.640 21.6 181 54. 1966 2. S-IVB' (one 5-2)' ....LOX/LH ...... 230

~~ The date of first launch applies to this latest modification Inhibited Red Fuming Nitric Acid and Unsymmetrical Di- with a date in parentheses for the initial version . methylhydrazine-IRFNA/UDMH; Nitrogen Tetroxide and ' Set of 3. UDMH/N.H.-N.O. /Aerozine. Liquid Oxygen and Liquid Propellant abbreviations used are as follows: Liquid Hydrogen-LOX/LH . Oxygen and a modified Kerosene-LOX/RP; Solid propellant Due east launch . combining in a single mixture both fuel and oxidizer-Solid: Polar launch .

106 APPENDIX E-1 Space Activities of the U.S. Government 20-yEAR BUDGET SUMMARY-BUDGETAUTHORITY (In millions of dollars)

NASA Department ERDA Interior Agriculture NSF Total Space' of Defense merce

1959 ...... 305.4 235.4 489.5 34.3 ...... 759.2 1960 ...... 523.6 461.5 560.9 43.3 ...... 1 1,065.8 1961 ...... 964.0 926.0 813.9 67.7...... 6 1,808.2 1962 ...... 1,824.9 1,796.8 1,298.2 147.8 50.7 1.3 334.8 1963 ...... 3,673.0 3,626.0 1,549.9 213.9 43.2 ...... 1.5 5,434.5 1964 ...... 5,099.7 5,046.3 1,599.3 210.0 2.8 ...... 3.0 6,861.4 1965 ...... 5,249.7 5,167.6 1,573.9 228.6 12.2 ...... 3.2 6,985.5 1966 ...... 5,174.9 5,094.5 1,688.8 186.8 26.5 ...... 3.2 6,999.8 1967 ...... 4,967.6 4,862.2 1,663.6 183.6 29.3 ...... 2.8 6.741.5 1968 ...... 4,588.8 4,452.5 1,921.8 145.1 28.1 0.2 0.5 3.2 6,551.4 1969 ...... 3,990.9 3,822.0 2,013.0 118.0 20.0 0.2 0.7 1.9 5,975.8 1970 ...... 3,745.8 3,547.0 1,678.4 102.8 8.0 1.1 0.8 2.4 5340.5 1971 ...... 3,311.2 3,101.3 1,512.3 94.8 27.4 1.9 0.8 2.4 4.740.9 1972 ...... 3,306.6 3,071.0 1,407.0 55.2 31.3 5.8 1.61.9 2.02.6 4,574.74,824.8 1973 ...... 3,406.2 3,093.2 1m.o 54.2 39.7 10.3 1974 ...... 3,036.9 2,758.5 1,766.0 41.7 60.2 9.0 3.1 1.8 4,640.3 1975 ...... 3,229.1 2,915.3 1,892.4 29.6 64.4 8.3 2.3 2.0 4,914.3 1976 ...... 3,550.3 3,226.9 1,983.3 23.3 71.5 10.4 3.6 2.4 5,321.4 T.Q? ...... 931.8 849.5 460.4 4.6 22.2 2.6 0.9 0.6 1,340.8 1977 Est ...... 3,749.8 3,372.5 2,291.5 22.6 89.8 9.5 4.7 2.4 5,793.0 1978 Est ...... 4,033.2 3,596.4 2,770.0 35.1 94.5 9.5 5.6 2.4 6,528.5

1 Excludes amounts for air transportation. Source: Office of Management and Budget . T.Q.-Transitional Quarter.

U.S. Space Budget-Budget Authority 1967-1978 [May not add due to rounding]

BILLIONS OF DOLLARS

107 APPENDIXE-2 Space Activities Budget (In millions of dollars)

~ Budget Authority Outlays 1976 T.Q.' 1977 1978 1976 T.Q.' 1977 1978 Actual Actual Est. Est. Actual Actual Est. Est.

Federal- - - _._. mace Droprams: -r---r- 0- NASA' ...... 3226.9 849.5 3372.5 3611.4 3336.3 868.6 3383.4 3523.2 Defense ...... 1983.3 460.4 2291.5 2770.0 1864.4 458.1 2017.1 2543.3

ERDA~~ ~ ~ ...... 25.3 4.6 22.6 35.1 25.7 7.5 22.6 28.9 Commerce ...... 71.5 22.2 89.8 94.5 71.1 23.2 92.5 96.5 Interior ...... 10.4 2.6 9.5 9.5 10.9 2.2 9.5 9.5 NSF ...... 2.4 0.6 2.4 2.4 2.0 0.5 2.4 2.4 Agriculture ...... 3.6 0.9 4.7 5.6 3.5 0.9 4.7 5.6 Total ...... 5321.4 1340.8 5793.0 6538.5 5'313.9 1361.0 5532.2 6209.4 NASA: Manned space flight ...... 1956.6 506.3 2066.2 2181.6 2000.2 524.6 2071.4 2155.8 Space science, ap li cations and tecKt101ogy ...... 944 .O 255.0 949.5 1038.8 980.3 251.5 960.1 968.2 Air transportation ...... 324.9 82.6 378.8 423.4 332.7 82.8 349.4 391.6 Supporting operations ...... 326.3 88.2 356.8 391.0 355.8 92.5 351.8 381.2 Less receipts ...... -1.5 -0.3 -1.5 -1.6 -1.5 -0.3 -1.5 -1.6 Total NASA ...... 3550.3 931.8 3749.8 4033.2 9667.5 951.1 3731.2 3913.2

T.Q.-Transitional Quarter. Source: Office of Management and Budget. Excludes amounts for air transportation.

Aeronautics Budget (In millions of dollars)

Budget Authority 1976 T.Q.' 1977 1978 Actual Actual Est. Est.

Federal aeronautics programs: NASA' ...... 324.9 82.6 378.8 423.4 Department of Defense a ...... 1941.3 479.5 2245.2 2618.7 Department of Transportation ' ...... 84.8 21.8 93.8 103.4 Total ...... 2351.0 583.9 2717.8 3145.5

~~~ T.Q.-Transitional Quarter. 'Office of Secretary of Transportation and Federal Avia- Research and Development, Construction of Facilities, tion Administration Research and Development. Research and Program Management. * Research, Development, Testing, and Evaluation of air- Source: Office of Management and Budget. craft and related equipment.

108 fr U5. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1977 0-238-427