An Elementary Esperanto Primer

Daniel M. Albro

la 10a de januaro, 1993 ENHAVOJ 1 Enhavoj

1 La Familio 5 1.1 Pronunciation ...... 5 1.1.1 Consonants ...... 5 1.1.2 Vowels ...... 5 1.1.3 Accent ...... 6 1.1.4 More Notes ...... 6 1.1.5 The Alphabet ...... 6 1.1.6 Ekzerco ...... 6 1.2 Gramatiko ...... 7 1.2.1 Sufiksoj ...... 7 1.2.2 Prefiksoj ...... 7 1.2.3 Articles ...... 8 1.2.4 The Conjugation of Verbs in the Present Tense ...... 8 1.2.5 Vocabulary ...... 8 1.2.6 Exercises ...... 8 1.2.7 Adjectives ...... 9 1.2.8 Questions ...... 9 1.2.9 Vocabulary ...... 10 1.2.10 Exercises ...... 10

2 La Familio Frogmorton 11 2.1 Personal Pronouns ...... 11 2.2 The Possessive ...... 11 2.3 More Suffixes ...... 11 2.4 Pejorative Affixes ...... 11 2.5 Tenses other than the present ...... 12 2.6 Non-affirmation questions ...... 12 2.7 The Accusative ...... 12 2.7.1 Exercises ...... 13

3 La Mondo 15 3.1 Prepositions ...... 15 3.1.1 Indirect Objects ...... 15 3.2 Various and Sundry Uses for the Accusative ...... 15 3.2.1 Elliptical Usage ...... 16 3.2.2 Time ...... 16 3.2.3 Motion towards ...... 18 3.2.4 Motion from ...... 19 3.3 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs ...... 19 3.3.1 Transitivization ...... 20 3.3.2 Intransitivization ...... 20 3.4 Suffixes of Place, and Geography ...... 20 3.4.1 Exercises ...... 22 2 LISTO DE TABELOJ

4 Mostly Verbs 23 4.1 The Infinitive ...... 24 4.1.1 Examples of the use of auxiliary verbs ...... 24 4.1.2 The infinitive with prepositions ...... 24 4.1.3 Exercises ...... 24 4.2 Relative Pronouns ...... 25 4.2.1 Exercises ...... 25 4.3 More correlatives ...... 25 4.3.1 Exercises ...... 26 4.4 Participles ...... 26 4.4.1 Participles as nouns and adverbs ...... 26 4.4.2 Compound Tenses ...... 27 4.4.3 Exercises ...... 28 4.5 Indirect speech ...... 28 4.6 Indirect commands ...... 28 4.6.1 Exercises ...... 28 4.7 The Reflexive ...... 28 4.7.1 Exercises ...... 29

5 Esperanto: The Final Chapter, Part I 31 5.1 Vocabulary ...... 31 5.2 The Subjunctive ...... 32 5.3 The comparitive and the superlative ...... 32 5.4 ajn ...... 33 5.5 Indeterminate subjects ...... 33 5.6 Still more suffixes ...... 33 5.7 And a prefix ...... 33 5.7.1 Exercises ...... 33

A Key to Exercises 35

B Tables 39

Listo de Tabeloj

B.1 Phonetical Analysis of Consonants in Esperanto ...... 39 B.2 Correlative Pronouns, from The Esperanto Teacher ...... 40 B.3 Affixes ...... 41 B.4 The prepositions. A few others may be formed by the addition of an affix...... 42 Introduction

As the reader of this book has most likely already decided to take a course using it, it is not truly necessary here to extol its virtues or the virtues of taking this language over any other, but I shall for tradition’s sake do so nonetheless. This textbook is one of approximately three or four easily available for English- speaking students of Esperanto, and it makes no pretense of being the best. In fact, I would recommend David Richardson’s Esperanto: Learning and Using the International Language as being the best Esperanto textbook available for the English speaker. However, this textbook has at least one advantage over that one, and that is the fact that to all intents and purposes it is free... The next question is why one should take Esperanto and not some other language. My response to that would be that one should take Esperanto and some other language(s), but that is not feasible for everyone. The question thus remains—why Esperanto. To answer it, let us look for a moment at the history and character of the language.

The History and Character of Esperanto

Esperanto was created initially by Dr. L. L. Zamenhof, a Polish oculist from Bialistok, and published by him in Warsaw in 1887. It was intended to become the second language of the world such that communications might be improved. In order to do this, it had to be politically neutral and easy to learn—two good reasons to learn it now. As a politically neutral language, Esperanto can be useful to the English speaker who wishes to avoid the current backlash against English that is prevalent in many countries. When two people from different linguistic backgrounds use Esperanto to communicate, neither will have the disadvantage of speaking the other’s native language, and they will thus be able to converse more as equals. The second reason of the two is perhaps the stronger, and has many side-benefits. Esperanto is easy to learn since the pronunciation and spelling are consistent, the grammatical rules have no exceptions and are in addition quite simple, and the vocabulary is comprised of the most “international” words available. Because the pronunciation is simple and consistent with the spelling, it is possible to learn Esperanto with an extremely small fraction of the resources required to learn many other languages such as English, for which the development of a good pronunciation is nearly impossible for people of many backgrounds. The sounds of Esperanto are in general much more phonetically simple than those of English, and thus much more easily learned by foreigners. The grammatical rules of Esperanto are simple enough (they historically fit into about sixteen rules) that the grammar can be essentially learned in a few weeks of study, or for some, as little time as a few hours. The vocabulary, then, will be the aspect of Esperanto which will take the longest time to master, but there are nice simplifications here, too. Because the rules of word-formation are regular in Esperanto, many words which require separate roots in ethnic languages can be expressed by adding affixes to one root in Esperanto, e.g. “patro” (“father”) vs. “patrino” (“mother”) and “bona” (“good”) vs. “malbona” (“bad”). Thus, one needs to learn about half as many roots in Esperanto as one would to achieve an equivalent level of fluency in an ethnic language. In addition to this, Esperanto words are selected in general on the basis of “internationality.” This means that if some word exists in many languages, it is probably the same in Esperanto. Thus, most people already know a large percentage of the vocabulary, and learning new

3 4 LISTO DE TABELOJ

Esperanto vocabulary will probably help in learning the vocabulary of other languages. In general, educational studies have shown that people can learn to speak Esperanto at a given level of proficiency about six to ten times faster than for an equivalent level of proficiency in some other language, e.g. English.

How to Use This Book

This book has been organized into three distinct parts. The first consists of Lessons One through Five, and teaches the essentials of Esperanto grammar in a rapid, albeit somewhat summary fashion. The next part is a somewhat more relaxed nine lessons which are intended to improve the Esperanto learned in the first five, and finally there is a section containing appendices to be used as references while learning the language, or afterward when using it. Thus, the book presents a two-level course with appendices. One thing should be noted about the treatment which you will find in this book—I have a slight tendency to use obscure linguistic terms when such will serve my own laziness. It is my opinion that the reader, as a student of language, should become accustomed to the use of a dictionary, and therefore I am leaving them in (and for the aforementioned reason that I am lazy...)

Acknowledgements

This book is based primarily on the following sources (in order of decreasing influence): J. Cresswell and J. Hartley’s Teach Yourself Esperanto, J. C. Wells’ dictionary, Neal McBurnett’s La plej oftaj morfemoj de parolata Esperanto (based on Z. Tiˆsljar’s Frekvencmorfemaro de Parolata Esperanto), and M. Stuttard’s The Esperanto Teacher. My thanks to Jens Karlsson for some of the exercises and several useful suggestions, and to members of the M.I.T. Societo por Esperanto and of the classes for which this book was intended for their corrections and general editorial comments. Any errors are of course mine, except for those which are due to the International Anti-Esperantan Conspiracy. Leciono 1

La Familio

1.1 Pronunciation

The first thing the student must learn about any spoken language is its pronunciation. This is in fact the most difficult aspect of many languages, but, as in many other respects, Esperanto is quite simple in this regard. There are twenty-eight phonemes, each represented by a single letter, and six diphthongs represented by two letters. Every word is pronounced exactly as it is spelled; the language lacks what is perhaps the most flawed feature of English: an inconsistent orthography.

1.1.1 Consonants The consonants which are exactly the same in Esperanto as in English are b, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, s, t, v, and z, with the caveat that s is always voiceless. That is, s is always pronounced as in “Spam” rather than “Osmond.” R is pronounced with a trill, as in Scottish English, Spanish, or Italian. This will perhaps need to be practiced, but if it is a sound of which you are incapable, an ordinary retroflex “r” will do. The rest of the consonants are: c, which is pronounced somewhat like the “ts” in “Tsar” or the “z” in “pizza”; ˆc, which is pronounced as the “ch” in “church”; g, which is always pronounced hard as in “golly,” as opposed to g,ˆ which is pronounced soft as in “gee”; h,ˆ which is pronounced as the “ch” in “Bach,” “chutzpah,” or “loch”; j, which is pronounced as the consonantal “y” in “year”; ˆ, which is pronounced as the “z” in “azure” or the second “g” in “garage”1; ˆs, which is pronounced as the “sh” in “shogun”; and u,˘ which is pronounced as the “w” in “water,” although it is never used initially2.

1.1.2 Vowels The vowels of Esperanto are fairly simple, which makes them quite easy for those who are used to simple vowels (e.g., Spanish speakers, Italian speakers, et al.), but unfortunately a bit difficult for those who are accustomed to complex vowel systems like that of English. Esperanto has only five monophthongal vowel sounds: a, e, i, o, and u. These are pronounced as in the international phonetic alphabet: a somewhat shorter than the “a” in father e somewhat like the “e” in get, there o somewhat like the “o” in note i somewhat like the “i” in machine u as in moose

1Some pronunciations 2except in some neologisms

5 6 LECIONO 1. LA FAMILIO

Notes on vowel pronunciation

These vowels should be “pure,” unlike their equivalents in English. The English “o” in note is really a diphthong — it has a sort of “w” at the end. Practice saying it without this “w”, perhaps replacing it with a slight “h” sound. Most of these vowels are a bit less drawn out than in English. Thus, i is sort of a mix between machine and pin, and e is like air without the following y-glide (say “air” slowly, and you will hear an “e” followed by an “ee”.) U never has a preceding “y” sound, as in cute. In addition to the monophthongs, there are six common diphthongs: aj like like ej like air oj like boy uj like gooey, latin huic au˘ like H ouse eu˘ like an e, then a u˘. . . Rare. As in Latin, Portugese, and Ancient Greek.

1.1.3 Accent

The accent always falls on the penult—the second to last syllable. Thus: esperanto, Joˆcjo, rivero, jam

1.1.4 More Notes

1. When two words come together such that the first ends in a vowel and the second begins with a vowel, they should be separated with a glottal stop: la alia /la ? al´ia/.

2. Make sure not to pronounce Esperanto words as if they are English:

pale, false, fine, pure

3. There are no double consonants in Esperanto. If you see two consonants together, pronounce both of them:

mallonga, sennacia

1.1.5 The Alphabet

To name a letter of the alphabet, say the sound of the letter if it is a vowel, or follow the sound with an o if it is a consonant. Thus, the alphabet is: a, bo, co, ˆco, do, e, fo, go, go,ˆ ho, ho,ˆ i, jo, ˆo, ko, lo, mo, no, o, po, ro, so, ˆso, to, vo, u, uo,˘ zo

1.1.6 Ekzerco

Pronounce the following words3:

3From The Esperanto Teacher, Mason Stuttard, 1989:LIBROSERVO de A.E.A., Australia 1.2. GRAMATIKO 7

a afabla, agrabla, barata, anasa, frata, patra, klara, palata e bela, letere, necese, legende, serene, vereme, beleta, estas i imiti, insisti, inviti, dividi, skribi, ili, fiera, aviado o honoro, kolombo, rozo, popolo, odoro, leono, bono, kohero u suno, rulu, insultu, sur, murmuru, fluas, surtuto, brulu aj ajn, fajro, rajto, ajlo, tajloro, rajdi, fajli, riˆcaj ej trejni, vejno, hejmo, plej, kuirejo, lernejo oj sojlo, kojno, knaboj, konkoj, gargojlo, fojno uj Anglujo, tuja, tiuj, rozujo, monujo au˘ laub˘ o, lauro,˘ fraulino,˘ kauzo,˘ audi,˘ auskulti˘ eu˘ Europ˘ o, neuralgio,˘ neutrala,˘ reumatismo,˘ Euk˘ arista c laca, facila, cedi, cento, ofico, ciro, colo, unco ˆc ˆce, ˆcambro, riˆca, laˆco, lunˆco, pasteˆco, kapuˆco g longa, lango, ligi, grati, gento, gruo, granda gˆ larˆga, genˆ tila, gardeno,ˆ gis,ˆ reˆgimo, giroˆ h haro, himno, histo, heredi, hardi, herbo, hurli hˆ eˆho, monaˆho, himeroˆ j jaro, Rejno, jes, juna, sinjoro, justa, jen ˆ ˆaluza, ˆeti, dolˆcaˆo, ˆurnalo, ˆongli, ˆus s sata, ses, sidi, sono, suverena, salti, sendi ˆs ˆsatas, ˆselo, ˆsildo, groˆso, ˆstupo, ˆsvitas

1.2 Gramatiko

Now that we have the orthography down, let us move on to the actual grammar of Esperanto. In Esperanto, as in English, there are eight parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, and pronouns. First, we shall discuss nouns, or more properly substantives. Esperanto nouns end in o, thus: rivero river birdo bird viro man patro father besto animal muro wall kusenveturilo hovercraft angilo eel

Plural nouns add -j to the end of the noun. Thus, viro means “man,” and viroj means “men.”

1.2.1 Sufiksoj Suffixes are added to nouns just before the final o, and are used much more regularly than in English, with the result that the student of Esperanto must learn a much smaller set of words in order to express ideas. For example, the suffix -in- causes a noun to become explicitly female. Thus, patro father patrino mother frato brother fratino sister knabo boy knabino girl viro man virino woman

1.2.2 Prefiksoj As in English, Esperanto prefixes are placed before the root. For example, the Esperanto prefix ge- causes a word to be of indeterminate gender, and is almost always used in the plural: patro father patrino mother gepatroj parents frato brother fratino sister gefratoj siblings sinjoro Mr. sinjorino Mrs. gesinjoroj Mr. and Mrs. Gentleman Lady Ladies and Gentlemen 8 LECIONO 1. LA FAMILIO

1.2.3 Articles One note is necessary here: whereas English has both an indefinite article (“a/an”) and a definite article (“the”), Esperanto has only la, a definite article. Thus “a man” would be translated as viro, and “the man” would be translated as la viro.

1.2.4 The Conjugation of Verbs in the Present Tense To conjugate a verb in the present tense, add -as to the root. This is independent of person or number. Roˆcjo estas = Bob is

1.2.5 Vocabulary homo human being estas is, am, are infano child la the persono person kaj and sinjoro Mr., gentleman ankau˘ also, too amiko friend au˘ or knabo boy sidas sits, is sitting viro man ludas plays, is playing edzo husband kuiras cooks, is cooking familio family ploras cries, is crying frato brother ridas laughs, is laughing simsalabimo a magic word... jen behold, lo (lat. ecce) patro father Roˆcjo Bob paˆcjo Daddy Vilhelmino Wilhelmina panjo Mommy Maria Mary fraulo˘ bachelor Petro Peter fraulino˘ Miss solvo answer, solution hundo dog tradukas translates kato cat Simsalabimo (The cat’s name) rivero river do so (“I did that, so he...”)

1.2.6 Exercises 1. Translate into English:

(a) Jen la familio Frogmorton (b) Roˆcjo, au˘ Roberto, estas la patro, kaj Vilhelmino estas la patrino. (c) Roˆcjo estas Sinjoro Frogmorton, kaj Vilhelmino estas Sinjorino Frogmorton. (d) Maria estas Fraulino˘ Frogmorton, kaj Petro estas Fraulo˘ Frogmorton, au˘ Sinjoro Frogmorton. (e) La hundo estas Barfo, kaj la kato Simsalabimo4. (f) Maria ploras, kaj Petro ridas. (g) Petro kaj Maria sidas kaj ludas, kaj Roberto tradukas.

2. Translate into Esperanto:

(a) Bob and Wilhelmina are also husband and wife.

4This is, astoundingly enough, apparently one of the 700 most frequently used morphemes in spoken Esperanto, and therefore by the philosophy under which this book is being written it had to be included. However, it didn’t fit into any of the book’s themes, so now it’s the cat’s name. 1.2. GRAMATIKO 9

(b) Mary and Peter are children, but Mary is a girl and Peter is a boy. (c) Bob, Wilhelmina, Mary, and Peter are human beings and people—Bob and Peter are men, and Wilhelmina and Mary are women. (d) Mary and Peter are brother and sister, but not friends. (e) The answer is 42. (f) Wilhelmina is cooking.

1.2.7 Adjectives

Adjectives in Esperanto all end in -a: bona good stulta stupid riˆca rich plena full genˆ tila polite granda large

Plural adjectives also add -j to the end, and are used whenever a plural noun is being modified: bona viro bonaj viroj viroj bonaj plena kusenveturilo a full hovercraft grandaj eraroj big goofs

MAL-

The prefix mal- causes the word to which it is attached to mean the opposite of what it would otherwise mean: bona good malbona bad granda large malgranda small

1.2.8 Questions

English uses several rather odd syntactic maneuvers in order to form questions, including inversion, the creation of helping verbs for the purpose of inversion, and the use of question words; Esperanto uses only question words, thus leaving its word order fairly intact. In this lesson, we shall confine ourselves to the types of questions which employ inversion in English—that is, “yes or no” questions. In Esperanto, a special question word—ˆcu—is employed to create this sort of question: La hundo estas mortinta. The dog is dead. Cuˆ la hundo estas mortinta? Is the dog dead?

Thus the “classic” foreign-language question, “Do you speak Language,” translates in Esperanto as “Cuˆ vi parolas Language?”5. This sort of question may be answered by jes or ne.

Cuˆ vi parolas Esperanton? Ne, mi parolas la anglan.

Ne also doubles as the English “not,” “non-,” and “un-.” Thus: La hundo ne ludas The dog isn’t playing La birdo ne flugas The bird isn’t flying/doesn’t fly Ne, mi ne parolas la anglan No, I don’t speak English neforgesebla unforgettable nemovigita unmoved

5More on this later 10 LECIONO 1. LA FAMILIO

1.2.9 Vocabulary ne not, no, non pensas thinks ˆcu Question Particle lingvo language ke that bela beautiful jes yes juna young bona good tro too (as is “too many”) ˆcar because mankas is missing scias knows konsentas agrees iras goes tradukas translates scivolas wonders vorto word esperanto Esperanto piediras walks parolas speaks hejma at home vera real alta high, tall nova new flugas flies tre very Superviro Superman granda large stulta stupid, dumb simpla simple opinias thinks (opines) riˆca rich plena full forgesas forgets

1.2.10 Exercises 1. Translate from Esperanto to English (a) Vilhelmino estas tre bela, sed ne tre juna. (b) La familio parolas Esperanton. (c) Esperanto estas simpla lingvo, kaj la Frogmortonoj opinias, ke Esperanto estas bela. (d) La kato estas nova, sed maljuna. (e) Barfo ankau˘ estas stulta. (f) Petro opinias, ke Maria estas stulta, sed Maria ne konsentas. (g) Roˆcjo ne estas sola, ˆcar li estas edzo. (h) Petro kaj Maria pensas, ke Vilhelmino estas “Panjo” kaj Roberto estas “Paˆcjo.” Petro kaj Maria estas pravaj. (i) La patro ne staras—la patro estas tro alta. (j) Superviro flugas, sed Roˆcjo ne flugas—li piediras. 2. Translate from English to Esperanto (a) Mary and Peter are young. (b) Children are young. (c) Esperanto is a simple language, because the words are smart [the opposite of stupid]. (d) Is the dog new? (e) No, Barfo is old. [not in age] (f) The dog is large, but the cat is small. (g) Does Barf know that Simsalabim is a cat? (h) Yes, but Barf doesn’t know that Barf is a dog. (i) Robert wonders if Robert is a real man, but Wilhelmina knows. Leciono 2

La Familio Frogmorton

2.1 Personal Pronouns

The personal pronouns of Esperanto are much like those of English: mi I ni we vi you vi you li he ili they ˆsi she giˆ it

These are used essentially in the same manner as nouns. E.g., mi estas = “I am”, etc.

2.2 The Possessive

There are three types of possessives in English: “my cat,” “Bob’s cat,” and “the cat of Bob.” In Esperanto, only the first and last of these types are used. The first is the possessive pronoun, and is much simpler in Esperanto than in English, being the personal pronoun made into an adjective by the addition of “-a.” As an Esperanto adjective, the possessive pronoun must agree with the noun it modifies—mia kato, but miaj katoj . The second type of possessive is handled by means of “de”: my aunt’s pen la plumo de mia onklino the dog’s dish la plado de la hundo

2.3 More Suffixes

There are several suffixes in Esperanto which convert words from adjective to noun, noun to verb, etc. Some of these are: -ul- a person with the quality of: bonulo = a good person -ec- -ness: boneco = goodness -ad- -tion, -ing: parolado = speaking, movado = motion -aˆ- makes concrete: manˆgas = eats, manˆgaˆo = food

2.4 Pejorative Affixes

There are three affixes which make an otherwise ordinary word into an insult. These are: -aˆc, which means essentially “contemptible,” “abhominable”; fuˆs-, which means “bungling”; and fi-, which means “morally impure.”

11 12 LECIONO 2. LA FAMILIO FROGMORTON

aˆculo frowzy person fuˆsulo clutz fiulo scoundrel virinaˆco hag fuˆsviro oaf fivirino slut gazetaˆco bad magazine fuˆsgazeto misprinted magazine figazeto smutty magazine

2.5 Tenses other than the present

These are simple. To form the past tense, use “-is” instead of “-as.” To form the future tense, use “-os.” The imperative (e.g., “Get out!”) is formed by adding “-u.” Thus: movu move! movis moved movas moves movos will move

2.6 Non-affirmation questions

The question-words other than Cuˆ all begin with “ki-” and will be introduced slowly throughout this book, along with their friends, the other correlatives. Some of them are: kiam (“when”), kiu (“who”), and kio (“what”). These are used essentially as in English: Kiam vi iros? When will you go? Kiu vi estas? Who are you? Kio giˆ estas? What is it?

Vocabulary

kiu who (what person, one) kial why (what reason) kio what (what thing) kiam when (what time) kiel how (what manner)

2.7 The Accusative

Unlike English, which distinguishes the subject of a sentence from its direct object only by word order, Esperanto changes the word itself a bit such that a direct object may be placed almost arbitrarily in a sentence (although word order in Esperanto tends to be pretty similar to that in English normally). That is, Esperanto adds an “-n” to the end of nouns and adjectives that are in the “accusative,” or direct object, case. Thus: Mi parolas Esperanton. I speak Esperanto. Siˆ amas min. She loves me. La kato batis la hundon. The cat hit the dog. La hundon batis la kato. The cat hit the dog. La bonaj katoj batis la malbonajn hundojn. The good cats hit the bad dogs. Mi vidis la belan bildon. I saw the beautiful picture. 2.7. THE ACCUSATIVE 13

Vocabulary mortas dies porko pig manˆgas eats movas moves porkaˆo pork manˆgaˆo food movadas moves continually saltas jumps flava yellow krajono pencil saltadas jumps up and down flaveco yellowness hazarda random birdo bird kantas sings blua blue onklo uncle kantaˆcas murders (a song) verda green plumo pen havas has batas hits alia other sperta expert bataˆcas hits foully aliulo another (person) spertulo an expert ˆcevalo horse pomo apple telero plate ˆsafo sheep vino wine botelo bottle domo house ovo egg korbo basket bildo picture salo salt plado dish tablo table malsata hungry kulero spoon ˆcambro room banano banana pokalo cup, goblet salono drawing-room teo tea aparato apparatus lito bed fiˆso fish miksi to mix planko floor batalas fights maˆsino machine trinkas to drink koloro color filo son oni one, you amas loves venas comes vidas comes venkas conquers trafas hits

2.7.1 Exercises 1. Translate from Esperanto to English.

(a) Simsalabimo manˆgadas birdojn. Giˆ estas fikato. (b) Barfo ne manˆgas birdojn. Giˆ manˆgas hundmanˆgaˆon. (c) Superviro bataladas niajn malamikojn, sed Lekso Lutor batalas lin. (d) Kiu batas Superviron? (e) Kiujn batis Superviro? (f) Siˆ miksadas la teon, sed la ˆsafo ne trinkas gin.ˆ (g) Siˆ havas botelon de vino, sed aliulo trinkas gin.ˆ

2. Translate from English to Esperanto.

(a) What is it? It is a blue bird. (b) Is your pork good? (c) It is good, but I am full (not plena!). (d) Why does he have a pencil, but not a pen? (e) Bob’s sister is his children’s aunt. (f) Peter and Maria also have an uncle. (g) He is the brother of their father. (h) How did they move their big dog? (i) They didn’t move it. It jumped. 14 LECIONO 2. LA FAMILIO FROGMORTON Leciono 3

La Mondo

3.1 Prepositions

One of the most difficult aspects of Esperanto is its prepositions—not because they are more difficult in Esperanto than in any other given language, but because they are not, and probably could not be, any simpler than those found in other languages. The student of Esperanto, as of any foreign language with prepositions, must be very careful with their use, as prepositions are used differently in every language. It is anyone’s guess whether this book will succeed in using Esperanto prepositions correctly, in fact... At any rate, prepositions in Esperanto are utilized in approximately the same manner as in English: La kato estas sur la tablo The cat is on the table La hundo staras sub la tablo The dog is standing under the table Mi loˆgas en puto I live in a well La kusenveturilo estas plena de angiloj The hovercraft is full of eels.

Note that these prepositions govern the nominative (that is, the subject case) rather than the accusative (that is, the object case) as in English. There are some cases where the object of a preposition will have an -n ending, but these are special cases which will be discussed in the section which is coming up.

Vocabulary en in inter between, among ˆce at, chez sur on ekster outside of sub under trans across al to dum during, while tra through

3.1.1 Indirect Objects In English there exist sentences such as “He gave me the ball.” In these sentences, “me,” or whatever, is known as the indirect object. In Esperanto, this function is filled by al: Li donis al mi la bildon. He gave me the picture.

3.2 Various and Sundry Uses for the Accusative

There are several instances in which the accusative case is used in Esperanto where there does not seem to be, and indeed often there is not, a direct object present. Some of these will be discussed here1.

1Most of the information in this section was taken from Teach Yourself Esperanto, J. Cresswell and J. Hartley, 1987:Great

15 16 LECIONO 3. LA MONDO

3.2.1 Elliptical Usage

The student of Esperanto will often come across instances of the accusative where it would seem more natural to find a simple noun. These are sometimes explained by supposing that there is an assumed sentence for which the accusative phrase is a completion. For example, the standard way of saying “Good morning” in Esperanto is bonan matenon. This is explained by hypothesizing that the original sentence was “I wish you a good morning,” or the like. Thus: Saluton Hello Bonan vesperon Good Evening Bonan nokton Good Night Bonvenon Welcome Dankon (por) Thanks (for) Kion vi batis? — La hundon.

Vocabulary

ha ah tago day ho oh vespero evening nu well mateno morning saluton hello nokto night dankon thanks dankas thanks

3.2.2 Time

Another use for the accusative is in expressions of time, but to well explain these, we shall first need to make a small excursion and discuss enumeration in Esperanto, as well as adverbs.

Numbers

The numbers of Esperanto are as follows: 1 unu 6 six 2 du 7 sep 3 tri 8 ok 4 kvar 9 nau˘ 5 kvin 10 dek 100 cent 1000 mil

From these, all numbers below one million (American) can be formed in a very logical fashion similar to that employed by Chinese. Esperanto uses each word for each place, i.e. each digit, in a given number. Thus,

11 dek unu 99 naudek˘ nau˘ 12 dek du 100 cent 13 dek tri 101 cent unu . . 112 cent dek du 19 dek nau˘ 120 cent dudek

Britain; Houghton and Stoddard, Ltd. 3.2. VARIOUS AND SUNDRY USES FOR THE ACCUSATIVE 17

20 dudek 200 ducent 21 dudek unu 234 ducent tridek kvar . . 1971 mil naucen˘ t sepdek unu 29 dudek nau˘ 1020 mil dudek 30 tridek 1066 mil sesdek ses 40 kvardek 1865 mil okcent sesdek kvin . . 2001 dumil unu 90 naudek˘ 1992 mil naucen˘ t naudek˘ du 239,185 ducent tridek nau˘ mil cent okdek kvin

Adverbs Adverbs in Esperanto are quite simple—either find a ready-made one like morgau˘ (“tomorrow”) (most of this sort end in au˘) or add -e to the root of an adjective (this is comparable to -ly in English, although may be used much more extensively). Thus, bona good bone well bela beautiful bele beautifully unua first unue firstly rapida fast rapide quickly

Notice that ordinal numbers (“first,” “second,” etc.) are formed by the addition of -a to numbers in exactly the same fashion as the creation of possessive pronouns from personal pronouns. The third type of numbers, “once,” “twice,” etc., are formed by adding foje to numbers: unufoje = once, dufoje = twice, etc. Fojo refers to an occasion when something happens.

Vocabulary hodiau˘ today fojo time, occurance hierau˘ yesterday frue early morgau˘ tomorrow nun now kutime usually kvazau˘ as if (not an adv.)

Now that that is out of the way, we can discuss the measurement of time. First, dates: if one wished to say “I shall arrive on Monday,” one would say “Mi alvenos lundon.” One would first, however, need to know the days of the week: lundo Monday mardo Tuesday merkredo Wednesday ˆaudo˘ Thursday vendredo Friday sabato Saturday dimanˆco Sunday

As an extra, we’ll throw in the months of the year as well:

januaro January julio July februaro February augusto˘ August marto March septembro September aprilo April oktobro October majo May novembro November junio June decembro December 18 LECIONO 3. LA MONDO

To ask the time, one should say: Kioma horo estas? To answer this, one says: Estas la dua (horo) — It is two o’clock This only works if the time is an even hour, however. Some other cases are as follows: 2:10 La dua (kaj) dek (minutoj) 7:15 La sepa (kaj) dek kvin (or...kaj kvarono) 3:30 La tria (kaj) tridek (or...kaj duono) 4:45 La kvara (kaj) kvardek kvin 12:50 La dek-dua (kaj) kvindek Now here begins the magic of the accusative: to say “at three thirty,” one would say la trian kaj duono. This is actually short for je la tria kaj duono, but the accusative can be used to substitute for the preposition je, which is a rather odd preposition which is used whenever no other preposition conveys the meaning intended. Thus: Mi alvenos la okan kaj kvarono. — I shall arrive at 8:15. As mentioned before, “on Monday” is translated as lundon. “On Mondays,” is however expressed by lunde: Mi iris lundon, sed kutime mi iras ˆaude.˘ — I went on Monday, but I usually go on Thursdays. Dates are expressed by some variant of Sabaton la trian de februaro (with the appropriate information filled in, of course...). “I awaited her for three months” would be translated as Tri monatojn mi atendis ˆsin, or the like.

Vocabulary jaro year okazas occurs, happens tempo time je indefinite preposition komencas begins finas stops (something) minuto minute tuj immediately momento moment atendas awaits horo hour numero number semajno week monato month

3.2.3 Motion towards

With prepositions The accusative is also used to indicate motion towards some destination. Just as the accusative was shown to replace je above, it here replaces the preposition al (“to”). Thus, Mi iras al Novjorko I am going to New York Mi iras Novjorkon I am going to New York The accusative is also used with prepositional phrases if there is motion which would not otherwise be indicated: La hundo saltas sur la tablon The dog jumps on to the table La hundo saltas sur la tablo The dog is jumping while on the table La birdo flugas trans la riveron The bird flies to the other side of the river La birdo flugas trans la rivero The bird flies on the other side of the river 3.3. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 19

But notice that the accusative is not used with prepositions which already show motion:

Mi iros al la urbo. I shall go to the town. Mi iris gisˆ la marbordo. I went up to the seashore.

With adverbs

If an adverb specifies a place, motion towards that place is indicated by the addition of -n after the final e of the adverb: La homo restis hejme. The person stayed at home. La homo venis hejmen. The person came home.

Such an adverb is normally employed to express the English ending “-ward(s).”:

norden northwards antauen˘ forwards orienten eastwards malantauen˘ backwards suden southwards supren upwards okcidenten westwards malsupren downwards

An -n can also be placed after kie, tie, etc. in order to express “to where” (“whither”) and “to there” (“thither”):

Kien vi iras? Where are you going? Mi iras tien. I am going there.

Vocabulary tie there kie where trovas finds for away restas stays, remains loˆgas lives, dwells lasas leaves proksima near vojaˆgas travels kuras runs veturas travels by vehicle naˆgas swims vojo way, path

3.2.4 Motion from Motion away from some place is not described by means of the accusative, but rather by means of the preposition de: Li saltis de sur la seˆgo He jumped out of the chair La hundo kuris de sub la viro The dog ran out from under the man

There is a special preposition el for de en:

La edzo kuris el la domo The husband ran out of the house La viro saltis el la aeroplano The man jumped out of the airplane

3.3 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Some verbs take direct objects, and others do not. The former are known as transitive, and the latter intransitive. In Esperanto, any given verb starts out as one or the other, and may be transformed into the other by means of -ig- or -iˆg-. 20 LECIONO 3. LA MONDO

3.3.1 Transitivization

The suffix -ig- essentially means “to cause to [whatever].” Thus, it may be used to transform an intran- sitive verb into a transitive2: morti to die mortigi to kill timi to fear timigi to frighten iri to go irigi to propel miri to be amazed mirigi to astonish fali to fall faligi to fell droni to be drowning dronigi to drown (some one) boli to be boiling boligi to boil (something) bruli to be burning bruligi to burn (something) ruˆga red ruˆgigi to redden nigra black nigrigi to blacken bona good bonigi to cause to be good, to better granda large grandigi to enlarge

3.3.2 Intransitivization

The suffix -iˆg- preforms the opposite function of -ig-: it transforms transitive verbs into intransitive, and can be approximately translated as “to become [whatever].”: fini to finish (something) finiˆgi to come to an end naski to bear, give birth to naskiˆgi to be born nomi to name nomiˆgi to be named ruˆga red ruˆgiˆgi to blush edzo husband edziˆgi to get married (become a husband) edzino wife edziniˆgi to get married (become a wife)

3.4 Suffixes of Place, and Geography

The suffix -ej- signifies “place.” This can be more effectively shown by example than by explanation: kuiri to cook kuirejo kitchen dormi to sleep dormejo bedroom infano child infanejo nursery automobilo˘ car automobilejo˘ garage hundo dog hundejo kennel trinki to drink trinkejo bar lerni to learn lernejo school necesa necessary necesejo bathroom

The suffix -uj- signifies a container for something. Thus, a monujo is a wallet, an inkujo is an inkwell, and a karbujo is a coal-skuttle. This suffix was also originally used to signify a country in which a certain race dwells:

anglo an Englishman anglujo England dano a Dane danujo Denmark svedo a Swede svedujo Sweden

Less homogeneously populated countries were signified either by a simple name or the suffix -i-:

2The addition of -i produces the infinitival form of a verb 3.4. SUFFIXES OF PLACE, AND GEOGRAPHY 21

Algerio Algeria Ceˆˆ hoslovakio Czechoslovakia Australio˘ Australia Usono The U.S.A. Kanado Canada

In addition, some countries are named by -lando:

Irlando Ireland Finnlando Finland Islando Iceland

Thus, there are essentially three (or two) types of country names. The first type of country is named after its inhabitants, so naming an inhabitant of such a country is as simple as removing the -uj- ending. For the other types of country, one adds -an- to the name of the country:

irlandano an Irishman usonano an American islandano an Icelander australiano˘ an Australian

There has been a movement for greater standardization of these names within the Esperanto community, with the result that those names which formerly used an -ujo ending now normally take an -io ending: Anglio, Svedio, etc.

Vocabulary

lando land germano a German Jugoslavio Yugoslavia lago lake loko place, location mondo world franko a franc kampo a field urbo town nacio nation sviso a Swiss ekskurso a trip Europ˘ o Europe japano a Japanese Nederlando Holland Finlando Finland Irano Iran regiono region adreso address autobuso˘ bus dano a Dane franco a Frenchman italo an Italian Parizo Paris strato a street ˆsipo a ship Afriko Africa akvo water Ameriko America (continent) Skandinavio Scandinavia svedo a Swede anglo an Englishman Bulgario Bulgaria centro a center kilo- kilo- metro meter mapo a map maro a sea Usono The U.S. monto a mountain nivelo level ruso a Russian tereno terrain ˆcino a Chinese person viziti to visit multaj many faras makes 22 LECIONO 3. LA MONDO

3.4.1 Exercises Translate into English:

1. La Frogmortonoj loˆgas en Esperantio, sed ili faris vojaˆgon al Europ˘ o.

2. Esperantio ne estas vera lando.

3. Ili vizitis multajn landojn, kaj vidis multajn belajn urbojn.

4. Kien ili iris? Ili iris al Francio.

5. Kie ili restis en Francio? Ili restis en Parizo. Leciono 4

Mostly Verbs

Vocabulary pri about por for kun with farti to fare ebla possible post after preni to take antau˘ before kompreni to understand nomo name antau˘ in front gisˆ until, up to audi˘ to hear skribi to write aˆceti to buy libro book rapida quick facila easy funkcii to function mezo middle dankon thanks aˆgo age sen without deziri to want kara dear atenti to await stari to stand legi to read dormi to sleep nepre w/o fail tuˆsi to touch supre above diskuti to discuss krom besides naskiˆgi to be born rompi to break gvidi to guide atingi to attain anstatau˘ instead of kvankam although ofte often interpreti to interpret super beyond informo information kompleta complete lui to rent se if konscii to be aware of tuta whole doni to give ankorau˘ still nur only afero thing jam already vivi to live eˆc even certa certain kelkaj some sufiˆca enough lau˘ according to tamen however ricevi to receive per by means of interesi to interest sama same koni to be familiar with preskau˘ almost porti to carry propono proposal ˆsati to like pro because of grava weighty ja indeed pupo doll memori to remember vendi to sell helpi to help ekzisti to exist agi to act aperi to appear montri to show kreski to grow elekti to choose sukcesi to succeed kapabla capable maniero manner almenau˘ at least kapti to catch mano hand serˆci to look for sendi to send dauri˘ to last fermi to close provi to try auskulti˘ to listen zorgi to care for utila useful formi to form klara clear membro member ideo idea kontrau˘ against pluraj several celo goal skatolo box

23 24 LECIONO 4. MOSTLY VERBS

sperta expert ˆcefa main akcepti to accept pura clean perdi to lose plaˆci to please rakonto story uzi to use prezidi to preside

4.1 The Infinitive

The infinitival form of a verb, expressed in English as, e.g. “to be,” may be formed in Esperanto by the addition of -i at the end of the root. Esperanto does not use a preposition, as English does: “to be” would be translated by esti rather than al esti or some other such monstrosity. The infinitive comes into use mainly when naming verbs and employing auxiliary verbs, but also when expressing concepts which would be expressed by a preposition plus the “-ing” form of an English verb. The first use mentioned above requires no elucidation, but for the second we shall provide a few examples, after presenting some necessary vocabulary:

Vocabulary povi to be able to, can devi to have to, must bezoni to need (to) rajti to be allowed to, may deziri to want (something) voli to want (to) decidi to decide klopodi to take steps to, endeavor peni to try

4.1.1 Examples of the use of auxiliary verbs Mi povas piediri I can walk La hundoj devis atendi la knabojn The dogs had to await the boys La knabo ne rajtis manˆgi la kukon The boy was not allowed to eat the cake La knabo ne rajtas fumi The boy is not allowed to smoke Mi volas manˆgi multajn kukojn I want to eat many cakes

4.1.2 The infinitive with prepositions The infinitive may be used with only three prepositions: anstatau˘, krom, and por. For example: Anstatau˘ iri hejmen, mi iris en la trinkejon. Instead of going home, I went into the bar. Krom bati Lekson Lutor Superviro volis vidi Luizon Lane. Besides hitting Lex Luthor Superman wanted to see Lois Lane. Mi iris por aˆceti porkaˆon. I went (in order) to buy pork.

Note that por plus an infinitive is used to express the idea of “in order to.” The word por must be included in such expressions, no matter tempting it may be to omit it.

4.1.3 Exercises 1. Translate into English

(a) Mi trinkos lakton (milk), kaj mi povos kreski! (b) Superviro klopodis trovi la domon de Lekso Lutor. (c) Krom esti stulta, vi ankau˘ estas tre malbela. 4.2. RELATIVE PRONOUNS 25

2. Translate into Esperanto

(a) I can sing if I want to. (b) I must demand that you close the box.

4.2 Relative Pronouns

In Esperanto, relative pronouns (“The dog, who chased the cat, is sick”) are relatively simple, a trait about which the reader is probably tired of hearing. In English, the word “who” is used, with its variations; Esperanto uses kiu in a similar fashion. As with adjectives, it is important that the relative pronoun agree in person and number with the noun it governs: Superviro, kiu ofte flugas, ankau˘ povas piediri. Superman, who often flies, can also walk. La knaboj, kiuj falis sur la seˆgon, estis malpuraj. The boys, who fell onto the chair, were dirty. La hundoj, kiujn la automobilo˘ trafis, estos mortintaj. The dogs, which the car hit, will be dead. La knabinon, kiu staras sur la strato, audas˘ mi I hear the girl who is standing on the street.

4.2.1 Exercises

Translate into Esperanto: 1. Billy Jean is she who thinks the child is my son.

2. You are the dirty rat (rato) who killed my brother.

3. Those are the dirty rats my brother killed.

4.3 More correlatives

In addition to all the ki- words which have been presented heretofore, there exist corresponding words beginning with ti-, i-, neni-, and ˆci-. Some examples:

Vocabulary

tio that (thing) io something tiu that (one) iu someone tie there ie somewhere nenio nothing ˆcio everything neniu no one ˆciu everyone nenie nowhere ˆcie everywhere

By the use of the word ˆci, one may express proximity: ˆci tio means “this (thing),” ˆci tiu means “this (one),” and ˆci tie means “here.” The ˆci may be placed before or after the ti- word. 26 LECIONO 4. MOSTLY VERBS

4.3.1 Exercises

Translate into Esperanto: 1. That is the place (loko) where I live.

2. Those are the birds that flew somewhere yesterday.

3. Something is wrong (malbona) with you.

4.4 Participles

Since verbs have been maintaining the appearance of relative simplicity up to this point, it now becomes appropriate to shatter this illusion, although not too badly. In addition to the simple tenses (-as, -is, and -os), Esperanto boasts an extremely flexible system of participles, which by virtue of its logical nature is sometimes confusing to English speakers. Here is the system: Non-participial Active Passive -as -ant -at -is -int -it -os -ont -ot

Now, here is an example with the verb atingi (“to attain.”):

atingas attains atinganta attaining atingata being attained atingis attained atinginta having attained atingita attained atingos will attain atingonta about to attain atingota about to be attained

Examples:

La hundo mortis The dog died la mortinta hundo the dead dog La hundo mortas The dog is dying la mortanta hundo the dying dog La hundo mortos The dog will die la mortonta hundo the dog, who is about to die La mortontoj vin salutas Morituri te salutant Mi rompas la pladon I am breaking the bowl la rompata plado the bowl that is being broken Mi rompis la pladon I broke the bowl la rompita plado the broken bowl Mi rompos la pladon I shall break the bowl la rompota plado the bowl that is about to be broken

4.4.1 Participles as nouns and adverbs

Participles are not confined to adjectival form in Esperanto. Here are some examples of nominal and adverbial participles: 4.4. PARTICIPLES 27

esperas hopes esperanto one who hopes gvidas guides gvidanto a guide (amateur) parolas speaks parolanto a speaker parolis spoke parolinto he who has just spoken parolos will speak parolonto he who is about to speak amas loves amato a loved one Dezirante paroli al li, mi batis lin sur la kapo. Wishing to speak to him, I hit him on the head. Skribinte la libron, mi vendis gin.ˆ After writing the book, I sold it. Venkonte Azion, Aleksandro venkis Grekion. Just before conquering Asia Alexander conquered Greece.

4.4.2 Compound Tenses

Rather surprisingly, compound tenses are perhaps the least common use for the participles. Esperanto stylists tend to see them as inelegant and use whatever tricks they need in order to avoid them. However, the Esperantist should know them nonetheless. As has been the case throughout this chapter, I shall resort to endless examples in lieu of any explanation: Giˆ estas manˆganta It is eating Giˆ estas manˆginta It has eaten Giˆ estas manˆgonta It is about to eat Giˆ estas manˆgata It is eaten Giˆ estas manˆgita It has been eaten Giˆ estas manˆgota It is about to be eaten Giˆ estis manˆganta It was eating Giˆ estis manˆginta It had been eating Giˆ estis manˆgonta It had been about to eat Giˆ estis manˆgata It was being eaten Giˆ estis manˆgita It was eaten Giˆ estis manˆgota It was about to be eaten Giˆ estos manˆganta It will be eating Giˆ estos manˆginta It will have eaten Giˆ estos manˆgonta It will be about to eat Giˆ estos manˆgata It will be being eaten Giˆ estos manˆgita It will be eaten Giˆ estos manˆgota It will be about to be eaten

Note that estas -int corresponds to our present perfect, estis -int corresponds to our past perfect, and estos -int corresponds to our future perfect. 28 LECIONO 4. MOSTLY VERBS

4.4.3 Exercises Translate into Esperanto: 1. Billy Jean is not my lover; she is just (nur) a girl who says that I am the one.

2. The dog shall have been dead in the room for three weeks when we eat it.

4.5 Indirect speech

Indirect speech is very logical in Esperanto, which renders it a bit difficult for English speakers. That is, it uses logical tenses, as opposed to the semi-archaic pseudo-subjunctives of English. The trick to becoming familiar with the Esperanto method of relating indirect speech is to use the same tense that direct speech would: Li diris, “Mi aˆcetos bananon” He said, “I shall buy a banana” Li diris, ke li aˆcetos bananon He said that he would buy a banana Li diris, “Mi aˆcetas bananon” He said, “I am buying a banana” Li diris, ke li aˆcetas bananon He said that he was buying a banana Li diris, “Mi aˆcetis bananon” He said, “I bought a banana” Li diris, ke li aˆcetis bananon He said that he had bought a banana

4.6 Indirect commands

In indirect speech Esperanto uses the imperative after verbs such as want, wish, order, advise, tell, etc. where English uses the infinitive: Mi volas ke vi iru al Kanado I want you to go to Canada Mi volas ke li flugu I want him to fly Mi diris ke Superviro prenu tri saltojn kaj flugu I told Superman to take three jumps and fly Mi ordonis ke li iru hejmen I ordered him to go home

Vocabulary Good verbs for indirect speech and indirect commands: inviti to invite respondi to respond rekomendi to recommend rimarki to notice imagi to imagine supozi to suppose preferi to prefer protesti to protest decidi to decide diri to say senti to sense kredi to believe postuli to demand ˆsajni to seem

4.6.1 Exercises Translate into Esperanto: 1. I thought I told you to go to school! (This one’s tricky...)

2. I asked the dog to sit.

3. The Lord (Sinjoro) told Mary to bear a son.

4.7 The Reflexive

The reflexive is used when a subject refers back to itself in sentences such as “I hid myself” and “He rented his (own) car.” In Esperanto, the first and second person reflexive pronouns are the same as the personal pronouns, and the third person reflexive pronoun is si. Si can only be used in the object position, 4.7. THE REFLEXIVE 29 never as a subject; thus, it is always either preceded by a preposition, or suffixed with the -n ending. Some examples of the reflexive: Mi donis al mi la bildon I gave myself the picture Ni devas suprenigi nin We must raise ourselves up Vi zorgas nur por vin You care only for yourself Mi havis mian kukon, kaj ankau˘ manˆgis ginˆ I had my cake and ate it, too Li perdis sian edzinon en la ˆcambro He lost his (own) wife in the room Li perdis lian edzinon He lost his (someone else’s) wife Siˆ zorgis por si She took care of herself Siˆ estis sola, en ˆcambro nur kun si She was alone, in a room only with herself Giˆ batalis kontrau˘ si It fought against itself Ili lavis sin They washed themselves Note that this is not the same as the English emphatic use of the reflexive pronoun in “I myself shot him,” or “He bought the car himself.” In Esperanto, this sort of thing is covered by the word mem: Mi mem estas samideano I myself am a member-of-the-same-idea (an Esperantist) Homo saˆga portas ˆcion sian kun si mem Homo sapiens omnia sua secum fert Tion ordonis la reˆgo mem The king himself ordered that

4.7.1 Exercises Translate into Esperanto: 1. He himself lives in Ireland.

2. Nixon wrote many books about himself.

3. She almost liked him herself. 4. I gave myself a picture of an eel. 30 LECIONO 4. MOSTLY VERBS Leciono 5

Esperanto: The Final Chapter, Part I

5.1 Vocabulary

Sort this out as you can1... sorˆci to bewitch fakto fact labori to work plu further gustaˆ correct ekzemple for example temo subject rigardi to look at pagi to pay verki to compose parto part eventualo eventuality problemo problem diversa varied teni to hold meti to put mono money kovri to cover kosti to cost ˆsanˆgi to change rilati to relate to lasta final ordinara ordinary generalaˆ general estro leader teatro theater prezenti to introduce kulturo culture teruro terror diablo devil raporto report sekvi to follow pardoni to pardon scienco science situacio situation forta strong grupo group longa long punkto point serio series amaso pile, heap aranˆgi to arrange kontakti to contact papero paper programo program publika public bedauri˘ to regret prelegi to lecture ˆsloso lock ˆeti to throw konkreta concrete plani to plan relativo relative korespondi to correspond pasi to pass ordo order speciala special ˆsanco chance flanko side lavi to wash preciza precise kontroli to check normala normal okupi to occupy trajno train prezo price sistemo system ˆcarma charming aparta separate bazo basis oficiala official levi to lift libera free prepari to prepare konstanta constant regulo rule marˆsi to march reklamo advertisement voˆco voice ˆsiri to tear senco sense (mng.) bileto ticket difini to define gratuli to congratulate kazo case pendi to hang (it.) perfekta perfect populara popular produkto product rekta direct volvi to wind marko mark konservi to conserve

1it. stands for intransitive, and tr. for transitive

31 32 LECIONO 5. ESPERANTO: THE FINAL CHAPTER, PART I

tasko task tranˆci to cut ˆcirkau˘ around vesto garment geniˆ to disturb aspekti to look, seem vasta vast ekzemplero copy biblioteko library evolui to develop fako subject profesoro professor freneza crazy kaˆsi to hide koncerni to concern stato condition kruela cruel konsisti el to consist of ponto bridge strukturo structure periodo period precipa main principo principle simila similar speco kind, sort suki to suck teksto text tajpi to type varma warm trakti to deal with vetero weather cetera remaining debato debate feliˆca happy giˆceto box-office inteligenta intelligent karto card koncepto concept kompliki to complicate konsilo advice lanˆci to launch lerta clever tabulo board listo list letero letter (post) nuda bare minimumo minimum litero letter (alph.) oferti to offer paˆgo page (bk.) paˆso step premi to press profesio profession renkonti to meet sireno siren skii to ski specifa specific tuko cloth valora valuable ˆstelo star goˆ jo joy absoluta absolute amplekso extent amuzi to amuse bendo tape anonco announcement dividi to divide donaco gift instrui to teach krii to shout konkurso contest kompetenta competent

5.2 The Subjunctive

Even with all the verbiage concerning verbs, we still have one other type: the subjunctive. These end in -us, and are used to express unreal conditions, polite enquiry, and wishful thinking: Se mi estos riˆca, mi havos monon. If I will be rich, I shall have money. Se mi estus riˆca, mi havus monon. If I were rich, I would have money. Se ili estus alportintaj armilojn, ili povus esti gajnintaj la batalon. If they had brought weapons, they might have won the battle. Se mi nur estus riˆca! If only I were rich! Se la fiulo nur ne estus manˆginta mian katon! If only the villain had not eaten my cat! Cuˆ vi povus alporti al mi la kapon de Johano Baptista? Could you bring me the head of John the Baptist? Cuˆ vi donus al mi la salon, mi petas. Would you please pass the salt.

5.3 The comparitive and the superlative

In English, one may use either “-er” or “more,” depending on circumstances, in order to form the comparitive. Esperanto utilizes the latter option, using the word pli. The superlative is formed by means of 5.4. AJN 33 the word plej (“most”), and equality is denoted by the use of tiel . . . kiel: Mi estas pli bela ol li. I am more handsome than he. Li estas pli stulta ol hundo. He is dumber than a dog. Li estas la plej stulta ulo en la mondo. He’s the dumbest guy in the world. Li estas tiel stulta kiel hundo. He’s as dumb as a dog.

5.4 ajn

Ajn is used with correlatives in order to “generalize” them: with ki- correlatives it translates as - ever (whoever, whatever, etc.), and with i- correlatives, it changes the meaning from “something,” etc., to “anything,” etc: Kiu ajn loˆgus ˆci tie estas stulta. Whoever would live here is dumb. ie ajn krom Bostono anywhere but Boston

5.5 Indeterminate subjects

Many sentences in English begin with “it is...”, as in “It is raining” or “It normally rains here on Tuesdays”, or with “there is,” as in “There is a big dog in that plant stand.” Both of these types of sentences are translated in Esperanto by leaving out the subject: Estas varme hodiau.˘ It is warm today. Kutime pluvas marde ˆci tie. It normally rains here on Tuesdays. Estas granda hundo en la domo. There is a big dog in the house.

5.6 Still more suffixes

-et- diminishes that to which it is attached: viro—man, vireto—dwarf. In counterpoint to this is -eg-: virego—giant. -ar- signifies a group of objects: ˆsafo—sheep, ˆsafaro—herd; homo—human, la homaro—humanity.

5.7 And a prefix

Ek- acts as an inchoative—that is, it signifies the beginning of some action or the suddenness of said action: audi˘ to hear ekaudi˘ to get wind of vidi to see ekvidi to catch sight of dormi to sleep ekdormi to fall asleep brili to shine ekbrili to flash flugi to fly ekflugi to take flight

5.7.1 Exercises 1. Translate from Esperanto to English (a) Se la fino venus kaj vi estus la sola virino en la mondo, mi eble amus vin. (b) Cuˆ estus tro malfacila, ke vi portu miajn librojn? (c) La amplekso de lia stulteco estas tiel, ke li estas facile la plej stulta viro ˆce MIT. (d) Mi surbendigis la debaton inter la preziduntojn, kaj pensis ke ili estis tiel stulta kiel kutime. (e) Kiu ajn tuˆsos mian donacojn estos instruita lecionon, kiun li ne forgesos! 2. Translate from English to Esperanto 34 LECIONO 5. ESPERANTO: THE FINAL CHAPTER, PART I

(a) Where are the remaining letters I wrote? (b) There is one, which I hid under my clothing. (c) I gave her a card and wished her a happy new year. (d) It is warm, and the weather is great! (e) Bob is constantly drinking out of the boards which one finds under bridges in bad structural condition. (f) The crazy little-rabbit (kuniklo) launched a period of vast extent, during which the stars fell and anyone who wanted could seem to follow advice. Appendix A

Key to Exercises

Exercises 1.2.6

1. Translated from Esperanto. (a) Here is the Frogmorton family. (b) Bob, or Robert, is the father, and Wilhelmina is the mother. (c) Bob is Mr. Frogmorton, and Wilhelmina is Mrs. Frogmorton. (d) Mary is Miss Frogmorton, and Peter is Master Frogmorton, or Mr. Frogmorton. (e) The dog is Barf, and the cat Simsalabim. (f) Mary is crying, and Peter is laughing. (g) Peter and Mary are sitting and playing, and Robert is translating. 2. Translated from English. (a) Roˆcjo kaj Vilhelmino ankau˘ estas geedzoj. (b) Maria kaj Petro estas infanoj, sed Maria estas knabino kaj Petro estas knabo. (c) Roˆcjo, Vilhelmino, Maria, kaj Petro estas homoj kaj personoj—Roˆcjo kaj Petro estas viroj, kaj Vilhelmino kaj Maria estas virinoj. (d) Maria kaj Petro estas gefratoj, sed ne amikoj. (e) La solvo estas 42. (f) Vilhelmino kuiras. Exercises 1.2.10

1. Translated from Esperanto (a) Wilhelmina is very beautiful, but not very young. (b) The family speaks Esperanto. (c) Esperanto is a simple (uncomplicated) language, and the Frogmortons think that Esperanto is beautiful. (d) The cat is new, but old. (e) Barf also is stupid. (f) Peter thinks that Mary is dumb, but Mary does not agree.

35 36 APPENDIX A. KEY TO EXERCISES

(g) Bob is not alone, because he is a husband. (h) Peter and Mary think that Wilhelmina is “Mommy” and Robert is “Daddy.” Peter and Mary are right. (i) The father does not stand—the father is too tall. (j) Superman flies, but Bob does not fly—he walks.

2. Translated from English

(a) Maria kaj Petro estas junaj. (b) Infanoj estas junaj. (c) Esperanto estas simpla lingvo, ˆcar la vortoj estas malstultaj. (d) Cuˆ la hundo estas nova? (e) Ne, Barfo estas malnova. (f) La hundo estas granda, sed la kato estas malgranda. (g) Cuˆ Barfo scias, ke Simsalabimo estas kato? (h) Jes, sed Barfo ne scias, ke Barfo estas hundo. (i) Roberto scivolas, ˆcu Roberto estas vera viro, sed Vilhelmino scias. Exercises 2.7.1

1. Translated from Esperanto

(a) Simsalabim habitually eats birds. It is a nasty cat. (b) Barf does not eat birds. It eats dogfood. (c) Superman fights our enemies, but Lex Luthor fights him. (d) Who is hitting Superman? (e) Who (pl.) is Superman hitting? (f) She continually mixes the tea, but the sheep does not drink it. (g) She has a bottle of wine, but another drinks it.

2. Translated from English.

(a) Kio estas gi?ˆ Giˆ estas blua birdo. (b) Cuˆ via porkaˆo estas bona? (c) Giˆ estas bona, sed mi estas sata. (d) Kial li havas krajonon sed ne plumon? (e) La fratino de Roˆcjo estas la onklino de liaj infanoj. (f) Petro kaj Maria ankau˘ havas onklon. (g) Li estas la frato de ilia patro. (h) Kiel ili movis ilian grandan hundon? (i) Ili ne movis gin.ˆ Giˆ saltis. Exercises 3.4.1

1. Translated from Esperanto. 37

(a) The Frogmortons live in Esperantio, but they are taking (“making”) a trip to Europe. (b) Esperantio is not a real country. (c) They visited many lands, and saw many beautiful towns. (d) Whither did they go? They went to France. (e) Where did they stay in France? They stayed in Paris. Exercises 4.1.3

1. Translated from Esperanto. (a) I shall drink milk, and I shall be able to grow! (b) Superman endeavored to find Lex Luthor’s house. (c) Besides being stupid, you are also very ugly. 2. Translated from English. (a) Mi povas kanti, se mi volas. (b) Mi devas postuli, ke vi fermu la skatolon. Exercises 4.2.1

1. Translated from English. (a) Vilnjo Jean estas ˆsi, kiu opinias, ke la infano estas mia filo. (b) Vi estas la rataˆco, kiu mortigis mian fraton. (c) Tiuj estas la rataˆcoj, kiujn mia frato mortigis. Exercises 4.3.1

1. Translated from English.

(a) Tiu estas la loko, kie mi loˆgas. (b) Tiuj estas la birdoj, kiuj flugis ien hierau.˘ (c) Io estas malbona pri vi. Exercises 4.4.3

1. Translated from English.

(a) Vilnjo Jean ne estas mia amanto; ˆsi nur estas knabino, kiu diras, ke mi estas tiu. (b) La hundo estos mortinta en la ˆcambro dum tri semajnoj, kiam ni manˆgos gin.ˆ Exercises 4.6.1

1. Translated from English.

(a) Mi pensis, ke mi diris al vi, ke vi iru al la lernejo! (b) Mi petis la hundon, ke giˆ sidu. (c) La Sinjoro diris al Maria, ke ˆsi nasku filon. Exercises 4.7.1 38 APPENDIX A. KEY TO EXERCISES

1. Translated from English.

(a) Li mem loˆgas en Irlando. (b) Nixon skribis multajn librojn pri si mem. (c) Al ˆsi mem preskau˘ plaˆcis li. (d) Mi donis al mi bildon pri angilo. Exercises 5.7.1

1. Translated from Esperanto.

(a) If the end came and you were the only woman in the world, I might love you. (b) Would it be too difficult for you to carry my books? (c) The extent of his stupidity is such that he is easily the dumbest man at MIT. (d) I taped the debate between the would-be-presidents and thought that they were as stupid as usual. (e) Whoever touches my gifts will be taught a lesson he will never forget!

2. Translate from English to Esperanto

(a) Kie estas la ceteraj leteroj, kiujn mi skribis? (b) Tie estas unu, kiun mi kaˆsis sub miajn vestojn. (c) Mi donis al ˆsi karton kaj diris al ˆsi, ke mi volas, ke ˆsi havu feliˆcan novan jaron. (d) Estas varme, kaj la vetero estas bonega! (e) Roˆcjo konstante trinkadas el la tabuloj, kiujn oni trovas sub pontoj, kiuj estas en malbonaj strukturaj statoj. (f) La freneza kunikleto lanˆcis periodon de vasta amplekso, dum kiu la ˆsteloj falis, kaj iu ajn kiu volis, povis sxajni kvazau˘ sekvanta konsilon. Appendix B

Tables

(stress) -s +s -s +s -s +s -s +s labial coronal palatal velar glottal -cont -voice p t c ˆc k -sonor +voice b d gˆ g +cont -voice f s ˆs hˆ +voice v z ˆ +sonor +nasal m n -nasal r l (lateral) -l +l -l +l -l +l -l +l -l +l glides u˘ j h

Tabelo B.1: Phonetical Analysis of Consonants in Esperanto

39 40 APPENDIX B. TABLES

K- T- C-ˆ Nen- Indefinite Questioning Definite Inclusive Negative Relative Some, any What, which That Each, every, all No, none Quality Ia Kia Tia Ciaˆ Nenia Kind of Some kind What kind That kind Each kind No kind Any kind Such Every kind Motive Ial Kial Tial Cialˆ Nenial Reason For some reason For what reason For that reason For each reason For no reason Purpose For any reason Why Therefore For every reason Iam Kiam Tiam Ciamˆ Neniam Time Sometime At what time At that time Each time At no time Any time When Then Every time Never Always Ie Kie Tie Cieˆ Nenie Place In some place At what place At that place At each place At no place Somewhere Where There At every place Nowhere Anywhere Everywhere Iel Kiel Tiel Cielˆ Neniel Manner In some way In what way In that way In each way In no way In any way How So In every way Nohow Somehow, anyhow As, like Ies Kies Ties Ciesˆ Nenies Possession Someone’s What person’s That one’s Each one’s No one’s Anyone’s Whose Everyone’s Io Kio Tio Cioˆ Nenio Thing Something What thing That thing Everything Nothing Anything What Iom Kiom Tiom Ciomˆ Neniom Quantity Some What quantity That quantity Every quantity None of the How much So much All of the quantity quantity Iu Kiu Tiu Ciuˆ Neniu Individu- Someone What person That person Each person No one ality Anyone Which thing That (specified) Everyone Nobody Who Which thing Ciujˆ , all, all the

Tabelo B.2: Correlative Pronouns, from The Esperanto Teacher 41

Sufiksoj -aˆc contemptible, disgusting -ad frequent or continuous action -aˆ substance, concreteness -an inhabitant, member, adherent -ar collection, set of -ebl possibility -ec abstract quality -eg great size, intense degree -ej place -em propensity, tendency -end ’which must be done’ -er single unit, item -estr leader, manager -et smallness, small degree -id offspring -ig causing something to be -iˆg becoming something -il tool, instrument -ind worthy of -ing holder for one object -in feminine -ist/m as in English -obl -fold -op in a group of -on -th (fractions) -uj container -ul person possessing a certain quality -um no fixed meaning -ˆcjo male diminutive -njo female diminutive Prefiksoj bo- relation by marriage dis- seperation, scattering ek- sudden or momentary action eks- former, ex- fi- shameful, nasty ge- both sexes together mal- opposite mis- mis-, wrongly pra- of great antiquity; great- re- over again, re-

Tabelo B.3: Affixes 42 APPENDIX B. TABLES

Prepozicioj

al to anstatau˘ instead of antau˘ before (time), in front of (location) apud beside ˆce at (location) ˆcirkau˘ around da of [with expressions of quantity] de of, from, by dum during ekster outside el out of, from en in gisˆ until (time), up to (location) inter between je [no fixed meaning], at (time) kontrau˘ against krom besides, apart from kun with lau˘ according to, along malgrau˘ notwithstanding per by means of po at the rate of, por for, in order to post after (time), behind (location) preter beyond, past pri about, concerning pro because of, on account of sen without sub under super above sur on tra through trans across

Tabelo B.4: The prepositions. A few others may be formed by the addition of an affix. Appendix C

Glossary—Esperanto to English

First off, it must be stated that this glossary owes a great deal to Montagu C. Butler’s Esperanto-English Dictionary, although it is much less complete and even less detailed (but free...). The following representation is used for varying levels of acceptability of words: Words listed in the Fundamento are listed in roman type, with no sign; words used in the Fundamento, but not listed in the Universala Vortaro thereof are in a typewriter style, with no sign; words in an Oficiala Aldono are in italics, with no sign; and unofficial words are starred. Words upon which the author frowns are marked with two stars. This system was adopted with the aim of greater conformity with general conventions in linguistics and of the avoidance of excessive capitalization. Esperanto words enclosed within parentheses are optional, and square brackets are used to close off general comments, especially those which refer the reader to words other than those which are being defined within the definition in which the comment is found. Words that are capitalized are uniformly proper nouns.

Abbreviations tr transitive den. denotes nt intransitive tn -tion vb verb rt root s.t. something i.t.s.o. in the sense of s.o. someone etc. see some other dictionary... clt correlative k kaj sfx suffix abs absolute (tr vb used w/o object) pfx prefix aux auxiliary (used with an infinitive) us. used obj object intj interjection wrt with respect to adv adverb adj adjective conj conjunction prep preposition q.v. which see Cp compare w/ with w/o without < from > to It is hoped that any other abbreviations which are met will be understandable from context. Most one-letter abbreviations refer to the main words in the English translation.

43 44 APPENDIX C. GLOSSARY—ESPERANTO TO ENGLISH

Esperanto-English abon/i tr subscribe to. o, -ption. *angl/o (proper noun) Englishman. ujo/* io, ∼ ∼ ∼ absolut/a absolute, unconditional. e, -ly. England. a, English. ∼ ∼ -aˆc- pejorative sfx, den. disparagemnt, contempt, dislike: ankau˘ (adv) also, too. (Precedes word to be abominable, odious. emphasized) ankorau˘ (adv) still, yet, till now. ne, not yet. aˆcet/i tr buy, purchase. ∼ anonc/i tr; al, pri; ke announce, advertise. o, -ment. -ad- (sfx den. Action) 1. -ADO, adds the idea of actn ∼ w/ noun rt. 1. -ADO, w/ vb rt den. actn in general anstatau˘ instead of. prep as a substitute for. conj 2. -ADI, continued, habitual, or repeated actn of vb (before verb), instead of. ADRES/o address. i, tr a., direct, send. antau˘ (prep) before (place or time); ago ( longe, long ∼ ∼ afer/o affair: object, thing; business, concern, matter. ago). *Afrik/o Africa. ano, African. antikv/a antique: ancient; old-fashioned. ∼ ag/i nt act, behave. o, act, deed. ado, action. aparat/o apparatus. (em)a, -ive, energetic.∼ ∼ apart/a separate; special, unique. e, especially; aside. ∼ eco characteristic. ∼ aˆg/o age; epoch, generation, period. ∼ ajn particle den. indefiniteness, used w/ correlatives: k- aparten/i al belong to; appertain to. ajn, wh-ever. i- ajn, any-. ˆc- ajn, absolutely apenau˘ (adv) hardly, barely, scarcely. (prep) at the tevery-. neni- ajnt, no- at all. t most. t -aˆ- (den. concrete idea.) thing; concrete manifestation aper/i nt appear. mal i disappear. ∼ of; meat of; material. april/o (proper noun) April. akcept/i tr accept, take; take what is offered; adopt; aprob/i tr approve (of), be pleased with; authorize. admit, agree to; acquiesce in; welcome; honor, o, certificatn. undertake (an office). o -ance. ∼ ∼ apud (prep) beside; by, near. a, adjacent. e, near akir/i tr acquire, gain, get. aˆo, -sition. ebla, by, close. ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ obtainable. -ar- collection of units of the same kind, regarded as a akompan/i accompany (phys. or mus.). (aˆ)o, whole. Opp: -er-. -iment, anto, companion. isto, -ist. ∼ ∼ ∼ aranˆg/i tr; ke, por, pri arrange. o, -ment. ema akr/a sharp, keen. mal a, blunt, dull. contriving, ingenious. ∼ ∼ ∼ akt/o act (theatrical, legal). arb/o tree. aktual/a present-(day), current, immediate. e, just aritmetik/o arithmetic ∼ now. arˆgent/o silver. akv/o water; liquid of similar appearance. (um)i, asoci/o association. i tr; kun, -ate. a, allied. ito, water. e, w-logged. ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ partner. al (prep) to, towards. Den. approach; dir., aim; relatn; aspekt/i copula appear to be, look. o aspect, -ance. etc. e in -ance. ∼ ∼ ali/a other; different. (aˆ)o, s.t. else. eco, d-ence. atend/i tr; ˆgis, por wait, await; expect, regard as likely e, o-wise. ulo, another∼ person. ∼ ∼ ∼ to happen. almenau˘ (adv) at least; merely (i.t.s.o. at the very ating/i tr; ke reach, attain. least). au˘ (conj ) or alt/a high, tall. (Vertically or in greatness). e, -ly, on au...a˘ u...˘ (conj ) either...or... high. lernejo, high-school. en, upwards.∼ ∼ ∼ aud/i˘ tr hear. altern/i nt alternate, succeed one another by turn. e, by turns. ∼ august/o˘ (proper noun) August. alumet/o match. ujo, match-box. auskult/i˘ tr; al listen. antaro, audience. ilo, (tel) ∼ receiver. ∼ ∼ am/i tr love. o, l. egi tr adore. mal o hatred. sin o egoism.∼ ∼ ∼ *autobus/o˘ bus. ∼ amas/o accumulatn, mass; heap, pile. popol o crowd, automobil˘ /o car. mob. ∼ av/o grandfather. praprapra... great-great-great-... ambau˘ (pron) both. ne, neither. avert/i tr; ke, pri, kontrau;˘ abs caution, warn. ∼ *Amerik/o America (the continent). aviz/o notice, announcement. amik/o friend. mal o enemy. bal/o ball, dance. (N.B. This does not mean the same ∼ ampleks/o dimensn, extent, magnitude. i, tr thing as pilko). comprise, cover, include. ∼ baldau˘ (adv) soon, promptly, shortly. ban/i tr; en, per bathe (s.o.), immerse. pluv o amuz/i tr amuse, entertain. o, -ment (recd). a, ∼ -ing. aˆo -ment. ∼ ∼ shower. ˆcambro -room ∼ ∼ -an- ( o) member, unit; inhabitant; adherant. aro, banan/o banana. group.∼ iˆgi join. ∼ baston/o stick, staff (usually wooden). ∼ 45 batal/i nt; inter, por, pro, kun, kontrau,˘ kun do battle, ˆce (prep) at, den. coincidence (place, time, combat, fight. circmstnce=at, among(st), with) baz/o base, basis, starting-point, foundatn; a, -ic. i ˆcef/o head, chief(tain). e, above all. a, c., h., ∼ ∼ tr, base, found. ∼ ∼ foremost. *beb/o baby, babe, infant-in-arms. ˆcef- (pfx) chief-, main-, primary-, arch-, high-. bedaur/i˘ tr; ke regret, be sorry (for). o r. ˆcemiz/o shirt. virina o, in o, chemise, shift. ∼ ∼ ∼ esprimo, excuse. ˆces/i nt, aux cease, stop. o, cessatn. igi, stop s.t. ∼ ∼ ∼ bel/a beaut/iful, charming, handsome, lovely, noble. ˆceval/o horse. ejo, stable. ido, colt, foal. ino, o -y. mare. idino∼, filly. ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ *bend/o band, tape, ribbon. (vidbendo, video-tape). ˆci den. proximity. W/ t- crltvs, changes “that” to benzin/o gasoline. “this”, best/o animal, beast. aro, herd. ˆci- (pfx) den. “this”: ˆci-jara, t-year; “here”: ˆci-kune, ∼ h-with. *beton/o concrete (building material only). [Cp konkret/a.] ˆcia of every kind, every kind of a, all kinds of. bezon/i tr need, require; be under obligatn to. a, cial^ for every reason, on all grounds. necessary. ∼ ˆciam ever, each time, at all times, always. por ˜ k bibliotek/o library. eterne, for e. and e. ˆcie everywhere, in each (every) place, in all places. bild/o picture, image, likeness. ajn, abs. everywhere. ∼ bilet/o ticket. bank o, bank-note. ∼ ˆciel in every way, in all sorts of ways. bird/o bird. aro, flock. ∼ ˆciel/o sky, heaven. blank/a white; clean, stainless. cies^ every (each) one’s (body’s). blov/i tr blow. a, -y, windswept. ∼ *ˆcin/o (proper noun) a Chinese person. * io/ ujo, blu/a blue. China. a, Chinese. ∼ ∼ ∼ bo- in-law, reln by marriage to the relatives of one’s ˆcio all, everything, all things. husband/wife. ciom^ the whole quantity, all (the whole) of it, the lot. bon/a good. e, well. ∼ ˆcirkau˘ (prep) around, round. a, surrounding. aˆo, botel/o bottle. evironment. ∼ ∼ brak/o (anatomical) arm. umi, embrace, hug. ˆciu (pron) everyone, everybody. j, all. jara, annual, ∼ ∼ ∼ brems/o brake. i nt, (apply a) brake. yearly. ∼ bret/o shelf. -ˆcj- sfx forming affectnate diminutvs for masc. names, placed aftr the 1st fw ltrs. bril/i nt shine, beam, gleam. a, -ing, bright. o, shine, luster. ∼ ∼ ˆcu (conj ) whether; forms questions answerable by “yes” or “no.” bru/o noise, din. i nt, be noisy. ∼ ˆcu...ˆcu... whether...or... *bulgar/o (proper noun) a Bulgarian. ujo/* io, B-ia. a, Bulgarian. ∼ ∼ da (prep) (quantity of) Btwn 2 words den. that the 1st ∼ measures the 2nd. bulten/o bulletin, short official report. *dan/o (proper noun) a Dane. ujo/* io, Denmark. buˆs/o mouth. umo, muzzle. ∼ ∼ ∼ a, Danish. butik/o shop. umi nt, shop. ∼ ∼ danc/i nt dance. cel/i tr, aux; ind. com.; al, kontrau˘ aim. a, pointed. danˆger/o danger. o, aim, goal. ∼ ∼ dank/i tr; ke, pro thank. Dank’ al, thanks to. on, cent hundred. thanks. ∼ centr/o center, middle. dat/o date (day of the year...). iˆgi, to date from. i, ∼ ∼ cerb/o brain. umi nt, rack one’s brain. to write a date on. ∼ cert/a certain, sure. igi (ion al iu, iun pri io; ke), daur/i˘ nt continue, endure, go on, last. o, duratn. ∼ certify; assure. ∼ igi tr continue. ∼ ceter/a other, remaining, remainder. kaj e, etc. e, de (prep) of (possessn, prec. gen. subj, character), from, besides. ∼ ∼ by (subj of passv). ci (pron) thou. Den. affection, intimacy. debat/i tr debate, discuss formally. cigared/o cigarette. ingo, -holder. ujo, -case. dec/i nt be becoming (correct, proper, the right thing ∼ ∼ to do). a, becoming. cit/i tr quote, cite; mention. aˆo, quotation. ∼ ∼ decembr/o (proper noun) December. ˆcambr/o chamber, room. decid/i decide. 1. tr; ˆcu; abs, resolve, determine, make ˆcap/o cap. up one’s mind. 2. inter, ke, kontrau,˘ por, pri give ˆcapel/o hat, bonnet; covering. judgment, rule, settle. ˆcapitr/o chapter (of a book). deˆor/i nt be on duty, officiate, serve. ejo, post. ˆcar (conj ) because, for, since, whereas. (ad)o, (spell of) duty. ∼ ∼ 46 APPENDIX C. GLOSSARY—ESPERANTO TO ENGLISH

dek ten. a, tenth (ordinal). e, tenthly. dom/o house. ego, mansion. eto, cottage. urb o, ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ deklar/i tr; ke declare (proclamatns or customs). Cuˆ vi town hall. havas ion deklarendan? domaˆg/i tr, aux wish to keep intact, fear to damage. e o, a pity. dekstr/a right (right-hand, or conservative). mal a, ∼ ∼ left. ∼ don/i tr; al give. al i, add. re i, return. ∼ ∼ deleg/i delegate, authorize as agent. ito, delegate, donac/i tr; al donate, make a gift. o, -ion, gift. ∼ deputy. ∼ into, donor. ∼ delegaci/o delegation. Not recommended—instead, use dorm/i nt sleep, be asleep. adi have a long sleep. ∼ delegitaro. emulo, sluggard. ∼ demand/i al, pri; ˆcu ask (desiring information), dors/o back (of a person; dead animal—loin, chine, enquire, query. o, question. saddle; object). e, behind. ∼ ∼ dent/o tooth, dent-; cog. kuraco, dentistry. *drat/o wire. ∼ des 1. ju (mal)pli..., des (mal)pli..., the more (less)...the drink/i tr, abs drink hard (to excess), swill. aˆo, ∼ more (less)... liquor. ejo pub, bar. ∼ 2. (alone) so much the, pli˜ bone, so much the better. du two, a, 2nd. e, 2ndly, in the 2nd place. foje ∼ ∼ ∼ desegn/i tr design; draw, sketch, paint. (ad)o, twice. ∼ drawing. (aˆ)o, a drawing. dub/i tr; ˆcu, ke, pri; abs doubt. o, doubt. sen e, ∼ ∼ ∼ despot/o despot, absolute or tyrannical ruler. certainly. detru/i tr destroy. (em)a, -uctive. enda, that dum (prep) during. (conj ) while; also den. contrast. must be destroyed.∼ ∼ e, meanwhile. ∼ dev/o duty, obligatn. i, have the d. of -ing—have to, duˆs/i tr shower. o shower. iˆgi, take a shower. ∼ ∼ ∼ must. us, should. eben/a even, level, smooth. ∼ dezir/i tr, aux, ind. com. desire, want, wish (for) (to). -ebl- sfx den. possibility (-able, -ible) [Must follow tr mal , disdain. vb]. e -ly, perhaps. ∼ ∼ di/o Dio—God; dio—a god. -ec- sfx den. quality, state (-ness, -hood, etc.). - a = ∼ diabl/o devil. -simila. difin/i tr define, settle limits of, make clear. (aˆ)o, eˆc (adv) even (as in “He even ate the dishes!”). ∼ -ition. a, -ing. eduk/i tr educate, train. (ad)o, e-ation. ato, pupil. ∼ ∼ ∼ dik/a thick; corpulent, fat. mal a, thin, lean, slim, ∼ edz/o husband, spouse. (in)iˆgo, marriage. ino, tenuous. wife. (in)igi, marry. ∼ ∼ ∼ diligent/a diligent, assiduous, industrious, sedulous. efektiv/a real, actual, true. e, really, indeed, actually, mal a, lazy. ∼ ∼ as a matter of fact. dimanˆc/o (proper noun) Sunday. efik/i al, sur, kiel; abs have effect on, avail. o, effect, ∼ dir/i tr; ke say, assert, speak, state. ke -u, tell (s.o.) influence. ∼ to (do s.t.). -eg- augmentative sfx, strengthens the rt idea. Ega direkt/i tr; al kontrau˘ direct: turn towards; control; deep, intense. aim; guide. o -ion. egal/a (al) equal (eqv.; smooth; indifferent). i tr; al, ∼ ∼ dis- den. separation, divergence; dispersal. e, scattered (be) e. (to). ∼ about. -ej- den. place. (us. after vb (place for -ing)/noun w/ *diskrimin/i inter, kontrau˘ discriminate (used vb assumed (pc fr -ing ...)) unfavorably). ado, -ation. ∼ ek- den. (1) the beginning of a continuous actn, (2) diskut/i tr; pri discuss, debate, talk over. o, -ion. sudden or momentary actn. ∼ dist(anc)/o distance, interval, range. a -t, far away. ekde since. Ekde tiam, since then. ∼ i be distant. ekip/i tr equip, accoutre. aˆo, -ment. ∼ ∼ distr/i tr distract, divert (draw away, or amuse). a, ∼ eklezi/o church (not as a physical structure, but as a amusing. body of believers, rel. soc.) diven/i tr; el, ˆcu, ke, kiel, kion guess, surmise; get eks- pfx den. ex-, former, late. igi, dismiss. iˆgi, right; divine. resign, abdicate. ∼ ∼ divers/a(j) various: diverse; divers, several. ekster (prep) outside (a limit, boundary), out of (same divid/i tr divide. a, -sive. o, -sion. aˆo, -sion. mng). ∼ ∼ ∼ do (conj ) so, consequently, etc; then, so; so there! so ekstrem/a extreme (at the farthest edge; ultra-, that’s that! highest grade). o, -ity. ∼ doktor/o doctor: holder of highest univ. degree in any ekzamen/i tr examine (test; inspect). o, -ation, faculty; physician. auditn. ∼ dolˆc/a sweet (of taste, smell, sound, or character—nice, ekzempl/o example. a, illustrative, model. e, for charming). example, such as. ∼ ∼ dolor/i abs, tr pain. ekzempler/o copy, sample, specimen. 47 ekzerc/i tr; per, pri exercise, practice, train. (ad)o, fest/o festival, celebratn, holiday; special anniversary. e., p. ∼ i tr; pro celebrate ∼ ekzist/i nt exist, last, live, subsist. o, -ence. aˆo, fi- shameful, morally bad, foul. (also adj). Fi! (intj ) entity, being. ∼ ∼ Fie! For shame! el (prep) out of, from (in), of (in this sense). (pfx) ... fianˆc/(in)o fianc´e, engaged person. eco/ iˆgo, out. engagement, betrothal. ∼ ∼ elekt/i tr; el, inter; abs choose, elect. ado, e-tion. fid/i tr;al,je,pri,ke trust, hv faith in; count on. o, ∼ el i, select. ∼ faith. inda, t-y. ∼ ∼ -em- sfx den. tendency (fondness, leaning; apt to, figur/o figure, image. i, depict; play the part of. ∼ subject to). fiks/i tr; al, sur fix: fasten, secure; decide, settle. aˆo ∼ emfaz/o emphasis. a, -tic. i tr; pri, be -tic, -ture. ∼ ∼ accentuate, -size. fil/o son. ino, daughter. ∼ en (prep) in (opp. ekster, el). igi, insert. iˆgi, enter. ∼ ∼ *film/o film (wide sense, cinematography, photography, -end- which is (has) to, must (should) be -ed. etc.), thin coating. entrepren/i tr, aux undertake, accept obligatn. fin/i tr finish. o, f., end. a, final. fine at long last. ∼ ∼ ∼ (aˆ)o, -ing, enterprise. fingr/o finger, digit. ingo, thimble. ujo, f. (of a ∼ ∼ ∼ enu/i nt be bored, lose interest. o, boredom. igi, glove). ∼ ∼ bore. Finlando Finland. ano, a Finn. ∼ -er- sfx (opp. -ar-) den. element, unit, of a homogeneous **finn/o a Finn. (Preferable would be whole. Finlando/Finlandano.) erar/i en, pri err. o, error, mistake. firm/a firm: stable; dense; resolute; definite. o, f., ∼ ∼ escept/i tr except, exclude. o, -ion. e, -ionally. e house of business. ∼ ∼ ∼ de, except (for). fiˆs/o fish. esenc/o essence. a, -tial, intrinsic, real, true. flank/o side. e, alongside; sideways; aside (from). ∼ ∼ esper/i tr; al, je, pri; aux hope, expect. o, confidnc, aˆo, minor matter; wing. ∼ ∼ h. eble, hopefully. flav/a yellow. ∼ esplor/i tr explore; investigate. flirt/i nt; antau,˘ ˆce, de, kun, super, sur flit, flutter; esprim/i tr express, convey. o, -ion. float; flirt, dally. ∼ est/i copula be, exist, occur, be found. o, being. flor/o flower, bloom, blossom. a, -y, floral. i, bloom, ∼ ∼ aˆo, a being. ˆce i, be at, attend. for∼ i, be absent. blossom. ∼ ∼ ∼ estr/o head, leader. urb o, mayor. imperi o, flug/i nt fly, rush. ilo, wing. ek i, take flight. ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ emperor. aro, executive. foj/o time, occasion. ali e, at another t. ˆci e, this ∼ ∼ ∼ -et- sfx, to a high degree weakens the idea in the rt. time. Etc. (-ette). foli/o leaf (of plant or paper); sheet. aˆo/ aro ∼ ∼ etaˆg/o floor (not the physical floor, but the location), foliage. storey, flight. for (adv) away, forth, off (den. disappearance or eventual/a contingent, eventual, liable to happen. e, if distance). a, distant. ∼ ∼ necessary. o, e-ality. forges/i tr; pri; abs forget. ∼ facil/a easy (simple; light(weight); weak). eco, ease. form/o form: shape; arrangement, style; customary ∼ mal a, difficult. behavior. i f., mould; assume. ∼ ∼ fajr/o fire. i nt, burn, flame. fort/a strong. ∼ fakt/o fact. e, actually, in fact. **fot/i tr photograph. o photo. (Use “fotografio”). ∼ ∼ fal/i nt fall (drop, tumble down; sink; die; collapse). frakci/o fraction. igi, fell. ∼ *franc/(in)o (proper noun) a French(wo)man. fald/i tr fold. ilo, -er. ujo/* io, France. a, French. ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ famili/o family. frat/o brother. ino, sister. ∼ far/i tr do, make. iˆgi, be done; come to pass, happen; fraul/o˘ bachelor, single man. ino, damsel, maiden, ∼ become. miss. ineto, lass(ie). ∼ ∼ fart/i nt be (in good or bad health), do, fare, feel. o, fraz/o sentence (grammatical); ( (er)o) phrase. i, ∼ conditn. phrase. ∼ ∼ favor/o favor, goodwill. e, -ably. aˆo, f., concessn. fremd/a foreign; alien. ulo, f-er, stranger. mal a, ∼ ∼ ito/ ato -ite. familiar, intimate. ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ februar/o (proper noun) February. frenez/a mad; crazy, insane, raving, wacky. aˆo, ∼ feliˆc/a happy. igi, delight. mal a, sad. craze, lunacy, folly. ∼ ∼ fenestr/o window. freˆs/a fresh. ferm/i tr close, forbid access to. ilo, fastener. mal i, fripon/o rascal. open. ∼ ∼ fru/a early. e, early. mal a, late. ∼ ∼ 48 APPENDIX C. GLOSSARY—ESPERANTO TO ENGLISH

fundament/o foundation: basis, base; underlying ha! (intj ) ah! den. sudden emotion; den. principle. laughter—haha! funkci/i nt function, act, operate, work (in this sense). hak/i chop, hew. ilo, axe, hatchet. ligno isto, o, f., duty. woodcutter. ∼ ∼ ∼ fuˆsi do awkwardly, blotch, bungle, fumble. a, clumsy. har/o hair (usually den. a single hair, oft. in plural). ∼ aro, thick head of hair. fuˆs- bungling-, botched-. ∼ ge- pfx den. both sexes (used mostly in the plural). haut/o˘ skin. edukado, co-education. hav/i have. ebla, obtainable. mal i, lack, be ∼ ∼ ∼ geografi/o geography wanting in. *hebre/o (proper noun) a Hebrew. a, Hebrew. geni/o genius: guardian spirit; inborn ability; prevalent ∼ char. a, brilliant. hejm/o home. e, at home. en, homewards. ∼ ∼ ∼ genu/o knee. inter aˆo, lap. *helen/o (proper noun) an ancient Greek. ujo/* io, ∼ ∼ ∼ *german/o (proper noun) a German. ujo/* io, ancient Greece. Germany. a, German. ∼ ∼ help/i tr, abs; al, kontrau˘ help, aid. rescue. a, ∼ auxiliary. ema, -ful. ∼ *giˆcet/o booking office; pay-desk; box-office. ∼ gigant/o giant. (virego is preferable.) herb/o herb: -aceous plant; grass. ejo, grassy field, meadow. ero, blade of g. ∼ gimnazi/o public (grammar) school, 1st-class classical ∼ school preparatory to university. hierau˘ yesterday. glaci/o ice. aˆo, ice-cream. histori/o history: a continuous record, chain of events; ∼ the study of history. glas/o (drinking) glass, tumbler. ho! (intj ) O! Oh!: vocative interjection; den. emotion, glat/a smooth:s-surfaced; easy, w/o difficulty; bland, grief, protest. honeyed. mal a, rough. ∼ hodiau˘ today. gorˆg/o throat, wind-pipe; gorge, gully; (sea) narrows. a, guttural. hom/o man (in general), human being, person. a, ∼ human. aro, h-ity, mankind. ∼ grad/o degree, grade: quality; d. of scale, temp.; rank. ∼ e, gradually. hor/o hour, time: 60 min.; time-measurement; time of ∼ day, o’clock; appointed time. gramatik/o grammar. a, -atical. ∼ horloˆg/o clock, watch, time-piece. grand/a great; big, large, vast; alternating quantity; major, noble, weighty. hotel/o hotel, hostelry, inn. isto, -keeper, -proprieter. motorista , motel. ∼ gratul/i tr; pri, pro congratulate. ∼ hund/o dog. a, canine. ˆcas o, hound. ido, puppy. grav/a important, grave, weighty. [After dankon, one ujo, kennel.∼ ∼ ∼ may say ne gravas] ∼ ia of some (indefinite) kind or other, some kind of a. graved/a pregnant. ajn, of any kind. ∼ *grek/o (proper noun) a (modern) Greek. ujo/* io, ial for some reason. ajn, for any reason. (modern) Greece. a,Gk. ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ iam at some time, (past): once (upon a time), (future): grimp/i climb. some day. ajn, anytime. a, erstwhile, former. ∼ ∼ griz/a gray, grey. -id- child, young; descendant. [Cp Eng. -ite, Grk. -id, grund/o ground:earth, soul; ground(s), land estate; Rsn. -(ov)iˆc] bottom, basis, foundatn. ide/o idea, concept, fancy, notion. sam ano, grup/o group; body, cluster. fellow-thinker. ∼ gust/o taste:flavor;(sense of) t.,(good) t.;liking. int,t. ideal/o ideal, high aim, vision. a, i., perfect. igi, ∼ umi tr,t. -ize. ismo, -ism. ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ gvid/i tr guide, lead. ie in some place, somewhere. ajn, anywhere. ∼ ˆgarden/o garden. isto, gardener. iel by some means, in some manner, somehow. ajn, ∼ ∼ ˆgen/i tr embarrass; annoy, bother, disturb, trouble. anyhow, in any way. (aˆ)o, nuisance. ies someone’s, somebody’s. ajn, anyone’s, anybody’s. ∼ ∼ ˆgeneral/a general, affecting (nearly) all. e, for the -ig- make, cause to be, render. [Eng. -ize, -en, Makes nt ∼ most part, in g. igi -ize. vbs tr, w/ adjectives and dogs means to cause to be ∼ ˆgi (pron) it (used for objects w/o sex or for objects of (more) ... (-like).] indeterminite sex). (Also used for non-human animals, -iˆg- become, come to be. [Opp. of -ig-.] unless personified.) -il- object used to perform an action; appliance, ˆgis (prep) as far as, down to, up to; to in from...to...; instrument, tool, utensil. till, until. ili they, (when used as object of prep): them. n, them. ˆgoj/i nt rejoice, be glad. o, joy. (plen)a, j-ful, j-ous. a, their(s). ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ˆgu/i tr enjoy; possess/have the benefit (use) of. ilustr/i tr illustrate (with pictures or explanations). ˆgust/a right, accurate, exact, correct, fair, in order, imag/i imagine, conceive, fancy. (it)a, -ary. proper. mal a, wrong. ne ebla, inconceivable. ∼ ∼ ∼ 49 imit/i tr imitate. jun/a young. ulo, young man, youth. mal a, old. ∼ ∼ impon/i impress, command respect. a, -ive, imposing. juni/o (proper noun) June. eco, majesty, prestige. ∼ ∼ jup/o skirt. -in- den. female, feminine. a/ seksa, feminine. o, a ˆaud/o˘ (proper noun) Thursday. female. ∼ ∼ ∼ ˆet/i tr throw, cast. -ind/a worthy, deserving of (to be ... -ed). fid a, ˆus (adv) just (now), not long ago. a, just made, trustworthy. ∼ up-to-date, last moment. ∼ indig/o indigo, blue powder < i-plant. a bluo, i-blue. ∼ kaf/o coffee. ejo, caf´e. infan/o child. ejo, nursery. ∼ ∼ kaj (conj ) and. kaj...kaj..., both...and... -ing- den. object in which s.t. is set or put; holder, kajer/o (stitched-paper) book; exercise book. sheath, etc. for one obj only. kalkan/o heel (of foot). umo, heel (of shoe). ink/o ink. ujo, -pot, -well. ∼ ∼ kamen/o fireplace, -side; hearth. tubo, chimney. instru/i educate, instruct, teach. isto, t-er, i-er. ∼ ita, e-ed, erudite. ∼ kamp/o field. aro, (open) country, land. adi, ∼ ∼ ∼ inteligent/a intelligent, bright, smart. mal a, dense, (en)camp. stupid. ∼ kanajl/o blackguard, rascal, villain. intenc/i tr intend, design, mean, plan. o, -tion, aim, kant/i sing. o, song. ∼ ∼ intent. kap/o head: (anatomical); an individual (counting h’s); inter (prep) between; amongst. tempe, meanwhile. brains; chief; top. Ne senkapiˆgu, Don’t lose your head. ∼ interes/i tr interest: be -ing to; affect, concern. o, kapabl/a je, por; aux capable (of -ing), competent. i, ∼ interest (not financial). ∼ be capable. interez/o (financial) interest. kapt/i tr capture, catch. ilo, pitfall, trap. ito, -ive, ∼ ∼ interpret/i tr interpret. mis i, mis-interpret. prisoner. ∼ invit/i tr, aux; al invite, request. o, -ation. a, -ing, kar/a dear: beloved; highly esteemed, valuable; ∼ ∼ expensive. mal a, cheap. attractive. ∼ io something. ajn, anything. kart/o card. lud o, playing-card. ludo, card-game. ∼ ∼ ∼ iom a certain amount, a little (some) of; somewhat. *kased/o cassette. ajn, any at all. ∼ kaˆs/i tr; antau,˘ de, de antau˘ hide, conceal. e, in ∼ ir/i nt; al, de-ˆgis; aux go. en i, enter. ek i, start, set secret. off. ∼ ∼ kat/o cat. bleki, caterwaul. ∼ *Iran/o Iran. ano, Iranian. kauz/o˘ cause: (producg an effect); reason. i tr, cause. ∼ ∼ *Irland/o Ireland. ano, Irishman. e, because of. ∼ ∼ -ist- person concerned w/, engaged in, the subj den. by kaz/o case (grammatical, medical, or legal). the rt (by profession or by habitual or frequent ke (conj ) that. [Can be omitted in English, but never in occupatn or interest).; adherent of a person or creed. Esperanto.] *ital/o (proper noun) an Italian. ujo/* io, Italy. kelk/a some, a little; a certain. aj, several, a few ∼ ∼ ∼ iu someone; some, a certain (as an adj.). ajn, anyone. [main use]. ∼ ja (adv) indeed, in fact. Den.: emphasis; expostulatn, kia (adj ) of what kind, what k. of a. Kia ...! What a remonstrance; although. ...! jam (adv) already, by now, by then. jam ne, no longer. kial (adv) why, for what reason. o, reason. ∼ januar/o (proper noun) January. kiam (adv) when, at what time. jar/o year. cento, century. deko, decade. kie (adv) where, in which (what) place. o, ∼ cent ulo,∼centenarian. ∼ whereabouts. ∼ je (prep) as regards, in relatn to: replaces the acc. to kiel (adv) in what way, by what means: how; as (in the den. any prepositional relatn implied by the context same way as); like. (thus, indefinite). kies (pron) whose, which one, of whom, of which. jen (intj ) Behold! Lo! Look! Here! There! ...... , kilo- (metric pfx) kilo- (* cikl, gram, * litr, metr, ∼ ∼ now..., now... ** uat˘ )o— kilocycle, -gram,∼ -liter,∼ -meter,∼ -watt.∼ ∼ jes (intj ) yes. se , if so. Mi kredas, ke jes, I believe so. kio (pron) what (thing). [Also used as “which” when it ∼ ju ju (mal)pli..., des (mal)pli..., the more (less)...the refers to an entire statement rather to a single word, more (less)... for which kiu would be used.] *jugoslav/o (proper noun) a Yugoslavian. ujo/* io, kiom (adv, conj ) What amount, how much. [Used w/ Yugoslavia. ∼ ∼ da: Kiom da pomoj?] just/a just: lawful, legitimate; fair, impartial; honest, kis/i kiss. upright; correct, right. kiu (adj, pron) Which (one), who. [Cp kio.] juˆg/i tr, abs judge. isto, j. antaro, jury. ∼ ∼ klar/a clear: pure, pellucid; distinct; serene; discerng. juli/o (proper noun) July. mal a, clouded, dark. ∼ 50 APPENDIX C. GLOSSARY—ESPERANTO TO ENGLISH

klas/o class: grade, rank; category, rank. alt a, of konserv/i tr; de, kontrau˘ keep, conserve, preserve. ∼ superior g. konsil/i aux w/ io, tr w/ io, ke advise, counsel. o, klav/o key (piano, typewriter, etc.) aro, keyboard. (piece of) advice, c. ∼ ∼ [Cp ˆslosilo] konsist/i nt consist: el be composed of; in c. in. o, kler/a educated, cultured. mal a, barbarous, ignorant. compositn, make-up. ∼ ∼ klin/i tr incline. iˆgi, bend down, give way. de i tr, konstant/a constant, abiding, permanent, stable. a, ∼ ∼ divert. constancy. o, (math) constant. ∼ ∼ klopod/i tr take measures, make efforts, make efforts. konstru/i tr build, construct: erect; organize; construe. igi, importune, spur. aˆo, a building. ∼ ∼ knab/o boy, lad, male child. ino, girl. kontakt/o contact, connectn, touch. i, be in c. ∼ ∼ kol/o neck. umo, collar. fuˆs o, short circuit. ∼ ∼ kolegi/o college, institutn of scholarship. kontrau˘ (prep) against, in opposition to; facing; in o-it koler/i tr, abs; kontrau,˘ pri be angry. a,angry. dir. to normal, etc. o,anger. igi,anger. ∼ kontrol/i tr; ˆcu, check (up on), audit, inspect, verify. ∼ ∼ (ad)o, inspectn. kolor/o color. ∼ kom/o comma. punkto o, semicolon. konvers/i ([konversacii], also) converse, chat, talk. ∼ (ad)o, -ation. komand/i tr (be in) command (of); bid, order. o, c., ∼ order. ∼ konvink/i tr; pri, ke convince, firmly persuade. o, convictn. ∼ komb/i comb, brush. ilo, comb. mal i, dishevel. ∼ ∼ kopi/i copy, make a c. of; imitate. ilo c-ing machine. komenc/i tr; ˆce, per; aux, abs begin, commence, start. ∼ o, beginning. kor/o heart (anat. or wrt feelings). a, cordial. sen a, ∼ -less. ∼ ∼ komerc/o business, commerce. aˆo, commodity, goods, merchandise. ∼ korb/o basket. korekt/i correct: amend; admonish, rectify. a, komfort/o comfort, ease. a, -able, cosy, pleasant. e, ∼ in comfort, at ease. ∼ ∼ *correct (ˆgusta), corrective. komik/a comic(al), funny, humorous. korespond/i kun, correspond (interchange letters). komitat/o committee. estro, chairman. [Not to correspond to.] ∼ kompetenta en, pri competent, able, capable. (ec)o, korp/o body. -ce, ability, qualificatn. ∼ kost/i tr cost, involve expenditure/loss. o, c., price. sen e, free. ∼ komplet/a complete, entire, finished. o, c. set, outfit; ∼ suit. igi, c. ∼ kotiz/i contribute. (aˆ)o, c-ion, share, dues. ∼ ∼ komplik/i tr complicate, entangle. kovert/o envelope. kompren/i tr; ke, kiel; abs understand, comprehend. kovr/i tr; per cover. ilo, envelope, lid, c. of book, ∼ aˆo, idea. ebla, clear. shutter. ∼ ∼ *komput/i compute, reckon. ilo, computer. krajon/o pencil. glob o, ball-pt pen. [Not the same ∼ ∼ kon/i tr know (about), be acquainted w/, have met. as crayon: paˆstelo]. re i, recognize. kre/i tr create. (ad)o, -ion (act). aˆo, -ion (object). ∼ ∼ ∼ koncept/o concept. i, form a c., conceive. [Not the kred/i tr; al, je, pri believe; think (that). o, belief. ∼ ∼ same as gravediˆgi.] kresk/i nt grow. koncert/o concert. kret/o chalk (the material and the writing implement). kondiˆc/o conditn, qualificatn.; needed circumstance. kri/i cry (out), shout; call. o, shout. aˆci, screech. a, -al. e, on c., c-ally. ek i, exclaim. ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ konduk/i conduct, guide, lead. ilo, bridle, rein, leash. Krist/nask/o Christmas. ∼ kondut/i behave, conduct one’s self. o, b-ior, c., kritik/i tr criticize: appraise, examine; censure, find ∼ manners. malbon a, naughty. fault w/. aˆci, flame. ∼ ∼ konfes/i tr; ke; abs acknowldge, confess. o, c-ion. krokodil/o crocodile; *[colloq.: one who speaks his ∼ preni, shrive, take c-ion. native tongue when Esp. is approp.]. ∼ kongres/o congress. i, attend a congress. krom (prep) treats what follows as separate from other ∼ konjug(aci)/i conjugate (a vb). o/ ado, -ation. things: After a general or neg. statement, excludes the ∼ ∼ konjunkci/o conjunction (grammatical and celestial). obj. from said statement; after a statement may be added to include something else. Thus, krom: except; konkret/a concrete, in material form, perceptible. [Not besides. the same as betono.] kruc/o cross. (ir)i c., intersect. umi, crucify. konkurs/o competition under definite rules; contest, ∼ ∼ match. kur o, race. kruel/a cruel. ulo, brute. ∼ ∼ konsci/i tr; pri, ke; abs be conscious (aware) of. krur/o leg (of a person, animal, or piece of furniture). (ec)o, a-ness, c-ness. umo, pants-leg. ∼ ∼ konsent/i tr; kun, pri, ke; abs agree, consent: concur; ktp (abbreviation) etc., and so forth (kaj tiel plu). acquiesce. o, a-ment, c. kuf/o coif, simple head-dress for women. ∼ 51 kuir/i tr, cook. ejo, kitchen. lern/i tr, aux learn. ejo, school. ∼ ∼ kuk/o cake. lert/a je, pri clever, dexterous, skillful. mal a, ∼ kuler/o spoon. awkward, clumsy. kultur/o culture, (level of) civilizatn, educatn, leter/o letter (to a person), epistle. [Cp liter/o] refinement, training. lev/i tr lift, raise. umilo, lever. ∼ kun (prep) (along) with (place, time, conj., possession) li he. a, his. n, him. ∼ ∼ [not by means of]. liber/a de free, at liberty. (ec)o, f-dom, liberty. ∼ kunikl/o rabbit. kunˆcjo, bunny. mal a, captive. ∼ kur/i nt run, hasten, hurry. a, r-ing. e, at a r. libr/o book. otenanto, book-keeper. ∼ ∼ ∼ kurac/i tr treat (medically), apply remedies. ilo, lig/i tr bind, fasten, tie. o, league. ilo, band, cord. ∼ ∼ remedy. isto, doctor. ∼ al i, ally. ∼ ∼ kurs/o course (of instructn), series of lessons; course (of lign/o wood. travel). lingv/o language, tongue (linguistic [Cp. lang/o]). kuˆs/i nt lie: be horizontal; be on a surface; be located, isto, linguist. ∼ stay. lini/o line. kutim/o custom, habit, practice, wont. e, usually. i, lip/o lip. ∼ ∼ be wont to. list/o list, catalog, register, roll. kuz/o (first) cousin (male). ino, female (first) cousin. ∼ lit/o bed, couch, resting-place. en igi ( iˆgi), put (get) kvadrat/o square (geometric and mathematical). into bed. ∼ ∼ kvankam (conj ) although, even if, granting that. [Can liter/o letter (of the alphabet [Cp leter/o]) i, spell. ∼ pair with tamen, q.v.] loˆg/i nt dwell, inhabit, live, reside; lodge, stay. ejo, kvant/o quantity, amount, extent, size. umo, abode, house. ∼ ∼ quantum. lok/o place, location. kvar four long/a long, extended. (ec)o, length [W/o better kvazau˘ 1. (conj ) as, as if (though), like. diri, as if to than w/]. ∼ ∼ say. 2. (adv) apparently, as it were, so to speak. a, lud/i nt, tr (!) play. ilo, toy. kart i, play cards. quasi-. ∼ ∼ ∼ lum/o light. mal a, dark. kverk/o oak (tree). ∼ lun/o moon. kviet/a quite. o, q. ∼ lund/o (proper noun) Monday. kvin five maj/o (proper noun) May. la the. [Can, esp. in poetry, be abbrev. as l’ after a makul/o spot, blot; blemish, defect. vowel-endg prep.] mal- den. exact opposite of the idea expressed by the labor/i nt labor, work. o, l., w. ema, industrious. word it modifies. Etc. ∼ ∼ malgrau˘ (prep) in spite of, notwithstanding. lac/a tired, weary. mal a, fresh. ∼ man/o hand. umo, cuff. lag/o lake, loch, lough. eto, pool, pond. ∼ ∼ manier/o manner, way; mode of actn. lakt/o milk. mank/i nt be lacking, absent. igi, omit. mal i, *lanˆc/i launch. abound. ∼ ∼ land/o land (all senses relating to geography, but not manˆg/i tr, nt (!) eat, swallow, consume. o, meal. flight [surteriˆgi].) aˆo, food. ∼ lang/o tongue (anatomical, not linguistic). ∼ mantel/o coat, mantle, cape, cloak. larˆg/a broad, wide. o, breadth, width. ∼ *map/o map. las/i tr leave: depart; l. behind; allow to be; cease to mar/o sea, ocean. [not aux]; permit. mard/o (proper noun) Tuesday. last/a last, ultimate (time, order, sense of only remaining 1). antau˘ a, pen-u. mark/o mark. poˆst o, postage stamp. i, mark. ∼ ∼ ∼ lau˘ (prep) according to, in -ance with, by means of mart/o (proper noun) March. (sorting, etc.). marˆs/i nt march. laud/i˘ tr praise, bring laud. mal i, blame, censure. mas/o mass (not religious). ∼ a, pejorative. maˆsin/o machine (s.t. more complicated than an ilo, ∼∼ laut/a˘ loud, noisy. mal a, quite, low, soft. q.v.). ∼ lav/i tr wash. igi,have washed. [-ig- does the have maten/o morning. e, in the morning. ∼ ∼ thing to tr vbs] material/o material, mater, stuff. e, in substance, not ∼ lecion/o lesson. aro, course. merely in form. ∼ leg/i tr, nt (!) read. mebl/o (piece of) furniture. leˆg/o law. a, legal. igi, legalize. isto, -yer. mejl/o mile. kontrau˘ ∼a, il-. ∼ ∼ melk/i tr milk (e.g., a cow). ∼ 52 APPENDIX C. GLOSSARY—ESPERANTO TO ENGLISH

mem self, selves (throws emphasis on “self”): neces/a necessary. i be necessary. ejo, bathroom, personally, w/o help, spontnsly. toilet, w.c. ∼ ∼ membr/o member. *Nederland/o Hollad, the Netherlands. ano, a ∼ menci/i mention, allude to. o, mention. Dutchman. ∼ mens/o mind, intellect. a, mental. negr/o a black man. [Cp nigr/a] ∼ merkred/o (proper noun) Wednesday. neˆg/o snow. ero, snow-flake. ulino, Snow-white. pluv o, sleet.∼ ∼ met/i tr put, place. ∼ metod/o method. nek...nek... neither...nor..., not...or... metr/o meter (unit of length). a, metric. nenia (adj ) no, of no kind, no kind of, not any. ∼ mez/o middle: central point; mean, medium. nokto nenial (adv) for no reason, not for any reason, on no (tag) o, mid-night (day). account. ∼ mi I, me. a, my, (of) mine. neniam (adv) never, at no time, not ever. ∼ miks/i tr mix. aˆo, -ture. nenie (adv) nowhere, in no case, not anywhere. ∼ mil(o) thousand. dudek kvin mil, twenty-five thousand. neniel nohow, by no means, in no way. minac/i tr; al, je, per menace, threaten, impend, nenies (pron) nobody’s, no-one’s. forbode. o, m., threat. nenio (pron) nothing, none, not anything, naught. ∼ minimum/o minimum. e, at least. aˆo, vacuum. ∼ ∼ minut/o minute (60th of an hour or a degree). neniom (adv) none (of it), none (at all), no amount, not a bit. mir/i pri, ke marvel, be astonished. o, surprise, wonder. igi, amaze. ∼ neniu (pron) nobody, no one, not one; not a single. ∼ nep/o grandson. ino, granddaughter. mis- mis-, amiss, incorrectly. a, incorrect. o, fault, ∼ miss. ∼ ∼ nepr/e w/o fail, absolutely, in any case. modern/a modern. mal a, ancient, old. nev/o nephew. ino, niece. ∼ ∼ mok/i tr mock, deride, jeer at, make fun of. (em)a, neutr˘ al/a neutral. ∼ bantering, scornful. ni (pron) we. n, us. a, our. ∼ ∼ moment/o moment: point of time; deciding point. nigr/a black, dark (the color [Cp negro]). ˆcie e, at any moment. ∼ nivel/o level. mar o, sea-level. mon/o money, currency. er, coin. ujo, purse. ∼ ∼ ∼ -nj- sfx of endearment for female names, attached to the monat/o month. 1st few letters of the rt. mond/o world. nokt/o night. tra i nt, pass the night. mont/o mountain. eto, hill. supro, summit. ∼ ∼ ∼ nom/o name, appelatn, denominatn. plum o, montr/i tr, show, display. pseudonym. e, by name, namely. ∼ ∼ mord/i tr bite. eti, nibble. nombr/o number. mez o, average, mean. ∼ ∼ morgau˘ (adv) tomorrow. nord north. en, to the north, northwards. ∼ mort/i nt die. o, death. inta, dead. a, mortal. normal/a normal (not geometric); ordinary, regular, ∼ ∼ ∼ igi, kill. typical. ne a, abnormal. ∼ ∼ moˆst/o gen. title of politeness and respect for people of not/o note (written and musical). i, take note of, rank. note. ∼ mov/i tr move: displace; put in motion; drive, propel. nov/a new. mal a, old. ado, -ment. ∼ ∼ novembr/o (proper noun) November. mult/a much, a lot of. aj, many, a large nr of. o, nu (intj ) Well! Well now! Come now! much. obligi, multiply∼ . ∼ ∼ nud/a bare, nude: naked; exposed; direct, simple. mur/o wall. nul/o nought, zero, nil. igi, nullify. a, null. murd/i murder, kill unlawfully [as opp. to mortigi, q.v.] ∼ ∼ numer/o number given to s.t. to indicate its order mus/o mouse. among others. [Cp numbr/o] muzik/o music. nun (adv) now. a, current, present. naci/o nation. a, -al. ano, citizen. ∼ ∼ ∼ nur (adv) only, merely (modifies the idea it precedes). naˆg/i swim. obe/i tr; al obey. (ad)o, obedience. igi, train. najbar/o neighbor. aˆo, eco, -hood. mal i, disobey. ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ nask/i tr give birth to, bear. oto, foetus. iˆgi, be ∼ ∼ objekt/o object (concrete and grammatical: rekta born. objekto, nerekta objekto). natur/o nature. -obl- den. multiplicatn: -fold. o, multiple. du a, ∼ ∼ nau˘ nine. duple, twofold. naz/o nose. observ/i tr observe, watch. mal i, disregard. ∼ ne not (negates the word it precedes); (pfx) non-, un-, ofend/i tr offend. o, insult, offense, affront. a, etc.; (intj ) no. offensive, insulting.∼ ∼ 53 ofer/i offer up, sacrifice. pas/i tr, nt (!) pass: disappear; go from...to...; pass by, *ofert/i offer for sale or supply. go past. pask/o Passover; Easter. a, Paschal. ofic/o office: responsible occupatn; duty w/ this. ejo, ∼ o. isto, officer. ∼ paˆs/i nt, o, step, pace, tread. ∼ ∼ oficial/a official, authorized. [Cp ofic/a: official, paˆstel/o pastel, crayon. concerning an office or duty] patr/o father. ino, mother. ∼ oficir/o officer (in the military, etc.) [Cp ofic/isto]. pauz/o˘ pause, break, halt. i, cease, stop; delay; ∼ oft/e often, frequently. a, frequent, often-occuring. hesitate. plej e, mostly. ∼ pec/o piece. (dis) igi, cut up, dismember, cut to ∼ ∼ ok eight. shreds. okaz/i nt happen,occur. o,event. a,accidental. pen/i nt make an effor, try hard, labor, endeavor. e,on occasn,as it h-ed.∼ ∼ pend/i nt hang, be suspended. igi, hang up. umi ∼ ∼ ∼ okcident/o west. a, w-ern, w-erly. en w-ward. tr, hang s.o. ∼ ∼ oktobr/o (proper noun) October. penik/o brush, hair-pencil; tassel. okul/o eye. (ad)i, e., look at. umi, ogle. pens/i think: cogitate, consider, ponder; believe, ∼ ∼ imagine. pri i, t. about. okup/i tr occupy, employ. mal i, evacuate, leave free. ∼ ∼ pentr/i tr paint. aˆo, -ing, picture. ol (conj ) than (with comparison). antau˘ , before ∼ per (prep) by means of, per, through, with (instr). i, (sentence). ∼ act as intermediary. ∼ -on- den. fraction: -th. o, fractn, aliquot part. perd/i tr lose. kvar o, quarter. ∼ ∼ perfekt/a perfect. oni (pron) one, they, folks, people, men (in general). period/o period (of time). onkl/o uncle. ino, aunt. ∼ permes/i tr; al, ke permit, allow, let. o, permissn, -op- den. number of elements in a collectivity. du e, in leave. mal i, forbid. ∼ pairs, two by two. ∼ ∼ person/o person. a, -al, individual, private. opini/o opinion. i tr, opine, be of an o., believe, ∼ ∼ pes/i tr weigh, find the weight of. ilo, scales, balance. think, suppose. ∼ pet/i tr; por, pri, ke ask (as a favor). o, request. mi oranˆg/o orange (the fruit). (kolor)a, orange. ∼ ∼ petas, please. ord/o order (arrangement, not command [Cp pez/i nt, weigh, have weight, be heavy. ordon/o]). pied/o foot. ordinar/a ordinary. pilk/o ball (for games, etc.) [Cp bal/o]. ordon/i tr; ind. command command, order. o, c., o. ∼ pingl/o pin. orel/o ear. umo, telephone ear-piece. ∼ pint/o point, extremity, sharp end. organiz/i tr organize. (ad)o, -ation, -ing. (aˆ)o, plac/o (public) square; open space, clearing. -ation, -ed body. ∼ ∼ plaˆc/i tr; al please, be agreable to. al iu as io, s.o. orient/o east, orient. en, e-ward. ∼ ∼ likes s.t. ost/o bone. plan/o plan. i tr, make a p., plan. ∼ ov/o egg. planed/o planet. pac/o peace. plank/o floor, bottom, ground. < paˆcj/o ( patro) Daddy, Dad. plat/a flat. paf/i tr; al; kontrau˘ fire, shoot, project a missile. ilo, plej (adv) most, -est. mal , least. gun. ∼ ∼ plen/a de, je full. umi, accomplish, fulfil. mal a, pag/i tr; al, por pay. e, in payment. ∼ ∼ ∼ empty. paˆg/o page (of a book). plend/i nt complain. pak/i tr pack. (aˆ)o, package. plezur/o pleasure. e, w/ pleasure. ∼ ∼ pal/a pale. iˆgi, (become) pale. pli (adv) more, -er ... (ol: than). mal , less. ∼ ∼ pan/o bread. plor/i nt, cry, weep. panj/o (< patro) Mom, Mommy, Mum, Mummy. plu (adv) further, more (in this sense). [Cp pli] paper/o paper. plum/o feather, plume; pen. font o, fountain pen. ∼ par/o pair, couple. e, in pairs. ulo, partner. plur/a aj, more than one, several. ∼ ∼ ∼ pardon/i tr; al, ke forgive, pardon, excuse. peto, *plus (prep) plus, with the additn of. ∼ apology. pluv/o rain, shower. i, rain. ero, raindrop. ∼ ∼ parenc/o relation, relative, kinsman. po apiece, at (the rate of). [Complicated—try to find an parol/i tr; al, kun, pri speak, talk. el i, set out clearly, explanatn elsewhere] ∼ enunciate. pokal/o beaker, large drinking cup. part/o part. plej e, for the most part, mainly. polur/i tr polish. ∼ 54 APPENDIX C. GLOSSARY—ESPERANTO TO ENGLISH

polus/o pole (geometric, e.g. the North Pole). profund/a deep, profound. mal a, shallow, superficial. ∼ polv/o dust. program/o program, list of arrangements, plan. ero, ∼ pom/o apple. ter o, potato. item, piece. ∼ pont/o bridge. progres/i nt (make) progress, advance. o, p., advance. mal i, decline. ∼ popol/o people: inhabitants, popultatn; the gen. ∼ public, masses. amaso, crowd. projekt/o project. ∼ popular/a popular, familiar to, known (liked) by the proksim/a near, in proximity, close, nigh. e de, near to. ume, approximately. ∼ public. ∼ por (prep) for: in order to, for the purpose of; etc. promes/i tr, aux; al promise. prononc/i tr pronounce. o, pronunciation. pord/o door, gateway. ∼ pork/o pig, hog. mar o, porpoise. aˆo, pork. ejo, propon/i tr, aux; ke propose. o, -al, -ition. ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ p-sty. propr/a (one’s) own, belonging to one. port/i bear, carry; wear. al i, bring. protekt/i tr; al, kontrau˘ protect (against, from) ∼ posed/i tr possess, have, hold, own. o, p-ion, protest/i kontrau˘ protest, demonstrate. o, p., ∼ ownership. aˆo, p-ion. objection. ∼ ∼ post (prep) after (time and rank), behind (place). e, prov/i tr (put to the) test, try (in this sense). ∼ -wards. proviz/i tr provide. postul/i tr, demand, require. o, d., r-ment. ∼ prunt/i tr; al, de 1. al lend. 2. de borrow. poˆs/o pocket. pruv/i tr; ke prove. o, proof. aˆo, evidence. poˆst/o post(al service), mail. en igi, m., p. ∼ ∼ ∼ publik/o the public. potenc/o might, power. plej a, the Almighty, Most pun/i tr; pro punish, castigate, chastise. o, penalty. High. ∼ ∼ pup/o doll. pov/i aux have the power, can, be able. o, power: ∼ pur/a pure, clean. igi, c., p-ify. mal a, im-p., dirty. ability; (horse)-power. ∼ ∼ purpur/a purple. pra- den. remoteness: grand, great- (w/ relatives); primitive, prehistoric, Ur-. raci/o reason, judgement, logical faculty, sense. a, rational. igi, ratnalize. ∼ prav/a (in the) right; correct. i, be r. mal a, (in ∼ the) wrong, incorrect. ∼ ∼ rad/o wheel. precip/e principally, above all, chiefly. a, principle, rajd/i tr; sur ride (animal, bicycle, etc.). chief, main. ∼ rajt/o right (to s.t.), just claim, prerogative. i nt, ∼ preciz/a precise, accurately expressed. aux, have the r., may. prefer/i tr, aux prefer, favor. ata, favorite. rakont/i tr; pri, ke tell (a story), narrate, relate. o, ∼ story, tale, narrative. ∼ preˆg/i nt; al, por, pri, ke pray. ejo, church, chapel. ∼ rapid/a rapid, fast. e, quickly. *preleg/i lecture. ∼ raport/i tr; al, pri; ke report, describe; record; inform premi/o prize, reward. (on), tell tales. pren/i tr take. rav/i tr (fill w/) delight, ravish, captivate. a, preskau˘ (adv) almost, all but, nearly, well-nigh. r-ing,d-ful,c-ing,lovely. ∼ pret/a ready. i, be ready. e, beforehand. ∼ ∼ re- re-. preter (prep) beyond, past, on the other side of. [w/ a real/a real: factual, material, objective. mal a, unreal, positn or limit] illusory. ∼ prez/o price. redakt/i tr edit. isto, oro, editor. ∼ ∼ prezent/i present: offer, proffer, propose; introduce; reg/i tr rule, dominate. ato, subject. istaro, imagine; depict; give; form. government. ∼ ∼ prezid/i tr preside. anto, chairman, pn p-ing. registr/i tr rgister (of records or music). ento, -ent, official∼head. ∼ regul/o regulation, rule. pri (prep) about, concerning. reˆg/o king. id(in)o, prince(ss). ino, queen. princip /o principle, fundamental. a, of p., f. e, on eks iˆgi, ab∼dicate. ∼ p., as a rule. ∼ ∼ ∼ rekt/a straight, direct (geometrical, moral, printemp/o spring. grammatical, etc.). mal a, crooked. ∼ pro (prep) because of, for, from, owing to, through. relativ/a relative, comparative, not absolute (also [Lat. propter] grammatical). problem/o problem. renkont/i tr meet (s.o.). [Not the same as kun/ven/i] procent/o percent, rate. respond/i tr; al, pri, ke answer: reply, reciprocate; produkt/i tr produce. comply w.; correspond. profesi/o profession. a, -al. ∼ rest/i nt remain, stay, continue to be. ejo, abode, profesor/o professor. stopping place. ∼ 55 ret/o net. sekur/a secure, safe. rev/i tr; pri dream, be in a reverie, muse. o, d. sekv/i tr, abs follow. a, consequent. (em)a, d-y, romantic. ∼ ∼ ∼ semajn/o week. ricev/i tr receive. o, receipt. ∼ sen (prep) w/o, free from, minus, with no, sans. sen-, riˆc/a je rich. mal a, poor. -less. ∼ rid/i tr; je, pri, pro laugh (at). eti, smile. senc/o sense; meaning; idea, purport. ∼ rigard/i tr; al look (at); regard; face. send/i tr send. rilat/i tr; al relate, be -ed, be connected w/, concern. *sens/o sense (one of the five...). a, sensory. ama, o, -ion; attitude. sensual. ∼ ∼ ∼ rimark/i tr; de remark, notice, observe; make a r. o, sent/i feel, be conscious of, sense. o, -ing, perceptn, ∼ observatn. sense. ∼ rimed/o means, measure, method, opportunity, way. sep seven. ripet/i tr; ke repeat, do again, duplicate, reiterate. septembr/o (proper noun) September. river/o river, stream. eto, brook, creek. ujo, r-bed. ∼ ∼ serˆc/i tr search: look for, seek; investigate, research. rob/o robe, gown, vestment, dress. seri/o series, sequence of similar things. a, -al. ∼ rok/o rock, boulder, crag. ses six. roman/o novel, romance, lengthy tale. sezon/o season. romp/i tr break: crack; interrupt; b. down. (ad)o, si (reflexive pron) refers to the subj of the sentence, but fracture. aˆo, bit. ∼ ∼ only if 3rd pn. a, his-(her-its-their-one’s)own. sin-, rond/o round: circle, ring; rounds, beat; social circle. self-. ∼ a, round. ∼ sid/i nt sit. igi, seat, set. kun i, hold a meeting ronk/i snore. (kunveni). ∼ ∼ ruband/o ribbon, band. signif/i tr mean, signify, denote. sen a, insignificant, ∼ ruˆg/a red. iˆgi, blush. igi, -en. meaningless. ∼ ∼ *rus/o (proper noun) a Russian. ujo/* io, Russia. silent/a silent, tacit. o, silence. i nt, be silent. a, Russian. ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ simil/a al, je similar (to), (a)like. i, be like, match, sabat/o (proper noun) Saturday. resemble. ∼ saˆg/a wise. ulo, sage. umi, affect wisdom, split simpl/a simple. e, -y, just, merely, only; plainly. hairs. mal∼a, stupid. ∼ ∼ ∼ sinjor/o gentleman;Mr.; master; (rel) the Lord; ino, sal/o salt. i tr, s. Mrs. ge oj, Mr. and Mrs. ∼ ∼ ∼ salon/o drawing-room, “salon.” siren/o siren (woman or loud object). salt/i nt jump, leap, bound; move quickly. eti, hop. sistem/o system. a, -atic. ∼ ∼ salut/i tr salute: greet, hail; by gesture express respect. Skandinavi/o Scandinavia. ano, -n. on!, hello. ∼ ∼ skatol/o box, tin. sam/a the same, identical. (manier)e, in the s. way. *ski/o ski. (kur)i, s. tempe, simultaneously. ∼ ∼ ∼ sklav/o slave. i, s., drudge. san/a healthy. o, (good) health. mal a, sick, ill. ∼ ∼ ∼ skrib/i nt, tr (!) write. sang/o blood, gore; lineage, race. ero, drop of blood. ∼ societ/o society: community; associatn, club; company, sankt/a holy, sacred. ejo, holy place, sanctuary, firm; social circle. shrine. ulo, saint. ∼ ∼ soif/i tr; al thirst (for), be -y. o, t. sat/a satiated, satisfied, full, replete. mal a, hungry. ∼ ∼ sol/a alone, lone. sav/i tr save: deliver, rescue; spare. solv/i tr dissolve; resolve, solve. o, solutn, answer. scen/o scene. a, solvent. ∼ sci/i tr; ke, kie, etc. know: (facts), be aware of; k. how ∼ somer/o summer. to. voli, wonder. ∼ scienc/o science. son/i nt (make) sound, be heard, resound. sonˆg/i, o dream (in sleep). se (conj ) if. jes, if so. ne, if not. [Not “whether,” ∼ ˆcu] ∼ ∼ sorˆc/i tr enchant, put a spell on. isto, -er, wizard. istino, witch. ∼ sed (conj ) but, however, moreover. ∼ seg/i tr saw. ilo, saw. sort/o fate. ∼ seˆg/o chair, seat. brak o, arm-chair. spac/o space: area, extent; limitless s. ∼ sek/a dry. mal a, wet. spec/o kind, sort; brand, variety. ∼ seks/o sex; (grammatical) gender. in( )a, female. special/a special, particular, for a def. purpose [Cp vir a, male. ∼ apart/a, precip/e]. ∼ *specif/i tr specify; define in detail. o, specificatn. sekund/o second, sixtieth of a minute (time or degree). ∼ i, s., abet, promote. spegul/o mirror. ∼ 56 APPENDIX C. GLOSSARY—ESPERANTO TO ENGLISH

spert/a experienced, adept, competent, conversant, ˆsanc/o chance. bon a, fortunate, lucky. ∼ expert, skilled. ˆsanˆg/i tr change, alter. mon o, change. ∼ spinac/o spinach. ˆsat/i appreciate, enjoy, think highly of; like (in this spit/i defy, flout, spite. e ... -n, e al, in defiance of. sense). [Don’t use as aux] ∼ ∼ sport/o sport, out-of-door recreatn. ejo, stadium. ˆserc/i nt joke, jest, make fun. mal a, serious. ∼ ∼ sprit/a witty, bright, clever, quick. (ec)o, wit. ˆsi (pron) she. n, her. a, her. ∼ ∼ ∼ mal a, inane, folly. ˆsip/o ship, boat. estro, captain, skipper. ∼ ∼ staci/o station: (haltejo; restejo; establaˆo). domo, s. ˆsir/i tr tear; pull apart, rip. dis i, tear up, shred. building. ∼ ∼ ˆslim/o slime. star/i nt stand: be in upright positn;stay unshaken; be situated. ema,stable. re i, right, stand back up. ˆslos/i tr lock. ilo, key. ∼ ∼ ∼ stat/o conditn, state; plight, status. i, be in a s. ˆsnur/o rope, line, cord. ∼ stel/o star. ul(in)o, “star” (film, etc.) ˆspar/i tr save (up), reserve; be sparing of, economize. ∼ (em)a, thrifty. stil/o style: manner; pattern, shape. ∼ *stop! (intj ) stop! ˆsrank/o cupboard. strang/a strange, odd, peculiar. aˆo, oddity, ˆstat/o state (realm), nation, form of government. peculiarity. ulo, eccentric. ∼ ˆstel/i steal, thieve. aˆo, booty, plunder, loot. o, ∼ theft. isto, thief.∼ ∼ strat/o street, road between buildings. ∼ streb/i nt strive; do one’s best. o, great effort, ˆstof/o stuff, fabric, textile. struggle. ∼ ˆstup/o stair, set (of staircase). e, gradually. aro, ∼ ∼ streˆc/i tr stretch, brace, tense, stiffen, strain. e, staircase, stairs. fixedly. o, strain. ita, intense, strained. mal∼ i, ˆsu/o shoe. ∼ ∼ ∼ ease, loosen. ˆsuld/i tr owe, be in debt. struktur/o structure, constructn, build. a, structural. ∼ ˆsultr/o shoulder. stud/i tr study, do research work on. ema, studious. tabl/o table. anto, person -ing. ∼ ∼ tabul/o board, plank. nigra o, black-board. student/o (college) student, undergraduate. ∼ tag/o day. stult/a stupid, foolish, silly. igi, besot, stultify. ∼ *tajp/i type(write). ilo, typewriter. isto, -ist. sub (prep) under(neath), beneath, below. ulo, aˆo, type. ∼ ∼ underling. ∼ ∼ tamen (adv, conj ) nevertheless, however, still, though, subit/a sudden, abrupt, unexpected. e, -ly, all at yet, howbeit. once. ∼ task/o task, job, piece of work. suˆc/i tr suck. taug/i˘ nt be fit for, be of use, serve. a, fitting, sud/o south. a, southern. en, southwards, to the s. suitable. ∼ ano, ulo,∼-erner. ∼ ∼ ∼ te/o tea. ujo, tea-caddy. horo, tea-time. kruˆco, sufiˆc/a enough, sufficient. e!, enough! i, be e., tea-pot. ∼ ∼ ∼ suffice. ∼ ∼ teatr/o theater, play-house. aˆca, meretricious. aˆo, suk/o juice, organic fluid, sap. drama, piece, play. ∼ ∼ sukces/i nt; en, pri; aux succeed, have success. o, success. mal i, fail. ∼ *teknologi/o technology. La Masaˆcusetsa Instituto de ∼ Teknologio. sun/o sun. a, solar. ∼ tekst/o text, wording, words (of music). super (prep) above, super-, over. i, beat, exceed, excel, surpass. ∼ teler/o plate. tem/o subject, theme, topic. i, be about, have as a supoz/i suppose, accept as true or possible w/o proof; ∼ assume, imagine, presume. theme, touch on. temp/o time. lasta e, lately. sam a, contemporary. supr/o top, summit. a, upper. e de, on the t. of. ∼ ∼ en, up(wards). a∼ˆo, surface. ∼mal o, bottom. temperatur/o temperature. ∼mal e, below. mal∼ en, down. ∼ ∼ ∼ ten/i tr hold, keep. sin o, attitude, bearing. ilo, sur (prep) on, upon. handle. ∼ ∼ surpriz/i tr surprise. o, s. ter/o earth: the world; ground, land; soil, dirt. en igi, ∼ ∼ *sved/o (proper noun) a Swede. ujo/* io, Sweden. bury, inter. ∼ ∼ a, Swedish. *teren/o ground, plot, terrain, tract of land. ∼ sving/i tr swing. terur/o terror, fright, intense fear. a, -ible, -iffying, ∼ *svis/o (proper noun) a Swiss. ujo/* io, awful. i, -ify, appal. ∼ ∼ ∼ Switzerland. a, Swiss. tia of that kind,that kind of a,such a. ˆoj,such things. ∼ ∼ ˆsaf/o sheep. Di ido, Agnus Dei. maniere, so that. ∼ ∼ ˆsajn/i seem. o, appearance. e, apparently. ver e, tial accordingly, for that reason, therefore. ke, probably, presumably∼ . ∼ ∼ because. ∼ 57 tiam (adv) then, at that time; in that case. a, of that *uni/o union, coalitn. ∼ time, contemporary. universal/a universal, world-wide, ecumenical. tie (adv) there, in that place, over there. n, thither. ˆci universitat/o university. , here. ∼ ∼ unu one tiel (adv) as, in such a way, like that, so, thus. ... urb/o town. a, urban. ego, great city. estro, kiel, as ... as. ∼ mayor. domo∼ , t-hall. ∼ ∼ ties of that, that one’s, his, etc.; the latter’s. ∼ Uson/o The United States of America. ano, tim/i tr fear, be afraid of, dread. o, fear, -phobia. ∼ ∼ American. tio (pron) that (thing), it. ˆci , this thing. ∼ util/a of use; advantageous. i nt, be of use, help. tiom (da) (adv) that amount, so many. mal a, harmful. ∼ tip/o type, character, specimen. a, typical. ∼ ∼ uz/i tr use, employ, utilize. tir/i tr draw, pull. al i, attract. ∼ valor/o value, worth. tiu (pron) that one, the one; (adj ) that (particular, var/o article of commerce, commodity. oj, wares, individual). ˆci , this (one). ˆci j, these. goods. ejo, warehouse. ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ toler/i tr tolerate. ema, tolerant, broad-minded, varb/i tr; al, en, por enlist, enroll, gain over, recruit. easy-going. ∼ varm/a warm. ega, hot. eta, tepid. mal a, cool. tond/i tr clip, shear, snip. ilo, scissors, clippers, ∼ ∼ ∼ ∼ mal ega, cold. shears. ∼ vast/a vast. dis igi, promulgate, spread. mal a, tondr/o thunder. narrow, limited.∼ ∼ tra (prep) through: from one end to the other; through ve (intj ) woe! ho !, alas! woe is me! and past; during. ∼ vek/i tr wake(n), rouse (< sleep). iˆgi, awaken. traduk/i tr; el...en... translate. (aˆ)o, -ion, ∼ rendering, version. ∼ ven/i nt come. al i, arrive at, reach. re i return. kun i, convene,∼meet. kun o, meeting.∼ traf/i tr hit the goal, reach one’s aim, befall; contact, ∼ ∼ meet. o, hit. vend/i tr sell. ∼ *trajn/o train, string, tow: series of objects; railway vendred/o (proper noun) Friday. train (vagonaro). venen/o poison. kontrau˘ o, antidote. ∼ trakt/i tr; pri treat of, deal w/, describe; act towards, venk/i tr, abs conquer, vanquish, beat, defeat, triumph deal w/. over. mal o, defeat. ∼ tranˆc/i tr cut, cleave. o, cut(ting). ilo, knife. vent/o wind. ∼ ∼ trans (prep) over, across; (pfx) trans-. ruˆga, ventr/o belly, abdomen; womb. infra-red. violo, u.v. ∼ ∼ ver/a true, authentic, genuine, real, veritable. o, tre (adv) very (much), strongly. truth. ∼ tri three verb/o verb. trink/i tr drink. o, drink. ∼ verd/a green, verdant. tro (adv) too; (w/ vb) over(much), too much. a, verk/i tr write, make (by mental labor). excessive. ∼ verm/o worm. trov/i tr find: discover; receive; succeed in getting; verˆs/i tr pour out (liquids), discharge. consider to be. tru/o hole, break, breach, gap, opening. i tr, h., vesper/o evening; gloaming, twilight, dusk. ∼ vest/i tr clothe, dress, robe. (aˆ)o, article of clothing, puncture. ∼ tuj (adv) immediately, at once, forthwith; just, right apparel, dress. (tute apude). veter/o weather. tuk/o a cloth. buˆs o, napkin. poˆs o, naz o, vetur/i go (travel) by vehicle. ilo, vehicle. ∼ handkerchief. ∼ ∼ ∼ kusen ilo, hovercraft. ∼ tuˆs/i tr touch: lay hand on; contact; alter; mentn, deal vi you (sg and pl). a, your(s). ∼ w.; affect; concern. viand/o meat. ejo, butcher’s shop. isto, butcher. ∼ ∼ tut/a the whole, all the, intact. e, quite, completely. vid/i tr see: behold; realize; understand; visit. o, ∼ e ne, by no means. ne e, not altogether, not quite. sight, view. ∼ ∼en e, as a whole. ∼ ∼ vigl/a animated: bright, fresh; lively, nimble; energetic; -uj- den.: container, holder; obj in which an actn is alert, vigilant. performed; land of; fruittree. vin/o wine. -ul- den. individual: (w/ adj rt) pn characterized by rt; vintr/o winter. a type of animal (mam o, mammal); (inanimate obj) triferdek o, 3decker. ∼ viol/o violet. a, kolora, v. ∼ ∼ ∼ -um- has no def. meaning, but forms related words vir/o male; man (opp woman); man (opp child); (pfx) male-. ino, woman, female. whose sense is defined by the usage or suggested by ∼ vitr/o glass; obj of glass. okul oj, eye-glasses. context. [In general, one cannot confidently form new ∼ examples and must look up any which have been viv/i nt live; remain alive, endure; remain in memory; formed]. manage; conduct one’s l.; dwell. o, life. ∼ 58 APPENDIX C. GLOSSARY—ESPERANTO TO ENGLISH

vizaˆg/o face, countenance, visage. vizit/i tr visit. voˆc/o voice. (don)i, (don)o vote. ∼ ∼ voj/o way, path, road. fer o, railroad. sur e, en route, on the way. ∼ ∼ vojaˆg/i nt journey, travel; migrate. vok/i tr; al call to, cry out; call in; call upon, invite. vokal/o vowel. vol/i tr, aux will, choose, determine; desire, like, want. sci i, wonder. ∼ volont/e willingly, w/ pleasure. mal e, ne e, reluctantly. ∼ ∼ volv/i tr wrap, roll, wind. vort/o word; speech, mesage; promise. aro, dictionary. ero, morpheme. ∼ ∼ vulp/o fox. ino, vixen. ∼ zorg/i pri; tr care (for), attend to; be anxious about. anto, guardian. ∼