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Soviet Steps Toward Permanent Human Presence in Space
SALYUT: Soviet Steps Toward Permanent Human Presence in Space December 1983 NTIS order #PB84-181437 Recommended Citation: SALYUT: Soviet Steps Toward Permanent Human Presence in Space–A Technical Mere- orandum (Washington, D. C.: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA- TM-STI-14, December 1983). Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 83-600624 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 Foreword As the other major spacefaring nation, the Soviet Union is a subject of interest to the American people and Congress in their deliberations concerning the future of U.S. space activities. In the course of an assessment of Civilian Space Stations, the Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) has undertaken a study of the presence of Soviets in space and their Salyut space stations, in order to provide Congress with an informed view of Soviet capabilities and intentions. The major element in this technical memorandum was a workshop held at OTA in December 1982: it was the first occasion when a significant number of experts in this area of Soviet space activities had met for extended unclassified discussion. As a result of the workshop, OTA prepared this technical memorandum, “Salyut: Soviet Steps Toward Permanent Human Presence in Space. ” It has been reviewed extensively by workshop participants and others familiar with Soviet space activities. Also in December 1982, OTA wrote to the U. S. S. R.’s Ambassador to the United States Anatoliy Dobrynin, requesting any information concerning present and future Soviet space activities that the Soviet Union judged could be of value to the OTA assess- ment of civilian space stations. -
Praxis Manned Spaceflight Log 1961±2006
Praxis Manned Space¯ight Log 1961±2006 Tim Furniss and David J. Shayler with Michael D. Shayler Praxis Manned Spaceflight Log 1961±2006 Published in association with PPraxisraxis PPublishiublishingng Chichester, UK Tim Furniss David J. Shayler Space¯ight Correspondent Astronautical Historian Flight International Astro Info Service Bideford Halesowen Devon West Midlands UK UK Michael D. Shayler Editor and Designer Astro Info Service Birmingham UK SPRINGER±PRAXIS BOOKS IN SPACE EXPLORATION SUBJECT ADVISORY EDITOR: John Mason B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D. ISBN 10: 0-387-34175-7 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York ISBN 13: 978-0-387-34175-0 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York Springer is part of Springer-Science + Business Media (springer.com) Library of Congress Control Number: 2006937359 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers. # Praxis Publishing Ltd, Chichester, UK, 2007 Printed in Germany The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a speci®c statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Cover design: Jim Wilkie Project Copy Editor: Mike Shayler Typesetting: Originator Publishing Services, Gt Yarmouth, Norfolk, UK Printed on acid-free paper Contents Authors' Preface ...................................... -
Limitations of Spacecraft Redundancy: a Case Study Analysis
44th International Conference on Environmental Systems Paper Number 13-17 July 2014, Tucson, Arizona Limitations of Spacecraft Redundancy: A Case Study Analysis Robert P. Ocampo1 University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80309 Redundancy can increase spacecraft safety by providing the crew or ground with multiple means of achieving a given function. However, redundancy can also decrease spacecraft safety by 1) adding additional failure modes to the system, 2) increasing design “opaqueness”, 3) encouraging operational risk, and 4) masking or “normalizing” design flaws. Two Loss of Crew (LOC) events—Soyuz 11 and Challenger STS 51-L—are presented as examples of these limitations. Together, these case studies suggest that redundancy is not necessarily a fail-safe means of improving spacecraft safety. I. Introduction A redundant system is one that can achieve its intended function through multiple independent pathways or Aelements 1,2. In crewed spacecraft, redundancy is typically applied to systems that are critical for safety and/or mission success3,4. Since no piece of hardware can be made perfectly reliable, redundancy—in theory—allows for the benign (e.g. non-catastrophic) failure of critical elements. Redundant elements can be 1) similar or dissimilar to each other, 2) activated automatically (“hot spare”) or manually (“cold spare”), and 3) located together or separated geographically5-7. U.S. spacecraft have employed redundancy on virtually all levels of spacecraft design, from component to subsystem7,8. Redundancy has a successful history of precluding critical and catastrophic failures during human spaceflight. A review of NASA mission reports, from Mercury to Space Shuttle, indicates that redundancy has saved the crew or extended the mission over 160 times, or roughly once per flight9. -
Rex D. Hall and David J. Shayler
Rex D. Hall and David J. Shayler Soyuz A Universal Spacecraft ruuiiMicPublishedu 11in1 aaaundiiuiassociationi witwimh ^^ • Springer Praxis Publishing PRHB Chichester, UK "^UF Table of contents Foreword xvii Authors' preface xix Acknowledgements xxi List of illustrations and tables xxiii Prologue xxix ORIGINS 1 Soviet manned spaceflight after Vostok 1 Design requirements 1 Sever and the 1L: the genesis of Soyuz 3 The Vostok 7/1L Soyuz Complex 4 The mission sequence of the early Soyuz Complex 6 The Soyuz 7K complex 7 Soyuz 7K (Soyuz A) design features 8 The American General Electric concept 10 Soyuz 9K and Soyuz 1 IK 11 The Soyuz Complex mission profile 12 Contracts, funding and schedules 13 Soyuz to the Moon 14 A redirection for Soyuz 14 The N1/L3 lunar landing mission profile 15 Exploring the potential of Soyuz 16 Soyuz 7K-P: a piloted anti-satellite interceptor 16 Soyuz 7K-R: a piloted reconnaissance space station 17 Soyuz VI: the military research spacecraft Zvezda 18 Adapting Soyuz for lunar missions 20 Spacecraft design changes 21 Crewing for circumlunar missions 22 The Zond missions 23 The end of the Soviet lunar programme 33 The lunar orbit module (7K-LOK) 33 viii Table of contents A change of direction 35 References 35 MISSION HARDWARE AND SUPPORT 39 Hardware and systems 39 Crew positions 40 The spacecraft 41 The Propulsion Module (PM) 41 The Descent Module (DM) 41 The Orbital Module (OM) 44 Pyrotechnic devices 45 Spacecraft sub-systems 46 Rendezvous, docking and transfer 47 Electrical power 53 Thermal control 54 Life support 54 -
The Soviet Space Program
C05500088 TOP eEGRET iuf 3EEA~ NIE 11-1-71 THE SOVIET SPACE PROGRAM Declassified Under Authority of the lnteragency Security Classification Appeals Panel, E.O. 13526, sec. 5.3(b)(3) ISCAP Appeal No. 2011 -003, document 2 Declassification date: November 23, 2020 ifOP GEEAE:r C05500088 1'9P SloGRET CONTENTS Page THE PROBLEM ... 1 SUMMARY OF KEY JUDGMENTS l DISCUSSION 5 I. SOV.IET SPACE ACTIVITY DURING TfIE PAST TWO YEARS . 5 II. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS AFFECTING FUTURE PROSPECTS . 6 A. General ............................................. 6 B. Organization and Management . ............... 6 C. Economics .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ...... .. 8 III. SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL FACTORS ... 9 A. General .. .. .. .. .. 9 B. Launch Vehicles . 9 C. High-Energy Propellants .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 11 D. Manned Spacecraft . 12 E. Life Support Systems . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 15 F. Non-Nuclear Power Sources for Spacecraft . 16 G. Nuclear Power and Propulsion ..... 16 Te>P M:EW TCS 2032-71 IOP SECl<ET" C05500088 TOP SECRGJ:. IOP SECREI Page H. Communications Systems for Space Operations . 16 I. Command and Control for Space Operations . 17 IV. FUTURE PROSPECTS ....................................... 18 A. General ............... ... ···•· ................. ····· ... 18 B. Manned Space Station . 19 C. Planetary Exploration . ........ 19 D. Unmanned Lunar Exploration ..... 21 E. Manned Lunar Landfog ... 21 F. Applied Satellites ......... 22 G. Scientific Satellites ........................................ 24 V. INTERNATIONAL SPACE COOPERATION ............. 24 A. USSR-European Nations .................................... 24 B. USSR-United States 25 ANNEX A. SOVIET SPACE ACTIVITY ANNEX B. SOVIET SPACE LAUNCH VEHICLES ANNEX C. SOVIET CHRONOLOGICAL SPACE LOG FOR THE PERIOD 24 June 1969 Through 27 June 1971 TCS 2032-71 IOP SLClt~ 70P SECRE1- C05500088 TOP SEGR:R THE SOVIET SPACE PROGRAM THE PROBLEM To estimate Soviet capabilities and probable accomplishments in space over the next 5 to 10 years.' SUMMARY OF KEY JUDGMENTS A. -
Spacecalc Current Space Demographics
CBS News/Spaceflight Now Current Space Demographics Page 1 SpaceCalc Current Space Demographics Post Soyuz TMA-05M Nation No. Rank Space Endurance Days/FLTs Total Fliers 528 1 Afghanistan 1 1 Sergei Krikalev 803/6 Nations 38 2 Austria 1 2 Alexander Kaleri 770/5 Men 472 3 Belgium 2 3 Sergei Avdeyev 748/3 Women 56 4 Brazil 1 4 Valery Polyakov 679/2 Total Tickets 1189 5 Bulgaria 2 5 Anatoly Solovyev 652/5 6 Canada 9 6 Gennady Padalka 586/3 United States 335 7 China 8 7 Victor Afanasyev 556/4 US Men 290 8 Cuba 1 8 Yury Usachev 553/4 US Women 45 9 Czech. 1 9 Musa Manarov 541/2 10 E. Germany 1 10 Yuri Malenchenko 515/4 Soviet Union 72 11 France 9 11 Alexander Viktorenko 489/4 USSR Men 70 12 Germany 9 12 Nikolai Budarin 446/3 USSR Women 2 13 Hungary 1 13 Yuri Romanenko 430/3 Russia/CIS 40 14 India 1 14 Alexander Volkov 392/3 Russian Men 39 15 Israel 1 15 Yury Onufrienko 389/2 Russian Women 1 16 Italy 5 16 Vladimir Titov 387/4 17 Japan 9 17 Vasily Tsibliev 383/2 Others 81 18 Kazakhstan 1 18 Mike Fincke 382/3 Other Men 73 19 Malaysia 1 19 Valery Korzun 382/2 Other Women 8 20 Mexico 1 20 Pavel Vinogradov 381/2 21 Mongolia 1 21 Peggy Whitson 377/2 Men with 7 flights 2 22 Netherlands 2 22 Leonid Kizim 375/3 Women with 7 flights 0 23 N. -
Spaceflight a British Interplanetary Society Publication
SpaceFlight A British Interplanetary Society publication Volume 60 No.8 August 2018 £5.00 The perils of walking on the Moon 08> Charon Tim Peake 634072 Russia-Sino 770038 9 Space watches CONTENTS Features 14 To Russia with Love Philip Corneille describes how Russia fell in love with an iconic Omega timepiece first worn by NASA astronauts. 18 A glimpse of the Cosmos 14 Nicholas Da Costa shows us around the Letter from the Editor refurbished Cosmos Pavilion – the Moscow museum for Russian space achievements. In addition to the usual mix of reports, analyses and commentary 20 Deadly Dust on all space-related matters, I am The Editor looks back at results from the Apollo particularly pleased to re- Moon landings and asks whether we are turning introduce in this month’s issue our a blind eye to perils on the lunar surface. review of books. And to expand that coverage to all forms of 22 Mapping the outer limits media, study and entertainment be SpaceFlight examines the latest findings it in print, on video or in a concerning Charon, Pluto’s major satellite, using 18 computer game – so long as it’s data sent back by NASA's New Horizons. related to space – and to have this as a regular monthly contribution 27 Peake Viewing to the magazine. Rick Mulheirn comes face to face with Tim Specifically, it is gratifying to see a young generation stepping Peake’s Soyuz spacecraft and explains where up and contributing. In which this travelling display can be seen. regard, a warm welcome to the young Henry Philp for having 28 38th BIS Russia-Sino forum provided for us a serious analysis Brian Harvey and Ken MacTaggart sum up the of a space-related computer game latest Society meeting dedicated to Russian and which is (surprisingly, to this Chinese space activities. -
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
--.I m ...ir,,.= The document_-contains materials on the Soyuz-Apollo test and consists of two parts, prepared by the USSR and USA sides res- pectively. Both parts outline the purposes and program of the mission, the spacecraft design, the flight plan and information on Joint and unilateral scientific experiments. Brief biographies of the cosmonauts and astronauts, the Joint mission crew members_ are also presented. The document covers technical support activities providing mission control and gives information about the ASTP Soviet and American leaders. As the USSR and USA parts of the document have been prepared independently, there might be duplication in the sections dealing with the Joint activities. The document is intended for press representatives and various mass information means. CONTENTS Page I.0 INTRODUCTION ....................................... 10 1.1 Background ......................................... I0 1,2 Apollo-Soyuz joint test project objectives .......... 13 2.0 COMPATIBILITY PROBLEMS ................... ......... • 15 2.1 Spacecraft compatibility conditions and principal solutions accepted for Apollo-Ssyuz Test Mission .... 15 2.2 Compatibility of ground flight control personnel ... 18 2_3 Methodological compatibility ....................... 20 3.0 SOYUZ SPACECRAFT ................................... 22 3.1 PurPose. Brief data on Soyuz spacecraft flights .... 22 3.2 Soyuz spacecraft description ....................... 25 3.2.1 General description of the Soyuz spacecraft.. 25 Main characteristics ........................ -
Part 2 Almaz, Salyut, And
Part 2 Almaz/Salyut/Mir largely concerned with assembly in 12, 1964, Chelomei called upon his Part 2 Earth orbit of a vehicle for circumlu- staff to develop a military station for Almaz, Salyut, nar flight, but also described a small two to three cosmonauts, with a station made up of independently design life of 1 to 2 years. They and Mir launched modules. Three cosmo- designed an integrated system: a nauts were to reach the station single-launch space station dubbed aboard a manned transport spacecraft Almaz (“diamond”) and a Transport called Siber (or Sever) (“north”), Logistics Spacecraft (Russian 2.1 Overview shown in figure 2-2. They would acronym TKS) for reaching it (see live in a habitation module and section 3.3). Chelomei’s three-stage Figure 2-1 is a space station family observe Earth from a “science- Proton booster would launch them tree depicting the evolutionary package” module. Korolev’s Vostok both. Almaz was to be equipped relationships described in this rocket (a converted ICBM) was with a crew capsule, radar remote- section. tapped to launch both Siber and the sensing apparatus for imaging the station modules. In 1965, Korolev Earth’s surface, cameras, two reentry 2.1.1 Early Concepts (1903, proposed a 90-ton space station to be capsules for returning data to Earth, 1962) launched by the N-1 rocket. It was and an antiaircraft cannon to defend to have had a docking module with against American attack.5 An ports for four Soyuz spacecraft.2, 3 interdepartmental commission The space station concept is very old approved the system in 1967. -
Aerospace Facts and Figures 1979/80 Lunar Landing 1969-1979
Aerospace Facts and Figures 1979/80 Lunar Landing 1969-1979 This 27th annual edition of Aero space Facts and Figures commem orates the 1Oth anniversary of man's initial landing on the moon, which occurred on July 20, 1969 during the Apollo 11 mission. Neil Armstrong and Edwin E. Aldrin were the first moonwalkers and their Apollo 11 teammate was Com mand Module Pilot Michael Collins. Shown above is NASA's 1Oth anni versary commemorative logo; created by artist Paull Calle, it de picts astronaut Armstrong pre paring to don his helmet prior to the historic Apollo 11 launch. On the Cover: James J. Fi sher's cover art symboli zes th e Earth/ moon relationship and man's efforts to expl ore Earth 's ancien t sa tellite. Aerospace Facts and Figures m;ji8Q Aerospace Facts and Figures 1979/80 AEROSPACE INDUSTRIES ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA, INC. 1725 DeSales Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 Published by Aviation Week & Space Technology A MCGRAW-HILL PUBLICATION 1221 Avenue of the Americas New York, N.Y. 10020 (212) 997-3289 $6.95 Per Copy Copyright, July 1979 by Aerospace Industries Association of America, Inc. Library of Congress Catalog No. 46-25007 Compiled by Economic Data Service Aerospace Research Center Aerospace Industries Association of America, Inc. 1725 De Sales Street, N. W., Washington, D.C. 20036 (202) 347-2315 Director Allen H. Skaggs Chief Statistician Sally H. Bath Acknowledgments Air Transport Association Civil Aeronautics Board Export-Import Bank of the United States Federal Trade Commission General Aviation Manufacturers Association International Air Transport Association International Civil Aviation Organization National Aeronautics and Space Administration National Science Foundation U. -
Table of Manned Space Flights Spacecalc
CBS News Manned Space Flights Current through STS-117 Table of Manned Space Flights SpaceCalc Total: 260 Crew Launch Land Duration By Robert A. Braeunig* Vostok 1 Yuri Gagarin 04/12/61 04/12/61 1h:48m First manned space flight (1 orbit). MR 3 Alan Shepard 05/05/61 05/05/61 15m:22s First American in space (suborbital). Freedom 7. MR 4 Virgil Grissom 07/21/61 07/21/61 15m:37s Second suborbital flight; spacecraft sank, Grissom rescued. Liberty Bell 7. Vostok 2 Guerman Titov 08/06/61 08/07/61 1d:01h:18m First flight longer than 24 hours (17 orbits). MA 6 John Glenn 02/20/62 02/20/62 04h:55m First American in orbit (3 orbits); telemetry falsely indicated heatshield unlatched. Friendship 7. MA 7 Scott Carpenter 05/24/62 05/24/62 04h:56m Initiated space flight experiments; manual retrofire error caused 250 mile landing overshoot. Aurora 7. Vostok 3 Andrian Nikolayev 08/11/62 08/15/62 3d:22h:22m First twinned flight, with Vostok 4. Vostok 4 Pavel Popovich 08/12/62 08/15/62 2d:22h:57m First twinned flight. On first orbit came within 3 miles of Vostok 3. MA 8 Walter Schirra 10/03/62 10/03/62 09h:13m Developed techniques for long duration missions (6 orbits); closest splashdown to target to date (4.5 miles). Sigma 7. MA 9 Gordon Cooper 05/15/63 05/16/63 1d:10h:20m First U.S. evaluation of effects of one day in space (22 orbits); performed manual reentry after systems failure, landing 4 miles from target. -
Association of Space Explorers 10Th Planetary Congress Moscow/Lake Baikal, Russia 1994
Association of Space Explorers 10th Planetary Congress Moscow/Lake Baikal, Russia 1994 Commemorative Poster Signature Key Loren Acton Viktor Afanasyev Toyohiro Akiyama STS 51F Soyuz TM-11 Soyuz TM-11 Vladimir Aksyonov Sultan bin Salman al-Saud Buzz Aldrin Soyuz 22, Soyuz T-2 STS 51G Gemini 12, Apollo 11 Alexander Alexandrov Anatoli Artsebarsky Oleg Atkov Soyuz T-9, Soyuz TM-3 Soyuz TM-12 Soyuz T-10 Toktar Aubakirov Alexander Balandin Georgi Beregovoi Soyuz TM-13 Soyuz TM-9 Soyuz 3 Anatoli Berezovoi Karol Bobko Roberta Bondar Soyuz T-5 STS 6, STS 51D, STS 51J STS 42 Scott Carpenter John Creighton Vladimir Dzhanibekov Mercury 7 STS 51G, STS 36, STS 48 Soyuz 27, Soyuz 39, Soyuz T-6 Soyuz T-12, Soyuz T-13 John Fabian Mohammed Faris Bertalan Farkas STS 7, STS 41G Soyuz TM-3 Soyuz 36 Anatoli Filipchenko Dirk Frimout Owen Garriott Soyuz 7, Soyuz 16 STS 45 Skylab III, STS 9 Yuri Glazkov Georgi Grechko Alexei Gubarev Soyuz 24 Soyuz 17, Soyuz 26 Soyuz 17, Soyuz 28 Soyuz T-14 Miroslaw Hermaszewski Alexander Ivanchenkov Alexander Kaleri Soyuz 30 Soyuz 29, Soyuz T-6 Soyuz TM-14 Yevgeni Khrunov Pyotr Klimuk Vladimir Kovolyonok Soyuz 5 Soyuz 13, Soyuz 18, Soyuz 30 Soyuz 25, Soyuz 29, Soyuz T-4 Valeri Kubasov Alexei Leonov Byron Lichtenberg Soyuz 6, Apollo-Soyuz Voskhod 2, Apollo-Soyuz STS 9, STS 45 Soyuz 36 Don Lind Jack Lousma Vladimir Lyakhov STS 51B Skylab III, STS 3 Soyuz 32, Soyuz T-9 Soyuz TM-6 Oleg Makarov Gennadi Manakov Jon McBride Soyuz 12, Soyuz 27, Soyuz T-3 Soyuz TM-10, Soyuz TM-16 STS 41G Ulf Merbold Mamoru Mohri Donald Peterson STS 9,