Protected Areas in East Asia Pakkawadee Panusittikorn Tony Prato Conservation of Protected Areas in Thailand: The Case of Khao Yai National Park

The General Setting hailand is a country rich in natural resources. Its mild year-round climate and high humidity and rainfall support a biologically diverse flora and fauna that include tropical, deciduous, and mangrove for- Tests. Each forest type provides a unique habitat for plants and ani- mals. Thailand’s tropical climate supports not only fertile forests, but also colorful and fragile coral reefs and marine ecosystems. There are 3,000 km of coral reefs along Thailand’s coastline (Gray et al. 1994). Thailand’s rich bio- diversity is evidenced by the 3,000 species of fungi, 600 species of ferns, over 1,000 types of orchids, and 282 mammalian species (Gray et al. 1994). Spe- cies such as the Asian elephant, tiger, and hornbill are endangered. Some for- ests contain valuable trees such as teak, rosewood, bamboo, and rattan. These tree species are in high demand for furniture making, housing, and the export market (Gray et al. 1994). Thailand’s 513,115 sq km of Thailand has a tropical climate land is divided into four natural re- with wet and dry seasons (Nuttonson gions (Mewongukurd 1987). The 1963; Vithayarut 1988). The two mountainous Northwest region con- northern regions of Thailand receive tains natural forests, ridges, and most of their moisture from tropical deep, narrow valleys. The Northeast storms and typhoons. The Central region is a plateau that occupies one- region is influenced by both mon- third of the total area of Thailand soon and local storms and has similar (Nuttonson 1963). It has very favor- weather to the two northern regions able soils and climate, which sup- (Nuttonson 1963). South Thailand, ports agricultural production (Don- which is surrounded by seas, has the ner 1978). The Central region con- highest rainfall in the country. tains the most valuable land in Thai- Climate, soils and other bio- land (Nuttonson 1963). The South- physical features determine the spa- ern region is mountainous and con- tial distribution of Thailand’s ever- tains two enormous mountain ranges green and deciduous forests. Tropi- (Donner 1978). cal evergreen forest is the predomi- 66 The George Wright FORUM Protected Areas in East Asia nant type. Teak, which is located in along with other indicators, such as the northern forests, is the most valu- the value of exports and imports able and abundant tree species (Bangkok Bank 1996). However, (Royal Forestry Department 1996). many Southeast Asian economies Thailand’s natural forested areas collapsed in 1998 because of funda- provide ecological services—such as mental economic problems. providing clean water and air, miti- Natural Areas gating floods and droughts and pest and National Parks control—that benefit people and The Royal Forest Department communities (Daily 1997). Man- was established in 1896 to manage grove forests play a key role in pro- the country’s forests. The first act to tecting coastal areas from strong conserve wildlife was the Wild Ele- winds and wastewater. phant Protection Law in 1900. This Thailand is historically an agri- law was enacted because of signifi- cultural country. The main agricul- cant declines in elephant popula- tural export commodities are maize, tions. The Wild Animals Reservation cassava roots, rubber, and sugarcane and Protection Act of 1960 (Bangkok Bank 1996). Export value (WARPA) regulates the establish- of livestock products has continually ment of wildlife sanctuaries and non- increased, whereas timber exports hunting areas (Gray et al. 1994). have declined slightly because of the Khao Yai National Park, Thailand’s ban (since 1989) on logging in natu- first, was established in 1962. Three ral forests and mangrove conserva- additional national parks and one tion. wildlife sanctuary were established in Water is crucial for Thailand’s the 1960s (Dixon and Sherman economic development and trans- 1990; Ghimire 1994; Gray et al. portation system (Donner 1978). 1994). Thailand has two major rivers, the During World War II, the Chao Pharya and Mekong, and other population of Thailand was 15 mil- local rivers, such as the Chi and Mun lion and the forested area was about in the Northeast. Riverine areas 70% of total land area. Forested comprise the heart of cultivation in lands have since decreased signifi- the Central Plain and Northeast re- cantly due to rapid post-war eco- gions. nomic development and population Rapid growth in the Thai econ- growth, so that in 1995 only about omy has resulted in increased de- 26% of the country was forested mand for land, energy, agricultural (Gray et al. 1994; Royal Forestry products, raw materials and invest- Department 1996). Expansion in ment. Real gross domestic product farmland and construction of dams, trended upward in the mid-1990s roads, and other infrastructure

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 67 Protected Areas in East Asia caused significant losses in natural forests, botanical gardens, and arbo- areas. In addition, over-fishing, retums (Royal Forestry Department shrimp farming, dynamiting, and 1996). The total size of Thailand’s booming tourism degraded ecosys- protected areas is approximately tems in general (Gray et al. 1994). 84,616 sq km, or 16% of the coun- Some natural areas have been dam- try’s land area (Royal Forestry De- aged as well because of these pres- partment 1996; Thaiparks.com sures. 2001). Tables 1 and 2 show the dis- In 1989, a ban was placed on tribution of national parks in Thai- logging in Thailand’s natural forests, land by region and size, respectively. including the national parks. Since To achieve the Thai government’s then, many areas have been estab- goal of conserving 40% of the coun- lished as national parks and wildlife try’s forested land area, several man- sanctuaries (IUCN 1992). Currently, agement plans have been issued in Thailand has 95 national parks the last decade (IUCN 1992). The (Thaiparks.com 2001), 42 wildlife reforestation plans have a goal of us- sanctuaries, 50 non-hunting areas, ing natural resources in a sustainable 57 forest parks, and several other manner. protected areas, including mangrove

Table 1. Regional distribution of national parks in Thailand. Source: Thaiparks.com 2001. Region Percent North 38 Central 20 Northeast 18 South 23

Table 2. Size Distribution of National Parks in Thailand. Note: Data for two national parks are missing. Sources: Gray et al. 1994; Thaiparks.com 2001.

Size (sq km) Number Percent More than 1,000 14 15 801-1,000 5 5 601-800 7 8 401-600 15 16 201-400 26 28 0-200 26 28 Total 93 100

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The legal authority for Thai- wildlife species. There are 50 non- land’s protected areas is the WARPA hunting areas in Thailand, some of of 1960 and the National Park Act of which allow educational and limited 1961 (Arbhabhirama et al. 1988; recreational activities (Arbhabhirama Dixon and Sherman 1990; Gray et et al. 1988). Non-hunting areas are al. 1994). There are four main types under the authority of the Wildlife of protected areas in Thailand: na- Conservation Division. Compared tional park, wildlife sanctuary, non- with wildlife sanctuaries and national hunting area, and forest park. The parks, non-hunting areas are smaller, purpose of a national park is to pre- protection is afforded only for spe- serve a natural area for educational cific species, and fishing, recreation, and recreational activities, which are tourism, logging, and collection of defined by the National Park Act of plants and herbs are allowed (Dixon 1961 (Arbhabhirama et al. 1988). and Sherman 1990). The National Park Division of the A forest park is smaller than a Royal Forest Department adminis- national park and contains features ters all national parks according to considered valuable for recreation, established guidelines (Dixon and e.g., waterfalls and caves (Dixon and Sherman 1990). The Royal Forestry Sherman 1990). There are 57 forest Department receives assistance from parks in Thailand. the Tourism Authority of Thailand Other kinds of protected areas and related organizations in survey- include botanical gardens (15 total), ing and establishing new national which are reserved for collecting and parks. planting native and exotic rare and A wildlife sanctuary is designed economically valuable plant species; to conserve habitat in which wildlife arboretums (47 total), used for col- can breed and expand in a natural lecting and preserving useful plants setting (Dixon and Sherman 1990). and flowering plant species (Dixon Educational and research activities and Sherman 1990); and designated are allowed. The Wildlife Conserva- watersheds, which are classified tion Division of the Royal Forestry based on the land-use activities that Department has responsibility for occur within them. The level of pro- managing wildlife sanctuaries. Of tection afforded watersheds depends Thailand’s 42 wildlife sanctuaries, on physical characteristics of the Haui Kha Khaeng and Thung Yai landscape, such as elevation, slope, Naresuan were the first to be estab- geology, and soils (Arbhabhirama et lished. al. 1988). A non-hunting area is protected Most of the income from national from hunting and capture of animals parks and other protected areas (ex- and dedicated to conserving specific cluding wildlife sanctuaries) is de-

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 69 Protected Areas in East Asia rived from recreation and tourism. ernment has allowed construction of Those activities are thus primary a cable car from the foothill to the motivations for establishing natural temple area. and protected areas in Thailand. Despite the official ban on log- Problems in Protecting ging, deforestation continues in National Parks Thailand’s protected areas. A pri- As with the country’s natural en- mary cause is the increasing demand vironment as a whole, the protected for agricultural and forest products, areas of Thailand have been de- and the conversion of land to aquac- graded by rapid growth in popula- ulture. Local residents and hill tribes tion; exploitation of timber, land and contribute to deforestation by prac- energy; tourism; and residential de- ticing shifting cultivation, which has velopment. As far as recreation is degraded the quality of soil and wa- concerned, national parks are espe- ter, particularly in national parks lo- cially popular for hiking, camping, cated in the northern and northeast- and sight-seeing. Currently, Thai ern regions of Thailand. Resident tourists outnumber foreign tourists populations can be high; for exam- in the national parks because of a ple, approximately, 4,000 Hmong lack of promotion and tourist infor- and Karen people live in the Haui mation written in foreign languages Kha Khaeng and Thung Yai Nare- (Arbhabhirama et al. 1988). suan wildlife sanctuaries (Arbhab- The intentional and uninten- hirama et al. 1988). Furthermore, tional acts of tourists disturb fragile many national parks are surrounded ecosystems. For example, the Phi Phi by local villages whose residents tend Islands (Phuket) are popular because to run out of forested land because of their beautiful coral reefs and much of it is clear-cut to make way beaches. The white sand beaches of for agricultural production (Arbhab- the islands have been degraded by hirama et al. 1988). The resultant growth in resorts and poorly planned illegal poaching and logging in na- human waste disposal. Tourists who tional parks have had a negative im- break off pieces of coral reef as sou- pact on endangered species, includ- venirs, or who anchor their boats to ing hornbills, elephants, and tigers. reefs, have caused extensive damage. There is illegal local and interna- Tourist-related developments have tional animal trade, which the Royal degraded other protected areas. For Forestry Department is not able to example, Doi Suthep National Park control. in the North is well known for its Management of Thailand’s na- Buddhist temple. Roads, parking tional parks focuses on direct and lots, and other tourist facilities have indirect protection. Direct protection been built in the park, and the gov- is the responsibility of National Park

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Division headquarters, which has a problem. Poor relationships branch in every national park. Their between local people and law job is to control illegal activities and enforcement agencies have resulted provide visitor services for tourists. in inefficient management and Rangers patrol the vicinity of park major conflicts. Law enforcement boundaries to deter illegal activities is used to try to control the illegal and create goodwill in local commu- use of forested land. This of course nities. Indirect protection relies on negates the traditional rights of radio, television, and brochures to local people to use the land now increase nature appreciation. included in the parks for Although the National Park Divi- agriculture and other activities. sion of the Royal Forestry Depart- While villagers have not received ment putatively manages natural re- compensation for these losses, the sources according to a plan, on-the- Royal Forestry Department has ground management has not offered to relocate them to areas achieved its goals because of two outside of and adjacent to parks. problems with the national park sys- However, many national park tem: managers believe that relocation of such settlements is not feasible. · The inadequate budget of the The Royal Forestry Department Royal Forestry Department limits has been unable to solve this prob- effective management. Since the lem (Ghimire 1994). Thai government is less concerned with biological conservation than Khao Yai National Park economic development, only a In 1962, Khao Yai was estab- small portion of the national lished as Thailand’s first national budget is allocated to the park (Figue 1). This biologically di- management of protected areas. In verse park contains numerous en- 1995, the budget for forest dangered species, including ele- conservation was the equivalent of phant, gaur, hornbill, and tiger. The US$347 million—just 1.2% park is home to 200 Asian elephants, percent of the forestry de- 318 migrant and resident bird spe- partment’s total budget of US$2.86 cies, three species of hornbills, and billion (Kaosa-ard 1995). This 5,000 species of butterflies (Gray et relatively small budget hinders the al. 1994; Thaiparks.com 2001). The park’s ability to control illegal park supplies agricultural water to activities, such as poaching. four provinces. Due to its rich biodi- · Unauthorized settlements of local versity, Khao Yai is also a magnet for villagers and hill tribes in national illegal collecting, logging, and parks have become a serious poaching.

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Figure 1. General location of Khao Yai National Park.

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Khao Yai has a total area of trekking, and wildlife watching 2,169 sq km. The park has (TDRI 1995). The park provides elevations in excess of 1,000 m and housing accommodations and other many valleys and plateaus. Along facilities, including a visitor center, a with some grasslands, the park big open room for presentations, contains hill evergreen, dry restaurants, and a small souvenir evergreen, dry mixed deciduous, and shop. Lodging and camping facilities secondary-growth forests, with most have a limit of 1,900 people. areas being in tropical rain forest Trekkers are limited to 100 per day, (TDRI 1995; Kasetsart University and visitors to the open room, to 1993). 500. Half of the revenues generated Since Khao Yai is only 200 km by Khao Yai come from tourism and from Bangkok, Thailand’s capital the other half from the government and largest city, it is a popular desti- (TDRI 1995). nation for Thai and foreign tourists. The Forestry Faculty of Kaset- The number of tourists visiting the sart University has identified several park increases every year. The five problems in the park. Insufficient law most popular tourist activities in the enforcement capabilities have ham- park are visiting waterfalls (Figure 2), pered the ability to protect the park’s viewing scenery, leisure walking,

Figure 2. Two of Khao Yai’s renowned waterfalls: Haew Surat (l) and Haew Narok.

Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 73 Protected Areas in East Asia natural resources. Local villagers en- Wildlife in the park is directly gage in illegal logging and poaching threatened by human activities and in the park. The arrest rate remains many species are almost extinct on a high, even though a previous devel- local basis. Poaching has thrived be- opment plan tried to reduce illegal cause it is profitable for local restau- uses of the park. Forested areas of rants surrounding the park to use Khao Yai are subject to continuous certain organs of animals in prepar- human disturbance for several rea- ing expensive dishes. Continued de- sons: struction of wildlife habitat has oc- · The insufficient amount of avail- curred due to conversion of forest- able agricultural land causes vil- land to agricultural land in areas ad- lagers to move to areas adjacent to jacent to the park. Increased use of Khao Yai, and limited income pesticides has harmed wildlife. Ex- sources cause them to collect and otic species have increased disease sell forest products from the park. transmission and compete with na- · Sections of the park itself contain tive species for habitat. Finally, there permanent villages, including are not enough experienced wildlife roads and other infrastructure. specialists to monitor wildlife popu- · Local villagers, both inside and lations and protect their habitat. outside the park, lack the knowl- Park Administration edge and goodwill needed to Since Khao Yai is large, admini- support conservation. stration of the park requires highly · Development plans made by other qualified personnel and effective co- governmental departments often operation between officials of the contradict the goals of park National Park Division and the four management, e.g., expanding ag- provinces that the park covers. Ad- ricultural projects encourage vil- ministrative management of the park lagers to cut forested areas. has been stymied by three factors. Increasing pressure from visita- First, the current administrative tion has caused several problems as structure is not compatible with the well. Human waste has become a number and scope of management problem because disposal facilities tasks and the large size of the park. are insufficient and the methods Second, the quality and quantity of used, such as incineration and bury- personnel are insufficient, and the ing, are inadequate. Public health park budget, very limited to begin measures in the area’s restaurants are with, is declining. The 2000 budget below standards, which results in was 18 million baht (US$453,000), periodic outbreaks of disease in both significantly less than the 1998 humans and animals. budget of 27 million baht (US

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$680,000) (U. Suphanpong, per- Conclusion sonal communication). Third, coor- The case of Khao Yai National dination of policy and management Park illustrates well the challenges activities among departments has faced by park managers and those been inadequate. Currently, promo- concerned about conserving the bio- tion done by the Tourism Authority diversity and natural resources of of Thailand conflicts somewhat with Thailand’s protected areas. The the conservation of park resources. country faces unrelenting pressures Fourth, private land development, in on natural resources from population the form of golf courses and resorts, and income growth, which have re- is degrading the park’s natural re- sulted in rapid depletion of forests sources. and associated biodiversity and en- The Forestry Faculty of Kaset- croachment of protected areas. In sart University has responsibility for addition, there are long-standing studying park management problems equity issues related to the treatment and preparing the master manage- of local people in and near the parks. ment plan (Khao Yai Management In this respect, Thailand is typical of Master Plan II) for the Royal Forest many rapidly developing countries. Department. The plan is based on Hopefully, rational planning efforts, terms of reference issued by manag- such as Kasetsart University’s plan ers of national parks and wildlife for Khao Yai National Park, will re- sanctuaries, and aims to resolve ex- sult in a higher level of protection for isting problems and improve park Thailand’s protected areas. administration.

References Arbhabhirama, A., J. Elkington, P. Ingkasuwan, and D. Phantumvanit. 1988. Thailand Natural Resources Profile. New York: Oxford University Press. Bangkok Bank. 1996. Bangkok Bank Limited Annual Report 1992. Bangkok: Bangkok Printing Co., Ltd. Daily, G.C. 1997. Nature’s Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. Dixon, J.A., and P.B. Sherman. 1990. Economics of Protected Areas: A New Look at Benefits and Costs. Covelo, Calif.: Island Press. Donner, W. 1978. The Five Faces of Thailand. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Ghimire, K.B. 1994. Parks and people: Livelihood issues in national parks management in Thailand and Madagascar. Development and Change 25, 195-229. Gray, D., C. Piprell, and M. Graham. 1994. National Parks of Thailand . Bangkok: Thai Wattana Panish. IUCN. 1992. Conserving Biological Diversity in Managed Tropical Forests. Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, U.K.: IUCN. Kaosa-ard, M. 1995. Sharing the benefits and costs of forest conservation. TDRI Quarterly Review [on-line]. Web site: http://www.info.tdri.or.th/demo/forest.htm. Mewongukurd, S. 1987. Siam Almanac. Bangkok: Siambarn. Volume 18 • Number 2 2001 75 Protected Areas in East Asia

Nuttonson, M.Y. 1963. The Physical Environment and Agriculture of Thailand. Washington, D.C.: American Institute of Crop Ecology. Royal Forest Department. 1996. Forestry Statistics of Thailand 1996. Bangkok: Frengfa Printing, Ltd. TDRI [Thai Development Research Institute]. 1995. Green Finance: A Case Study of Khao Yai. Bangkok: TDRI [on-line]. Web site: http://www.thaiparks.com. Thaiparks.com. 2001. Web site: http://www.thaiparks.com. [In Thai.] Vittayarut, P. 1988. Geography of Thailand. Bangkok: Uksornbundit.

Pakkawadee Panusittikorn, 2300 Avent Ferry Road, Apt #F5, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606; [email protected] Tony Prato, Department of Agricultural Economics, 130 Mumford Hall, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, Missouri 65211 USA; Pra- [email protected] 1

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