Fire today ManagementVolume 72 • No. 4 • 2013

GettinG it Done

United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Fire Management Today is published by the Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. The Secretary of Agriculture has determined that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of the public business required by law of this Department.

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Tom Vilsack, Secretary Melissa Frey U.S. Department of Agriculture General Manager

Thomas L. Tidwell, Chief Forest Service

Tom Harbour, Director Fire and Aviation Management

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April 2013

Trade Names (FMT) The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement of any product or service by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Individual authors are responsible for the technical accuracy of the material presented in Fire Management Today.

Fire Management Today 2 Fire Management today Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013

On the Cover: Contents Anchor Point: Wildland Fire Management Organization– Part of a Great Organization! ...... 4 Tom Harbour

Ember Production During the Bastrop Complex Fire . . . . 7 Sean Rissel and Karen Ridenour

Colorado State Forest Service Upgrades Fire Engine Fleet ...... 14 Ryan Lockwood The Mormon Lake Hotshots eating a late night dinner back at spike camp after completing a burn Squirrel Channels ...... 16 operation on a section of line on the Rex Hambly Whitewater-Baldy Complex. This is the Prior Cabin Coyote Spike in the Fire Weather Case Study—Mann Gulch Fire, Montana . . 18 Gila Wilderness, New Mexico, June 06, 2012. Paul Werth Photo by Kari Greer Characterizing Wildfire Hazard and Risk in Mountain Pine Beetle-Affected Stands and How To Identify Those Characteristics at the Landscape-Scale ...... 25 Robert W. Gray

Eating for Health and Performance: The Wildland Firefighter ...... 30 Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development Center Brochure

The USDA Forest Service’s Fire and Aviation Leadership Development for Wildland Fire Management . . 34 Management Staff has adopted a logo reflecting three central principles of wildland William Ott fire management: • Innovation: We will respect and value thinking minds, voices, and thoughts of those that challenge the status quo while focusing on the greater good. short Features • Execution: We will do what we say we Fire Control Notes Offers Its Services will do. Achieving program objectives, improving diversity, and accomplishing (a Fire Management Today reprint from targets are essential to our credibility. December 1936, Volume 1, Issue 1) ...... 6 • Discipline: What we do, we will do well. Roy Headley Fiscal, managerial, and operational discipline are at the core of our ability to fulfill our mission. Contributors Wanted ...... 17 Success Stories Wanted ...... 29 Photo Contest Announcement ...... 47

Firefighter and public safety is our first priority.

Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 3 by Tom Harbour Anchor Director, Fire and Aviation Management Point Forest Service

WilDlanD Fire ManaGeMent orGanization— Part oF a Great orGanization!

hen I talk about the wildland fire management organiza­ The national wildland fire organization has a base Wtion, what do I mean? Am that surpasses the Forest Service where success I talking about the Forest Service wildland fire and aviation manage­ is predicated on the profound foundation of ment organization? Sure. But, it partnerships between Federal, Tribal, State, and is so much more. local agencies; nongovernmental partners; and the public. The national wildland fire organiza­ tion has a base that surpasses the Forest Service where success is predicated on the profound foun­ together on the fireline or dur­ – The FPA has a new, more dation of partnerships between ing an all-hazard incident. We are defined scope and provides Federal, Tribal, State, and local exemplary and are recognized as managers with a common, agencies; nongovernmental part­ world leaders. But, we can do bet­ interagency process for strate­ ners; and the public. We cannot be ter. We need to think “outside the gic fire management planning successful without our partners; we box.” We need to leverage upon and budgeting. FPA will be cannot be successful without look­ each other’s successes and look for used to evaluate the effective­ ing at the bigger picture, outside opportunities to work together with ness of alternative fire man­ our national forests and grasslands. our partners off the fireline. agement strategies to support land management goals and Regardless of agency or level of the In recent years, we’ve gotten a good objectives. government, budgets are austere at start. A few examples include: – The WFDSS assists fire man­ best. If we are to make a difference agers and analysts in making to change and improve conditions • Implementing the Wildland strategic and tactical deci­ at a national scale, our future will Fire Suppression Doctrine: The sions for fire incidents. It has go far beyond funding. The future implementation of the fire doc­ replaced the Wildland Fire crosses over to the work there is trine has enhanced our ability Situation Analysis (WFSA), to do across jurisdictions and at a to make good decisions by using Wildland Fire Implementation landscape level. We have all heard knowledge, experience, aware­ Plan (WFIP), and Long-Term the adage, “we need to learn to do ness, and the essential use of Implementation Plan (LTIP) more with less.” What is true is judgment. processes with a single pro­ that together, we can do more. • Creating and improving analyti­ cess that is easier to use, more cal tools: Analytical tools such intuitive, linear, scalable, and We have a great foundation–there as Fire Program Analysis (FPA) progressively responsive to is no better example of agencies and the Wildland Fire Decision changing fire complexity. working together as one than the Support System (WFDSS) tools – Continuing National Cohesive wildland fire organization where provide fire managers with the Wildland Fire Management when the fire bell rings, we come ability to make better, risk- Strategy: The strategy is ongo­ informed decisions. ing and has enabled collabora­ tion at an all-time enhanced

Fire Management Today 4 level. The cohesive strategy The problems experienced by sions; and we have the analytical has identified three major this Nation are an “all-lands” tools to help us, with science and factors to successfully address­ problem–we cannot be suc­ practitioners engaged in the pro­ ing the Nation’s wildland fire cessful alone; together we can gram. We have the “tools in the management problems. They do more. toolbox” to make us successful into are to restore and maintain the future. Now, it is up to us to resilient landscapes, create Important to our continued success look for opportunities to capitalize fire-adapted communities, and is the commitment of folks to work on our relationships, and by work­ respond to wildfire. The strat­ together to make our fire program ing together, achieve success. We egy recognizes that there is no an example of “good government” are part of a great organization. I one single answer and that no in action. We have the boots on am proud of it and look forward one particular agency, regard­ the ground to make it work; we to the challenges the future will less of the level of govern­ have the fire doctrine to help us bring.  ment, can be successful alone. make the good risk-informed deci­

Did You Know

The Forest Service headquar­ it home. Auditors from the Navy, renovated building. In October ters building was first used by Treasury, and State Departments of 1994, the Forest Service the U.S. Bureau of Engraving were the first to use it, which opened the Information Center. and Printing in 1880 to house gave this structure its name—the In honor of Congressman Sidney the production of currency. Auditors’ Building. For many years R. Yates of Illinois and his sup­ Having outgrown the building, during World War II, it was home port for environmental programs, the bureau left in 1914 and, to the Office of War Information. Congress redesignated the build­ in the following years, several ing as the Sidney R. Yates Federal government agencies would call In 1990, the Forest Service moved Building in 1999. its headquarters into the newly

Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 5 Fire Control notes oFFers its serviCes Roy Headley Forest Service, Washington, DC

study of such a body of interested Fire Control Notes Offers Its Services (a Fire Management Today men may easily yield results over­ reprint from December 1936, Volume 1, Issue 1.) shadowing all that has been gained so far. Fire Management Today began in December 1936 as Fire Control Notes. As we approach our 77th year of existence, we would like to The surprising thing is that the take a moment to republish part of the first article of Volume 1, Issue need for a vehicle for interchange 1, which introduces Fire Control Notes. Many things have changed of ideas among such men has not over the years, as you will see in reading this piece (such as authors been recognized before. Widely and readers of 1936 being primarily addressed as men). However, we scattered as they necessarily are, in Fire and Aviation Management and at Fire Management Today still the creative efforts of individu­ endeavor to serve as a medium for the exchange of information and als and separate groups cannot be ideas between all groups and individuals who are doing creative work fully effective without the aid of in wildland fire management. something which will serve as a common meeting ground, a clear- ing-house of developments. Fire he Fire Control Meeting at among the amazing technologies Control notes aspires to render Spokane, Washington, in which have grown up in recent that service. It hopes to be a carrier February, 1936 gave the Forest decades. T of whatever men need to know to Service Division of Fire Control in keep abreast of developments and Washington, D.C., a mandate to The advance of the technology of trends in fire control. issue from time to time a publica­ forest fire control is not, however, tion which would serve as a medi­ a completed thing. Its forward Fire Control notes will seek to act um for exchange of information march has not even begun to slow as a channel through which useful and ideas between all the groups down. On the contrary, there is or suggestive information may flow and individuals who are doing cre­ good reason to anticipate a period to each man in the field, whether ative work in forest fire control. On of broader and more rapid growth. he be a fire research worker attack­ the assumption that readers will Fire control has won a large mea­ ing some fundamental of combus­ respond with ideas and information sure of public interest. Its rela­ tion, or a fire fighter, facing flame to publish, the mandate is accepted. tion to conservation of wild land and smoke, who discovers some resources is better understood. new device for organizing a crew of Over a period of 30 years since the Financial support is increasing. A laborers. These pages will also hope inception of the organized effort to growing number of men are mak­ to be used as a mouthpiece of every stop the fire waste of American nat­ ing technical contributions from man, whatever his job, who discov­ ural resources, impressive advances a wider range ability and training. ers something which would be use­ have been made. Considerable body More men know more about how to ful to others, or who has a criticism of knowledge of the arts and sci­ climb to new plateaus of efficiency to make, a question to raise, or an ences involved has accumulated. in stopping this fire waste. unusual fire experience to relate…. Systems of organizing and manag­ ing human forces and mechani­ Future advances will come not The only requirement imposed cal aids have in some instances from the work of small groups, but upon contributions to Fire Control attained dramatic efficiency. Fire from the experience, thinking, and notes is that they be interesting research has won the respect of experiments of the larger number or helpful to some group of people owners and managers of wild land. of men now engaged in pushing concerned with some phase of fire The advancement to date in tech­ back the frontiers of fire control. control.  nique entitles fire control to a place The integrated experience and

Fire Management Today 6 eMber ProDuCtion DurinG the bastroP CoMPlex Fire Sean Rissel and Karen Ridenour

his study looks to build upon scale fires have been documented the “fire landscape,” not separated the already extensively studied and recorded (Fradkin 2006, U.S. from it. This setting increases the Tarea of firebrand (ember) gen­ Department of Defense 1973). risk of larger impacts on these eration in a wildfire setting. This communities should a wildfire in phenomenon consists of firebrands As the human population expands the surrounding area occur (Foote lofted from burning vegetation and/ and builds into previously unin­ and Cole 1993). The Texas Forest or burning buildings, transported habited and densely vegetated Service (TFS) in Bastrop, TX, is ahead of the propagating fire, and areas, we’ve seen increased risk particularly focused on the quan­ deposited on unburned fuel with and realization of potential disas­ tifying of elements that increase some potential for igniting new fire trous fire in this wildland-urban the potential for home ignition in a (Foote et al. 2008). This event has WUI setting. The findings indicate been extensively studied by many there is a complex interaction of different organizations across the While there is a great multiple factors about how suscep­ globe and has been identified as an tible a structure is to ignition from important mechanism for move­ wealth of research a wildfire. Included in these are ment of fire in an uncontrolled concerning ember physical landscape parameters such setting (Koo et al. 2010, Pagni et production, home as slope and vegetative fuel load­ al. 2000). While this mechanism of susceptibility to ings of the surrounding area. There movement has been studied more are also homeowner-controlled elaborately in a controlled labora­ ember intrusion is still factors such as proximity of veg­ tory setting, there is less evidence considered to be a large etation to the primary structure, of those findings to actual firebrand factor in home loss building materials of the structure, protection in an uncontrolled during a wildfire event. and aspects making the structure wildfire (Babrauskas 2003). This more susceptible to ember intru­ study is one of the few instances sion, such as vent and eave type. where actual data from a wildfire The National Institute of Standards event has been collected to help interface (WUI) setting (Manzello and Technology (NIST) and the understand their relationship to et al. 2006). The WUI currently TFS have developed a two-tiered laboratory findings. While there has two accepted definitions. The approach to enable the collection is a great wealth of research con­ Federal Register defines this event of reliable WUI post-fire data. The cerning ember production, home as follows: “The Urban Wildland first tier, called WUI 1, is used to susceptibility to ember intrusion Interface exists where humans collect widespread fire data across is still considered to be a large fac­ and their development meet or the entire fire perimeter, while tor in home loss during a wildfire intermix with wildland fuel.” The the second tier, WUI 2, focuses on event (Cohen 1991). Historically, National Wildfire Coordinating specific communities of interest. firebrand ignition events in large- Group defines WUI as “the line, By collecting and analyzing data area, or zone where structures and from disparate WUI fire-affected other human development meet Karen Ridenour worked for the Texas communities across the United Forest Service for 10 years doing fire or intermingle with undeveloped States, key vulnerabilities and research regarding home loss in the or vegetative fuel.” Unlike urban common attributes in WUI fires Wildland-Urban Interface. She currently settings where residences are in might be identified. Trained TFS teaches 8th grade science in hopes to edu­ the middle of a large city or town, cate future homeowners. personnel implemented the WUI these communities are nestled Sean Rissel is currently a FRAC field super­ 1 methodology on the Bastrop visor with Thomas Petroleum and was inside of large vegetative areas to Complex Fire. This team found previously a Type I firefighter for the Texas the point where they are part of Forest Service.

Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 7 numerous instances where homes quantify firebrand generation and of each other and burned together with masonry walls, metal roofs, mechanisms of firebrand attack. over the course of 48 hours. By the and little direct fire impingement This information, however, needs end of the event, more than 32,000 were still destroyed. These findings data from real wildfire events to acres were burned, an estimated are contributing to the increasing solidify their findings. The data col­ 1.8 million trees were burned, and belief that structure ignition from lected for this paper will build upon 1,696 structures were destroyed. firebrands is much more numer­ previous findings, both in the lab The burned areas included a num­ ous than previously thought (Foote and in the field, to better character­ ber of WUI subdivisions, unman­ et al. 1991, McArthur and Lutten ize firebrand size and density. aged private lands, and 96 percent 1991, Mitchell and Patashnik 2007). of Bastrop State Park. The impacted Bastrop Complex Fire communities represented most Even with the soundest and most Study Area, Weather, conditions in any setting; some “fireproof” construction, exposure Fuels and Fire Behavior areas had extremely high-density to overwhelming amounts of ember of homes while others were more wash can compromise a structure. The Bastrop Complex Fire was the spread out. Among all of the com­ In theory, it only requires one small most destructive fire in Texas his­ munities, there were undeveloped ember to pass through a vent into tory, and the third most destruc­ and unmanaged lots that had an area with combustibles (e.g., an tive in the history of the United higher fuel loadings than the sur­ attic with insulation or the drapes States. It was actually the result of rounding lots. in a room) to ignite those com­ three different ignitions in Bastrop bustibles and potentially destroy a County, TX, approximately 35 miles The Tropical Storm Type critical home. east of Austin, TX. This area is fire weather pattern during the composed of sandy soils, drought- Bastrop Complex Fire was intensi­ Recently, Manzello et al. developed resistant subspecies of many plants, fied by one of the worst drought the NIST Firebrand Generator and topography from flat to roll­ seasons in recorded Texas history. (NIST Dragon) to investigate igni­ ing hills. The lost pines area, as On the morning of September 3, tion vulnerabilities of structures it is called, is the westernmost 2011, Tropical Storm Lee was just to firebrand exposure (Foote et al. distribution of loblolly pine (Pinus south of the central Louisiana coast 2008). These detailed experiments taeda), separated from most of its and the counter-clockwise circula­ are considered as a foundation counterparts by 100 miles of agri­ tion was just beginning to result for performance-based building cultural land. All three ignitions in northeast surface wind across standards with the intent of mak­ occurred in the same vegetation most areas east of I-35 in Texas. ing structures more resistant to type, Loblolly pine overstory and Meanwhile, a well-defined, mid- firebrand attack (Foote et al. 2008). understory dominated by yopuan level trough was moving across The experiments developed and (Ilex vomitoria). All three reported the Northern Plains States with an tested by NIST are helping to better ignitions occurred within 2 hours associated cold front having moved

Table 1.—Field measurements surrounding each of the collected trampolines and information compiled from the Bastrop Complex Fire Case Study. * Denotes that this was where two flanking fires came together, acting like a head fire. Address Slope in Distance Direction of Distance Fire Canopy Fire type direction to nearest structure from to intensity cover of the fire structure trampoline vegetation (%) (ft) (ft) 111 West Hilo Ct. 0 42.7 Northwest 13.12 Low Open Flanking 332 Kaanapali Ln. 5 27.2 Southwest 6.7 High Medium Flanking* 268 McAllister Rd. 0 14.4 West 3.3 Medium Dense Direct 350 McAllister Rd. 7 26.6 South 6.7 Medium Medium Flanking 104 Oak Shadows Dr. 5 39.7 East 16.4 High Open Flanking 126 Pine Shadows Ln. 0 27.2 South 90.9 High Open Direct 103 Poole Rd. 0 29.9 North 3.3 High Medium Flanking

Fire Management Today 8 east of the Rocky Mountains. Ahead fire front. Vertical vortex rolls were study included a fire progression of the front, temperatures were observed by on the ground fire­ map for the first 12 hours from the able to climb into the lower 100s, fighters and horizontal vortex rolls time of fire ignition. As post-fire driving minimum relative humid­ were visible in aerial reconnais­ data was being collected, homeown­ ity (RH) down to 20 percent in the sance showing characteristic long ers with trampolines were asked to Bastrop area. Tropical Storm Lee strips of unburned (or scorched) donate their destroyed trampolines moved inland by late afternoon on tree crowns within areas of sever­ for measurement. Because of the September 4, but all precipitation ally burned vegetation throughout material, firebrand burns (holes) remained east of I-45. High tem­ the fire perimeter. The main fire in trampolines leave an identifiable peratures climbed, again, into the front traveled at a rate of 5 mph footprint that can be counted and triple digits, and sustained winds of through pine, cedar yaupon mix measured. 12 to 14 miles per hour (mph) with mid-story, during the first several gusts of 25 to 31 mph occurred hours of the event. There was het­ The team took panoramic photo­ near the time the fire started in erogeneous burning across the graphs around the trampolines Bastrop (Greg Murdoch, National fire with some areas being lightly prior to their removal and after Weather Service-Midland). scorched and other areas com­ receiving the homeowner’s approv­ pletely consumed to the point that al. These photographs consisted Live fuel moistures are measured all nutrients were leached from the of three sets of 360-degree photo­ every month across the State to soil. graphs, with the first photo of each help track changes in plant mois­ set taken while the photographer tures. This information is also used Methods was facing north. The team shot by predictive services to predict photographs in overlapping frames To date, only one other group has increased probabilities of wildfires. so that in post-processing they developed and utilized this meth­ During the Bastrop Complex Fire, could be threaded together into odology of ember measurement in the live fuel moistures were trend­ one picture. The team took one the field. Foote et al. in 2008 used ing down to below historic lows panorama looking at the canopy ember burns in lawn furniture and in all vegetation types within the surrounding the trampoline and scarred trampoline surfaces to esti­ county. another looking at eye level. The mate ember production during the team took the last photo after the Angora Fire of 2007. In an effort • Pine—92 percent (August 15), trampoline was removed, standing to elaborate and build upon their 83 percent (September 15) inside of the frame and, again, look­ techniques, this methodology is • Yaupon—62 percent (August 15), ing at eye level. Not only are these similar to theirs. 52 percent (September 15) photographs useful in document­ • Juniper—78 percent (August ing the location of the trampoline, The team conducting post-fire 15), 54 percent (September 15) they can also be used later to better assessments on structures within • Post Oak—76 percent (August describe the environment around the burned area collaboration 15), 81 percent (September 15) the trampoline, even after clear­ between NIST and TFS was also ing and reconstruction events have able to collect information on (Fuel moisture content is the per­ taken place. The team recorded firebrand distribution and density. cent of the fuel weight represented other environmental factors at Because of the scale of this fire, by water, based on the dry weight of the time of trampoline collection post-fire assessments could not rea­ the fuel.) and photo documentation. These sonably be conducted on all of the include slope in direction of the homes within the fire perimeter. Because of reduced moisture, all fire, distance to structure, distance Instead, four subsets within dif­ vegetation would be more suscepti­ to trees/vegetation, fire intensity, fering communities were selected ble to combustion during a wildfire. and distance to steep slopes. They based on a number of goals by the also recorded distance from the research team. For more informa­ The Bastrop Complex Fire would ground to the trampoline surface tion on these selections and other experience intense spotting with and a description of the framing aspects of the Bastrop Complex reports coming in through 911 dis­ material. All of the collected tram­ Fire, please refer to the case study patch service of fires starting up to polines were 3 feet (0.9 meters (m)) conducted by Ridenour et al. in distance of 3 miles from the main from the ground and supported by 2012. The generation of this case

Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 9 metal springs attached to a metal flash made the holes’ photographed the border of each quadrant to give frame. The team collected seven size unrepresentative of the actual the image scale for analysis. trampolines from locations across size. Accordingly, the team seg­ the fire. All of the trampolines mented each trampoline into 54 Image Recognition Software. In were of the same material, and quadrants using measuring tape order to count and measure the all had diameters of 12 feet (3.8 and line chalk to create the quad­ firebrand marks in the most objec­ m). Condition of the trampolines rants, as seen in figure 2. They tive and repeatable manner, the ranged from good, where the entire placed a large sheet to white paper team used ImageJ recognition soft­ border was intact, to poor, where underneath each trampoline to aid ware. This software is very power­ anywhere up to almost half of the in photographing and developed ful and has an immense variety of trampoline was destroyed beyond a technique to help eliminate not functions that can be used to edit, consistent measurement. only the glare of overheard fluo­ modify, and measure photographs. rescent light, but also the patterns While the toolbar and its dropdown Site Description. As already men­ created by the trampoline weave menus may seem daunting, the tioned, the team measured and on the ground. Photographers team created a relatively simple photographed extensively each required two people: one used methodology and then repeated it of the seven sites. For the sake the digital camera and the other for each picture. First, the team of conciseness, all of measure­ slightly elevated the trampoline imported each photo into the ments are condensed in table 1. segment so that it was just above ImageJ software using the “Open” The fire intensity and fire type are the white paper. Using the flash on function. Using the line tool and from information published in the the camera highlighted the holes increasing the zoom, they created a Bastrop Fire Case Study. Also, these with the white paper and helped line of known distance and set the measurements are on a microscale, reduced the “dummy” holes caused scale under the “Analysis” function. they only refer to the immediate by the trampoline weave. The pho­ By selecting “Global,” this scale area surrounding the trampoline. tographers positioned the digital would be automatically set for all The lot and landscape-scale are camera (Nikon D90) approximately future pictures imported while the most likely different from those 4.17 feet (1.27 m) above each quad­ program is running. Because some reported here. Interestingly, four rant and took three photographs of pictures did require small adjust­ of the trampolines’ addresses are each. This process was repeated to ment based on changes in lighting almost in a straight line running help resolve focus issues that can or particular problematic frames, from north to south, the same sometimes arise when taking pic­ the analyst confirmed or readjusted direction of the fire. The other tures. The team included a ruler on the scale on every image. The ana- three run relatively straight east to west (figure 1).

Post-Processing. After documen­ tation and collection, the team took all of the trampolines back to a large area where they could be spread out completely. In order to achieve enough clarity of hole for image analysis, the trampolines had to be subdivided into quadrants. The team performed initial testing to determine what combination of light and level of zoom could be used to measure firebrands. After initial testing, they established that firebrands could be accurately mea­ sured within an area of 2.7 square 2 2 feet (feet ) (.25 m ). Beyond that, Forest Service. 2012 Photo © Sean Rissel, Texas the angle of the camera and its Figure 1.—Map of fire perimeter with trampoline locations and ember count at each location.

Fire Management Today 10 lyst then cropped each photograph to 51. However, other marks not some images prove to be more time cropped so that only the desired resulting from firebrand burns will consuming than others. After the quadrant remained and is then con­ sometimes still be highlighted. team edited the image and con­ verted to an 8-bit grayscale image. Combined with verification from firmed that it represented the true The most laborious part was adjust­ the original photographs, the ana­ image, they analyzed each quad­ ing the threshold so that only the lyst cropped these instances out as rant and counted all thresholded firebrand scars were highlighted to not be included in the analysis firebrand scars and measured their and not the woven material or and skew the results (figure 3). areas. Testing prior to the experi­ other blemishes on the quadrant. Because each photo has different ment also demonstrates burns The threshold works on the prem­ properties, such as hole arrange­ under.0003 square inches (inch2) ise of identifying changes in color ment and folding creases, each (.002 square centimeters (cm2)) from one pixel to the next. The image had to be treated separately were uncommon and could not be toolbar for adjusting the threshold and edited accordingly. distinguished from the holes cre­ of the photo is a sliding scale from ated by the mesh threading of the 0 to 254. At a maximum, the team Depending on the amount of trampoline. Therefore, the team set the threshold for each photo reflected light and other factors, filtered out any measured images below.0003 inch2 (.002 cm2) during analysis. The output also included outlines of all the measured fire­ brand marks; these were helpful in verifying that “true” holes were measured accurately (figure 4). The team copied outputs for each quadrant into Microsoft Excel© and combined them to create a single spreadsheet for each of the seven trampolines.

Results The embers counted and measured by ImageJ analysis software ranged from a minimum of 882 to a maxi­ mum of 6,147. In four instances, the team documented extremely large holes whose origin of cre- Photo © Sean Rissel, Texas Forest Service. 2012 Photo © Sean Rissel, Texas Figure 3.—Trampoline segment inverted and cropped to remove unwanted Figure 2.—Image of trampoline divided into 54 quadrants. signatures from trampoline mesh.

Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 11 ation could not be determined. cent of the holes less than 0.5 cm2 fire severity map; areas with more While they could have been the in size. The single largest hole severe fire intensity also had more result of a large firebrand, they also in a trampoline base measured firebrands. The only home on could have resulted from burning 27.25 inch2 in total area, measured the same parcel as the trampoline debris underneath the trampoline from the trampoline collected at that was not destroyed was 350 or radiant heat exposure. Because 332 Kaanapali. Firebrand density McAllister, which also had the low­ of this, the team subtracted those ranged between 9 and 68 holes est recorded ember production. measured areas from the calcu­ per square foot. Note that some lated area of each trampoline when of the trampolines had adjusted The trampoline from 126 Pine estimating ember density. In all areas; firebrand density is believed Shadows Lane had the second high­ seven cases, anywhere from 91 to to be an underestimate in some est amount of measured firebrands, 99 percent of measured firebrand instances. yet it was located along a power holes were less than 0.5 cm. Figure line easement that was cleared of 5 shows the pooled results of all Current wildfire building con­ vegetation prior to the fire. Given of the data with more than 90 per- struction regulations recommend what has been reported as fire screens intended to protect against spread from the north, firebrands firebrand entry range in size from would have traveled at least 90.9 1/16 inch (.03 cm2) to 1/4 inch feet from the woodline to land (.40 cm2). There are no nationally on the trampoline. Given the fire recognized American building con­ behavior during that fire, this esti­ struction test standards or design mate is well within the range of practices for exterior wildfire or possibility. Evidence of large fire­ interface fire exposure protection brands, fire whirls, and vortex rolls (Foote et al. 2008). has all been documented for the Bastrop Complex Fire. Cold embers Conclusions and were reported as far as 15 miles Discussion from the fire, so ember production and subsequent fire spread were Although this study was only undoubtedly instrumental in home limited to the seven collected

Photo © Sean Rissel, Texas Forest Service. 2012 Photo © Sean Rissel, Texas loss. trampolines, the research results Figure 4.—Example of outlines of measured images generated by ImageJ. are able to give researchers more There are some limitations in both scientifically grounded estimates the image recognition software of ember production during the and conclusions from this study Bastrop Complex Fire. Similarly, that must be addressed. Due to these results confirm the findings the nature of photo processing, by Foote et al. for the Angora Fire, ember holes that an individual where more than 85 percent of all may have seen as one ember were ember holes measured were less broken down and counted as dif­ 2 than .05 cm in area. Their study ferent ember marks. The image also included firebrands generated recognition software works based in the lab, where the majority of on changes from one pixel color to the firebrand sizes fell in this same the next. Small strands of material range. Although these findings would be enough to show this dif­ cannot be applied to every loca­ ference even if each piece seemed tion of the fire, the location of the to be part of the same ember hole. measured trampolines across the While care was taken to eliminate burned area does show that there this noise from the images, it did was high production of firebrands undoubtedly occur. Also, because at numerous locations across the Figure 5.—Distribution of burn patterns the lowest size measured was fire. Differing amounts of ember 2 2 for all seven trampolines collected from .0003 inch (.002 cm ), due to the Bastrop Complex Fire. production are consistent with the trampoline mesh, any firebrands

Fire Management Today 12 smaller than this were discounted. Acknowledgments survey instrument for post-fire struc­ However, these misreading are ture loss analysis. In: Proceedings of We are very grateful for the sup­ the 11th Conference on Fire and Forest believed to be negligible when com­ port of the TFS, the Bastrop County Meteorology. Missoula, MT: Society of pared to the relative amounts of American Foresters. 606 p. Office of Emergency Management, each firebrand size. The firebrand Fradkin, P.L. 2006. Great earthquake and and the Bastrop Fire Department firestorms of 1906–How San Francisco holes measured do not take into in providing resources and loca­ nearly destroyed itself. Berkeley, CA; account how long the embers were University of California Press. 2005. 481 tions for data collection. We would sitting on the trampoline. Because p. also like to thank all of the home­ Koo, E.; Pagni, P.J.; Weise, D.R.; Woycheese, of this, measured firebrand holes owners who allowed us to use J.P. 2010. Firebrands and spotting igni­ could be slightly larger than the their trampolines for this study tion on large scale fires. International actual embers. Presence of other Journal of Wildland Fire. Victoria, and all of the people affected by combustibles could also account Australia: CSIRO Publishing. 19: 818­ the Bastrop Complex Fire. From 843. for the inflated firebrand estimate, such tragedy, we hope to create Manzello, S.L.; Cleary, T.G.; Shields J.R.; although it is believed that produc­ Yang, J.C. 2006. On the ignition of fuel the means to keep it from hap­ tion of embers by vegetation is an beds by firebrands. Fire and Materials. pening again. Thanks to R. Gray Maiden, MA: Wiley and Sons, LTD. 30: order of magnitude greater than and B. Woods from the TFS for 77-87. production by structures and other Manzello, S.L.; Shields, J.R.; Yang J.C.; support and review. We would also combustibles. Due to current meth­ Hayashi, Y.; Nii, D. 2007. On the use of like to thank A. Maranghides, at a firebrand generator to investigate the odology, this is still the most accu­ National Institute for Standards ignition of structures. In: WUI Fires, rate and repeatable way to measure and Technology/Forest Service and Proceedings of the 11th International firebrand production in an actual Conference on Fire Science and J. Leonard, The Commonwealth wildfire event. Engineering (INTERLFAM). London: Scientific and Industrial Research Interscience Communications. 861–872. Organisation, for helping format McArthur, N.A.; Lutton, P. 1991. Ignition of Despite the limited scope from exterior building details in bushfires: An our ideas and the direction of which conclusions can be made, experimental study. Fire and Materials. this paper. All data collection and Maiden, MA: Wiley and Sons, LTD. 15: this research can be helpful in fire processing was performed by the 59–64. event recreation and future fire Mitchell, J.W.; Patashnik, O. 2007. authors from TFS, thanks to W. planning. Based upon this new Firebrand protection as the key design Powell for his assistance in mea­ element for structural survival dur­ approach to measuring ember pro­ surement and collection. ing catastrophic wildfire fires. In: duction in the field, estimates of Proceedings of the 10th International ember production in distinct habi­ Conference on Fire and Materials tats could one day influence build­ References Conference. San Francisco, CA. Science 313. 940–943 Babrauskas, V. 2003. Ignition Handbook. ing construction and allocation Pagni, P.J.; Woycheese, J.P. 2000. Fire Issaquah, WA: Fire Science Publishers. spread by brand spotting in: 15th of suppression resources during a 952-954. Meeting of the UJNR Panel on Fire major wildfire event. Current rec­ Cohen, JP. 1991. A site-specific approach Research and Safety. NISTR 6588. for assessing the fire risk to structures at ommendations for things such as Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of the wildland/urban interface. In: Nodvin, vent screen size and shapes of roofs Standards and Technology, Building and S.C.; Waldrop, T.A., eds. Fire and the Fire Research Laboratory: 373–380. may need further modification to environment: ecological and cultural per­ Ridenour K.; Rissel, S.; Powell, W.; Gray, R.; spectives: proceedings of an international accommodate such high numbers Fisher, M.; Sommerfeld, J. 2012. Bastrop symposium, Knoxville, TN, March 20–24, of extremely small firebrands. complex wildfire case study. College 1990. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-69. Ashville, Station, TX: Texas Forest Service, Texas Further measurement of firebrands NC: USDA Forest Service, Southeastern A&M University and Bastrop County in different vegetation types may Forest Experiment Station. 5 p. Office of Emergency Management. http:// Foote, E.I.; Liu, J.; Manzello, S.L. 2011. lead to a more thorough under­ www.co.bastrop.tx.us/bcdisaster/index. Characterizing firebrand exposure php/wildfire-case-study. (22 February standing of ember production. during wildland-urban interface fires. 2013). 205 p. In: Proceedings of Fire and Materials U.S. Department of Defense. 1973. DCPA 2011 Conference, 12th International attack environment manual: Chapter 3, Conference and Exhibition. London, What the planner needs to know about Interscience Communications: 479–491. fire ignition and spread. Washington DC: Foote, E.I.; Cole, D. 1993. Making a case Civil Defense Preparedness Agency. 2 for “the interface.” Fire Chief Magazine. p.  37: 59 p. Foote, E.; Martin, R.; Gilless, J.K. 1991. The defensible space factor study: a

Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 13 ColoraDo state Forest serviCe uPGraDes Fire enGine Fleet Ryan Lockwood

Editor’s Note: On July 1, 2012, the Colorado State Forest Service (CSFS) fire-management functions for command and control trans­ ferred from Colorado State University to the Colorado Department of Public Safety. This transfer included the CSFS fire equipment shop. The State of Colorado made the move as part of an effort to centralize all of the State’s fire-management functions into a single, statewide point of contact. The forest management, research, education, and outreach aspects of the CSFS remain at Colorado State University.

ith firefighter and public Today, O’Leary will help deliver a of dumptruck-sized, 6x6 Type-4 safety in mind, the Colorado new CSFS engine to the Wauneta engines with newer models offer­ WState Forest Service (CSFS) Fire Protection District near Wray, ing a low-profile, 880-gallon water recently completed a 4-year goal CO. Rather than retire the depart­ tank design that drops the vehicle’s to upgrade 40 of the wildland fire ment’s older engine, the CSFS center of gravity and greatly engines in its 140-engine fleet. The instead will loan it to the Wages reduces rollover risk on rough ter­ newer engines offer improvements Volunteer Fire Department in near­ rain. The newer engines also have such as advanced safety equip­ by Yuma, CO, to replace the engine automatic transmissions, air-assist ment and lower profile designs less it lost to the Heartstrong Fire. power steering, three-point seat prone to tipping. One of these belts, and better braking systems. newer engines is headed to a fire Since 2008, CSFS fire equipment Additionally, the water pumps on department in Yuma County. In shop mechanics in Fort Collins the engines run on diesel instead of this county, the Heartstrong Fire have worked to swap out dozens of unleaded gasoline, allowing them burned 24,000 acres and injured wildland fire engines in the State to draw fuel from the main tank. three firefighters trying to escape fleet that had an older chassis or from a stranded fire truck. outdated equipment. Over the past To replace many aging 1967 chas­ year, the final 13 of 40 earmarked sis, many of the smaller, pickup “Firefighter safety has always been engines were replaced; the last of truck-sized Type-6 engines were our No. 1 concern,” said Matt these are being delivered in March swapped out with newer Chevrolet O’Leary, lead mechanic at the CSFS 2012 to fire protection districts and Ford truck chassis. One of fire equipment shop. “So, our pri­ around Colorado. these replacement engines recently mary goals were to make sure these arrived at the Western Fremont engines have better stability for Upgrades Include Fire Protection District in Coaldale, fighting fires in rugged terrain and Newer Chassis, CO. to provide the best safety features Increased Stability we can.” “Our engine desperately needed One of the most significant to be replaced,” said John Walker, improvements is the replacement Western Fremont’s fire chief. He

Ryan Lockwood is the public and media relations coordinator for the Colorado The newer engines offer improvements such State Forest Service, the lead State agency providing forest stewardship and wildfire as advanced safety equipment and lower profile mitigation assistance to private landowners in Colorado. He previously served as the designs less prone to tipping. agency’s lead fire information officer.

Fire Management Today 14 said the most important upgrade to property of the Forest Service and hoses, belts, brakes, fluids, fil­ the new vehicle is the addition of are loaned to rural fire depart­ ters, and shocks. They then make side-discharge water nozzles. Water ments. necessary modifications, such as now can be sprayed from both mounting a low-profile water tank sides of the moving vehicle, rather Together, the CSFS and Forest and attaching a pump, hose reel, than from a hand-held hose at the Service absorb nearly all costs of and tool boxes before delivering rear of the engine. This allows the the engine fleet program to ensure the refurbished vehicle to its new engine to lay down a “wet line” that fire departments around the home. O’Leary says it takes about 6 as it drives across the path of an State have the necessary equipment weeks to build a new fire engine. oncoming fire, which works well in to fight fires. The CSFS fire equip­ grasses and other light fuels. ment shop converts the vehicles to Engines Benefit Fire functional fire engines and provides Departments All Over “A wet line can help reinforce and ongoing major vehicle maintenance Colorado widen other fuelbreaks, such as on the fleet. Recipient fire depart­ roads,” Walker said. “Having these ments are only required to con­ From Yuma County in the north­ new nozzles is quicker, more effi­ tribute $200 annually to help cover east to Montezuma County in the cient, and safer than putting fire­ travel costs for CSFS fire shop southwest, CSFS fleet engines are fighters on foot in front of a fire.” mechanics, who must complete made available to fire departments annual inspections on the vehicles. throughout Colorado. Federal Program “This program is absolutely essen­ Makes Engines tial,” said Walker. “It’s great to see a “We use this vehicle and one other CSFS Type-4 on a variety of fire Available State and Federal partnership that produces such excellent results.” incidents,” said Erik Johnson, fire To build and maintain an engine chief at the Tallahassee Volunteer fleet in Colorado, the CSFS fire Starting with the chassis of a Fire Department in Fremont equipment shop obtains retired retired military vehicle, CSFS County, who received one of the vehicles through the Federal Excess mechanics O’Leary, Nate Taggatz, upgraded engines last October. Personal Property (FEPP) Program. Paul Rodriguez, Jakob Bonser, “They fit very well into our current The program allows the CSFS to Kevin Podvin, and Reed Hanlon fleet of fire engines, and give us a acquire used vehicles from the U.S. first perform a full-scale overhaul year-round tool to use with the lim­ Department of Defense and other of the vehicle at the CSFS State ited budget we have.”  Federal entities, which become Office in Fort Collins. They replace

Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 15 squirrel Channels By Rex Hambly

he colloquialism “secret squir­ rel channel” has been used for Tdecades in wildland firefighting. Salty captains and battalion chiefs have long denounced the use of channels not assigned to the fire. In fact, Finding Number 34 of the Esperanza Fire Investigation states that, “While monitoring the inci­ dent assigned frequencies, all five Forest Service engines maintained radio communications with each other on [a] Forest Service tactical radio frequency not assigned to the fire.” Page 83 of the same reports also notes, “Excessive communica­ tion demands.” So the long burning questions remains: Is the use of a channel not assigned to an incident Radio use on the Little Bear Fire. Photo by Kari Greer ever okay, and, if it is deemed okay, what are the best operating proce­ Another good example of appropri­ in advance of a wildfire near Santa dures? ate use of a “crew net” or “squirrel Barbara, CA, experienced multiple channel” occurs frequently when a burnovers and destroyed equip­ Hotshot crews have long used a strike team or task force designates ment. They were using an 800 “crew net.” In more complicated a travel channel to facilitate travel megahertz radio system and did not terms, it is a simplex channel, to and from the incident. Often have a very high frequency (vhf) almost never officially assigned to times when radio waves become radio compatible with the incident the fire. If one were to listen in, hectic and overloaded on the inci­ assigned frequencies. On page 35, he or she might overhear chatter dent assigned frequency, mem­ the investigation states: “The strike amongst crew members regarding bers of the unit can still maintain team leader did not have an inci­ bumping of the jerry cans, breaking emergency communications on dent tactical radio.” Despite the of a tool, and miscellaneous grum­ the predesignated travel channel– fact that all members of the strike blings such as how many more just enough to pull everyone back team could communicate with each chains to tie in. Most important is and regroup–when this would be other, they did not have communi­ what the eavesdropper won’t hear impossible on the assigned tactical cations outside their strike team. on the crew net. Tactical messages frequency. While the use of their crew net did that affect the entire division or not directly cause the burnovers, it fire are always transmitted over While there are many examples of certainly did limit their ability to the assigned incident frequency the success of “crew net” type chan­ make sense (i.e., situational aware­ in order to share the operational nels, we must also examine their ness) of the rapidly changing world information with everyone. pitfalls and limitations. The Jesusita around them. Fire of 2009 illustrates what can go wrong with miscalculated use To safely use a crew net in addition Rex Hamby is a firefighter on Engine 58 of a crew net. A municipal strike to the incident assigned frequen­ for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service at the San Diego National Wildlife Refuge in team of engines assigned to tri­ cies, several layers of radio profi­ California. age and preparation of structures ciency must be present. The user

Fire Management Today 16 must have an authorized Federal To safely use a crew net in addition to the incident Communications Commission (FCC) frequency and the frequency assigned frequencies, several layers of radio must not interfere with other oper­ proficiency must be present. ations, both on and off the fire. For several years, heavy use of a Forest Service Pacific Southwest Region mer Bureau of Land Management by the FCC and can carry legal and project/travel frequency by helideck smokejumper and current fire monetary penalties. operations on large fires caused management officer of the problem for both users. Southern California Fish and Crew nets and “squirrel chan­ Wildlife Refuges, had a few things nels” play a vital role in facilitat­ The radio user must additionally to say: “Crew nets play an impor­ ing smooth communications on understand how the radio operates, tant role in keeping radio traffic to an incident. Using these channels from scan and priority settings to a minimum on the assigned tacti­ requires discipline and a depth frequency programming. To be cal frequency. Back in the early of radio knowledge. Most impor­ brief, the tactical frequency should 1990s, we gabbed on a few differ­ tantly, we must remember not to always be designated as priority. ent unused frequencies as crew exclude others on the fireline from That way, if there is chatter on crew nets. We used them all around the important operational information. net, the lookout message will over­ Western United States. Looking Someday, our culture will learn to ride the crew chatter, such as when back, they may not have always safely utilize crew nets. Until that the division lookout orders crews been authorized for use in the happens, it’s a safe bet to change into safety zones. various geographic areas that we your batteries, monitor tac, and operated in.” Rickard also notes switch to crew net.  When asked his opinion on the that using a frequency without topic of crew nets, Lee Rickard, for­ authorization is considered pirating

Contributors Wanted! Fire Management Today is a source of information on all aspects of fire behavior and management at Federal, State, tribal, county, and local levels. Has there been a change in the way you work? New equipment or tools? New partnerships or programs? To keep up the communication, we need your fire- related articles and photographs! Feature articles should be up to about 2,000 words in length. We also need short items of up to 200 words. Subjects of articles published in Fire Management Today may include: Aviation Fire history Planning (including budgeting) Communication Fire science Preparedness Cooperation Fire use (including prescribed fire) Prevention/Education Ecosystem management Fuels management Safety Equipment/Technology Firefighting experiences Suppression Fire behavior Incident management Training Fire ecology Information management Weather Fire effects (including systems) Wildland-urban interface Personnel

Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 17 Fire Weather Case study– Mann GulCh Fire, Montana Paul Werth

Background Information he Mann Gulch Fire burned in August 1949 approximately T20 miles north-northeast of Helena, MT (figure 1). The fire was ignited by lightning on August 4 near the top of an east-west ori­ ented ridge between Mann and Meriwether Gulches. It was 1 of 10 lightning fires that started that day on the Canyon and Helena Ranger Districts of the Helena National Forest. A group of Forest Service smokejumpers, attached to the Missoula Smokejumper Base, ini­ tially attacked the fire the afternoon of August 5. The fire was about 50 to 60 acres in size when 15 smoke- jumpers jumped the fire at 4:00 p.m. A local district fire guards­ Figure 1.—Mann Gulch Fire location. man joined them at 5:00 p.m. Extreme fire behavior (spotting, rapid rate of spread, and a sudden Increased research into wildland fire behavior and increase in fire intensity) developed the eventual development of a national fire danger around 5:45 p.m., overrunning the firefighters and resulting in the rating system were products of this incident. deaths of 12 smokejumpers and the local fire guardsman. Controversy surrounding the events of that Case Study Objective vection and may have other char­ afternoon continued for many acteristics of extreme fire behavior. Although topography and fuel years. Increased research into wild- “Critical fire weather patterns” are conditions (Rothermel 1993) land fire behavior and the eventual defined as atmospheric conditions contributed to extreme fire behav­ development of a national fire dan­ that encourage extreme fire behav­ ior on the Mann Gulch Fire, the ger rating system were products of ior resulting in large and destruc­ intent of this report is to analyze this incident. tive wildland fires. weather conditions to determine if a “critical fire weather pattern” Paul A. Werth is a fire weather meteorolo­ Weather Discussion gist with Weather Research and Consulting also contributed to the “blowup.” Services, LLC, in Battle Ground, WA. A “blowup” is defined as a sudden A record-setting heat wave gripped He served 30 years as a fire weather increase in fireline intensity or much of the Western United States, forecaster with the National Weather Service in Medford, OR, and Boise, ID. He rate of spread of a fire sufficient to including Montana, in early August retired from the Northwest Interagency preclude direct control or to upset 1949. The heat wave actually began Coordination Center in Portland, OR, as existing suppression plans. It is on July 30 when a strong high the fire weather program manager for pressure aloft pushed northward Predictive Services. often accompanied by violent con-

Fire Management Today 18 from the Desert Southwest into the Canadian Rockies. Hot, dry weather persisted for the next week. Maximum temperatures climbed well into the 90s at Helena, MT, while minimum relative humidity dropped to as low as 12 percent.

The August 5 upper level pattern at 500 millibars (approximately 18,000 feet mean sea level (msl)) is graphically displayed in figure 2. The 00Z chart time correlates to late afternoon, within an hour or two of the Mann Gulch blowup. For clarification purposes, the Canadian, Washington, Oregon, and Figure 2.—Afternoon 500MB map, August 5, 1949. California coastline is shown. Just to the southeast of the low pressure center is Vancouver Island.

High pressure aloft was centered over Utah with a ridge axis through eastern Montana and central Canada. Meanwhile, a low pressure center was located near the north­ ern tip of Vancouver Island with a trough off the Washington and Oregon coasts.

The Mann Gulch area was situated between these two pressure centers, west of the high pressure ridgeline through eastern Montana and east of the upper trough. The upper trough was advancing toward the coast, pushing the high pressure ridge east. The winds at 18,000 feet msl over the fire were from the Figure 3.—Afternoon surface pressure map, August 5, 1949. southwest (parallel to the contour lines in figure 2). While the stron­ over western Idaho, with a thermal morning near the thermal trough; gest upper level winds (jet stream) trough southward through Nevada however, the air can become very were over Washington and Oregon, (indicated by the dotted line). Heat unstable during the afternoon, upper level winds over Mann Gulch lows and thermal troughs are quite resulting in gusty and shifting were on the increase. Cooler air common during the summer in winds. Strong up and downward aloft was also moving into Montana the Western United States. They drafts often result in very turbulent ahead of the upper trough. form under strong high pressure air and erratic fire behavior. The aloft due to intense heating of the Mann Gulch area was located just At the same time, the surface pres­ air near the surface. The surface to the east of the heat low during sure pattern (figure 3) indicated wind is typically light during the the time of the blowup. a low pressure system (heat low)

Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 19 The afternoon relative humidity The concept of critical fire weather patterns has pattern over the Western United States (figure 4) indicated a tongue been around for many years, but has been under­ of very dry air extending from the used in fire weather forecasting. Great Basin into the Northern Rockies (the shaded area). Within this area, surface relative humidity also be present. Drought is often ture was 97 degrees Fahrenheit ranged from 10 to 20 percent. The associated with large timber fires, and the minimum relative humid­ Mann Gulch area was located near but is not necessary for large grass ity (RH) was 16 percent. This the 15 percent contour line within fires. We will now examine how was much warmer and drier than this area. many of these elements were pres­ usual. Helena averages 85 degrees ent during the Mann Gulch blowup. Fahrenheit and a minimum rela­ Thus, at about the time of the tive humidity of 30 percent in early Mann Gulch Fire blowup and the Low Atmospheric August. The 16 percent RH corre­ resulting entrapment of the smoke- Moisture lates well with the tongue of dry air jumpers, the weather pattern at the over the Great Basin and northern fire site was dominated by an upper Dry air in the lower levels of the Rockies displayed earlier. level ridge of high pressure, a sur­ atmosphere (i.e., low relative face heat low (or thermal trough), humidity) significantly lowers the Conclusion and very dry air near the surface. moisture content of fuels, making them easier to ignite and carry fire. Low atmospheric moisture was a Low relative humidity also increas­ critical element in the blowup of Critical Weather the Mann Gulch Fire. Elements es the probability of spotting. There are four critical weather Figure 5 graphs the daily maximum Strong Wind elements common to large and temperature and minimum relative Extreme burning conditions have destructive wildland fires: low humidity at Helena during August. been associated with strong frontal, atmospheric moisture/relative On August 5, the high tempera­ thunderstorm, and foehn winds. humidity, strong wind, unstable air, and drought. Low relative humidity (regional values can vary between 15 and 40 percent depending upon fuel model) must always be present for the development of large and intense wildland fires. In addition to low relative humidity, either strong wind or unstable air must

Figure 4.—Afternoon RH map, Figure 5.—Helena, MT, August 1949 temperature and RH. August 5, 1949.

Fire Management Today 20 Wind affects wildland fires in a At about 5:00 p.m., Canyon Ferry on the lee (north) side of the ridge number of ways. Wind: (1) sup­ District Ranger Robert Jansson due to southerly winds down the plies additional oxygen to the fire, reached the mouth of Mann Gulch Missouri River that caused the fire increasing fire intensity; (2) pre­ by boat and attempted to walk up to spot on the north side. In order heats the fuels ahead of the fire; the gulch to reach the smokejump­ to determine which theory is the and (3) increases rate of spread by ers. He estimated the wind at Mann more plausible, the Great Falls, carrying heat and burning embers Gulch to be between 20 and 30 MT, upper air (radiosonde) wind, to new fuels. Strong wind produces mph with gusts to 40 mph. Because temperature, and dew point data wind-driven fires. of the orientation of the canyons were evaluated to determine the and ridges, a strong southerly wind cause of the strong wind observed The wind at Helena was reported created extreme turbulence at the at Mann Gulch. To accomplish at 5 to 8 miles per hour (mph) mouth of Mann Gulch, produc­ this, two relatively new analysis during the morning. At noon, the ing strong winds that blew up the programs were used: ANALYZE wind increased to 15 mph, the gulch (from the southwest) toward (Werth J.A. and Horton 1991) and temperature jumped from 81 to 91 the smokejumpers (Rothermel WINDEX (McCain 1994). Figure 6 degrees, and the relative humid­ 1993). Two fire weather stations in displays the August 5, 1949, verti­ ity dropped from 40 percent to 24 the vicinity also reported strong cal wind profile near Mann Gulch percent. The morning surface-based wind at 5:00 p.m.—Canyon Ferry at 8:00 a.m. and 8:00 p.m. The inversion had broken and cumu­ Ranger Station at 16 mph and 8:00 a.m. profile showed increasing lus clouds started to form. Then Hogback at 15 mph. wind aloft (south to southwesterly at 3:30 p.m., the wind switched to in direction) with a speed maxi­ the south and increased to 24 mph. Over the years, there have been mum of 30+ mph at 15,000 feet Cumulonimbus clouds (CBs) and conflicting theories as to what msl, or about 10,000 feet above virga were visible to the west and caused the fire to move from the the elevation of Mann Gulch. This south of Helena. Although no thun­ ridge on the south side of Mann is much stronger than the usual derstorms or distant lightning were Gulch to the mouth of the gulch upper level summer wind in the reported at Helena that afternoon, and then to the north side. One northern Rockies. At 8:00 p.m., CBs and strong, gusty southerly explanation may be that thunder­ the strongest wind (20+ mph) had winds at 14 to 32 mph continued storm downdrafts caused the fire descended (or surfaced) to the same the remainder of the afternoon to spot across the gulch. The other elevation as Mann Gulch and the and evening. Eyewitness accounts theory is that fire whirls developed vertical profile showed decreasing of smoke drift at the Mann Gulch fire suggests a wind shift to strong southerly winds occurred between 4:15 and 4:50 p.m. This is consis­ tent with the wind shift at Helena due to cumulonimbus downdraft and outflow winds. The upper level wind speed and direction would have moved the CBs at Helena into the Mann Gulch area at about 4:30 p.m., causing the sudden increase in wind speed and a shift in direc­ tion from the south rather than the southwest. The wind at Helena con­ tinued to blow strongly from the south at 14 to 22 mph throughout the remainder of the afternoon and evening and this was most likely the case at Mann Gulch.

Figure 6.—Great Falls, MT, August 5, 1949, wind profile.

Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 21 wind aloft. Byram (1954) described Critical elements in the blowup of the Mann this profile of strong surface wind with decreasing wind speed aloft Gulch Fire: as one of the most dangerous for • Low atmospheric moisture blowup fires. The strong upper level • Unstable air winds over the fire area during the • Strong wind morning surfaced later that day due • Drought (may or may not have been) to very unstable air mixing these winds downward to the surface. Southerly winds at 20 mph would have produced eddy winds and increases combustion by supply­ It combines the stability and dry­ fire whirls strong enough to cause ing more oxygen to the fire. It also ness of the lower atmosphere into the spot fires north of the gulch. enhances the vertical growth of an index that correlates well with However, this isn’t the complete the smoke column. As the height large fire growth. The Index ranges story. ANALYZE and WINDEX also and strength of the smoke column between 2 and 6. Values of 2 and indicate the airmass over Mann increases, the potential for gusty 3 are indicative of moist, stable Gulch was unstable enough for surface winds, dust devils, and fire air. Values of 5 and 6 indicate dry, convection and the formation of whirls also increases. Spotting unstable air. The calculated high CBs and possible thunderstorms may become profuse all around a elevation Haines Index for the with a downdraft/outflow potential fire as large firebrands are lifted Mann Gulch Fire, using the Great of 40 to 50 mph. Although neither in the smoke column. Unstable air Falls 8:00 a.m. and 8:00 p.m. 700 Helena nor eyewitness accounts increases the probability of plume- and 500 millibars temperature and from Mann Gulch mentioned dominated fires. dew point data, was a solid 5 and thunderstorms when describing a borderline 6. The Haines Index the weather that day, Helena did There are many indications that climatology for Great Falls (Werth report CBs and downdraft winds of the air over Mann Gulch was very and Werth 1997) indicates a Haines up to 32 mph from mid-afternoon unstable that afternoon. One of the Index of 6 occurs only 2 percent of through early evening. Thus, it surviving smokejumpers recalled the days in August. Thus, a Haines is also likely that Mann Gulch that, on the flight to Mann Gulch, Index this high is relatively rare. All received strong downdraft winds “The air was so turbulent that we indications point to a very unstable from CBs in addition to the surfac­ were all half sick and were trying to and dry airmass over Mann Gulch ing of strong upper level winds. be in the stick to jump and get on that day. So, both theories are correct. The the ground.” (MacLean 1992). The strong wind that caused the fire to DC-3 aircraft encountered heavy Conclusion spot across Mann Gulch and over­ turbulence over Mann Gulch and Unstable air was a critical element run the smokejumpers was the had to climb to a higher-than-usual in the blowup of the Mann Gulch result of both strong surfacing wind altitude to drop the cargo. Ranger Fire. and convective downdraft/outflow Jansson also reported seeing a wind. In any event, the topography number of vortices at the lower Drought of the area resulted in strong eddy end of Mann Gulch at about the winds and fire whirls at the mouth same time the fire spotted across Drought affects fuel availability by of Mann Gulch. to the north side of the gulch. At lowering the moisture content of 6:00 p.m., and at a distance farther both live and dead fuels, making Conclusion from the fire, Jansson described the them more combustible. Drought smoke column as, “One big whirl conditions are NOT a prerequi­ Strong wind was a critical element and one little whirl side by side. site for fires to occur and spread, in the Mann Gulch Fire blowup. The little whirl came right off the but there is a close relationship big whirl.” (Mann Gulch Fire Board between drought conditions, large Unstable Air of Review 1949). wildland fires, and extremely dif­ Unstable air enhances vertical ficult fire suppression. The Palmer motion in the atmosphere. As with The Haines Index (Haines 1988) is Drought Index (PDSI) has been wind, upward movement of air another indicator of unstable air. extensively used to measure

Fire Management Today 22 drought throughout the United Gulch area. However, the adjacent but July was much drier. Thus, States. Although primarily devel­ climate zone to the north indicated while the long-term PDSI did not oped for agricultural use, the PDSI extreme drought. indicate drought in this part of is also a good indicator of fire Montana, short-term dryness was a season severity, especially in forest Figure 8 displays Helena’s pre­ factor. fuels. cipitation from November 1948 through July 1949. Helena received Conclusion Figure 7 displays the August 1949 above normal precipitation dur­ Drought may or may not have been PDSI by climate zone. While most ing the winter months (November a critical element in the blowup of of eastern Montana was in severe to through February). April was drier the Mann Gulch Fire. extreme drought, near normal con­ than usual, but May was again wet. ditions were indicated for the Mann June was a little drier than normal, In summary, at least three of four critical weather elements (low relative humidity, unstable air and strong wind) were present during the Mann Gulch Fire.

Critical Fire Weather Pattern Let me define “critical fire weather pattern” one more time. It occurs when atmospheric conditions encourage extreme fire behavior resulting in large and destructive wildland fires. In this section, we will determine which, if any, criti­ cal fire weather pattern significant­ ly contributed to the Mann Gulch blowup.

The concept of critical fire weather Figure 7.—Palmer Drought Severity Index, August 1949. patterns has been around for many years, but has been under-used in fire weather forecasting. While individual weather elements are highlighted in fire weather fore­ casts, they are seldom tied to cycli­ cal large-scale atmospheric patterns that continually change on a daily and seasonal basis.

The first publication concerning critical fire weather patterns was “Synoptic Weather Types Associated with Critical Fire Weather” by Schroeder et al. (1964). This study covered the lower 48 States and concluded that “periods of critical fire weather are associated with relatively few weather patterns.” Figure 8.—Helena, MT, November 1948 through July 1949 precipitation.

Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 23 “Predicting Major Wildland hot temperatures, very low relative References Fire Occurrence” by Brotak and humidity, unstable air, strong gusty Brotak, E.A.; Reifsnyder, W.E. 1977. Reifsnyder (1977) detailed the rela­ wind, and possible dry lightning. Predicting major wildland fire occur­ tionship of Central and Eastern Any one of these weather elements rence. Fire Management Notes. 38: 5-8. United States wildland fires to sur­ can cause fire problems but, when Byram, G.M. 1954. Atmospheric condi­ tions related to blowup fires. Sta. Pap. face frontal systems and upper level combined, can frequently produce 35. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of troughs and ridges. large and destructive fires. Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeast Forest Experiment Station. 34 p. Haines, D.A. 1988. A lower atmospheric “Wildfire Behavior Associated with The reconstructed upper level and severity index for wildland fire. National the Upper Ridge Breakdown” by surface weather maps for Mann Weather Digest. 13: 23-27. Nimchuk (1983) documents the Gulch on August 5, 1949, are mark­ Mann Gulch Fire Board of Review, September 26–28, 1949. Washington, relationship of the breakdown of edly similar to those shown for the DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, an upper level ridge to extreme “Breakdown of the Upper Ridge” Forest Service fire behavior conditions in Western critical fire weather pattern. The MacLean, N. 1992. Young men and fire. The Canada. weather elements described by sur­ University of Chicago Press. 301 p. McCann, D.W. 1994. WINDEX–A new index vivors of the burnover and other for forecasting microburst potential. Figure 9 illustrates a critical fire firefighters in the vicinity are con­ Weather and Forecasting. Vol. 9. 10 p. weather pattern: Breakdown of the sistent with this pattern. Nimchuk, N. 1983. Wildfire behavior associ­ ated with upper ridge breakdown. Report Upper Ridge (Werth and Ochoa No. T/50. Edmonton, AB: Alberta Energy 1990). There are three defining Thus, based on eyewitness accounts and Natural Resources, Forest Service. factors of this pattern: an upper and the reconstructed weather pat­ 45 p. Rothermel, R.C. 1993. Mann Gulch Fire: level ridge at 500 millibars moving tern of the day, we can conclude a race that couldn’t be won. Gen. off to the east, a surface thermal with a high level of confidence that Tech. Rep. INT-299. Ogden, UT: U.S. trough (or surface low) on the west a “Breakdown of the Upper Ridge” Department of Agriculture, Forest side of the upper ridge, and dry critical fire weather pattern sig­ Service, Intermountain Research Station. 10 p. air. The highest risk of explosive nificantly contributed to the Mann Schroeder, M.J.; Glovinsky, M.; and fire behavior occurs when these Gulch Fire blowup. Hendricks, V. 1964. Synoptic weather factors converge. This summer patterns associated with critical fire weather. Contract OCD-05-62-143. weather pattern typically produces Summary Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Thirteen firefighters tragically per­ Southwest Forest and Range Experiment ished on August 5, 1949, shortly Station. after the initial attack on the Werth, JA; Werth, PA 1997. Haines index climatology for the western United Mann Gulch Fire, 20 miles north- States. Salt Lake City, UT: National northeast of Helena, MT. Twelve Weather Service, Western Region. of the fatalities were members Technical Attachment No. 97. 17 p. of a group of 15 smokejumpers. Werth, J.A.; Horton, A. 1991. ANALYZE. Salt Lake City, UT: National Weather Prior to jumping the fire, one of Service, Western Region. Programming the survivors and the jump spotter Note No. 91. stated that the fire was relatively Werth, P.A.; Ochoa, R. 1990. The evalua­ tion of Idaho wildfire growth using the quiet and wasn’t burning much. haines index and water vapor imagery. Yet only 2 hours later, with little In: Proceedings of the Fifth Conference warning, extreme fire behavior of Mountain Meteorology. Boulder, CO: developed, trapping and overrun­ American Meteorological Society. 223– 234. 12 p.  ning the firefighters. Little did they know that their destiny was tied to Figure 9.—Idealized “Breakdown of the a critical fire weather pattern: the Upper Ridge” pattern. “Breakdown of the Upper Ridge.”

Fire Management Today 24 CharaCterizinG WilDFire hazarD anD risk in Mountain Pine beetle-aFFeCteD stanDs anD hoW to iDentiFy those CharaCteristiCs at the lanDsCaPe-sCale Robert W. Gray

he suddenness, intensity, and pine beetle affected stands and acteristic is surface fuels, especially extent of the mountain pine bee­ how do we assess risk and hazard heavy loading of large fuels. This Ttle (MPB) epidemic in Western across broad landscapes. First, the leads to a generalized model of risk North America has left fire research­ characteristics of the fuelbed are and hazard associated with three ers scrambling to determine if and key to identifying potential wildfire broad stand types that are a prod­ when this new fuelbed will become hazard and risk. From there we uct of previous disturbance agents an issue for fire managers to deal can then describe how a number and processes: (a) mature, single- with. The transformation of fuels of processes may be responsible for storied stands of lodgepole pine resulting from the mountain pine with low accumulations of surface beetle epidemic is unprecedented in fuels; (b) mature, single-storied its large geographic extent and the The transformation of stands of lodgepole pine with high rapid pace of the transformation. accumulations of surface fuel; and The epidemic is estimated to have fuels resulting from the (c) mature, multistoried stands of affected more than 18 million hect­ mountain pine beetle mixed-conifers with high accumu­ ares of forest in British Columbia (MPB) epidemic is lations of surface fuels. and Alberta, Canada, and 2 million unprecedented in its hectares of forest in five States in large geographic extent Efforts to characterize and map the United States. Confounding the stands based on surface fuel condi­ issue for managers is the lack of and the rapid pace of tions are difficult absent a large- consensus within the fire manage­ the transformation. scale fuel inventory effort using ment and academic communities This paper describes a either field crews or Lidar tech­ on what constitutes risk and hazard proposed fire risk and nology. In place of a physical or in beetle-affected stands. In this remote- sensing-based inventory paper, risk is defined as fire start hazard characterization and characterization system, we and spread, while hazard is defined system, as well as could rely on a proxy such as ante­ as the consequence, in the form of methodology for locating cedent disturbance. increasing fire intensity and severity. certain stand types on the landscape. Stand Type 1: Mature This leads to two main issues: how Single-Storied Stands do we describe wildfire risk and of Lodgepole Pine With hazard in the context of mountain producing those characteristics, Low Accumulations of and how we might use that knowl­ Surface Fuels Robert W. Gray is a fire ecologist and the president of R.W. Gray Consulting, Ltd., in edge to identify fuel characteristics This stand type is comprised of British Columbia, Canada. He has more at the landscape-scale. The guiding almost pure stands of mature than 30 years of experience in the research hypothesis is that fuelbed charac­ and application of many facets of fire lodgepole pine (may contain small science, including fire regime reconstruc­ teristics associated with the ante­ proportions of spruce, subalpine tion, wildfire risk and hazard assessment, cedent stand and the disturbances fir, or Douglas-fir) with a very light international fire management policy, and it experienced exert a significant hazardous fuel management. Gray has loading of surface fuels. Aerial served as a fire ecologist at the San Carlos influence on post-MPB wildfire risk fuels are characterized by moder­ Apache Tribe and a forest technician with and hazard. The key fuelbed char­ ate to heavy loading of foliage and the Forest Service.

Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 25 fine branches, moderate to high Fire managers need tools to enable them to canopy bulk density, and a signifi­ cant canopy base height separat­ identify and prioritize the most hazardous stands ing surface fuels from aerial fuels. within their jurisdictions and begin the process of Surface fuels consist of compacted treating them. short-needle pine litter, moss, and minor amounts of scattered woody fuels (figure 1a). Fire risk and stage, the risk of canopy ignition (figure 1c). Over time, as the dead hazard, pre-beetle attack, is low in is high leading to a high hazard overstory decays and falls to the this type due to stand and fuelbed of independent crown fire. Active surface, both hazard and risk are conditions, resulting in a poor fire crown fire runs in this type are high. The surface fuelbed is charac­ environment: general lack of heavy difficult without the sustained terized by a heavy loading of mostly surface fuels; canopy closure that input of high-intensity surface fire elevated and air-dryed lodgepole shades fuels, suppresses the growth (figure 1b). Immediately after the pine, mixed in with grasses, forbs, of herbaceous fuels, and holds in red needles fall, the risk of surface shrubs, and regenerating conifers. surface and ground moisture; and ignition increases due to increased Surface fuels dry out sooner in the a stand density that greatly reduces solar radiation at the surface dry­ summer due to a lack of canopy wind speed below the canopy. ing fuels, coupled with a moderate and wind friction. This stage could to high loading of fine surface fuels persist for several decades until a Following attack by the MPB, dur­ (grasses, forbs, and shrubs respond­ new forest canopy covers the sur­ ing what has been described as ing to the decreased canopy cover) face fuelbed suppressing the growth the “red attack” phase, lodgepole and a significant reduction in wind of fine surface fuels and increasing pine canopies are highly flam­ friction. Fire hazard, however, at the decomposition of heavy fuels mable even under conditions of this stage of fuelbed transformation (figure 1d). high relative humidity. During this is low due to the lack of heavy fuels Stand Type 2: Mature Single-Storied Stands of Lodgepole Pine With High Accumulations of Surface Fuels This stand type differs from Type 1 in that it contains a high accumu­ lation of surface fuels, especially large fuels, prior to the current pine beetle epidemic. In the pre­ attack phase (figure 2a), the stand contaisns a high loading of large surface fuels. A fine fuel layer of herbaceous material may or may not be present depending on cano­ py conditions. Fire risk is relatively low due to canopy cover, but fire hazard is high due to the pres­ ence of elevated, dried large fuels. During the red attack phase (figure 2b), fire risk and hazard are both high as the dead foliage is highly flammable and there are abundant Figure 1.—Wildfire risk and hazard for various stages of fuel succession before and after heavy surface fuels. a beetle epidemic in mature, single-storied lodgepole pine stands with low accumulations of large fuels.

Fire Management Today 26 The immediate post-red attack stand (figure 2c) and the same stand 10 to 15 years later (figure 2d) both exhibit high fire risk and fire hazard. With the loss of the forest canopy understory, plants get established resulting in a fine fuel layer that aids in fire ignition and rapid spread. These two phases are also characterized by increased solar radiation hitting the forest floor, decreased large fuel moisture, and decreased wind friction. Fires in these forest types are easily ignit­ ed, spread fast, and exhibit high fire intensity and severity.

Mitigating these conditions takes a long time, especially on dry sites. A closed forest canopy is once again needed to suppress the fine fuel layer, increase surface fuel mois­ ture, and increase the decomposi­ Figure 2.—Wildfire risk and hazard for various stages of fuel succession before and after tion of large fuels. a beetle epidemic in mature, single-storied lodgepole pine stands with high accumulations of large fuels. Stand Type 3: Mature Multistoried Stands of Mixed Conifers With High Accumulations of Surface Fuels This stand type also contains a high pre-epidemic loading of heavy fuels and a well developed herbaceous fuel complex. Fire risk and hazard are high in the pre-attack stage (figure 3a) due to the surface fuel complex combined with an open canopy. As the beetle epidemic pro­ gresses through the stand, the con­ ditions of risk and hazard do not change. The canopy becomes more flammable during the red attack stage (figure 3b) but conditions are already quite volatile. As the dead lodgepole pine loses its needles, the surface fuels are exposed to more direct sunlight and wind resulting in more herbaceous growth and drier large fuels (figure 3c). A sub- Figure 3.—Wildfire risk and hazard for various stages of fuel succession before and after a beetle epidemic in mature, multistoried stands of mixed conifers with high accumulations canopy of shade-tolerant conifers, of large fuels.

Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 27 most notably Douglas-fir and grand fir, becomes established and gener­ ates a ladder fuel component to the fuelbed. A decade or more out from the current epidemic and surface fuel loading has increased substan­ tially as has the density of regener­ ating conifers (figure 3d). This con­ dition of high risk and hazard can persist until the canopy closes and surface fuels decompose. This stand type is associated with lower eleva­ tion mixed conifer forests where lodgepole pine is a minor, but still critical, stand component.

How Do We Identify These General Stand Types on the Broader Figure 4.—This image is of a mature, single-storied stand of lodgepole pine with a very Landscape? low loading of large surface fuels. The 2006 Tripod Fire in central Washington State ran Characterizing the potential risk into this stand and stopped due to a lack of surface fuels. Evidence of the antecedent stand and disturbance pattern is found in the widely scattered remnant charred stumps and hazard of these broad stand and logs. types is not very useful to fire man­ agers if they can’t identify where fires in fire history data bases can North America. This mortality, they are on the landscape. The fol­ also reveal the presence of this coupled with forest inventory, pro­ lowing is a potential process for stand type (figure 4). vides us with two key GIS datasets identifying where these stand types that can enable us to predict where are located based on a Geographic Stand type 2, with its high loading this stand type is located. Federal Information Systems (GIS) exercise of large surface fuels, is a product land management agencies in both using antecedent fire history and of both stand dynamics and ante­ countries have carried out insect forest inventory data. Stand type 1, cedent disturbance. Overly dense damage surveys for a number of with its low volume of large surface lodgepole pine stands will often go decades. These agencies, and their fuels, can often be the product of a through a process of “self-thinning” provincial and State counterparts, reburn occurring within a decade that can result in a large input of have also conducted regular for­ or two of a previous fire. Multiple heavy surface fuels. Unfortunately, est inventories. Pre-1980s forest back-to-back fires, with the first fire there is no easy way to predict inventory will provide an estimate killing the stand and the second fire where this activity has occurred. of lodgepole pine volume or stand consuming most of the dead and We can, however, with some gen­ density by polygon. The 1980s downed material, would produce eral GIS datasets, predict where forest insect surveys will identify this type of lodgepole pine stand. this stand type is located if the fuel which polygons have been infested, Across the landscape of the West, characteristics are the product of while the post-1980s forest inven­ this stand type is commonly associ­ past insect epidemics or wildfire. tory will reveal what proportion of ated with 19th and 20th century The current MPB epidemic was lodgepole pine was affected (chang­ railroad and mining activity. For preceded by a number of previ­ es in stand density or volume). We example, large areas of lodgepole ous epidemics; the most notable know from snag fall rate studies pine forest in the Canadian Rockies of which occurred in the 1980s. and the many “shelf-life” studies were affected by back–to–back rail­ This particular epidemic, while not carried out in British Columbia road fires at the turn of the century as intense as the current one, did that the majority of those trees that produced single-storied pine result in large amounts of lodge­ killed in the 1980s epidemic are stands with very little in the way pole pine mortality across Western no longer standing. Beyond a cer­ of large surface fuels. Overlapping

Fire Management Today 28 tain minimum threshold of stand For example, if the antecedent dis­ In summary, the current MPB epi­ density or volume change between turbance occurred more than 100 demic is creating a wildfire risk and pre- and post-1980s lodgepole pine years ago and the decomposition hazard situation across the West inventory, we can conclude that the rate is high, chances are that those that is unprecedented. Fire manag­ current stand contains a large load­ fuels are no longer an issue. If the ers need tools to enable them to ing of large surface fuels. antecedent disturbance occurred identify and prioritize the most 50 years ago and the decomposition hazardous stands within their juris­ This stand type can also originate rate is slow, chances are that those dictions and begin the process of due to past wildfires, with the cur­ fuels are still an issue. Identifying treating them. This paper describes rent lodgepole pine stand growing stand type 3 follows a very similar a proposed fire risk and hazard up through a forest of dead pine. In process as used to identify stand characterization system, as well as this case, the prediction is that the type 2. In this exercise, it is the methodology for locating certain large fuel hazard is a function of proportion of lodgepole pine in stand types on the landscape.  time since the last wildfire and the mixed-species stands between the general decomposition rate associ­ pre-1980s forest inventory and the ated with that particular ecosystem. post-1980s inventory.

Success Stories Wanted! We’d like to know how your work has been going! Provide us with your success stories within the State fire program or from your individual fire department. Let us know how the State Fire Assistance (SFA), Volun­ teer Fire Assistance (VFA), the Federal Excess Personal Property (FEPP) program, or the Firefighter Property (FFP) program has benefited your agency. Feature articles should be up to about 2,000 words in length; short items of up to 200 words.

Submit articles and photographs as electronic files by email or through traditional or express mail to:

Melissa Frey USDA Forest Service Fire and Aviation Management 1400 Independence Ave., SW Mailstop 1107 Washington, DC 20250

Tel. 202-205-1090 E-mail: [email protected]

If you have any questions about your submission, you can contact one of the FMT staff at the email address above or by calling 202-205-1090.

Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 29 eatinG For health anD PerForManCe: the Wildland FireFighter A Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development Center Brochure

his Forest Service brochure, originally printed in 2006, will Thelp firefighters balance food intake with energy demands before, during, and after the fire season. Copies of the brochure (number 0651-2833P-MTDC) can be down­ loaded at .

Part I . Energy for Work: Calories Firefighting is a physically demand­ ing occupation that may require 6,000 calories (kilocalories) per day. Firefighters who do not con­ sume enough calories will become fatigued and will lose body weight and muscle. Consuming too few Heli drop foods on Little Bear Fire, photo by Kari Greer calories over the weeks and months of a busy fire season can impair immune function and lead to ill­ ness. This is not the time to lose Firefighters who do not consume enough weight. Firefighters should check calories will become fatigued and will lose their weight every 2 weeks to moni­ body weight and muscle. tor their energy balance. The best time to weigh is in the morning before breakfast (but after urina­ food we eat can be used to produce The following example shows tion). Energy (calories) comes from blood glucose. If the body does how to calculate the carbohydrate carbohydrate, fat, and protein. not receive enough carbohydrates requirement for a 154-pound fire­ through the diet, it will make glu­ fighter: Carbohydrate cose from muscle protein, a poor Carbohydrates are converted to alternative because the muscle pro­ Weight (in pounds) 154/(2.2 glucose and stored in the liver and tein is needed for the work at hand. pounds/kilogram) = 70 (weight in muscles as glycogen (branched kilograms) chains of glucose molecules). Carbohydrate Requirements Muscle glycogen fuels the muscles High levels of continuous physical Moderate Work—5 to 7 grams of during work; liver glycogen main­ activity, such as digging fireline for carbohydrate/kilogram/day x 70 tains blood glucose, the primary hours, increase the daily carbohy­ kilograms (body weight) = 350 to fuel for the brain and nervous drate requirements. Each gram of 490 grams of carbohydrate/day system. When blood glucose lev­ carbohydrate provides 4 calories of els drop due to extended physical energy. activity, carbohydrates from the

Fire Management Today 30 Hard Work—7 to 10 grams of car­ bohydrate/kilogram/day x 70 kilo­ grams (body weight) = 490 to 700 grams of carbohydrate/day

For ultraendurance activities or very hard work, such as a long, hard day on the fireline, the carbo­ hydrate requirement could be even higher.

Carbohydrate-rich foods include whole-grain products, beans, rice, corn, peas, potatoes, fruit, fruit juice, milk, yogurt, energy bars, and most sport drinks.

Food Carbohydrate content (grams) MRE, Whitewater-Baldy Complex, photo by Kari Greer

1 slice bread 12 No more than one-third of the fat 1.5 grams of protein/kilogram/day should come from saturated and x 70 kilograms (body weight) = 105 1 cup beans 48 trans fats (such as butter, lard, grams (3.7 ounces) of protein/day. 1 cup rice 37 dairy fat, and some processed 1 cup corn 41 fats—read the labels). The balance Shift Food—Eating throughout the 1 medium apple 21 of fat should come from monoun­ shift maintains blood glucose and saturated and polyunsaturated fats work output. 1 energy bar 25 (such as olive, canola, and peanut 1 cup sports drink 15 oils or from nuts such as almonds, Part II . Nutrients and 1 cup milk 12 hazelnuts, and olives). If a firefight­ Hydration 1 cup yogurt 14 to 44 er needs 4,000 calories per day for heavy work, one-quarter can come Nutrition Needs from fat (1,000 calories). Because Firefighters should determine their During work, firefighters need 40 each gram of fat has 9 calories, caloric and nutrient needs by using grams of carbohydrates each hour that’s 111 grams (4 ounces) of fat the Web site . The firefighter may energy bar may contain 25 grams of enter his or her age, gender, and carbohydrates, and 1 cup of a sports Protein level of physical activity. Although drink may contain 15 grams, for a Athletes and wildland firefighters the site will provide daily nutri­ total of 40 grams of carbohydrates. require 1.2 to 1.8 grams of pro­ tion requirements, the protein and Field studies on firefighters show tein per kilogram of body weight carbohydrate requirements under­ that eating carbohydrates improves per day, with 1.2 grams required estimate the needs of wildland work output, immune function, for moderate work and 1.8 grams firefighters, who are more physi­ blood glucose, ability to think required for prolonged hard work cally active. Additional information clearly, and mood. under adverse conditions. For is available by clicking the food this example, we will use a 154­ group. The following table illus­ Fat pound (70-kilogram) firefighter trates the requirements for light Fat should provide no more than who requires 1.5 grams of protein and arduous work. 20 to 35 percent of daily calories. each day for each kilogram of body weight.

Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 31 Firefighters do not need vitamin and mineral supplements if their diets include a variety of nutrient- rich foods and beverages and pro­ vide enough energy to maintain their body weight.

For information on vitamin and mineral needs, see Wildland Firefighter Health and Safety Report: No. 9 on the Missoula Technology and Development Center (MTDC) Web site.

Hydration Fluid requirements vary from person to person and change with environmental stress. Wildland firefighters should drink enough water throughout the day so that Wildland fire breakfast, Little Bear Fire, photo by Kari Greer they don’t lose more than 2 percent of their weight while working. The Protein in Foods U.S. Army and American College of Sports Medicine recommend drink­ Food Portion Grams of protein ing 1 liter of fluid for every hour of Almonds ¼ cup 5 hard work to maintain blood vol­ Beans ½ cup cooked 8 ume and the body’s ability to cool Beef 4 ounces 35 itself by sweating. Cheese 1 ounce 7 The work of wildland firefighting Chicken 4 ounces no skin 37 generates about 400 calories of Chili 1 cup 20 heat per hour, while the firefighter receives another 180 calories of Corn ½ cup cooked 3 heat from the environment and the Egg 1 6 fire (400 + 180 = 580 calories of Fish 4 ounces 31 heat gain/hour). Complete evapora­ Hamburger patty 4 ounces 20 tion of 1 liter of sweat will remove those 580 calories of heat. Milk 1 cup 8 Peanut butter 1 tablespoon 4 Sweat rate and fluid loss differ Pizza 1 slice 10 among individuals. Urine color is a reasonably accurate gauge of hydra­ Pork 4 ounces lean 35 tion—urine should remain pale Rice ½ cup cooked 2.5 yellow or wheat colored through­ Sunflower seeds ¼ cup 8 out the day. Daily fluctuations in Tofu 1 cup 6 to 9 weight can be monitored to track hydration (weigh in the morning Veggie burger 4 ounces 5 after urination but before eating or drinking).

Fire Management Today 32 A firefighter should consume: work help to maintain the immune function of wildland firefighters. Light work Arduous work (2,200 calories) (4,400 calories) Incident Management Teams Fruit 4 servings (2 cups) 12 servings (6 cups) Incident management team Vegetables 4 to 5 servings 8 servings (4 cups) members do less arduous work (2 to 2 ½ cups) than wildland firefighters. Their Whole Grains 6 servings 12+ servings dietary needs are based on the daily energy expenditure required Milk or yogurt 1 to 2 cups 5 cups to maintain the body mass index Meat, fish** 6 ounces 10 ounces (BMI) in the normal range (20 to *Whole grains and enriched or whole-grain products. 24.9). Nutritional needs can be **Meat, fish, or meat substitute. determined at . The BMI chart is at Hydrate before work Drink 1 to 2 cups of fluid . (1 quart/hour) Hydrate after work Drink 2 ½ cups of fluid for each pound of Weight Management weight lost When fire season is over, firefight­ ers need to eat less because their energy needs will be lower. To lose For more information on heat and Sport Drinks weight during the off season, fire­ hydration, see Wildland Firefighter Carbohydrate/electrolyte drinks fighters may: Health and Safety Report: No. 3 or (sport drinks) help maintain blood Fitness and Work Capacity (1997) glucose, work output, immune • Increase physical activity on the MTDC Web site (see page 7). function, mood, and the ability to • Decrease caloric intake by make decisions. The electrolytes – Decreasing intake of sweets Electrolytes help to maintain blood volume and fats Electrolytes are minerals (sodium and reduce loss of fluid in the – Decreasing portions of all and potassium) that are important urine. Lightly flavored sport drinks foods for nerve/muscle function, and for encourage drinking. For more • Record body weight every 2 the body’s fluid and acid/base bal­ information on sport drinks, see weeks to monitor progress. ances. Wildland Firefighter Health and Safety Report: No. 8 on the MTDC Firefighters should begin the fire To replace electrolytes lost in sweat: Web site. season physically fit with a sound nutritional base.  • Use the salt shaker at meals Part III . Related Issues • Eat salty foods (pickles, olives, Immune Function jerky) during hard work Additional copies of this docu­ • Drink carbohydrate/electrolyte Psychological stress, exhaustion, ment may be ordered from: smoke exposure, sleep depriva­ drinks (sport drinks) during hard USDA Forest Service, Missoula tion, and dehydration can degrade work Technology and immune function. A well-balanced • Drink milk at breakfast or after Development Center diet with adequate calories, meat, work 5785 Hwy. 10 West shellfish, fruits, and vegetables Missoula, MT 59808–9361 enhances immunity. Research has Phone: 406–329–3978 demonstrated that eating snacks Fax: 406–329–3719 and drinking sport drinks to pro­ E-mail: [email protected] vide extra carbohydrates during

Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 33 leaDershiP DeveloPMent For WilDlanD Fire ManaGeMent William Ott

Introduction and the Forest Service is the largest available critical firefighters” Background organization within the USDA (USDA OIG 2010). The intent of (GAO 2009). More than half of the the research project was to review eadership is considered the leadership for this workforce will successful leadership programs most essential element in deter­ be eligible to retire by 2014 (USDA and compare programs with the Lmining the success or failure OIG 2010). In 2010, the USDA OIG Forest Service firefighter LDP to of institutions (Vecchio, 2008). found that the Forest Service “... determine if the Forest Service LDP Organizations need effective lead­ has not taken the necessary steps was current and adequate to meet ers to assist their employees in to ensure it has a sufficient number projected leadership needs. The attaining goals and objectives. To of qualified staff to meet its future findings from this study served as a do so, many organizations invest framework for recommendations to heavily in the development of lead­ the Forest Service. ers (Robbins and Coulter, 2007). As senior firefighter The Forest Service expends nearly Theoretical Framework 50 percent of its budget on wild­ leadership continues fire management activities and to retire, there are an The study is based on Lewin’s Field invested $29.5 million in 2005 in insufficient number of Theory of Social Science (Spector firefighter training and leadership 2010). Within this framework, development, according to the U.S. individuals to assume organizations are considered as Department of Agriculture, Office fireline leadership open systems and are in a constant of Inspector General (USDA OIG) positions. interactive state with external and (2010). The purpose of this study internal environmental forces. The was to identify successful leadership change process model includes unfreezing how an organization development programs (LDP) and wildland fire management respon­ compare these programs’ activities operates (including establishing sibilities.” In 2009, approximately the need for change), changing to the Forest Service program to 26 percent of critical firefighter determine if the Forest Service LDP or moving how the organization leadership personnel were eligible operates (e.g., new behaviors), is adequate to meet current and to retire. The rate is expected to future (5 to 10 years) needs. and refreezing the changes into increase to 64 percent by 2014 and the organization’s operations 86 percent by 2019 (USDA OIG Problem Statement (e.g., integration of new behaviors 2010). As senior firefighter leader­ into organizational relationships) The Forest Service is a Federal land ship continues to retire, there are (Palmer, Dunford, and Akin 2009). management agency responsible an insufficient number of individu­ The diagnostic step falls within for managing 193 million acres of als to assume fireline leadership the first stage of unfreezing and national forests and grasslands and positions. involves learning how an organi­ protects an additional 20 million zation is functioning. Diagnosis acres of adjacent State and private The Forest Service estimates that identifies gaps between actual and property. According to the U.S. 40 percent of employees who take desired organizational performance Government Accountability Office fire training never follow through (Mohrman and Cummings 1989). (GAO), at about 30,000 employees, to qualify for a firefighter position, Therefore, diagnosis has been used representing a potential waste of in this study and involved acquir­ William A.R. Ott is the deputy director of $12 million annually (USDA OIG ing relevant data and information, Safety, Fire, and Aviation Management and 2010). This is a problem because the acting deputy director of Cooperative conducting analysis, and drawing the Forest Service finds itself “… conclusions about organizational Forestry and Tribal Relations in the Forest fighting larger fires with fewer Service, Rocky Mountain Region. design and performance.

Fire Management Today 34 This research project draws upon For training delivery, the Forest Service uses Lewin’s change model by consid­ ering the driving forces that may its own agency professionals as subject matter indicate a need for change from the experts to serve as both developers of curricula status quo (Robbins and Coulter as well as instructors. 2007). Additionally, this research project draws upon work done by Mohrman and Cummings (1989) in dedicated fire positions may be ronment (Mohrman and Cummings on a self-design strategy that “… required to qualify for firefighting 1989). is a process for changing the orga­ positions, Forest Service employ­ nizational design components to ees in nonfire positions must achieve high performance.” Topic and Problem volunteer to do so if they choose Information to participate in firefighting activi­ Research Design ties. Identifying whether employees Leadership development of Forest Service personnel for firefighter The study utilized quantitative belong to fire staff or to the gen­ leadership is elusive in terms of measures to identify successful eral employee population that may efficiency and effectiveness. Data LDPs for subsequent comparison be involved in firefighting allows underscoring this as a problem of their best practices with Forest the Forest Service to forecast its include: Service practices. The method­ replacement needs due to manda­ ology involved diagnosing the tory retirement (USDA OIG 2010). 1. There are more than 300 dif­ functionality of the Forest Service ferent Forest Service firefighter LDP. Diagnosis involved acquir­ Lewin’s Change Process Model. qualifications and 54 positions ing relevant data, analyzing it, and The three-stage model for how considered critical leadership drawing conclusions about organi­ change occurs includes (1) unfreez­ positions. Of the 24,000 Forest zational design and performance. ing or establishing the need for Service employees holding at Additionally, we examined a quali­ change, (2) moving to a new way of least 1 qualification, more than tative review of best practices of behavior and operations (typically 4,300 are also qualified for criti­ other organizations for the purpose involves restructuring of organi­ cal leadership positions (USDA of comparison with Forest Service zations), and (3) refreezing and OIG 2010). In 2009, 26 percent LDP practices. integrating changes into operations (including behaviors into social of incumbents of these posi­ tions were eligible to retire. Forest Service and organizational relationships) (Palmer, Dunford, and Akin 2009). This rate is expected to increase Established in 1905, the Forest The model views organizations as to 64 percent in 5 years and 86 Service manages and protects 193 percent in 10 years (USDA OIG). openhas notsystems developed designed a national to achieve workforce plan to ensure that personnel with critical firefighting million acres of national forests and Refer to figure 1. specificqualifications goals within will continue a given to envibe available­ to meet FS’ firefighting needs. grasslands and protects an addi­ tional 20 million acres of adjacent State and private property (USDA OIG 2010). The Forest Service fields over 10,000 firefighters each fire season and provides training and development of leadership posi­ tions for this workforce (USDA OIG 2010).

Definition of Terms Retirement. Many firefighters face mandatory retirement at 57 years of age, while other Forest Service employees do not have manda­ Figure 1.—Retirement projections of Forest Service firefighters 9 tory retirement. While employees Note: Adapted from USDA Chart ShowingOIG 2010. Retirement Projections for FS’ Firefighters Internal and external reports have long recognized FS’ need for firefighter workforce planning to Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 maintain its wildfire response capability.10 In 2000, for example, an FS fire report warned: 35 A very serious problem is developing. Fires have become more difficult to control and the overall wildland fire suppression capability has decreased. During heavy fire seasons, there are simply not enough critical resources to meet demand. This combined with an aging workforce and a fire management cadre that is smaller and less experienced than in the past puts the agency at a critical juncture.11

The 2000 report urged FS to address its diminished wildland fire suppression capability immediately. Over 10 years later, FS still has not taken sufficient actions to ensure it has the firefighters needed to accomplish its wildfire suppression mission.

While FS has not conducted national workforce planning for firefighters, the agency has developed an overall workforce plan. The overall plan focuses on FS’ primary job occupations (e.g., GS-401 General Biologist and GS-810 Civil Engineer) but does not address its critical firefighter positions (e.g., incident commanders and logistics section chiefs). FS officials believed workforce plans based on employee job series met the organization’s succession planning needs and that creating an agency-wide plan specific to firefighters was unnecessary. However, FS personnel typically become qualified to hold firefighter positions based on extra

9 The retirement rates represent the cumulative effect of FS’ critical firefighters eligible to retire between 2009 and 2019. 10 Policy Implications of Large Fire Management: A Strategic Assessment of Factors Influencing Costs, prepared by Forest Service State & Private Forestry (January 2000); Federal Wildfire Activities: Current Strategies and Issues Needing Attention, U.S. General Accounting Office (August 1999); and Quadrennial Fire and Fuel Review Report, prepared by various Federal fire management task groups (June 2005). 11 Policy Implications of Large Fire Management: A Strategic Assessment of Factors Influencing Costs, prepared by Forest Service State & Private Forestry (January 2000). Audit Report 08601-54-SF 9 2. The current firefighter LDP Service 2007) of the organization. lected additional qualitative data relies on voluntary participation Declining firefighter leadership is about the LDPs of high-performing, (refer to figure 3) and this “… a problem for the Forest Service benchmark organizations for com­ model cannot be sustained due because it is finding it increasingly parison and to uncover opportuni­ to a lack of sufficient incentives difficult to meet its strategic objec­ ties (e.g., best practices) for resolv­ and accountability measures” tive of suppressing wildfires effi­ ing any systemic issues within (National Wildfire Coordinating ciently and effectively (USDA Forest the Forest Service program. For Group 2011). Service 2007). selected comparison (benchmark) 3. Forest Service participation and organizations, we used respective graduation rates from the upper Methodology corporate Web sites to identify best command and general (C and G) practices for LDPs. Benchmark The intent of this study was to staff training program are insuf­ organizations included the Internal identify successful LDPs and com­ ficient to provide for leadership Revenue Service (IRS), U.S. Navy, pare these programs’ activities positions, now and into the General Electric (GE), Motorola, to the Forest Service program to future (USDA OIG 2010). Refer and Federal Express (FedEx). determine if the Forest Service to figure 4. LDP was adequate for meeting cur­ 4. The Forest Service LDP relies rent and future needs. The findings Steps in Finding and on voluntary participation, from this study served as a founda­ Evaluating Information which may not coincide with tion for recommendations to the agency needs. Thus, there is Mohrman and Cummings (1989) Forest Service. This research proj­ no system in place for ensur­ describe “laying a foundation” as ect followed a standard approach ing that the training invest­ a means by which organizations to applied research (Clark and ment ($29.5 million in 2005) prepare themselves for change from Creswell 2010). This chapter out­ will yield adequate replacement the status quo. Initial (founda­ lines the methodology used to of incumbents retiring from tional) steps included investigating locate, organize, and review data leadership positions (USDA the basic principles, structures, and information. OIG 2010). Additionally, the and systems of the Forest Service Forest Service estimates that LDP and opportunities for innova­ 40 percent of employees who Method of Inquiry tion in this program; clarifying the undertake fire training “…never Both quantitative and qualita­ values and outcomes the Forest follow through to qualify for a tive data provided better insight Service is trying to promote; and firefighter position, a potential into the research problem than diagnosing the current function­ waste of $12 million annually” either approach by itself (Clark and ing of the organization’s LDP. Next (USDA OIG 2010). Refer to fig­ Creswell 2010). Initially, we used an steps involved drawing conclusions ure 5. analysis of quantitative data to pro­ about organizational design and vide a general understanding of the performance and identification The data indicates that the Forest Forest Service LDP. Government of any potential need for change. Service may not be well positioned publications and Web sites of The data collected for analysis of for meeting its strategic goal of the Forest Service, the National the Forest Service LDP included maintaining one of the “basic man­ Wildfire Coordinating Group, and (1) training program activities, (2) agement capabilities” (USDA Forest the USDA OIG served as primary accession and attrition rates, (3) sources of information. We col- LDP participation levels, and (4) post-LDP program participation in firefighting. We compiled this data and organized it into graphs and Cooperation amongst Federal land tables, and analyzed it to seek rela­ management agencies and their State tionships between inputs, activities, partners will be necessary to leverage and outputs. A review of leadership scarce human resources and talent. development program best prac­ tices in government and for-profit organizations was also conducted.

Fire Management Today 36 Findings (FFTTG 2002). As noted by USDA Curriculum Definition OIG (2010), the organization “does and Innovation Components not have a national plan (e.g., suc­ of the Forest cession plan) to manage its future Most of the training provided by Service Leadership firefighting workforce needs.” The the Forest Service is focused on Development Programs current system for developing and management of wildland fire inci­ scheduling leadership courses dents and the logistical support A review of the literature led to is based on wants (i.e., personal functions necessary to support sorting activities into five strategic preferences) rather than the stra­ these incidents. The organiza­ components as described in fig­ tegic needs of the organization tion has only recently recognized ure 2. The five strategic program (FFTTG 2002; USDA OIG 2010). the need for improving leadership components represent key areas of Subgeographic areas of the Forest proficiency (FFTTG 2002). Fireline training and development. The cur­ Service and its sister Federal agen­ leadership courses are now sanc­ rent state of the Forest Service LDP cies have developed regional train­ tioned by the NWCG and offered was described within each compo­ ing centers. However, there has by a limited number of academies nent and subsequently compared been no evaluation about the effec­ (NWCG 2007). However, a curricu­ to that of strategic LDP practices of tiveness of such training centers as lum that offers a full range of lead­ five benchmark organizations. the best model for training delivery ership development subject matter (FFTTG 2002). Career and Leadership Development The Forest Service has a well- Program component Description developed guide (Forest Service 1. Career and Leadership Progress in establishing career Handbook 5109.17, Fire and Development tracks for fire leadership positions Aviation Management Qualifications 2. Training Coordination and Progress in developing a national Handbook) to assist employees Management planning and coordination system with understanding requirements for qualifying and becoming certi­ 3. Curriculum Definition and Progress in establishing new cur­ fied for firefighter leadership posi­ Innovation ricula for leadership training tions. The focus of this guide is on 4. Training Delivery and Progress in establishing new meth­ fire suppression leadership. From Technology ods and technologies for training a programmatic standpoint, the delivery and learning Forest Service allows employees to 5. Learning Evaluation and Progress in establishing new self-select target leadership posi­ Financial Management approaches to evaluating training tions based on personal preferences for learning, return on investment, rather than on the needs of the and organizational performance organization (USDA OIG 2010). The Forest Service has a number of Figure 2.— Strategic components of firefighter leadership development. Note: Adapted from Federal Fire Training Task Group (FFTTG), 2002. intake programs that offer acceler­ ated training. However, there are a limited number of openings, and Critical incident position Ordered Unfilled Percent unfilled program costs are considered to be rather expensive (FFTTG 2002). Helicopter coordinator 32 23 72% Strike team leader, dozer 30 21 70% Training Coordination Helibase manager (Type 1) 168 110 65% and Management Safety officer, line 250 156 62% The current Forest Service LDP Strike team leader, crew 315 172 55% lacks a vision for how to pro­ Figure 3.—Voluntary participation rate for select firefighter positions. Adapted from vide systemwide coordination of USDA OIG, 2010, p. 25. Percentage of unfilled orders for critical fire positions (July 19 to training and development efforts August 29, 2007).

Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 37 is not available at any one academy. the employees’ primary duties. As Although there is a wide range of As a result, employees take several noted by FFTTG (2002), “the suc­ fire academies and training centers years to complete a specific series cess of this approach is dependent co-sponsored by the Forest Service of leadership development courses on management’s commitment to and other wildland fire agencies, (FFTTG 2002). As leadership cur­ make these employees available there are no centrally coordinated riculum was developed, modified, along with the skills and abilities programs. Lack of coordination or redesigned, there was no coor­ these individuals possess to provide and use of collateral duty instruc­ dination by any accreditation body professional instruction.” Most tors who are often poorly trained in (FFTTG 2002). training was delivered locally and in knowledge delivery has resulted in a classroom setting (Management a patchwork approach to the devel­ Training Delivery and Analysis, Inc., 2008). Typically, opment of training and delivery Technology training techniques involved methods (FFTTG 2002). The lack instructors presenting lectures of a systematic and comprehensive For training delivery, the Forest from lesson plans. Technology approach has engendered a number Service uses its own agency profes­ included the use of slides, overhead of issues, of which the most prob­ sionals as subject matter experts to projectors, and electronic slide pre­ lematic is the length of the training serve as both developers of curri­ sentations. Some training centers cycle. An early finding by FFTTG cula as well as instructors. In many were beginning to develop and use (2002) noted that “many employees cases, this work was collateral to Web-based training (FFTTG 2002). see the lengthy training cycle to

Critical firefighter position No. of Average No. of Average Difference qualified age of trainees age of qualified trainees Command staff Incident commander, Type 1 27 55.7 yrs 3 49 yrs -24 (89%) Incident commander, Type 2 66 54.5 yrs 33 51.3 yrs -33 (50%) Incident commander, Type 3 817 48.3 yrs 456 41.7 yrs -361 (44%) Safety officer, Type 1 32 57.5 yrs 20 54.5 yrs -12 (38%) Safety officer, Type 2 274 55.8 yrs 125 51.7 yrs -149 (54%) Safety officer, Line 131 52.3 yrs 226 44.2 yrs +95 (73%) Public information officer, Type 1 60 56.7 yrs 48 51.3 yrs -12 (20%) Public information officer, Type 2 191 54.5 yrs 115 52.7 yrs -76 (40%) Total no. and average age—command staff 1,598 51.5 yrs 1,026 45.7 yrs

General staff Operations section chief, Type 1 70 53.8 yrs 27 52.5 yrs -43 (61%) Operations section chief, Type 2 287 53 yrs 168 48.6 yrs -119 (41%) Planning section chief, Type 1 45 57.9 yrs 6 54.6 yrs -39 (87%) Planning section chief, Type 2 95 57 yrs 19 57.5 yrs -76 (80%) Logistics section chief, Type 1 46 58 yrs 10 53.8 yrs -36 (78%) Logistics section chief, Type 2 114 58.2 yrs 19 54.9 yrs -95 (83%) Finance section chief, Type 1 37 56.5 yrs 11 56.2 yrs -26 (70%) Finance section chief, Type 2 73 55.9 yrs 24 53.8 yrs -49 (67%) Total no. and average age—general staff 767 55.3 284 51.0 Figure 4.—Qualified leadership positions versus number of trainees. Adapted from USDA OIG, 2010, p. 39. Calculated totals reflect weighted averages as of July 18, 2008.

Fire Management Today 38 Course Course description Target position Number Projected Estimated number attending number not training class obtaining inefficiency certification S-403 Incident information officer Incident information officer 43 43 100% (Type 2) S-470 Air operations branch director Air operations branch 11 11 100% director S-460 Finance section chief Finance section chief 1 1 100% (Type 2) S-330 Task force/strike team leader Task force/strike team 900 783 89% leader S-400 Incident commander Incident commander 10 9 87% (Type 2) S-378 Air tactical group supervisor Air tactical group 41 31 76% supervisor S-430 Operations section chief Operations section chief 36 27 75% (Type 2) S-404 Safety officer Safety officer (Type 2) 111 81 73% S-450 Logistics section chief Logistics section chief 7 4 57% (Type 2) S-300 Incident commander extended Incident commander 187 101 54% attack (Type 3) Figure 5.—Training completion rate for select leadership positions. Adapted from USDA OIG, 2010, p. 42. be a barrier to pursuing a career in conducting an assessment of overall such items as curriculum develop- fire management…” Eight years programs of study (FFTTG 2002). ment, delivery, and management later, the USDA OIG (2010) found positions,The organization or an average has 12 focused years mostlonger thanand theadministration. optimal timeframes However, that little FS estimates are there had been little improvementpossible of its with efforts more on focusedcollecting training. costs on effort has been placed on evaluating and noted that “since employees set their own training pace, they take an average of 23 years to qualify for critical incident management positions such as section chiefs and incident commanders (refer to figure 6); this is an average of 12 years longer than the optimal timeframes that Forest Service estimates are possible with more focused training.”

Learning Evaluation and Financial Management Currently, the Forest Service and its Federal partners do not have a systematic approach for evaluating specific courses of instruction in Figure 6.—Actual versus optimal time to qualify for leadership postions. Adapted from terms of the value of training or for USDA OIG, Chart 2010, Showing p. 16. Actual Versus Optimal Time to Qualify for Firefighter Positions With an average age of 45 and suboptimal training progress, many trainees will almost be Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 eligible to retire by the time they qualify for the critical positions for which they are training (see exhibit B). FS incurs greater costs providing training that takes too long39 and does not address its needs.

To date, even though critical firefighter shortages are occurring, FS has not addressed the conflict caused by allowing employees to choose their own training. Further, the agency’s responsibilities are escalating. Although FS has not analyzed its current or anticipated need for firefighters (see Finding 1), the agency predicts that more mega-fires will occur in the coming years and that fires in general may be larger due to accumulated hazardous fuels (e.g., underbrush).18 In addition, FS’ firefighters have been increasingly used for national emergencies (e.g., natural disasters). Without ensuring that its training program timely provides qualified replacements, FS may face meeting such challenges with about half of its current critical firefighting force, which will negatively impact both safety and effectiveness.

Without sufficient numbers of trained firefighters, FS may also be facing significant cost increases if fires that could be quickly contained instead grow into larger and costlier mega-fires. Lack of trained replacements can also increase FS’ costs since using other agencies’ firefighters can be significantly more expensive for FS to mobilize. For example, State firefighters from the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection are paid on a “portal to portal” basis (from the time they leave their house to the time they return) rather than the 14-hour shifts typically worked by FS firefighters. As a result, FS estimated that it spent an additional $25 million on a single wildfire incident by using California firefighters rather than FS or other Federal employees.

18 Mega-fires are wildfires that are extraordinary in size, complexity, and resistance to control. Audit Report 08601-54-SF 16 benefits and return-on-investment Over a quarter of the organization’s critical (ROI) (Management Analysis, Inc. 2008). A general sense of the value firefighter leadership is currently eligible to retire, placed on firefighter leadership and over half are eligible to do so in 5 years. development by the organization has been that when there were budget cuts, training was one of the Internal Revenue Service small teams (Comprint Military first items to receive less funding The IRS set out to implement a Publications 2009). The focus of (FFTTG 2002). new approach to employee develop­ the LDP has been on building ment that would increase the avail­ executive core qualifications and Components of ability of training materials, reduce continuous process improvement. Successful Leadership expenditures associated with travel Through these two focus areas, Development Programs and time related to traditional the Navy weaves in functional and technical knowledge, skills, To be competitive for a fixed to training delivery programs, provide an accessible corporate database for and abilities (KSAs), team skills’ diminishing talent pool, organi­ management KSAs, and leadership zations need to understand the monitoring employee development, and ensure consistency and reus­ KSAs. Additionally, the Navy’s best connection between strategic practices include providing: development of human resourc­ ability of a wide range of training processes and procedures (Howard es and organizational success • An extensive and formal mentor­ (American Society for Training and 2007). Several best practices adopt­ ed by the IRS included: ing program. Development 2003). For this study, • An online career mapping tool five organizations were selected • Developing and capturing learn­ for preparing individual develop­ as benchmarks for best practices. ment plans (FFTTG 2002). Two organizations from the Federal ing content in a reusable format to be used in both classroom and sector included the IRS and the General Electric U.S. Navy. The Office of Personnel online settings. Management (OPM) recognized • Providing training to content GE continues to be recognized for the IRS for its advances in strate­ developers and vendors to its success in developing leader­ gic management of human capital assure that they were aligned ship talent (Stewart 1998; Robbins and, in particular, as an example of with the IRS’ Learning Content and Judge 2010). Among GE’s best moving forward in leveraging the Management System. practices for leadership develop­ power of standardized information • Conducting cost-benefit analysis ment are the following: technology to gain efficiencies in estimates for course develop­ employee training and develop­ ment in order to make decisions • Aligning initiatives with core ment (OPM 2005). Leadership about the feasibility of preparing values. Excellence magazine recognized courses in-house or contracting • Providing continuous succession the U.S. Navy as being in the top 10 for courses. planning. Government/military organizations • Assuring successful cultural in 2010 for its leadership program U .S Navy–Naval Aviation transformation through creat­ (Leadership Excellence 2011). System ing, identifying, and transferring Leadership Excellence magazine According to the FFTTG, the U.S. organizational learning. also recognized three large (over Navy’s Naval Aviation System • Assuring alignment of human 2,000 employees) for-profit orga­ (NAVAIR) Career Development resource management with core nizations for best leadership devel­ Program exemplifies a successful business objectives. opment practices including GE, effort in significantly reducing the • Basing individual development FedEx, and Motorola. Following is cycle time for processing employees needs on five key traits that are a summary of best practices from through a training system (2002). highly valued by GE: imagina­ each organization. The NAVAIR LDP prepares sailors tion, clear thinking, inclusive­ and marines for greater effective­ ness, external focus, and having ness in abilities to lead large and a domain expertise (Knudson 2011).

Fire Management Today 40 • Coaching. nization. Motorola University is at ters. Features common to two or • Action learning (Day and Halpin the core of the company’s senior more benchmark organizations but 2001). executive leadership development not present at the Forest Service program (Fresina 1997). Another include having executive level com­ Federal Express innovation includes Motorola’s mitment, monitoring (e.g., track­ strategy for developing and sustain­ ing) employee development, provid­ FedEx has a strong commitment ing leadership supply. The company ing a centralized coordination and to involving its employees in its identified the top 1,000 individuals management of LDPs, establishing quality improvement program and in the organization and “…created a continuous improvement process in its training, professional develop­ position profiles, talent profiles on for curriculum development and ment, and advancement programs current and potential leaders, and innovation, identifying key leader­ (Baldrige Performance Excellence put the entire system into a talent ship attributes (i.e., executive core Program 2002). The guiding phi­ management data base” (FFTTG qualifications), evaluating return losophy at FedEx is that “…when 2002). Additionally, the company on investment, and reducing the people are prioritized first, they will conducts rigorous reviews of its training cycle time. Several fea­ provide the highest level of pos­ executives and reassigns 10 percent tures unique to some benchmark sible service, and profits will follow of these leaders to assure that there organizations and not present at (People-Service-Profits, or PSP)” is room for new talent to move into the Forest Service included online (Day and Halpin 2002). FedEx has this cadre (Day and Halpin 2001). career mapping and efforts to a comprehensive LDP in which Motorola has worked towards reduce the cost of training delivery. leaders at all levels are expected to accelerating the development and cultivate the company’s people-first delivery of the Six Sigma qual­ culture. The company established Analysis ity improvement program. Other a leadership institute based on leadership development initiatives Relationship of Findings applying principles of leadership included tailoring training to dif­ to Research Question drawn from Hersey and Blanchard’s ferent leadership levels (supervi­ Situational Leadership Theory As noted, over a quarter of the sors, beginning managers, and and Greenleaf’s servant leader­ organization’s critical firefighter executives). Much of the company’s ship model (Day and Halpin 2002). leadership is currently eligible to leadership program content for Another best practice included retire and over half are eligible to lower level managers was based on using the organization’s Leadership do so in 5 years. Currently, there Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Evaluation and Awareness Program are an insufficient number of indi­ Leadership Theory (Day and Halpin (Casestudyinc.com 2008) to intro­ viduals ready and available to keep 2001). duce the company’s nonmanagerial up with this rate of attrition (USDA employees to opportunities to move OIG, 2010). The findings led to a into management positions. Comparison diagnosis of potential underlying of Leadership causes for a shortfall in leader­ Motorola Development Programs ship development and for financial losses associated with the Forest Originally established as the Figure 7 provides a summary of Service LDP. Motorola Training and Education key activities within each of the five Center in 1980, the Motorola leadership program components Analysis University is a key component of of the Forest Service and the five Motorola’s leadership development benchmark organizations. Although Although the Forest Service has a program. Leadership training each organization is unique in the well-developed guide for employ­ focuses on developing manag­ way it has designed its LDP, there ees seeking a career path toward ers into catalysts for continuous are commonalities across programs firefighter leadership positions, the improvement (Day and Halpin as well as several distinguishing agency defers to employees’ person­ 2001). Motorola University is con­ features. Features common to two al preferences rather than guiding sidered a Prototype III: Drive and or more of the benchmark orga­ employees toward meeting critical Shape (Fresina 1997) model in that nizations and the Forest Service organizational leadership needs. As the company uses it as a primary include the presence of coaching a result, scheduling of courses has force to drive and shape the orga­ and/or mentoring and training cen­ been driven by employee demand

Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 41 Program General Federal Forest Service IRS U.S. Navy Motorola component Electric Express Career and Tailored to Monitoring Online career Action Leadership Tailored to leadership different and tracking mapping learning evaluation different development leadership of employee and awareness leadership levels development Mentoring Coaching program levels program Coaching and Executive Executive Talent mentoring level level management program commitment commitment data base

Action Executive learning level commitment Training Decentralized Centralized Centralized Continuous Sustaining coordination succession leadership and planning supply management Succession plan Curriculum Focus on Executive Development Continuous Continuous definition and technical Core based on key Improvement Improvement innovation skills Qualifications leadership Process Process traits Continuous Improvement Process Training Training Reduce cost Training Training Training delivery and centers of training centers centers centers technology delivery Reduced Reduced Online training cycle training cycle availability time time of training materials

Consistency in training delivery Learning Track cost Cost-benefit Links profits Rigorous evaluation only analysis to people review of and financial executives management Figure 7.—Comparison of leadership development programs. Adapted from Howard, 2007; FFTTG, 2002; Knudson, 2011; Day and Halpin, 2001; casestudyinc.com, 2008; Fresina, 1997.

Fire Management Today 42 rather than by the strategic needs an organization’s LDP appeared to maintained continuity and quality of the organization (USDA OIG be a critical element for sustaining assurance in the development and 2010). Because personal preferenc­ a successful program. A systematic delivery of training, as well as in es were not necessarily aligned with approach to career development the application of emerging tech­ organizational needs, this practice including career mapping, coaching nologies (e.g., Web-based training). has led to inefficient use of finan­ and mentoring, indentifying talent, Although the Forest Service has cial resources. and monitoring, and tracking high- relied on the training center model, potential employees was one of a it has many training centers that Further compounding the issue has few of the best practices exhibited pursue different delivery methods, been the lack of a Forest Service by benchmark organizations. most of which continue to be con­ succession plan to guide financial ventional classroom settings and investments (USDA OIG 2010). Successful models for training which exhibit a high degree of vari­ Coordination of leadership devel­ coordination and management at ability from one center to another. opment was distributed not only high-performing organizations A number of benchmark organiza­ across the organization but has were characterized by a central­ tions have made significant strides also been shared with four other ized approach. Additionally, toward reducing training cycle Federal agencies (FFTTG 2002). continual attention to succes­ times through such practices as Decentralization of efforts has led sion planning and monitoring of online availability of courses, inte­ to a lack of unity and focus with progress appeared to be a prereq­ grated planning (e.g., succession no systemwide coordination or uisite. Monitoring and evaluation planning), and coordinated execu­ succession planning. Lack of coor­ of progress in succession coupled tion (e.g., scheduling of course dination has also contributed to with adjustments were required to development and delivery) of their an excessively long training cycle assure sustainability of leadership respective LDPs. (FFTTG 2002; USDA OIG 2010). from the beginning through the With the decentralized approach end of the LDP pipeline. In contrast to the Forest Service to leadership development, many practice of tracking costs only, different forms of training delivery With respect to curriculum a number of benchmark orga­ have manifested themselves across development and innovation, a nizations have linked costs to the broad geographic reach of the characteristic of successful LDPs the outputs resulting from their many regions of the Forest Service. was the presence of a continuous investments in leadership develop­ Additionally, firefighter leadership improvement process. Attention to ment. One organization conducted training has not kept up with tech­ the identification of key leadership cost-benefit analyses of its training nology innovations such as Internet traits and executive core qualifica­ development to make decisions and Web-based delivery (FFTTG tions was another best practice that about how to invest its financial 2002). The analysis offered here led assures continual improvement resources for the best return. the author to conclude that, from a and innovation. Shifting focus Another organization has devised financial management standpoint, from technical skills to both lead­ a system for linking organization the Forest Service LDP has been ership and managerial skills (e.g., performance (e.g., profits) to its very poorly managed in terms of organizational leadership, human LDP. providing an adequate supply of relations, communications, deci­ firefighter leaders in a cost effective sionmaking, financial management, Recommendations and timely manner. Much of the etc.) was an important character­ The analysis (diagnosis) portrayed Forest Service investment in train­ istic found in several benchmark above indicates a need for change ing future firefighter leaders has organizations that would have or, as described in Lewin’s change been lost with too little return. applicability for the Forest Service model as the first stage, unfreezing LDP. (Spector 2010). As noted in Spector Best Practices (2010), Lewin’s second stage Several benchmark organizations Many of the best practices of the involves movement of the Forest have centralized training centers benchmark organizations have Service operations for managing its through which training delivery application for improving the LDP. Recommended changes were was coordinated and executed. In Forest Service LDP (refer to figure anchored to the underlying causes this fashion, the organizations 7). Executive level commitment to of the Forest Service’s inability to

Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 43 bring its LDP’s rate of output in would be delegated the author­ body described above would serve line with or ahead of its leadership ity to strategically leverage the as an initial first step. Continuous attrition rate. Additional recom­ LDP resources of all five agencies. succession planning on a biennial mendations focused on resolving The goal of this body would be to or quadrennial basis would assure the financial management issue integrate the planning of finan­ that plans do not go stale and that associated with the waste of mil­ cial investments in training and leadership supply is sustained on a lions of dollars annually (USDA OIG development as well as assuring continual basis. 2010). coordinated execution of the LDP. This proposal was first surfaced by Curriculum Definition Because the Forest Service has FFTTG (2002). However, the idea and Innovation exhibited a tendency to study the has never been fully implemented issues surrounding the perfor­ and is indicative of limited leader­ Only recently have the Forest mance of its LDP at length (FFTTG ship commitment by the organiza­ Service and its Federal partner 2002; Management Analysis, Inc. tion and its partners to strengthen­ agencies begun to shift from pro­ 2008; USDA OIG 2010; NWCG ing a coordinated, effective, and viding technical training to a more 2011) followed by minimal action efficient firefighter LDP. broad-based approach to leader­ for improvement, the catalyst for ship training. A number of the change will most likely have to Career and Leadership newer leadership courses have not been sanctioned by an accredit­ come from outside the organiza­ Development tion (e.g., from the USDA, U.S. ing body. The recommendation is Congress, or the Executive Branch Recommendations for career and that the Forest Service identifes of the U.S. Government). At best, leadership development include key leadership attributes necessary the organization has pursued a development of a process for to successfully lead its firefighting change strategy of “tinkering, screening and evaluating high- workforce. At the highest firefighter kludging, and pacing” as described potential leadership candidates leadership positions, executive by Palmer, Dunford, and Akin and the establishment of a data­ core qualifications should be estab­ (2009). Although, this approach to base to track employees’ progress lished and a curriculum of study change can be effective, particularly in order to assure key milestones and action learning developed and with respect to managing resis­ are achieved. Critical milestones sanctioned to meet leadership per­ tance to change, it has been ineffec­ would include establishing short- formance requirements. tive in improving the success and and long-term career tracks and effectiveness of the Forest Service associated individual development Training Delivery and LDP. Strong and sustained leader­ plans, scheduled action learning Technology experiences, coaching and mentor­ ship from the top echelons of the USDA OIG and others (FFTTG Forest Service as well as its sister ing, and monitoring and feedback mechanisms. 2002, Management Analysis, Inc. agencies in the U.S. Department 2008, NWCG 2011) have identified of the Interior (DOI) (e.g., Bureau Training Coordination several key issues that would serve of Land Management, U.S. Fish as a basis for examining the flow of and Wildlife Service, National Park and Management individuals through the organiza­ Service, and Bureau of Indian We recommended the Forest tion’s training and development Affairs) will be required to affect Service develop an updated and cycle. Undertaking a value stream and sustain successful change. comprehensive workforce analysis mapping exercise as described by Additional support and direction and succession plan. The effort Stevenson (2009) of the training will most likely be required at the should be coordinated at a high and development cycle is recom­ higher Departmental level (USDA organizational level to assure a sys­ mended. In doing, so the identifi­ and DOI). A recommended means tematic and systemwide approach. cation of process bottlenecks and for focusing and applying executive The present practice of distributing where waste occurs (e.g., invest­ leadership to the Forest Service coordination efforts across multiple ments with no return, non-value­ and to cooperating organizations’ geographic areas has failed to lead added requirements, etc.) would efforts for improving LDPs would to the desired results (e.g., sus­ afford the opportunity to make pro­ be to establish a governing body tained, timely and efficient develop­ cess improvements. An example of that is interagency in nature and ment of leadership). The governing a process improvement opportunity

Fire Management Today 44 would be to shift from a traditional Critical milestones would include establishing classroom setting for delivery of instruction to a more reusable short- and long-term career tracks and associated online, Web-based format for con­ individual development plans, scheduled action tent and delivery. learning experiences, coaching and mentoring, and monitoring and feedback mechanisms. Learning Evaluation and Financial Management Elements of a lean operations phi­ In other words, how many years of their applicability to emergency losophy as described by Stevenson service are obtained from qualified response leadership would benefit (2009) have applicability for leaders before they face mandatory the Forest Service and other orga­ matching capacity with demand retirement? The first step would be nizations. For example, an evalua­ for leadership positions. The over­ to better refine the current inven­ tion of the LDPs of other emergen­ arching goal of a lean approach tory of leadership personnel by cy response organizations, such as is to achieve a smooth and rapid eliminating those employees who, the military service branches of the flow of employees through a train­ although trained, are unavailable to U.S. Department of Defense (e.g., ing and development system that be mobilized due to other agency U.S. Coast Guard) and the U.S. yields a sufficient number of skilled priorities. By doing so, the agency Department of Homeland Security’s employees to assume critical lead­ would have a more accurate count many emergency response agen­ ership positions. Concurrently, the of inventory as well as its shelf-life. cies (e.g., Federal Emergency agency must establish a systematic Additionally, the agency must cease Management Agency) might inform approach for assuring that these investing training and development the Forest Service decisions on how individuals are readily available resources into personnel at the unit to improve its LDP model. when needed. leader level who are either unavail­ able for mobilization or do not have Conclusion the personal commitment and/or Metrics for providing an improved In 2010, the USDA OIG conducted support from their managers to financial management system that an evaluation of the Forest Service advance toward higher level leader­ assures a better return on invest­ firefighting succession planning ship positions. Concurrently, Forest ment should include monitoring process (USDA OIG, 2010). USDA Service leaders must hold their of the number of employees that OIG found that the agency’s efforts managers accountable for investing enter the LDP and the number of have been ineffectual and, in in and making the broader inven­ employees that successfully com­ many cases, resulted in a waste of tory of fire personnel (both dedi­ plete the program. Rather than just resources. A fundamental conclu­ cated and collateral duty) available measuring cost elements such as sion was that the Forest Servivce’s for fire duty. instructor and student salaries and projected demand for firefighter travel and facilities costs, actual leadership exceeds the organiza­ outputs (e.g., benefits) should be Future Research tion’s capacity. As found by the measured so that a unit cost can be Efforts USDA-OIG (2010), the Forest established and compared (trend) The recommendations described Service has allowed for the creation over time. Presently, firefighters above highlight opportunities of imbalances between employee’s face a mandatory retirement age for future research. Perhaps the chosen firefighter career paths of 57 years. Another metric would greatest value-added opportunities and the agency’s strategic needs. include identifying the shelf life would flow from the recommenda­ The Forest Service has allowed its of employees coming out of the tions to apply a lean philosophy and employees to self-select firefight­ LDP as qualified leaders who are to undertake an exercise in value ing courses and to determine the assigned to leadership positions. mapping of the current leadership pace of their own progress. Rather This metric would provide informa­ training and development cycle. than an optimal training cycle of tion about the organization’s lead­ Additional research on the range 12 years, an average of 23 years has ership inventory, the cost of main­ of leadership development models been required to reach upper level taining the inventory, and the shelf currently available with respect to leadership qualifications. The agen­ life of the leaders in the inventory.

Volume 72 • No. 4 • 2013 45 cy has failed to ensure an efficient Comprint Military Publications . 2009. Mohrman, S.A.; Cummings, T.G. 1990. Self- return on its investment ($12 mil­ NAVAIR to brief new leadership develop­ designing organizations–learning how to ment program. http://ww2.dcmilitary. create high performance. Reading, MA: lion wasted of $29.5 million invest­ com/stories/022609/tester_28167.shtml. Addison-Wesley. 189 p. ed in 2005) (USDA-OIG 2010). (25 February 2009). Office of Personnel Management. 2005. Day, D.V.; Halpin, S.M. 2001. Leadership OPM hosts Internal Revenue Service’s development: A review of industry learning management system. The Forest Service has an opportu­ best practices. Technical Report 1111. Washington, DC. 1 p. nity (as well as direction) to resolve Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Researh Palmer, I.; Dunford, R.; Akin, G. 2009. a leadership development program Institute for the Behavioral and Social Managing organizational change (2nd Sciences. 77 p. ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Irwin. for providing leaders of its wild- Federal Fire Training Task Group. 2002. 432 p. land firefighting workforce. Forest Federal fire training strategy training Robbins, S.P.; Coulter, M. 2007. Service leadership must not only and development for the next genera­ Management (9th ed.). Upper Saddle engage its interagency partners tion of Federal wildland fire managers. River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. 672 p. Tucson, AZ: National Advanced Fire and Robbins, S.P.; Judge, T.A. 2010. but also the employees that staff Resource Institute. 81 p. Organizational behavior (14th ed.). Upper its incident management teams Fresina, A. J. 1997. The three prototypes Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. in designing a more efficient and of corporate universities. Hanover, IN: 720 p. Executive Knowledge Works. Corporate Spector, B. 2010. Implementing organiza­ effective LDP. Cooperation amongst University Review. 4 p. tional change: Theory into practice (2nd Federal land management agen­ Government Accountability Office. 2009. ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice cies and their State partners will be Forest Service emerging issues high­ Hall. 224 p. light the need to address persistent Stevenson, W. 2009. Operations manage­ necessary to leverage scarce human management challenges. GAO–09– ment (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw- resources and talent. The recom­ 443T. Washington, DC: Government Hill Irwin. 944 p. mended governing body described Accountability Office. 22 p. Stewart, T.A. 1998. America’s most admired earlier would be a way for facilitat­ Howard, Chris. 2007. Large-scale e-learn­ companies why leadership matters. ing: IRS increases training efficiency. Fortune Magazine (March 2). http:// ing such interagency cooperation. ID–2804. Oakland, CA: Bersin and money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/for­ Associates. 22 p. http://www.bersin. tune_archive/1998/03/02/238547/index. com/Practice/Detail.aspx?id=5804. (25 htm. (25 February 2013). References February 2013). U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), American Society for Training and National Wildfire Coordinating Group. Forest Service. 2007. USDA Forest Development. 2003. The human capital 2011. Evolving incident management: Service strategic plan: FY 2007–2012. challenge: A white paper by the ASTD An analysis of organizational mod­ FS-880. Washington, DC: Forest Service. Public Policy Council. 27 p. els for the future. Boise, ID: National 34 p. Baldrige Performance Excellence Program. Wildfire Coordinating Group, Incident USDA Forest Service. 2008. Fire and avia­ 2002. Malcolm Baldridge national qual­ Management Organization Succession tion management qualifications hand­ ity award 1990 recipient Federal Express Planning Team. 71 p. http://www.nwcg. book. FSH 5109.17. Washington, DC: Corporation. http://www.baldrige. gov/imosp/docs/binder.pdf. (25 February Forest Service. 251 p. nist.gov/FederalExpress_90.htm. (22 2013). USDA Forest Service. 2011. Fire February 2013). Knudson, L. 2011. Generating leaders GE Management. FSM 5100. Washington, Casestudyinc.com. 2008. HR Best practices style. HR Management. Issue 4: 4. http:// DC: Forest Service. 116 p. at FedEx, a best company to work for. www.hrmreport.com/article/Generating- USDA Office of Inspector General (OIG). http://www.casestudyinc.com/hr-best­ leaders-GE-style/. (25 February 2013). 2010. Forest Service’s firefighting suc­ practices-at-fedex-best-company. (8 Leadership Excellence. 2011. 2010 best cession planning process. Audit Report January 2010). in leadership development. http://www. 08601-54-SF. Washington, DC: U.S. Clark, V.P.; Creswell, J.W. 2010. leaderexcel.com/best_ranking.html. (12 Department of Agriculture, OIG. 54 p. Understanding research: A consumer’s November 2011). Vecchio, R.P. 2008. Leadership: guide. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Management Analysis, Inc. 2008. Understanding the dynamics of power Education, Inc. 288 p. Management efficiency assessment of the and influence in organizations (2nd ed.). interagency wildland fire training and Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre related services. Washington, DC: The Dame Press. 583 p.  Fire Executive Council. 1 p.

Fire Management Today 46 Fire Management today 2013 Photo Contest Deadline for submission is 6 p .m . eastern time, Friday, December 6, 2013

Fire Management Today (FMT) invites you to submit your • FMT accepts only digital images at the highest resolution best fire-related images to be judged in our photo competi­ using a setting with at least 3.2 mega pixels. Digital image tion. Entries must be received by close of business at 6 p.m. files should be TIFFs or highest quality JPGs. Note: FMT eastern time on Friday, December 6, 2013. will eliminate date-stamped images. Submitted images will not be returned to the contestant. Awards • You must indicate only one category per image. To ensure fair evaluation, FMT reserves the right to change the com­ Winning images will appear in a future issue of FMT and may petition category for your image. be publicly displayed at the Forest Service’s national office in • You must provide a detailed caption for each image. For Washington, DC. example: A Sikorsky S-64 Skycrane delivers retardant on the 1996 Clark Peak Fire, Coronado National Forest, AZ. Winners in each category will receive the following • You must submit with each digital image a completed and awards: signed Release Statement and Photo Contest Application • 1st place: One 20- by 24-inch framed copy of your image. granting the Forest Service rights to use your image. See • 2nd place: One 16- by 20-inch framed copy of your image. http://www.fs.fed.us/fire/fmt/release.pdf. • 3rd place: One 11- by 14-inch framed copy of your image. • Honorable mention: One 8- by 10- inch framed copy of Disclaimer your image. • A panel of judges with photography and publishing experi­ Categories ence will determine the winners. Their decision is final. • Images depicting safety violations, as determined by the • Wildland fire panel of judges, will be disqualified. • Aerial resources • Life or property cannot be jeopardized to obtain images. • Wildland-urban interface fire • The Forest Service does not encourage or support devia­ • Prescribed fire tion from firefighting responsibilities to capture images. • Ground resources • Images will be eliminated from the competition if they are • Miscellaneous (fire effects, fire weather, fire-dependent obtained by illegal or unauthorized access to restricted communities or species, etc.) areas, show unsafe firefighting practices (unless that is their expressed purpose), or are of low technical quality Rules (for example, have soft focus or camera movement). • The contest is open to everyone. You may submit an unlimited number of entries taken at any time, but you To help ensure that all files are kept together, e-mail your must submit each image with a separate release/application completed release form/contest application and digital image form. You may not enter images that were judged in previ­ file at the same time. ous FMT contests. • You must have the authority to grant the Forest Service E-mail entries to: [email protected] unlimited use of the image, and you must agree that the image will become public domain. Moreover, the image must not have been previously published in any publication. Postmark Deadline is 6 p .m ., Friday, December 6, 2013

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