Notes and References

1 Scope and Definitions

!. 'At sea it is force, not reason, that confers sovereign rights.' Quoted inJean Randier,1A Royale (Paris: Editions de la Cite, 1978), p. 36. 2. Admiral G. A. Ballard, Rulers ifthe Indian Ocean (London: Duckworth, 1927), pp.42-3. 3. Femand Braude!, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age if Philip 11 (London: Collins, 1972), pp. 103-8. 4. Garrett Mattingly, The Diftat if the Spanish Armada (London: Jonathan Cape, 1959), p. 184. 5. Samuel Pepys to Captain Killigrew, letter of 3 September 1688, quoted in Arthur Bryant, Samuel Pepys - The Saviour if the Navy (London: Collins, 1949), p.267. 6. Bryant, op. cit., p. 276. 7. Charles Oman, England bifOre the Norman Conquest (London: Methuen, 1910), p. 65!. 8. Sir Charles Petrie, Don John OJ Austria (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1967), pp.255-6. 9. Admiral Sandy Woodward, One Hundred Days (London: Harper Collins, 1992). 10. Admiral of the Fleet Sir Henry Leach, quoted in Martin Middlebrook, Task Force: The Falklands War 1982 (London: Penguin, rev. edn, 1987), p. 67. II. Quoted in Martin Middlebrook, The Fightfor the Malvinas: The Argentine Forces in the Falklands War (London: Viking, 1989), p. 3. 12. Lawrence Freedman and Virginia Gamba-Stonehouse, Signals if War: The Falklands Conflict if 1982 (London: Faber & Faber, 1990), p. 81. 13. Secretary of State for Defence, The United Kingdom Dqence Programme: The Way Forward, Cmnd 8288 (London: HMSO). 14. As some confusion has arisen among British writers about the name of this operation, it is worth quoting the authoritative account of ContraAlmirante 1M Carlos Busser, who commanded the Disembarkation Force on 2 April 1982. He states quite clearly: 'This operation of repossession, in which the Disembarkation Force was engaged, is what was called Operation Rosario'. In the 'Comentario General' he contributed as chapter I of the book Operacion Rosario (Buenos Aires: Editorial Atlantida, 1984), compiled by members of the disembarkation force, the Rear Admiral never mentions the code-name Azul cited by Freedman and Middlebrook, but the book includes a colour photograph of the Virgen del Rosario, to whom the operation was dedi­ cated. 15. Freedman and Gamba-Stonehouse, Signals if War, op. cit., p. 168. 16. Ibid., p. 176. 17. Ibid., pp. 190-2, and Nicholas Henderson, Mandarin (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson 1994), pp. 443-4.

175 176 Notes and Riferences

18. Woodward, One Hundred Days, op. cit., pp. 330-4. 19. General Mario Benjamin Menendez, Malvinas: Testimonio de su Gobemador (Buenos Aires: Editorial Sudamericana, 1983), pp. 305-13. 20. Freedman and Gamba-Stonehouse, Signals if War, op. cit., pp. 413-14.

2 The Pre-Naval Era

I. Translation of Anglo-Saxon poem circa 970-90 AD from the Exeter Book. Quoted in Magnus Magnusson, Vikings (London: Bodley Head, 1980), p. 23. See also Ida L. Gordon (ed.), The Seaforer (London: Methuen, 1960). 2. Alfred Thayer Mahan, The Irifluence if Sea Power Upon History 1600--1783 (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1940). 3. Ibid., p. 88. 4. Barry S. Strauss, in Colin S. Gray and Roger W. Barnett (eds), Seapower and Strategy (London: Tri-Service Press, 1989), p. 77. 5. C. Vatin, Citoyens et Non-citoyens dans Ie Monde Grec (Paris: Societe d' Editions d'Enseignement Superieur, 1984), p. 42. 6. Robert Goldston, The Sword if the Prophet (New York: The Dial Press, 1979), passim. 7. Bernard F. Reilly, The Contest if Christian and Muslim Spain 1031-1157 (Cam­ bridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1992), p. 176. 8. Ibid., p. 212.

3 Explorers and Freebooters

1. Both quoted in C. R. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire 1415-1825 (London: Hutchinson, 1969), p. I. 2. Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, Vol. IV Part 3 (Cambridge University Press, 1971), p. 519. 3. Hok-Lam Chan, Chapter 4 in Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett (eds), Cambridge History qf China (Cambridge University Press, 1988). 4. John D. Langlois, Chapter 3 in Cambridge History if China, op. cit., pp. 168-9. 5. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, op. cit., passim. 6. Needham, Science and Civilisation, op. cit., p. 495. 7. Bailey W. Diffie and George D. Winius, Foundations if the Portuguese Empire 1415-1580 (University of Minnesota Press, 1977), pp. 185-7. 8. G. V. Scammell, The World Encompassed: The First European Maritime Empires c. 800--1650 (London: Methuen, 1981), pp. 272,505. 9. J. H. Parry, The Age if Reconnaissance (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1963), pp.41-3. 10. Boxer, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, op. cit., pp. 19-23. 11. Diffie and Winius, Foundations, op. cit., p. 77. 12. Admiral G. Ballard, Rulers qf the Indian Ocean (London: Duckworth, 1927), pp.45-9. 13. The term, 'frightfulness', a translation of the original Schrecklichkeit, was coined to describe the German policy of cowing into submission the civilian population of Belgium during the war of 1914--18. Notes and Rf!ftrences 177

14. Peter Padfield, Tide of Empires VA!. I 1481-1654 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979), p. 47. 15. Diffie and Winius, Foundations, op. cit., p. 240. 16. Carlo M. Cipolla, Guns and Sails in the EarlY Phase of European Expansion 140()--1700 (London: Collins, 1965), p. 138. 17. George Mode!ski and William R. Thompson, Seapower in Global Politics 1494-1993 (London: Macmillan, 1988), pp. 114-15. 18. Ballard, Rulers, op. cit., p. 168. 19. Kenneth R. Andrews, The Spanish Caribbean: Trade and Plunder 153()--1630 (Yale University Press, 1978), pp. 65-8. 20. Kenneth R. Andrews, Trade, Plunder and Settlement (Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 118. 21. Ibid., p. 244. 22. Jean Randier, La Royale (Paris, Editions de la Cite, 1978), pp. 27-8. 23. Fernand Braude!, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (London: Collins, 1972), p. 841.

4 The Early Naval Wars

1. Quoted in G. V. Scammell, The World Encompassed: The First European Mari­ time Empires c. 80()--1650 (London: Methuen, 1981), p. 431. 2. The representative in the Indies of the Dutch East India Company writing to his directors in 1614. Quoted in C. R. Boxer, The Dutch Seaborne Empire I60()--1800 (London: Hutchinson, 1972), p. 96. 3. Clarence Norwood Weems (ed.), Hulbert's History of Korea (London: Routle­ dge & Kegan Paul, 1962), p. 350; S. R. Turnbull, The Samurai: A Military History (London: Osprey, 1977), pp. 216-19. 4. Fernand Braude!, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (London: Collins, 1972), p. 841. 5. Peter Padfield, Tide of Empires Vol I 1481-1654 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979), p. 81. 6. Braude!, The Mediterranean, op. cit., pp. 865-91. 7. David Loades, 'From the King's Ships to the Royal Navy 1500-1642', in J. R. Hill (ed.), The Oiford Illustrated History of the RDyal Navy (Oxford Uni­ versity Press, 1995), p. 52. 8. D. B. Quinn and A. N. Ryan, England's Sea Empire 155()--1642 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1983), p. 59. 9. James Pope-Hennessy, Sins of the Fathers (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1967), pp. 44-53; Loades, 'From the King's Ships', op. cit., p. 41. 10. John Sugden, Sir Francis Drake (London: Barrie &Jenkins, 1990), pp. 32-7. II. Kenneth R. Andrews, Trade, Plunder and Settlement (Cambridge University Press, 1984), pp. 112-34. 12. Garrett Mattingly, The Defeat of the Spanish Armada (London: Jonathan Cape, 1959), p. 43. 13. Andrews, Trade, op. cit., p. 244. 14. All population figures for this period are estimates. See Massimo Livi-Bacci tr. Carl Ipsen, A Concise History of World Population (Cambridge, Mass.: Black­ well, 1992), p. 69. 178 Notes and Riferences

15. Pieter Geyl, The Revolt if the Netherlands (London: Ernest Benn, 1958), pp. 215-16. 16. Ibid., pp. 236-7. 17. K. M. Panikkar, Asia and Western Dominance (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1953), p. 57. 18. E. S. van Eyck van Heslinga, 'A Competitive Ally', in G.]. A. Raven and N. A. M. Rogers, Navies and Armies (Edinburgh: John Donald, 1990), p. 7. 19. George Modelski and William R. Thompson, Seapower in Global Politics 1494-1993 (London: Macmillan, 1988), pp. 64-7. 20. Arthur Bryant, Samuel Pepys: The Man in the Making (London: The Reprint Society, 1952), p. 109. 21. Livi-Bacci, A Concise History, op. cit., p. 69. 22. Geyl, The Revolt, op. cit., p. 234. 23. Sir William Temple, Observations Upon the United Provinces if the Netherlands, ed. Sir George Clark (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972) (first edition 1673), p. 117. 24. Padfield, Tide if Empires, op. cit., pp. 166-7. 25. Geyl, The Revolt, op. cit., p. 236. 26. Padfield, Tide if Empires, op. cit., p. 180. 27. ]. R. Powell, The Navy in the English Civil War (London: Archon Books, 1962), passim. 28. ]. D. Davies, 'A Permanent National Maritime Fighting Force 1642-1689' in]. R. Hill, The Oiford Illustrated History, op. cit., pp. 72-3. 29. Arthur Bryant, Samuel Pepys - The Man in the Making (London: The Reprint Society, 1952), p. 340. 30. Edward B. Powley, The English Navy in the Revolution if 1688 (Cambridge University Press, 1928), p. 41 and passim. 31. Lord Macaulay, History if England vol I I (London: Heron Books, 1848-61), p. 197. 32. Ibid., pp. 579-83. See also Edward B. Powley, The Naval Side if King WIlliam's War (London: John Baker, 1972) for a more detailed account. 33. Geoffrey Symcox, The Crisis if French Sea Power 1688-1697 (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1974), pp. 96-101.

5 The High Noon of Naval Force: 1690-1815

I. Lord Macaulay (l80G--59), a great British historian. 2. ]. S. Bromley, 'The French Privateering War 1702-13', in H. E. Bell and R. OUard (eds), Historical Essqys 160(}-1750 (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1963), pp. 204--16. 3. Peter Padfield, Tufe if Empires Vol II 1654-1763 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1982), p. 177. 4. Philip Woodfine, 'Ideas of Naval Power and the Conflict with Spain 1737-1742', in Jeremy Black and Philip Woodfine (eds), The British Navy and the Use if Naval Power in the Eighteenth Century (Leicester University Press, 1988), p. 77 and passim. 5. Jane Austen, who had two brothers who were admirals, knew what she was talking about in Persuasion and £25 000 was a plausible total for a lucky captain to amass in prize money over seven years of war at sea. Notes and Riferences 179

6. James Pope-Hennessy, Sins if the Fathers (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1967), p. 154. 7. Allan Nevins and Henry Steele Commager, America: The Story if a Free People (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1942), p. 56. 8. Jean Randier, La Royale (Paris, Editions de la Cite, 1978), p. 136. The Seven Years War had decided the future of England and of the world. Great Britain suddenly found herself immeasurably elevated above those nations whose merely continental power seemed to condemn them to what would henceforth be only a secondary role in the history of the world. 9. Paul Langford, The Eighteenth Century 1688-1815 (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1976), p. 135. 10. According to the estimates of Massimo Livi-Bacci, tr. Carl Ipsen, A Concise History if World Population (Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1992), p. 69. France then had 25 million inhabitants and England 5.7 million. II. Captain A. T. Mahan, The lrifluence if Sea Power Upon History 1660--1783 (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1940) (first edition 1890), p. 339. 12. Jeremy Black, Culloden and the '45 (Stroud: Allan Sutton, 1990), pp. 17-18. 13. Ibid., p. 54 and passim. See also J. Colin, Louis XVet us Jacobites (Paris: Librairie Militaire R. Chapelot, 190 I). 14. Colin, Lnuis Xv, op. cit., pp. 35-6, 109-11, 127, 136-7 and passim. The dates given are according to the new calendar introduced in 1582 by Pope Gregory and still used today. The French had adopted it from the start, but the British, resistant as always to rash European innovations, stuck to the old Julian calendar until 1752. The difference of II days has been a great nuisance to diplomatic and naval historians ever since. See also Rodney Sedgwick (ed.), Lnrd Hervey's Memoirs (London: William Kimber, 1952), p. 105. 15. The Prince's ship was a privateer named DU TEILLAY and owned by Anthony Walsh. See Katherine Tomasson and Francis Buist, Battles if the '45 (London: Pan, 1967), pp. 23-4. 16. See Frank McLynn, Invasion: From the Armada to Hitler 1588-1945 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1987), pp. 49-60; Paul M. Kennedy, TIe Rise and Fall if British Naval Mastery (London: Allen Lane, Penguin, 1976), pp. 100-2. 17. Langford, TIe Eighteenth Century, op. cit., p. 164. 18. Francis Parkman, Montcalm and Wo!fi, vol. II (London: Macmillan, 1884), pp.403-4. 19. McLynn, Invasion, op. cit., pp. 65-79, 97-112. 20. John C. Miller, Origins if the American Revolution (London: Faber & Faber, 1945), p. 57. 21. Mahan, The Irifluence, op. cit., pp. 383-414. 22. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall, op. cit., pp. 108-9. 23. Langford, The Eighteenth Century, op. cit., p. 177. 24. Mahan, TIe Influence, op. cit., pp. 397-400. 25. Jonathan R. Dull, TIe French Navy and American Independence (princeton University Press, 1975), pp. 238-48; E. H. Jenkins, A History if the French Navy (London: Macdonald & Jane's, 1973), p. 171. 26. Mahan, TIe Irifluence, op. cit., p. 398. 27. James Cable, 'Showing the F1ag: Past and Present', Naval Forces, no. I II, vol. VIII (1987). 180 Notes and Riferences

28. Langford, The Eighteenth Century, op. cit., pp. 182-3. 29. Mahan, The Influence, op. cit., p. 138. 30. According to Lord Selborne, then First Lord of the Admiralty, Fisher's proposal was serious. See Ruddock F. Mackay, Fisher if Kilverstone (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), pp. 319-20. 31. Paul Kennedy, The Rise if the Anglo-German Antagonism 1860-1914 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1980), pp. 272-5.

6 Naval Force without Naval War: 1815-1882

1. August von Gneisenau was a Prussian general, Blucher's Chief of Staff at the battle of Waterloo and a speculative thinker. He ended as a Field Marshal. Quoted in Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall if the Great Powers (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988), p. 139. 2. Jean Randier, La Royale (Paris: Editions de la Cite, 1978), p. 201. 3. Ruddock F. Mackay, Fisher ifKilverstone (Oxford University Press, 1973), p. 69. 4. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall if British Naval Mastery (London: Allen Lane Penguin, 1976), p. 173. 5. Supposed to have been said in the House of Lords when the much pub­ licised invasion plans of Napoleon I (see Chapter 5) were causing some alarm in Britain. 'I do not say they cannot come, my Lords. I only say they cannot come by sea'. Quoted in Arthur J. Marder, From the Dreadnought to Scapa Flow, vol. I (Oxford University Press, 1961), p. 347. Marder is one of many writers who attribute these words to Admiral Lord St Vincent (1735-1823) without citing any source, and many naval historians regard the story as apocryphal. 6. Sir Uewellyn Woodward, The Age if Reform 1815-1870, 2nd edn (Oxford University Press, 1962), p. 178. 7. See ibid., pp. 212-21; Andrew Lambert, 'The Shield of Empire 1815-1895', in J. R. Hill, The Oiford Illustrated History if the Royal Naoy (Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 166-9; Dictionary if National Biography (Oxford University Press, 1886-92), passim. The account in Basil Greenhill and Ann Giffard, Steam, Politics and Patronage (London: Conway Maritime Press, 1994) differs on some points of detail. 8. 'I am a Roman citizen', quoted in Denis Judd, Palmerston (London: Wei­ denfeld & Nicolson, 1975), pp. 91-5. 9. 'If the Devil has a son He's surely called Palmerston.' Quoted in Paul Kennedy, The Rise if the Anglo-German Antagonism 1860-1914 (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1980), p. 13. 10. Woodward, The Age if Riform, op. cit., pp. 320-3. 11. George Earle Buckle, The Letters if Queen Victoria - Second Series Vol. I (London: John Murray, 1926), pp. 163-242, passim. Lord Clarendon, an ex-Foreign Secretary, had recently joined the Cabinet. 12. Lambert, 'The Shield of Empire', op. cit., p. 171. 13. Jean Randier, La Royale: L'eperon et La Cuirasse (Paris: Editions de la Cite, 1972), passim. 14. LawrenceJames, The Rise and Fall ifthe British Empire (London: Little, Brown, 1994), p. 178. Notes and Riferences 181

15. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall, op. cit., p. 171. 16. Lambert, op. cit., pp. 180-4; Greenhill and Giffard, Steam, Politics and Patronage, op. cit., pp. 117-19. 17. Latimer, ibid. 18. The population of China in 1850 was estimated at 450 million - about 20 times the population of the United Kingdom at that time. Joan Fairbank (ed.), Cambridge History of China, Vol. 10 (Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 109. 19. Grace Fox, British Admirals and Chinese Piral£s (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1940), p. 195. 20. Ibid., passim. 21. The monthly pay of an able seaman in the British Navy was then £2.ls.4d and BITTERN'S total complement was probably well under 200. Fox, British Admirals, op. cit., p. 195; John Winton, 'Life & Education in a Technically Evolving Navy', in J. R. Hill, History of the Royal Navy, op. cit., p.260. 22. G. M. Trevelyan, English Social History (London: Longmans, Green, 1944), pp.388-9. 23. Christopher Uoyd, The Navy and the Slave Trade (London: Frank Cass, 1968), p. II. In his treatment of the campaign against the slave trade, the author is heavily indebted to Uoyd's magisterial account. 24. Ibid., p. x. 25. Ibid., pp. 24-5. 26. Ibid., pp. 139-48. 27. Ibid., pp. x, 134-5. 28. Over British humanitarian assistance to the Basques in 1937 during the Spanish Civil War. See James Cable, The Royal Navy and the Siege of Bilbao (Cambridge University Press, 1979), passim. 29. Uoyd (The Navy, op. cit., pp. 78-83) says that in 1843 a successful captain received a gross payment (there were substantial deductions for legal expenses and agent's fees) of £2600 for five years of antislavery service. In four days of 1847 the II officers and 114 men of H M S PI LOT earned £5165 by attacking pirates off the China coast. A dead pirate was worth £20 - more than a freed slave. Fox, British Admirals, op. cit., pp.llO-l1. 30. R. Coupland, East Africa and Its Invaders (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1938), pp. 17-18. 31. Desmond Wettern, The Decline of British Seapower (London: Jane's, 1982), p. 156. 32. Woodward, The Age of Riforrn, op. cit., pp. 241-2. 33. Ibid., p. 308. 34. Lambert, The ShieUi, op. cit., pp. 192-4; Mackay, Fisher ofKilverstone, op. cit., pp. 157-70.

7 Instnunental Change

1. Quoted in Arthur J. Marder, British Naval Policy 1880-1905 (London: Put­ nam, 1940), p. 8. 182 Notes and Riferences

2. Quoted in Michael Lewis, The Navy in Transition 1814-1864 (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1965), p. 203. Cockburn was First Naval Lord from 1841 to 1846. 3. Marder, British Naval Policy, op. cit., p. 3. 4. Daniel A. Baugh, 'The Eighteenth Century Navy as a National Institution', in]. R. Hill (ed.), The Oxford Illustrated History qf the Royal Navy (Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 124. 5. Marder, British Naval Policy, op. cit., p. 281. 6. David Brown, 'Wood, Sail and Cannonballs to Steel, Steam, and Shells, 1815-1895', in]. R. Hill (ed.), The Oiford Illustrated History qfthe Royal Navy (Oxford Umversity Press, 1995), pp. 202-9. 7. Ibid., pp. 206-9; Kenneth]. Hagan (ed.), In Peace and War (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1978), see David F. Long, Chapter 4, p. 65, and Geoffrey S. Smith, Chapter 5, p. 99. 8. Basil Greenhill and Ann Giffard, The British Assault on Finland 1854-1855 (London: Conway Maritime Press, 1988), pp. 45-6, 52, 107, 110-11, and 117. See also Basil Greenhill and Ann Giffard, Steam, Politics and Patronage (London: Conway Maritime Press, 1994), pp. 13-23,216-27, for the role of steam in the Black Sea. 9. James Cable, Gunboat Diplomacy 1919-1991 (London: Macmillan, 1994), p. 161. 10. Greenhill and Giffard, The British Assault, op. cit., p. Ill. II. Ibid., p. 293. 12. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall qf British Naval Mastery (London: Allen Lane, 1976), p. 193. 13. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall qfthe Great Powers (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988), p. 151. 14. Kennedy, British Naval Mastery, op. cit., p. 193. 15. Brown, Wood, op. cit., p. 215. 16. Richard Hough, Admiralr in Collision (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1959), p.52. 17. Andrew Lambert, 'The Shield of Empire 1815-1895', in]. R. Hill, History qf the Royal Navy, op. cit., p. 193. 18. Brown, Wood, op. cit., p. 222. 19. Marder, British Naval Policy, op. cit., pp. 491-2. Admiral Sir John Fisher (1841-1920), later Admiral of the Fleet Lord Fisher of Kilverstone, was appointed First Sea Lord (a title he was responsible for reviving) in 1904 and brought a radical new broom to the Admiralty. 20. LawrenceJames, The Rise and Fall qfthe British Empire (London: Little, Brown, 1994), p. 337. 21. 'There was a time, under the former Monarchy, when the art of naval construction shone so brilliantly in France ... that the English adopted as types or models several of the ships they captured from us ... since then ... our naval architecture seems to be affiicted by an incurable impotence.' Jean Randier, In. Royale: l'eperon et la cuirasse (Paris: Editions de la Cite, 1972), p.57. 22. Remi Monaque, 'L'Arniral Aube, Ses Idees, Son Action', in Herve Coutau­ Begarie (ed.), L'Evolution de la Pensee Navau IV (Paris: Economica, 1994), p. 142. Notes and Riferences 183

23. 'To destroy England's fleet would be to humble her pride, but the way to make war on England is to sink the ships that bring the English their bread, meat and cotton and enable their workers to earn their living.' Quoted in Capitaine de fregate Marie-Raymond Ceiller, 'Les Idees Strategiques en France de 1870 a 1914: LaJeune Ecole', in Herve Coutau-Begarie (ed.), [jEvolution de la Pensee Navale (Paris: Fondation pour les Etudes de Defense Nationale, 1990), passim. 24. Dana M. Wegner, 'The Union Navy', in Hagan, In Peace and War, op. cit., p. 109. 25. Lance C. Buhl, 'Maintaining "An American Navy" 1865~ 1889', in Hagan, In Peace and War, op. cit., p. 146. 26. Frank]. Merli, 'The Confederate Navy', in Hagan, In Peace and War, op. cit., pp. 130-31; Dudley W. Knox, A History of the United States Navy (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1936), pp. 285, 295, 318. 27. Hough, Admirals, op. cit., passim. 28. Captain A. T. Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History 1660-1783 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1940) (first edn 1890), pp. v-vi. 29. Ruddock F. Mackay, Fisher of Kilverstone (Oxford University Press, 1973), p.216.

8 New Naval Powers: Japan and the United States

1. Quoted in Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (London: Unwin, Hyman, 1988), p. 208. Baron Hayashi Tadusu (1850-1913) had a distinguished official career, becoming Japanese Foreign Minister in 1906. In 1895 he was Vice Foreign Minister and published his views after receiv­ ing a menacing communication from the German Minister in Tokyo. 2. Henry Cabot Lodge (1850-1924) also declared in 1895 that Hawaii must be acquired and the Panama Canal built, when 'the island of Cuba will become a necessity' to the United States. Barbara Tuchman, The Proud Tower (London: Macmillan, 1980), p. 135. 3. Jean-Pierre Lehman, The Roots of Modem Japan (London: Macmillan, 1982), p.46. 4. Among those most anxious for access to Japanese ports was the American whaling industry. Lehman, The Roots, op cit.), p. 136. 5. Marius B. Jansen (ed.), The Cambridge History of Japan Vol. 5 ~ The Nineteenth Century (Cambridge University Press, 1989), see Chapter 4, W. G. Beasley, pp. 269-84; Dudley W. Knox, History of the United States Navy (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1936), pp. 184-5. 6. Beasley, in Jansen, History of Japan, op. cit., pp. 293-6; J. R. Hill (ed.), The Oxford Illustrated Hiswry of the Royal Navy (Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 184; Knox, Hiswry of the us Navy, op. cit., p. 294; Lehman, The Roots, op. cit., pp. 147-9. 7. Beasley, in Jansen, History of Japan, op. cit., pp. 300-6. 8. Ibid., pp. 636-65; Kennedy, The Rise and Fall, op. cit., pp. 199~208; Lehmann, The Roots, op. cit., passim. 9. Akira Iriye, Pacific Estrangement: Japanese and American Expanswn 189 7~ 1911 (Harvard University Press, 1972), pp. 40~ 1, 50-134. 184 }lfotes and Riferences

10. Ibid., pp. 163-5,220. 11. Malcolm H. Murfett, 'Are We Ready'?, in John B. Hattendorf and Robert S.Jordan (eds), Maritime Strategy and the Balance of Power (London: Macmillan, 1989), p. 220. 12. Lehmann, The Roots, op. cit., p. 302. 13. Bernard Edwards, Salvo: Classic Naval Gun Actions (London: Arms and Armour Press, 1995), p. 17. 14. Steward Lone, Japan's First Modem War (London: Macmillan, 1994), p. 30. 15. Lehmann, The Roots, op. cit., pp. 308, 297. 16. Beasley, in Jansen, History of Japan, op. cit., p. 646. 17. Lone, Japan's First, op. cit., p. 182. 18. Lehmann, The Roots, op. cit., p. 304. 19. J. N. Westwood, Russia Against Japan 1904-05 (State University of New York Press, 1986), pp. 20-34. 20. Ibid., p. 42. 21. As is usually the case, this account is based on the admirable book by Richard Hough, The Fleet that Had to Die (London: The Quality Book Club, 1958), passim. 22. Westwood, Russia, op. cit., pp. 154-5. 23. Hough, The Fleet, op. cit., pp. 103, 198-201. 24. Arthur]. Marder, British Naval Policy 198{}--1905 (London: Putnam, 1940), p. 441. 25. Ian H Nish, The Anglo-Japanese Alliance (London: The Athlone Press, 1985), p.322. 26. Richard Hough, The Potemkin Mutiny (London: Heron Books), passim. 27. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall, op. cit., pp. 199-203. 28. C. A. Milner, C. A. O'Connor and M. A. Sandweiss (eds), The Oxford History of the American West (Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 3-4, 248-9, 182, 581-2. See also Dee Brown, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West (London: Pan, 1971), passim. 29. Tuchman, The Proud Tower, op. cit., p. 130. 30. Kenneth]. Hagan, American Gunboat Diplomacy and the Old Navy 1877-1889 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1973), p. 37. 31. Lance C. Buhl, 'Maintaining "An American Navy''', in Kenneth]. Hagan (ed.), In Peace and War (Westport CT: Greenwood Press, 1978), pp. 145-6. 32. Tuchman, The Proud Tower, op. cit., pp. 133-5. 33. Ibid., passim. 34. Ibid., pp. 30-31, 136-42. The Monroe Doctrine, as stated by President Monroe in 1823, asserted 'that the American continents, by the free and independent condition they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonisation by any European power'. 35. Tuchman, The Proud Tower, op. cit., pp. 147-8. 36. Most writers describe the MAINE as a battleship, but her commanding officer said she was designed as a sail-assisted armoured cruiser. When sails were later abandoned, she was styled 'a second-class battleship'. She had two 10-inch guns and six 6-inch, and on her trials her speed was 17 knots. Captain Charles D. Sigsbee, The "Maine';: An Account of her Destruction in Havana Harbor (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1899). Notes and Riferences 185

37. Dudley W. Knox, A History qf tk Unillid States Navy (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1936), pp. 329-30. 38. Tuchman, The Proud Tower, op. cit., p. 151. 39. M. Fortescue Pickard, The Roosevelts and America (London: Herbert Joseph, 1941), p. 100; Frank Freidel, The Splendid Little War (London: Galley Press, 1960), pp. 3, 31, 193- 229; Tuchman, The Proud Tower, op. cit., pp. 154-7; Ronald Spector, 'The Triumph of Professional Ideology; The US Navy in the 1890s', in Hagan, Peace and War, op. cit., pp. 179-82. 40. A Spanish colony captured on 20June 1898 by the US cruiser CHARLES­ TON - William Reynolds Braisted, The United States Navy in the Pacifo 1897-1909 (University of Texas Press, 1958), p. 28. 41. Knox, A History, op. cit., pp. 365-9. 42 . Tuchman, The Proud Tower, op. cit., pp. 148, 156-7. 43 . Kennedy, The Rise and Fall, op. cit., p. 194. 44. Richard D. Challener, Admirals, Generals and American Foreign Policy 1898-1914 (Princeton University Press, 1973), p. 22. 45. John Halladay Latane, Amen'ca as a World Power 1897-1907 (New York: Harper Bros, 1907), pp. 215- 21. 46. Ibid., pp. 273-6. 47. James R. Reckner, Tedtfy Roosevelt's Great White Fleet (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1988), pp. 116, 156 and passim. 48. Ronald Atkin, Revolution! Mexico 1910-20 (London: Macmillan, 1969), pp. 187-209 and passim. 49. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall, op. cit., p. 243. 50. Harold and Margaret Sprout, The Rise qf Amen'can Naval Power 1776-1918 (princeton University Press, 1939), pp. 278, 29(}--1. 51. Braisted, The US Navy, op. cit., p. 239. 52 . Spector, 'The Triumph', op. cit., pp. 174-5. 53 . John A. S. Grenville and George Berkeley Young, Politics, Strategy and Amer­ ican Diplomacy (Yale University Press, 1966), pp. 317- 19.

9 The First World War

I. Friedrich Nietzsche, Der Wille zur Macht, tr. by Walter Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale as The Will to Power (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1968), p. 550. 2. Quoted in Arthur J. Marder, From the Battleship to Scapa Flow Vol. {- The Road to War 1904-1914 (Oxford University Press, 1961 ), p. 5. 3. Paul Kennedy, The Rise qf the Anglo-German Antagonism 1860-1914 (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1980), p. 470. 4. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall qftk Great Powers (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988), p. 278. 5. Kaufmann and Hollingdale, The Will, op. cit., p. 369. 6. Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism, op. cit., pp. 167-83. 7. Holger H. Herwig, 'Luxury Fleet': The Imperial German Navy 1888- 1918 (Lon­ don: George Allen & Unwin, 1980), pp. 1- 2, 14,25. 8. Ibid., p. 19. 186 Notes and Riferences

9. Barbara Tuchman, 77ze Proud Tower (London: Macmillan, 1980), p. 133. 10. Herwig, "Luxury Fleet", op. cit., p. 76. II. Ibid., p. 36. 12 . Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism, op. cit., p. 417; Hannah Pakula, An Uncommon Woman: The Empress Frederick (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1996), pp. 572, 576. 13. Paul Kennedy, Strategy and Diplomacy 1870-1945 (London: Fontana, 1983), p. 122. 14. Marder, From the Battuship, op. cit., passim. 15. Herwig, "Luxury Fuet", op. cit., pp. 42,57-61,63; Marder, From the Battle­ ship, op. cit., pp. 135-42. 16. Jonathan Steinberg, Yesterdqy's Deterrent: Tirpitz and the Birth of the German Battle Fleet (London: Macdonald, 1965), p. 41. 17. Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism, op. cit., p. 416. 18. Lawrence James, 77ze Rise and Fall of the British Empire (London: Little, Brown, 1994), p. 342. 19. Herwig, "Luxury Fuet", op. cit., p. 77. Winston Churchill (1874--1965), whose combative nature had already made him many enemies in Britain itself, became First Lord of the Admiralty on 23 October 1911. 20. Marder, From the Battuship, op. cit., p. 223. 21. Harold Nicolson, Sir Arthur Nicolson, Bart, First Lord Carnock (London: Constable, 1930), p. 257. 22. Herwig, "Luxury Fuet", op. cit., p. 52. 23. Kennedy, Strategy, op. cit., p. 150. 24. Admiral Scheer, Germany's High Seas Fuet in the World War (London: Cassell, 1920), pp. 10-11,25. 25. Marder, From the Battkship, op. cit., p. 377. 26. Ibid., p. 42. 27. Kennedy, Anglo-German Antagonism, op. cit., p. 417. 28. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery (London: Allen Lane, 1976), p. 246. 29. Scheer, Germany's High Seas FUet, op. cit., p. 169. 30. Paul M. Kennedy, 77ze War Plans of the Great Powers 1880-1914 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1979), p. 190. 31. Herwig, "Luxury Fuet", op. cit., pp. 38-9, 81, 87-8. 32. Marder, From the Battuship, op. cit., p. 363. 33. Ibid., pp. 335, 364,426-7. 34. Herwig, "Luxury FUet", op. cit., pp. 162-5. 35. Paul G. Halpern, A Naval History qfWorld War I (London: UCL Press, 1994), pp. 291-303. 36. Memorandum of 22 December 1916 endorsed by Field Marshal von Hindenburg and General Ludendorff and approved by the Kaiser. Quoted in Scheer, Germany's High Seas FUet, op. cit., pp. 248-52. 37. John Winton, Convoy: 77ze Difence of Sea Trade 1890-1990 (London: Michael Joseph, 1983), pp. 64, 86. A concise guide to the problem that has pre­ occupied so many naval historians: why did the Royal Navy take so long to remember the answer? 38. Halpern, Naval History, op. cit., p. 315. Notes and References 187

39. He was Chief of Staff to the Army Group Commander, Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria. Quoted in A. C. Bell, A History if the Blockade if Germany 1914-1918 (London: HMSO, 1961), p. 674. 40. James Goldrick, 'The Battleship F1eet: The Test of War 1895-1919', in]. R. Hill (ed.), 17ze Oiford Illustrated History if the Royal Navy (Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 318. 41. Herwig, ''llJxury Fleet", op. cit., pp. 230-35. 42. John Terraine, To Win a War (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1978), pp.I77-9. 43. Herwig, "llixury Fleet", op. cit., pp. 248-53. 44. Scheer, Germany's High Seas Fleet, op. cit., pp. 358-9. 45. Quoted in Guy Chapman (ed.), Vain Glory: A Miscellarry if the Great War 1914-1918 (London: Cassell, 1937), p. 701. The Gennan argument that the submarine war on trade was their inevitable, if reluctant response to the illegal British blockade had been addressed to the still neutral United States as early as April 1916. Winton, Convoy, op. cit., p. 37. 46. Letter of 26 November 1918 from Admiral Beatty. Quoted in B. McL. Ranft (ed.), 17ze Beatty Papers Vol. I 1902-1918 (Aldershot: Scolar Press for Navy Records Society, 1989), p. 573.

10 Between Two Wars

1. Viscount Grey of Fallodon, Twenty-Five Years: 1892-1916 (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1925), p. 91. 2. J. Kenneth McDonald, 'The Washington Conference', in John B. Hatten­ dorf and Robert S. Jordan (eds), Maritime Strategy and the Balance if Power (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1989), p. 210. 3. Hattendorf and Jordan, Maritime Strategy, op. cit., p. 191. 4. Arthur ]. Marder, Old Friends, New Enemies (Oxford University Press, 1981), p. 6. The Australian Prime Minister, Billy Hughes, supported the Anglo­ Japanese Alliance at the Imperial Conference of 1921, but without success. Correlli Barnett, Engage the Enemy More Close[y (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991), p. 14. 5. Allan Nevins and Henry Steele Commager, America: 17ze Story if a Free People (Oxford University Press, 1942), pp. 397-9. 6. James Cable, Gunboat Diplomacy 1919-1991, 3rd edn (Basingstoke: Macmil- lan, 1994), passim. 7. Ibid., p. 14. 8. Ibid., pp. 37-42. 9. Stephen Roskill, Naval Policy Between the Wars (London: Collins, 1968), pp. 144-54. 10. Ibid., p. 154. Similar views emerge from the account by S. W. Page, 17ze Formation if the Baltic States (Harvard University Press, 1959), passim. II. Cable, Gunboat Diplomacy, op. cit., passim. 12. Stephen E. Pelz, Race to Pearl Harbor (Harvard University Press, 1974), pp. 10-20. 13. W. G. Beasley, 17ze Rise if Modem Japan (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1990), pp. 174-5. 188 Notes and Rqerences

14. Stephen Roskill, Naval Policy Between the Wars Vol. II (London: Collins, 1976), pp. 145, 149. IS. Pelz, Race to Pearl Harbor, op. cit., pp. 77, 79. 16. Alan Bullock, Hitler: A Stu4J in 7jranny (London: Odhams, 1952), p. 294. 17. Paul Kennedy, 77ze Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988), p. 296. 18. Pelz, Race to Pearl Harbor, op. cit., pp. 172~3. 19. Kennedy, 77ze Rise and Fall, op. cit., p. 296. 20. Ibid., 299~31 o. 21. 'We shall march on, if all in ruins falls, for today Germany belongs to us, tomorrow the whole world.' I am much indebted to Hans Wachter for his scholarly researches into the history of this song. It was originally written in 1932 for a Catholic youth movement. The text quoted incorporates in the second line the variant sung by the HitleIjugend. When the author, Ober­ leutnant Hans Baumann, included it in an anthology of marching songs he edited for the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (GHQ German Armed Forces) ~ Morgen marschieren wir, 2nd edn (Potsdam: Ludwig Voggenreiter Verlag, 1940) ~ he stuck a little closer to his original text. It is interesting to note that, of the 200 odd songs he included, over 60 per cent could be classed as patriotic or militaristic and only 30 per cent were of the senti­ mental or ribald varieties preferred by British soldiers. Just four songs were identifiably Nazi. 22. Frank Hardie, 77ze Aqyssinian Crisis (London: B. T. Batsford, 1974), pp. 154-62. 23. Arthur J. Marder, From the Dardanelles to Oran (Oxford University Press, 1974), pp.72-87. 24. Paul M. Kennedy, 77ze Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery (London: Allen Lane Penguin, 1976), p:290. 25. See Chapter 9. 26. James Cable, 77ze Royal Na1!Y and the Siege of Bilbao (Cambridge University Press, 1979), pp. 110-11. 27. 'Spanish neutrality is essential for us - our interest must always be, if it can be done, to detach Italy from the Axis' (the term then employed to describe the informal alliance of Germany, Italy and Japan). Herve Coutau­ Begarie and Claude Huan, Darlan (Paris: Librairie Artheme Fayard, 1989), p.145. 28. Lawrence R. Pratt, East of Malta, West of Suez (Cambridge University Press, 1975), p. 110. 29. Cable, Gunboat Diplomacy, op. cit., p. 169. 30. Those words had been employed by David Lloyd George, then a pacifically inclined Liberal Chancellor of the Exchequer, on 21 July 1911 to reject the idea of peace at the price of surrendering Britain's traditionally leading role in international society. 31. Martin H. Brice, 77ze Royal Navy and the Sino-Japanese Incident (London: Ian Allan, 1973), pp. 96, 89, 56~65. 32. HMSO, Fuehrer Conferences on Naval Affairs 1939-1945 (London: Greenhill, 1990), pp. 37-8. 33. Marder, Old Friends, op. cit., pp. 253, 332~3. Notes and Riferences 189

11 The Second World War

I. He was then Chief of Staff of the Japanese Navy. Quoted in Arthur J. Marder, Old Friends, New Enemies (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), p. 171. 2. He was then the British First Sea Lord. Quoted in Correlli Barnett, Engage the Enemy More Closely (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991), p. 440. 3. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988), p. 312. 4. The Germans, being historically minded, had gone to the trouble of extract­ ing from a French museum the railway carriage in which they had signed the armistice of 1918, so that the French might expunge that painful memory by themselves undergoing the same humiliation in the same carriage and also on a siding at Compiegne. The Japanese, equally well educated, had in 1914 summoned the Germans to surrender Kiaochow, their naval base in China, in the very words employed by Germany in 1895 when 'advising' Japan to return the Liaotung peninsula to China. History would have been spared some of its darker pages if both Germany and Japan had always been willing to rely on the erudite revenges their diplo­ mats devised. 5. James Cable, Gunboat Diplomacy 1919-1991 (London: Macmillan, 1994), pp. 8-9, 13. See also Winton S. Churchill, The Second World War Vol. III (London: Cassell, 1950), pp. 590-1. 6. Barnett, Engage the Enemy, op. cit., pp. 93-6. 7. Cable, Gunboat Diplomacy, op. cit., pp. 15-20; Malcolm Muggeridge (ed.), Ciano's Diary 1939-1943 (London: William Heinemann, 1947), p. 210. 8. Holger H. Herwig, "Luxury Fleet": The Imperial German Navy 1888-1918 (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1980), p. 191; HMSO, Fuehrer Conferences on Naval Affairs 1939-1945 (London: Greenhill, 1990), pp. 67, 83-4, 91. 9. Barnett, Engage the Enemy, op. cit., p. 205. 10. See 'Oran 3 July 1940' in Arthur J. Marder, From the Dardanelles to Oran (Oxford University Press, 1974); Herve Coutau-Begarie and Claude Huan, Mers El-Kibir (1940): La rupture ftanco-britannique (Paris: Economica, 1994), passim. II. Muggeridge, Ciano's Diary, op. cit., p. 274. 12. Barnett, Engage the Enemy, op. cit., pp. 209-13. 13. Ibid., pp. 670--1. 14. HMSO, Fuehrer Conferences, op. cit., pp. 169-72. 15. Winston S. Churchill, Their Finest Hour (London: Cassell, 1949), pp. 198-9, 395. 16. John Terraine, To Win a War (London: Sidgwick &Jackson, 1978), p. 14. 17. Barnett, Engage the Enemy, op. cit., p. 165. 18. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall, op. cit., pp. 361-2. 19. A.J. P. Taylor, English History 1914-1945 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1979), p.726. 20. Barnett, Engage the Enemy, op. cit., p. 249. 21. John Costello, The Pacific War 1941-1945 (London: Collins, 1981), p. 83. See also Thomas P. Lowry and John W. G. Welham, The Attack on Taranto: Blueprint for Pearl Harbor (Mechanicsburg, USA: Stackpole, 1996). 190 Notes and Riferences

22. Paul Kennedy, Strategy and Diplomacy 1870-1945 (Aylesbury: Fontana, 1984), pp. 184~7. 23. See Chapter 10. 24. Kennedy, the Rise and Fall, op. cit., p. 350. 25. Costello, the Pacific War, op. cit., p. 675. 26. Ibid., pp. 223~6. 27. See Christopher Thorne, Allies of a KInd: the United States, Britain and the War AgainstJapan, 1941~1945 (Oxford University Press, 1979), passim. 28. Barnett, Engage the Enemy, op. cit., p. 894. 29. Costello, the Pacific War, op. cit., p. 588. 30. Barnett, Engage the Enemy, op. cit., pp. 874-7. 31 . Ibid., pp. 39(}---1. 32. Kennedy, the Rise and Fall, op. cit., p. 354. 33. Marder, Old Friends, op. cit., p. 187. 34. Ibid., p. 427 . 35. Captain Russell Grenfell, Main Fleet to Singapore (London: Faber & Faber, 1951), p. 86; Kennedy, the Rise and Fall, op. cit., p. 354. 36. Barnett, Engage the Enemy, op. cit., p. 400; Marder, Old Friends, op. cit., p. 443. 37. Barnett, Engage the Enemy, op. cit., pp. 213, 376. 38. Costello, the Pacific War, op. cit., pp. 180~ l. 39. Winston S. Churchill, the Hinge of Fate (London: Cassell, 1951), pp. 182~3. 40. James Cable, 'Hong Kong: A Base Without a Fleet', in Diplomacy at Sea (London: Macmillan, 1985), pp. 147~5l.

12 The Cold War and its Hot Spots

I. ]. P. D. Dunrabin, the Cold War: the Great Powers and their Allies (Harlow: Longman, 1994), pp. 55~6. For the Gennan text and its provenance, see Hitlers Politisches Testament ~ die Bormann Diltate (Hamburg: Albrecht Knaus Verlag, 1981), p. 124. 2. James Cable, Britain's Naval Future (London: Macmillan, 1983), p. 18. 3. Paul Kennedy, the Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988), p. 358. 4. Christopher Thorne, Allies of a Kind (Oxford University Press, 1978), p. 503. American battle deaths in the Second World War were 31 per 10 000 population; British 57 per 10000. Melvin Small and]. David Singer, Resort to Arms (Beverley Hills, CA: Sage, 1982), p. 9l. 5. Kennedy, the Rise and Fall, op. cit., pp. 361 ~3. Russian battle deaths were 7.5 million and the Gennan 3.5 million, though in proportion to their populations, the Gennan ratio was higher: 502 per 10000 compared with the Russian 436 per 10000. Small and Singer, Resort to Arms, op. cit., p.91. 6. Martin Gilbert, '.Never Despair': Winston S. Churchill 1945~ 1965 (London: William Heinemann, 1988), pp. 197~212. 7. It was the US monopoly of atomic weapons that most impressed the rest of the world at the outset of the postwar era. Probably nobody outside the United States realised that, in April 1947, the US stockpile was less than a dozen imperfect bombs. Dunrabin, the Cold War, op. cit., p. 74, note 48. Notes and Riferences 191

8. James Cable, Gunboat Dipl~macy 1919-1991 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1994), pp. 178-9. 9. The original parties to the North Atlantic Alliance were Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom and the United States. Greece and Turkey joined in 1952; West Germany in 1955. The Warsaw Pact comprised Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and the Soviet Union. See Manlio Brosio Nato Facts and Figures (Brussels: Nato Information Service, 1969), passim; John Paxton, The Statesman's Year Book (London: Macmillan, 1988), p. 47. 10. Anthony Farrar-Hockley, The British Part in the Korean War Vol. II (London: HMSO, 1995), p. 418. 11. Sir Anthony Eden, Full Circle (London: Cassell, 1960), p. 135. 12. Cable, Gunboat Diplomacy, op. cit., pp. 53-6 I, 182-7. 13. The best original accounts of the Cuban Missile Crisis are Elie Abel, The Missiles Ii! October (London: Mac Gibbon & Kee, 1966), and Robert F. Kennedy, 13 Days (London: Macmillan, 1969). Their accounts have been dented only on points of detail by later revisionist writers, though controversy has always existed concerning the many different conclusions others have drawn from these events. See for instance James A. Nathan, 'The Missile Crisis: His Finest Hour Now', World Politics, vol XXVII, no. 2 Ganuary 1975). 14. S. S. Roberts, 'Superpower Naval Confrontations', in B. Dismukes and]. M. McConnell (eds), Soviet Naval Diplomacy (New York: Pergamon, 1979), pp. 204, 2 10. See also Cable, Gunboat Diplomacy, op. cit., pp. 42-5. IS. Cable, op. cit, pp. 44--5. 16. Bryan Ranft and Geoffrey Till, The Sea in Soviet Strategy, 2nd edn (London: Macmillan, 1989), pp. 102-3. 17. Ibid., p. 239. 18. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall, op. cit., p. 489. 19. Stephen White, Gorbachev and After (Cambridge University Press, 1992), p.135. 20. Captain Richard Sharpe (ed.), Jane's Fighting Ships 1996-97, pp. 17, 543.

13 Violent Peace: A Continuing Process

I. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988), pp. 392, 394-5. 2. Edward Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall Ii! the Roman Empire (London: Chatto & Windus, 1875) (1st edn 1788), p. 1201. Having quarrelled with his French and Austrian allies in the Third Crusade, Richard concluded a truce with his Moslem enemy Saladin and made for England, but was kidnapped in Vienna and held prisoner for over a year until his heavy ransom was paid. 3. Melvin Small and]. David Singer, Resort to Anns (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1982), pp. 80, 222. 4. James Cable, Gunboat Diplomacy 1919-1991 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1994), passim. 192 Notes and Riferences

5. Ibid., pp. 83, 186, 189-90. 6. 'It is not the big battalions that God backs, but the sharpshooters.' See also Cable, Gunboat Diplomacy 1919-1991, op. cit., pp. 183-4, 187, 199-200, 202-3; James Cable, Gunboat Diplomacy 1919-1979, 2nd edn (London: Macmillan, 1981), pp. 23-4. 7. Eric J. Grove, Vanguard to Trident: British Naval Policy since World War II (London: The Bodley Head, 1987), pp. 265-7. 8. Cable, Gunboat Diplomacy 1919-1991 (1994) op. cit., pp. 198-213, passim. 9. The Times, 17 May 1995. 10. Strategic Surv9', 1994195 (London: IISS), p. 165; TIze Times, 6 February 1996, 21 March 1996. 11. Mark J. Valencia, China and the South China Sea Disputes, Adelphi Paper no. 298 (London: IISS), passim. 12. The comparison offers some much needed support for Mahan's rather extravagant assertion that the principles of strategy, as opposed to tactics, 'belong to the unchangeable or unchanging order of things, remaining the same, in cause and effect, from age to age'. Captain A. T. Mahan, TIze Irifluence qf Sea Power upon History 1660-1783 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1940) (1st edn 1890), p. 88. 13. Secretary of State for Defence, Difence: Outline qf Future Policy, Cmnd 124 (London: HMSO, April 1957). 14. The Times, 22 April 1996. 15. Cable, Gunboat Diplomacy 1919-1991, op. cit., pp. 142-3; The Times, 15 March 1997. 16. Prince Otto von Bismarck (1815-98), who largely shaped the history first of Prussia, then of Imperial Germany.

14 Lessons and Speculations

1. T. S. Eliot, Burnt Norton (London: Faber and Faber, 1941), p. 9. 2. Commander A. C. Dewar RN, quoted in Geoffrey Till, Maritime Strategy in the Nuclear Age, 2nd edn (London: Macmillan, 1984), p. 9. 3. Professor Bryan Ranft in Foreword to Julian S. Corbett, Some Principles qf Maritime Strategy (London: Conway Maritime Press, 1972) (1st edn 1911), p. viii. 4. Paul Kennedy, TIze Rise and Fall qfBritish Naval Mastery (London: Allen Lane, 1976), pp. 183, 186, but the whole of Chapter 7 - 'Mahan Versus Mack­ inder' - repays reading. See also his TIze Rise and Fall qf the Great Powers (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988). 5. Kennedy, Great Powers, op. cit., p. xxiv. 6. Ibid., p. 89. 7. See nss, Strategzc Survey 1990-91 (Oxford: Brassey's May, 1991), passim. 8. James Cable, Gunboat Diplomacy 1919-1991, 3rd edn (Basingstoke: Macmil­ lan, 1994), pp. 195,121-2. 9. See Chapter 1. 10. Rear Admiral John McAnally, 'The Naval Recruiting and Training Agency Partnership Initiative' in Royal Navy Broadsheet 199617, (London: Ministry of Defence), p. 63. Nates and Riferences 193

II. Secretary of State for Defence, Statement on the Difence Estimates, Cm 2550 and Cm 3223 (1994) para 573 and (1996) para. 710 (London: HMSO). 12. The Times, 7 March 1997; Lt Comm. MJM Plumridge RN 'Merchant Naval Column', Naval Review, vol. 79, no. 2 (April 1991), p. 140. The author thanks the Editor of the Naval Review for permission to refer to a journal published for private circulation. 13. Nicholas Henderson, Mandarin: The Diaries of an Ambassador 1969-1982 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1994), p. 443. 14. The Times, 14 December 1996, 2 January 1997. IS. Cable, Gunboat Diplomacy, op. cit., p. 117. 16. George Orwell, Animal Farm: A Fairy Story (London: Seeker & Warburg, 1945). 17. The Military Balance, issues for 1985-6 and 1995-6 (London: IISS, 1985, and Oxford University Press for IISS, 1995). 18. The Times, 8 February 1997. 19. Ken Booth, Law, Force and Diplomacy at Sea (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1985), p. 216. 20. Earl of Birkenhead (1872-1930) in his Rectorial Address of 7 November, 1923. Bibliography

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Note: battles, nanted ships and wars are listed under those headings.

Africa 18,21,29,66-9,121, 130, Beachy Head (1690) 39,46 158, 172 Chesapeake Bay (1781) 49-51,99 Algeria Copenhagen (1801) 53 Algiers as pirate base 26, 28-9, 62 Copenhagen (1807) 52-3, 103, and France 62, 155, 173 106 and Turkey 28 Hango (1714) 42 American continent 19, 25, 42, 97 Han-San (1592) 28 Arabs Jutland (1916) 7,107-8, 135 after 1945 148,165,174 Kuantan 139 early sailors I 7 La Hougue (1692) 41, 44 empire 17-18 Lagos (1759) 47 fighting ships of 23 Lepanto (1571) 6-7 and Iberian peninsula I 7, 20 Lissa (1866) 54-5 in Mediterranean 17, 26 Manila Bay (1898) 93 pirates 17, 26 Midway (1942) 136-7 traders 22 Navarino (1827) 57-9,71 Argentina Ok-Po (1592) 28 Air Force 9,12-13, 168 Pearl Harbor (1941) 126, 135, andBritain 9-14,156 137-8 and Falklands 9-14,156,166,169, Port Arthur (1904) 87,126; 172-4 (1905) 88 General Galtieri 11-13, 175 Quebec (1759) 49 Junta 9-12 Quiberon Bay (1759) 47 navy 9-13,156 Salamis (480 Be) 16 Operation Rosario 10, 14, 166, Santiago (1898) 93 175 note 14 Sluys (1340) 28 and United States 10--13 Taranto (1940) 135 Australia 18,107,139 Trafalgar (1805) 52,58,75,89, Austria 40, 42-3, 54-5, 57, 61, 65, 160 74, 100, 107, 120, 144, 171 Tsushima (1905) 88-90, 160 Weihaiwei (1895) 85 Baltic Sea 31, 35, 40, 42, 55, 61, 73, Yai-Shan (1279) 28 87, 104, 115-17, 128-9, 157 Yalu River (1894) 85 Baltic States 116-17 Belgium 32,56-7,65,107,145,175 Barnett, Correlli, British note 13 historian 129,133-4,189-90 Black Sea 55, 73, 89 Battles Britain (since 1707) Armada (1588) 31 alliances 87,89, 114, 123, 135 Atlantic (1939-45) 127, 132 and Argentina 9-14, 156 Bantry Bay (1689) 38,46 ascendancy of 54, 75 Barfleur (1692) 41,44 and bluff 121-5

202 Index 203

and China 64--6,86,115,119,123-5 emasculation of 10, 114 complacency 100 expenditure on 41, 48, 56, 75, 120 decline of 75,113-14,164,171 and Falklands War 9-14 and Denmark 53, 61-2 and French fleet in 1940 130-2 and disarmament 113-14 'great peace establishments .. .' 48, economy of 54,75, 113-14, 119 122 empire in Asia 25, 114, 124--5, Grand Fleet 106,108,112,120 136,138-9 and Italy 132-4, 135 and First World War 98-100, andJane Austen 4 I, 178 note 5 107-12, 135 JelIicoe, Admiral, Earl 65, 69, 110, and France 40-52,54--66, 75, 104, 123 106, 130--2, 153, 165 Manning of 71, 73 and Germany 53,56,61-2, 75, Mediterranean Fleet 58-9, 62-3, 99-113,117,122,125,127, 69-70,121-3, 139, 155 129-30, 132-4 Naval strategy 47, 49, 54, 78-9, humiliation in China 124-5 106,109-12,119,122-4,138 and Hanover 40--1 Nelson, Admiral Viscount 41, 58, and Indonesia 157-8, 172 75,82 and Italy 121-3, 127, 129, 132-4 overseas deployment 64--70, 74, Jacobites 44--7 76, 145-6, 158 and Japan 81-2,86-9,114,123-5, Pacific Fleet 123, 137-8, 140--1, 127, 135-40 158,172 and Korea 84, 89, 145 political use of 52-3,56-70, Uoyd George 137, 188 note 30 115-17,138,156,160-1 Lord Keynes, economist 165 Pound, Dudley, Admiral 127, 129, and Mexico 63 133 Ministry of Defence 10-12, 160, rearms 120 167-8 recovers Hong Kong 139-40 prestige 130, 136 and Russia 116-17 privateering 41 and Second World War 127-40 and Russia 57-9, 71, 87-9, 106, and Singapore base 119, 138-9 116-17, 138 submarines I 09-10, 112 and seaborne trade 65, 75 suppression of slave trade 66-9 and United States 10-13,69,75, technological transformation 71-9 84,92,95,98, 127, 137-8, 140--6 tonnage less than Soviet Navy see also England, Ireland, Scotland ISO British Navy (after 1707) training 78 Admiralty 65, 67-8, 78,89, 110, Woodward, Admiral 9, 12, 160 122-3 see also England amphibious operations 48-130 battleships 75-6,78,92,101, 104, Cambodia 157-8 107 Canada 42-3,48,69,83,92, 107, bombards Algiers (1816 and 1824) 145,158 62, 70, 72 Caribbean Sea 26,29,41,93,97, lIS and China 64-6, 74, 115, 122-5, China 154--5 ancient 2, 17-22 Danube Flotilla 74 and barbarians 19-20 and Dogger Bank incident 88 Cheng Ho's fleets 20-21 dominance 54,69-70,105,124,165 Communism in 145-7, 154--5 204 Index

China (contd) and Israel 148-9 discovers compass 17 and Soviet Union 148-9 and European interference 24, Suez Canal 69, 155-6, 173 64-6,74,84,115, 117-19, and Turkey 62, 69 154-5 and US 156 and Japan 81-2,84-6,95, 115, Elizabeth I, Queen of England 4, 26, 117-19, 123-5 29-30 and Korea 84-7, 145-6 Emperor Napoleon I of France 31, and navy 3, 20, 64, 159-60, 44,48,52,54,57,74,164,172 170-1 England Peking 95, 118, 154, 160-1 and Crusades 17 piracy 65-6 East India Company 25, 32 population 20 and France 6, 26, 28, 37-9, 41 relative rise 171 Francis Drake 4 renounces the oceans 20, 24-5 and Glorious Revolution 6, 36-9 and seaborne trade 21-2, 24 and navy 3, 24, 26, 29-33, 35-9, turbulence of 115, 11 7-19, 123 41 and United States 91,95, 115, and Netherlands 5-6, 25, 29-39, 117-19,138,140,145-7,149, 51-2,99 170-1 and Nonnan Conquest 6, 17 and Vietnam 160 Oliver Cromwell 35 Churchill, Winston, British Prime pirates 25-6, 29-30 Minister population 30, 43 defence of 130-2 and Spain 25, 29-32, 41 First Lord of the Admiralty 105, and Vikings 17 109, 129 Europe 'iron curtain' speech 142-3 decline 19 and naval decisions 129, 138 expansion 19 Prime Minister 129, 133 First World War 100 strategist 129-35 future of 170, 172, 174 Colombia 93, 95, 158 rash innovations 179 note 14 Convoy and Escort 25-6, 78, 110, and United States 94, 150 132, 137,186 note 37 Cuba 92-4, 147-8, 159 Falklands and Argentina 9-14, 156, 169 Denmark future defence of 169 and Austria 61 and international opinion 174 and Britain 53, 61-2 one naval war since 1945 172 and Gennany 130 war of 1982 9-14, 160, 166, 169, navy 52-4 I 72-4, I 75 note 14 and piracy 65 Fighting Ship and Prussia 61 cannon 23, 71, 162 Vikings 16 concept of 2-3, 14, 17 wars of 40, 52-3 in nineteenth century 71-9 in seventeenth century 35-9, 71 Egypt in twenty-first century 162 after 1945 147-9, 155 Finland 42, 55, 130, 144 and Britain 69,76,133,155,173 Fisher, Admiral Sir John ~ater fighting ships 2, 23, 58-9 Lord) 53, 65, 76, 104-5, 109 Index 205

France training 78 andAlgeria 62,155,173 triumph at Chesapeake Bay 49- 51 , and Britain 40-52,54--66, 75, 104, 99 106, 130-2, 153, 165 and United States 128 and China 64--5, 115 war on trade 77 civil wars 30 and disarmament 113-14 Galleys 2,7,15- 16,23,26, 28,30, and England 6, 26, 28, 37-9, 42,71 40-52 German Navy European ascendancy 164 battleships 101 - 4, 107, 110, 112 Free French 128, 130 and Britain 53,99-111, 127, and Germany 56,61, 104, 106-7 129-30, 166 hires foreign ships 3 challenge of 79 and Indochina 139, 157 in Chinese waters 125 and Italy 56, 122-3 emergence of 101 - 3, 150 and Japan 81,85, 136 expenditure on 121 and Korea 145 gunboat diplomacy 95 , 97 and Mexico 63 High Seas Fleet 53, 76, 106, 108, and Netherlands 35, 37- 9, 52 111-13, 130, 151 nineteenth-century turbulence 56 and Norway 129-30 and pirates 25-6, 29, 35, 65 overseas bases 74, 86 population 37-43 Raeder, Admiral 125, 130 and privateers 4, 25-6, 35, 40- 1, Risikogedanke 103, 105-7, 122 16 7 Scheer, Admiral 106, 108, 112- 12 relative decline of I 71 submarines (U-boats) 28- 9, 77- 8, revolution of 1789 51 108-10, 112, 132, 166 and Soviet Union 174 war on trade 77- 8, 108-10, 112, slaves in Algiers 26 132 and United States 49- 51, 99, 128, Germany 144 aspirations 79, 100-6, 121 Vichy regime 130-2 Bismarck, Qtto von 100, 161 and Vikings 16-17 and Britain 53,56, 61 - 2, 75, wars of 40-52 99-113,117,122,125, 127, French Navy 129-30, 132- 4 and Britain 43,59, 63, 130-2 and British blockade 110-12 Colbert rebuilds 35 colonies 10 1 Choiseul rebuilds 48 and Czechoslovakia 121 endangered 35, 132 economy 75, 100, 120-1 and England 37-9 Empire (1871-1918) 53, 100 inadequately financed 43-4 and France 56,61 , 104, 106-7 and Indochina 64, 74, 157 and Greece 134 infancy of 26 and Italy 134 Jeune Ecole 76-7, 108 and Japan 85- 6, 100 manning of 71 keeps her place 171 overseas bases 74, 130-2, 156 menacing advance of 100, 120- 1 political use of 37-9, 44- 52, 69, 'Morgen die ganze Welt' 121, 188 123, 128, 155-6 note 21 rearms 120 part payment for Gulf War 169 technological transformation 72- 9 population 75, I 00 206 Index

Germany (contd) Hong Kong post 1945 144 British acquisition of 64--5 reanns 120-1 President Roosevelt frustrated 140 shortage of raw materials 121 prosperity of 140 and Soviet Union 134, 142, retrieval 139-40 144 surrender 139 and United States 95, 98, 144 and US Navy 93 war casualties 142 and Wille zur Macht 100 Iceland Gibraltar 6,17-18,133 ancient 16 Greece fishery dispute 156,158 ancient 2,15-17,19 India as sailors 16-1 7 Bengal Marine 64 foreign interference 56-60, Britain in 43, 58, 89 115-16,144 candidate for Top Nations Club and Korea 145 171 Guatemala 146 defeatism in 139 Gunboat Diplomacy early sailors 18 after 1945 166 and European adventurers 2, 21-4 Albania 160 Mutiny 64 in Chinese waters 64--6,91,95, navy 64, 158 115, 118, 155 wars 107 definition 1 15 Indian Ocean 20, 23-5, 33-4, 68, flourishes between World Wars 139 113-19 Indonesia peak 115 'Confrontation' with Malaysia and and political purpose 8, 96-8 Britain 157-8, 172 primacy of political factors 155 Dutch ascendancy over 33-4, 139 protecting British subjects and President Sukarno 158 trade 63-5, 95 spices 22 and US Navy 91,95-8, 160 uses naval force 156 Invasion Harold, King of England 5, 17 of Britain 44--8, 55-6 History of Cyprus 158 darker pages of 189 note 4 of Eastern Europe 7 echoes reverberate 141 of England 4--6, 8, 30-,31, 36-9 failure to learn from 85, 113, 126, of Falklands 9-14 136, 163 importance of political support 47 learning from mistakes 161 of Korea 28 and maritime strategy 162 of Kuwait 8 politics of the past 1 of Norway 129-30 Hitler, Adolf, German dictator of Russia 134,143 becomes Gennan Chancellor 120 of Spain 6 begins Gennan reannament 120 Turkish 7, 158 bluffs 121-2 Iran leaves League of Nations 120 ancient Persia 16 and naval decisions 129-130 after 1945 156, 158-9, 166 strategist 129, 134 and Russia 143 valedictory prediction 141 and US 159 Index 207

Iraq political failures 135~8 army air and force 156, 165 population 84, 90 Gulf War of 1991 165 and Portugal 80 and Kuwait 8, 156, 165, 174 prestige 94 missiles for 166 rearmament 118, 120-1 revolutions in 147 receives 'advice' 85-6 Saddam Hussein, ruler of 8 renaissance of 79, 81~90, 171 and US 165, 168~9 and Russia 81, 85~90, 135~6 Ireland 37~9, 44 Second World War 125~40, 166 Israel 148, 166 shortage of raw materials 121, 125, Italy 135, 137 air force 120, 132~3 strategic errors 135-8 and bluff 121~3 surrender 140 and Britain 121~3, 127, 129, turns back on outside world 80 132~4 using the barbarian 81 and disarmament 113~ 14 and US 80~1, 90~1, 113~14, expansion 121 124--5, 127~8, 135~40 and Greece 115~116 Yamamoto, Isoroku, Admiral gunboat diplomacy I 15~ 16, 160 125~6, 135~7 Mussolini 115, 121~2, 133 Japanese Navy navy 54--5, 115, 120, 125, 133, and China 81~2, 84--6, 117~19, 139, 160 123~5 and pirates 65 early British influence 82~4 relative decline of I 71 force for political purposes 85, 136 shortage of raw materials 121 future of 170~ I independence of Naval staff 86, Japan 135 alliances 87,89, 114, 135 initiates decline and fall of British ancient 28, 80 Empire 139 Asian imperialism of 86, 89, 01, political ambitions 118~ 19 119~21, 125, 136 renaissance of 82~90, 120, 124--6 and Britain 81 ~2, 86~90, 114, Second World War 127, 135~40 123~5, 127, 135~40 surprise torpedo attacks 85, 87, and China 81~2, 84--6, 95, 115, 135 117~20, 123~5, 136 and disarmament II 3~ 15 Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany 15, early European contacts 24, 34 79, 101~3, 105~6, 108, 111-12 Emperor 86~ 7 Kennedy, Paul, British historian 79, expansion 83, 121, 125~6 99~100, 103, 120, 151, 153, and France 81, 85, 136 163~4, 167 and Germany 82, 85 King Edward VII of Great Britain and Great War 107, 114 53, 101~3, 105 industry 82, 84, 86, 114 King James II of England 5, 36~9, 44 and Korea 84--7, 89 King Louis XIV of France 37,41, militarisation I 18 167 naval force used against 81, 156 King Philip II of Spain 29~32 and Netherlands 80--1, 125, 136 Korea new naval power 30 ancient 2, 28 part payment for Gulf War 169 foreign interest in 84~ 7, 89 208 Index

Korea (contd) CONQUEROR, British battleship 81 South 56 CONQUEROR , British war (1950--3) 145-6 submarine 13 CONSORT, British destroyer 154 League of Nations 114,116,118-22, COSSACK, British destroyer 129 155 DARTMOUTH, English frigate 38 Lebanon 147 DE GRASSE, French destroyer 50 Liberia 158, 160 DOLPHIN, US warship 96 Libya 158, 166 DREADNOUGHT, British battleship 104 Macao 24-5, 34, 139 DRESDEN, German cruiser 97 Mahan, Alfred Thayer, naval ELISABETH, French 64-gun strategist 15,41,52,79,91-3, ship 45-6 102, 107, 192 note 12 EMILE BERTIN, French Malaysia 157-8, 160, 172 cruiser 157 Malvinas see Falklands ERIE, American slaver 67 Manchuria 85-9, 118-9, 123, 136 ESSEX, US air craft carrier 147 Mediterranean Sea 22, 26, 28, 30, 62, GLOIRE, LA, French ironclad 56 115, 121-3, 127, 132-4, 144 GUAM, US helicopter carrier 159 Mexico 63, 96-8 GYMNOTE, French submarine 77 HERMIONE, British cruiser 97 Nuned Ships HOHENZOLLERN, Imperial German AGAMEMNON, first British steam yacht 102 battleship 72 HORNET, US aircraft carrier 137 ALTMARK, German prison ship HYACINTH, British 18-gun ship 64 129 INDEPENDENCE, US aircraft AMETHYST, British frigate 154-5 carner 148-9 ANSON, British battleship 139 INDOMITABLE, British aircraft ASIA, British sailing ship of the carner 139 line 71 INVINCIBLE, British aircraft ARROMANCHES, French aircraft carrier 11-12,168 carner 156 JACINTO, US warship 69, 92 BEE, British gunboat 125 JESUS OF LUBECK, English Queen's BELGRANO, Agentine cruiser 13 ship 29 BELLEROPHON, British ship of the KEARSARGE, US warship 77 line 74 KENNEDY, US aircraft carrier 148 BENGUET, Philippine tank landing LADYBIRD, British gunboat 125 ship 159 LIBERTY, US spy ship 166 BITTERN, British warship 65 LIGHTNING, British naval tug 72 BRITANNIA, British naval training LION, British 60-gun ship 45-6 ship 78 LOCH RUTHVEN, British frigate CABO SAN ANTONIO, Argentine 68 landing ship 10 LUSITANIA, British passenger CAMPERD OWN, British liner 109 battleship 78 MAINE, US second class CANTERBURY, New Zealand battleship 92 destroyer 169 MAYAGUEZ, US merchant CAPTAIN, British battleship 76 ship 158 CARDIFF, British destroyer 169 MERRIMAC, American ironclad 55 Index 209

MIGUEL MALVAR, Philippine patrol VICTORY, British flagship 75 vessel 159 VOLAGE, British 28 gunship 64 MIKAsA,Japanese battleship 87 NATO (North Atlantic Treaty MINION, English Queen's ship 29 Organisation) 15, 144--5, 150 MISSOURI, US battleship 140, 144 Naval Force MOHICAN, US warship 67 achievements 14, 27, 34--5, 36~9, MONITOR, American ironclad 55 43, 88~9, 157 NANIwA,Japanese cruiser 83,85, after 1945 154~61 87 battles 7, 23, 36, 78 NAPOLEON, first French steam blockade 7, 25, 47, 49, 55, 60, battleship 72 78~9, 106, 110-12, 147~8, 166 NASHEVILLE, US warship 95 convoy and escort 78, 110 NIMITZ, US aircraft carrier 159 cost-effective 171, 174 NIOBE, British warship 63 definition 3, 14 OTAGO, New Zealand frigate 158 environment for 79, 158~61, 163, PANAY, US gunboat 125 169-74 POTEMKIN, Russian battleship 89 future of 167~74 PRINCE OF WALES, British impact 99, 117 battleship 138~9 and industry 164, 166, 171 RATTLER, British screw warship irrelevant 6,40-2,62, 162 72 and land 7,24--5, 31, 163~7 RE D'ITALIA, Italian battleship 54 limited 10, 115 REPULSE, British battle negative 6, 17~18 cruIser 138~9 peace-time use of 7, 115, 154--61 ROOSEVELT, US aircraft political purpose of 8, 36~9, 52~3, carrier 148 56~70, 89, 113~19, 147 ROYAL CHARLES, English and plunder 40~2, 52 flagship 36 time needed for success 39, 117 SAN GABRIEL, Portuguese and trade 7, 22~5, 36, 63~5, 77~8, caravel 3 112 SAN JACINTO, US warship 69, underlying consistency 163 92 and war 9~14, 31, 35~9, 40-56, SNIPE, British warship 156 77~8, 107, 154, 160, 165 SOVEREIGN OF THE SEAS, English Navies I OO-gun ship 7 I change in twentieth century 160-2, STRASB OURG, French battle­ 167, 169~74 cruIser 131 disarmament 113~ 14, 120, 149 TAKAo,Japanese heavy early 3~4, 26 cruIser 138 expense of 30, 75 T ALB 0 T, British sailing warship 58 flexible instrument 174 TRENT, British merchant ship 69 give choice 173 TRENTON, US helicopter hiring ships 167~8 carner 159 mercenary navies 169 VEINTICINCO DE MAYO, Argentine new challenges 79 aircraft carrier 10 nineteenth-century changes in VENERABLE, British aircraft 71~9 carner 139 privatisation 26, 30, 167~9 VICTORIA, British battleship 76, raison d'etre 172~3 78 strategic fossilisation 78~9, 162 210 Index

Navies (contd) federalism 17 I tenns of service 71-2 glittering prizes 174 training 71 struggle for power over people 5, weapons 68-71, 76-7, 160 163, 171-4 Navigation 2,16-17,21 Popes Netherlands Alexander VI 26 after 1945 145 Gregory XIII 7 and Brazil 34 Nicholas 22 and Britain 57 Pius V 7 commerce 31-6 Portugal East India Company 32-4 and Arabs 17,20 and England 5-6, 25, 29-39, 51-2, and Britain 57 99 early achievements 19-25, 27 and France 35,37,41,52,57 fighting ships 2, 23-5 and Hanseatic League 31-2 'frightfulness' of 23, 176 note incandescence 33-5 13 and Indonesia 24--5, 32-4, 139 Goa 23-5,34 and Japan 80--1, 125, 136 and India, 2-3, 21-5 later wars of 40-- I and Indian Ocean 25 logistics 31-3 losses at sea 22 national independence 32 and naval force 2-3,24--6,99, 115, and naval force 25, 32-9, 65, 115 158 navy 24, 26, 32-7,41, 54, 98-9 and Netherlands 33-5, 39 outstanding achievement in 1688 and Papal bull of 1452 22 36-9, 99 population 20 population 33 and Spain 24, 27,57 and Portugal 33-5 and United States 148 privateers 4, 25-6 victim of pirates 26 'Sea Beggars' 26, 29 Privateers and Spain 26, 29-35 British 41 New Zealand 107, 158, 169 definition 4, 26 North Sea 73, 103-4, 106 Dutch 25-6 Norway 129-30, 145 English 25-6 French 25-6,40-1, 167 Panama 93, 95 and pirates 4 Canal 93,95 Prussia 40,42-3,54-5,57,61,65, Paracel and Spratly Islands 159-60 100 Pepys, Samuel (1633-1703) 5-6,33, 36 Richelieu, Cardinali, 35 Persian Gulf 22-3, 25, 68, 159, 165, Reagan, US President (1981-9) 11, 169 159 Philippines 86, 93-4, 139, 159-60 Red Sea 22-3, 68 Piracy 4, 7, 24-6, 28-30, 34, 62, Romans 15-18 65-6 Royal Navy see British Navy Poland 144, 174 Russia (before and after the Soviet Politics Union) changes little 5, 163 after 1992 151-2 coercion 8, 163, 173-4 and Britain 57-9,71,87-9,106, a conservative profession 163 116-17, 138 Index 211

disaffection in 89 casualties 127, 142 expansion 84, 86-7 Cold War becomes power and Japan 81,84--90 struggle 148 keeps her place 171 and Communism 142-4, 140 navy 54--5,57-9, 62, 71, 73-5, and Egypt 148-9 87-90,115,117,150--1,160, fall of 151-2 l70--1 Gorbachev, Mikhail 147, 15 1 revolution of 1917 89, 116-17 industry 15 1 Rozhestvensky, Admiral 88-9, 160 Khrushchev, Nikita 147-8 and Turkey 62 military power 142,151 wars of 40,42, 52, 55, 73, 107 and nuclear weapons 147-8, 151, 170 Slave Trade and Poland 157, 174 and Africa 23, 29, 66-9 rearms 120, 151 and Arabs 23, 26, 68 and Second World War 142 and Australia 68 Stalin, Joseph, Soviet dictator and Brazil 66-7 142-4, 150 and Britain 42,57,66-9 and the US 141-52, 165 campaign against 57, 66-9 Spain and England 29 and Arabs 17 free trade and private enterprise 66 Armada 4,29,31-2 and naval force 7, 67-9 army 30 and Portugal 22-3, 29, 66 and Britain 41-2, 44, 48, 123 and Spain 29, 42, 66 dominions 30 and United States 66-9 early achievements 19, 25 Somalia 159 and England 25, 29-32, 41 South-East Asia and France 25, 48, 56 andBritain 138-9,158 invasion of 6 and China 20--32 and land west of Cape Verde early sailors 18 Islands 26 and Japan 136, 138-9 Medina Sidonia, Duke of 4, 31 Soviet Navy in Mediterranean 6-7, 26 after Second World War 150 in navy 26-7, 30-5,48, 54, 65, arms race 151 115, 123, 156 challenges American supremacy and Netherlands 25-6, 29-35 151, 165 passes its peak 35 Mediterranean crisis of 1973 population 30 149-50 and Portugal 24,27,30-31 overtakes British tonnage 150 treasure fleets 34, 41 and Poland 157 and Turks 26 submarines 150 and United States 92-94 and Syria 148 as VIctIm 4, 25, 63 see also Russian Navy wars of 40--1, 48 Soviet Union Sweden and Afghanistan 157, 164--5, navy 42, 54, 98 173 neutrality 130 agriculture 151 Vikings 16 and Baltic 117 wars of 40, 42 and Britain 117,130,138 Syria 63, 147-8 212 Index

Taiwan (Fonnosa) 85, 146-7, 160 and China 91,95, 115, 119, 138, Technological Change 140,149,170-1 annour 56, 71 Civil War 90-3 anns race 74-5, 79, 103-5, continental conquest 90-1 112-14,120-1,150-1, 166 crisis of 1973 148-50 British and French lead in 73 and Cuba 92-4, 147-8 expense of 75, I 71-2 demobilises 142 iron and steel 71 disannament initiative 113 paddle steamers 72 economy 75,90, 94, 97, 114, political impact 56, 73 119-20, 141, 144 reliance on 161 Eisenhower, President 147 screw ships 71 First World War 107, 109-11, 114 shells 71, 162 'flight from the flag' 78 steam 56, 71-5, 162 foreign policy 94 strategic fossilisation 78-9, 162 and France 49-51,99, 128, 144 submarine 77, 162 and Germany 95, 98, 144 torpedoes 71, 76 and Hawaii 83,86,94, 138 in twentieth century 170-1 ideology and Cold War 146-9 Thatcher, Margaret, British Prime independence of 50-I, 99 Minister 1979-90 11-12,14, Indians 90-1 159 isolation 90, I 14 Tirpitz, Alfred von, Gennan and Israel 148-9, 166 admiral 53, 102-8, 122, 125, andJapan 80-1,83-4,90-1,128, 172 135-40 Togo, Heihachiro, Japanese and Korea 84, 145 admiral 85, 87-8, 126 and Marshall Aid 144 Trade and Mexico 63, 90-1 and naval force 22-5 Monroe doctrine 92, 95-6 and war 28, 32 nuclear weapons 144, 149-51, 170 Turkey and Philippines 86, 93-4, 136, 139 and Britain 57-9 population 75, 90 and Cyprus 158, 166 prestige 94, 136, 158 expansion 28 and Russia 91 and Korea 145 and the Soviet Union 141-52, 165 and naval force 6-7, 18,28,57-9, and Spain 92-4, 123 156 standard of living 141 navy 98 supreme position 142, 171 and Russia 57-9, 62 territory untouched by war 141 and Straits 57-9 Truman, President 143-4 and United States 144 and Vietnam 157, 164-5 war casualties 141, 146 United Nations 8, 10-11, 159, 163, Weinberger, Caspar, Secretary of 168 Defense 168 United States US Navy and Argentina 10-13 aircraft carriers 141, 147-50, 157, Australia turns to 139 159, 16.'), 168 and Britain 10-13,69,75,84, and Asian communism 147-7 92,95,98, 127, 137-8, attacks Tripoli (1803-4) 62 140-6 battleships 91-3, 98 Index 213

in Chinese waters 64,91,95, 115, American Independence 118, 120, 124--5, 154, 159-60 (1776-82) 47-51,164 expansion 77, 91, 98, 119-20 ancient 28 financially undernourished 73, 91, Anglo-Dutch (1652-74) 35-6 98, 119-20 Anglo-Spanish (1588-1604) 30-1 Great White Fleet 96 Austrian Succession (1740-8) 40, honour of the flag 67, 91 42,47 andJapan 80-1, 113-14, 125-6, Boer (1899-1902) 103 135-40 Borneo (1963-6) 157-8 lusty infant 54 Cold (1945-91) 141-52 in Mediterranean 62, 96, 144, Crimean War (1854--6) 55-6, 73, 148-50 75 and Mexico 96-8 English Civil (1642-9) 35 and Monrovia 160 Falklands (1982) 9-14,160, 166, notable successes of 147-50, 157 168-9 Operation Urgent Fury 159 First World see Great War below overseas bases 74, 83, 86, 94 Franco-Prussian (1870-1) 56 Pacific Fleet 141 Great Northern (1700-21) 40 Plan Orange 84 Great War (1914--18) 55,98-100, Plan Red 84 107-14,116,120,164,166,174 and Spanish-American War Gulf War (1990-1) 165, 168-9 93-4 Italy-Abyssinia (1935-6) 121-3 submarines 137, 150 Jenkins' Ear (1739-41) 41 and trade 91, 137 Korean (1950-3) 145-6 training 78 Peloponnesian (43 1-404 B C ) transcends all others 141, 144, 15 I , 15-16 159, 165 Punic (218-201 BC) 15 and Turkey 144 Russo-Japanese (1904--5) 83, 160 use for political purposes 96-7, Second World War (1939-45) 137-8,144,146-50,160-1 120-1,125-43,150,166,171 victory in the Pacific 140 Seven Years (1756-63) 40, 42-3, Yangtse river patrol 118 48 Sino-Japanese (1894--5) 85-6, 166 Vasco da Gama, Portuguese Spanish-American (1898) 93-4 adventurer 2-3,20-1,23 Spanish Civil (1936-9) 123 Venice 6-7,22 Spanish Succession (1701-19) 40-2 Vietnam 147,149,157, 160, Washington, George, US 164--5 President 42-3,49-50, 145 Vikings 16-18 William of Normandy, King of England 5-6, 8, 17 Warsaw Pact 15, 145 William of Orange, King of Wars England 5-6, 36-9, 44, 51 American Civil War (1861-5) 55, 63, 69, 77-8, 91-3 Yugoslavia 172