The Russian Far East

Home , Amur Oblast, Bioregion, Chita Oblast, Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Kamchatka Oblast, Krai

Newell, J. 2004. The Russian Far East: A Reference Guide for Conservation and Development. McKinleyville, CA: Daniel & Daniel. 466 pages Newell, J. 2004. The Russian Far East: A Reference Guide for Conservation and Development. McKinleyville, CA: Daniel & Daniel. 466 pages The Russian Far East A REFERENCE GUIDE FOR CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT

SECOND EDITION

Josh Newell

DRAFT COPY — NOT FOR SALE OR CITATION

List of fi gures, maps, tables, and appendixes vi Preface ix Acknowledgments x Useful terms xii How to use this book xix

1 / Overview of the Russian Far East 3 2 / Primorsky Krai 111 3 / Khabarovsk Krai 145 4 / Jewish Autonomous Oblast 179 5 / Amur Oblast 197 6 / Republic of Sakha 227 7 / Magadan Oblast 259 8 / Chukotsky Autonomous Okrug (Chukotka) 283 9 / Koryak Autonomous Okrug (Koryakia) 313 10 / Kamchatka Oblast 341 11 / Sakhalin Oblast 375

Appendixes 415 List of abbreviations 425 Notes 427 A note on transliteration 445 Contributors 447 Index 450

Newell, J. 2004. The Russian Far East: A Reference Guide for Conservation and Development. McKinleyville, CA: Daniel & Daniel. 466 pages List of fi gures, maps, tables, and appendixes

Figures Figure 7.1 Industrial production in Magadan Figure 1.1 Industrial production and trade in the rfe . . . . 8 Oblast, 1999 ...... 261 Figure 1.2 Growing stock of mature and overmature Figure 7.2 Gold production in Magadan, 1993–2000 . . . 261 forests in the rfe, 1961–2000 ...... 31 Figure 7.3 Population growth in Magadan City, Figure 1.3 Pollock as a component of total rfe catch, 1939–1997 ...... 271 1985–1999...... 53 Figure 7.4 Gold extraction from the Upper Kolyma, Figure 1.4 rfe red/blue king crab harvest, U.S. and 1934-1998 ...... 273 Russia, 1970–1999 ...... 53 Figure 10.1 Industrial production in Kamchatka Figure 1.5 Energy surplus and defi cit for selected Oblast, 1999 ...... 343 countries, 1965–2020...... 62 Figure 11.1 Japanese timber harvest in southern Figure 1.6 Russian timber exports to Northeast Asia, Sakhalin, 1912–1935 ...... 401 1991–2001 ...... 74 Figure 11.2 Forest fi res on Karafuto,1926 –1935 ...... 402 Figure 1.7 Causes of forest fi res in therfe , Figure 11.3 Timber production in Sakhalin Oblast, 1987–1997 ...... 80 1940–1999 ...... 403 Figure 1.8 Distribution of tigers, rfe ...... 108 Figure 11.4 Change in the Annual Allowable Cut Figure 1.9 Distribution of leopards, Primorsky Krai for Sakhalin Oblast, 1953–1999 ...... 404 and northeastern China...... 108 Figure 11.5 Foreign investment in the timber Figure 2.1 Foreign trade with Primorsky Krai, 2000. . . . 115 industry, Sakhalin Oblast ...... 405 Figure 2.2 Timber harvest in Primorsky Krai, 1959–2000 ...... 131 Maps Figure 3.1 Industrial production in Khabarovsk Krai, Map 1.1 Russian Far East ...... 2 1999 ...... 149 Map 1.2 Geographic regions of the Russian Figure 3.2 Foreign trade with Khabarovsk Krai, Federation ...... 13 2000...... 150 Map 1.3 Permafrost and larch cover of the Russian Figure 3.3 Gold production in Khabarovsk Krai, Federation ...... 14 1991-2000 ...... 167 Map 1.4 Terrestrial ecosystems of the Russian Figure 4.1 Industrial production in the Jewish Federation ...... 14 Autonomous Oblast, 1999 ...... 181 Map 1.5 Frontier forests of the Russian Federation...... 15 Figure 5.1 Industrial production in Amur Oblast, 2000...... 200 Map 1.6 Battle for the Sikhote-Alin forests ...... 15 Figure 5.2 Exports from Amur Oblast, 2000...... 201 Map 1.7 Protected areas and biodiversity hotspots of Primorsky Krai ...... 16 Figure 5.3 Soviet-era industry in Amur Oblast ...... 211 Map 1.8 Protected areas and biodiversity hotspots Figure 5.4 Nonforested lands in Amur Oblast...... 212 of Khabarovsk Krai ...... 16 Figure 6.1 Gold production in Sakha, 1993–1999 . . . . . 247 Map 1.9 Protected areas and biodiversity hotspots of Jewish Autonomous Oblast ...... 17 Figure 6.2 Gold reserves and production in Sakha, by region ...... 248 Map 1.10 Protected areas and biodiversity hotspots of Amur Oblast ...... 17

vi  THE RUSSIANNewell, J. FAR 2004. TheEAST Russian Far East: A Reference Guide for Conservation and Development. McKinleyville, CA: Daniel & Daniel. 466 pages Map 1.11 Protected areas and biodiversity hotspots Map 7.3 Mining deposits of Magadan Oblast ...... 279 of Republic of Sakha ...... 18 Map 8.1 Chukotsky Autonomous Okrug...... 282 Map 1.12 Protected areas and biodiversity hotspots Map 8.2 Indigenous lands of Chukotsky of Magadan Oblast ...... 19 Autonomous Okrug...... 308 Map 1.13 Protected areas and biodiversity hotspots Map 9.1 Koryak Autonomous Okrug ...... 312 of Chukotsky Autonomous Okrug ...... 19 Map 9.2 Mining deposits of Koryakia ...... 316 Map 1.14 Protected areas and biodiversity hotspots of Koryak Autonomous Okrug ...... 20 Map 9.3 Indigenous lands of Koryak Autonomous Okrug...... 332 Map 1.15 Protected areas and biodiversity hotspots of Kamchatka Oblast...... 20 Map 10.1 Kamchatka Oblast ...... 340 Map 1.16 Protected areas and biodiversity hotspots Map 10.2 Mining deposits of Kamchatka Oblast ...... 361 of Sakhalin Oblast ...... 21 Map 10.3 Indigenous lands of Kamchatka Oblast . . . . . 364 Map 1.17 Marine harvest quotas of the rfe ...... 52 Map 11.1 Sakhalin Oblast...... 374 Map 1.18 King crab harvest quotas of the rfe ...... 57 Map 11.2 Sakhalin offshore oil and gas projects...... 380 Map 1.19 Energy infrastructure of the rfe...... 63 Map 1.20 Offshore petroleum reserves and projects, rfe ...... 65 Tables Table 1.1 Population of the rfe, 2000 ...... 7 Map 1.21 Timber export to China ...... 75 Table 1.2 Global carbon stocks in vegetation and Map 1.22 Timber export to Japan ...... 75 top 1 m of soils ...... 29 Map 1.23 Timber export to South Korea ...... 76 Table 1.3 Major environmental issues and problem Map 1.24 Mineral deposits of the Russian Far East . . . . . 82 areas ...... 30 Map 2.1 Primorsky Krai...... 110 Table 1.4 Countries with the world’s remaining frontier forest ...... 32 Map 2.2 Mining deposits of Primorsky Krai ...... 135 Table 1.5 Ramsar Sites in the rfe, March 2002 ...... 34 Map 2.3 Indigenous lands of Primorsky Krai ...... 141 Table 1.6 Group I, II, III forests in the rfe ...... 37 Map 3.1 Khabarovsk Krai...... 144 Table 1.7 Output of the rfe forest sector, 1995–1998 . . . . 68 Map 3.2 Mining deposits of Khabarovsk Krai...... 166 Table 1.8 Reported rfe timber production, Map 3.3 Timber production in southern 1995–2000 ...... 69 Khabarovsk Krai ...... 170 Table 1.9 Top fi fteen timber producers in therfe ...... 70 Map 3.4 Indigenous lands of Khabarovsk Krai ...... 173 Table 1.10 Resource base and production of Map 4.1 Jewish Autonomous Oblast ...... 178 strategic metals and minerals...... 84 Map 4.2 Forests of Jewish Autonomous Oblast...... 191 Table 1.11 Foreign investment in the rfe, 1995-2001 . . . . 88 Map 4.3 Mining deposits of Jewish Autonomous Table 1.12 Foreign investment and public fi nance Oblast...... 192 in resource extraction projects in the rfe ...... 90 Map 5.1 Amur Oblast...... 204 Table 1.13 Populations of indigenous peoples in Map 5.2 Mining deposits of Amur Oblast ...... 205 the rfe ...... 101 Map 5.3 Hydropower development in Amur Oblast . . . 222 Table 2.1 Protected areas in Primorsky Krai ...... 121 Map 5.4 Indigenous lands of Amur Oblast ...... 224 Table 2.2 Timber industry employment, Primorsky Krai...... 130 Map 6.1 Republic of Sakha ...... 226 Table 2.3 Timber production in Primorsky Krai, Map 6.2 Mining deposits of Sakha ...... 243 1998 -2000 ...... 131 Map 7.1 Magadan Oblast ...... 258 Table 3.1 Protected areas in Khabarovsk Krai ...... 155 Map 7.2 Indigenous land use in Magadan Oblast . . . . . 277

 Newell, J. List2004. The of Russian figures, Far East: maps, A Reference tables, Guide for Conservationand appendixes  vii and Development. McKinleyville, CA: Daniel & Daniel. 466 pages Table 3.2 Production of major gold mining Table 6.3 Sakha’s energy resources ...... 252 companies, Khabarovsk Krai, 1999 ...... 167 Table 7.1 Leshkozes (Forest Service Divisions)...... 275 Table 3.3 Forest cover in Khabarovsk Krai...... 168 Table 8.1 Protected areas in Chukotsly Table 3.4 Timber production in Khabarovsk Autonomous Okrug...... 293 Krai, 2000 ...... 169 Table 10.1 Forest stock in Kamchatka Oblast by Table 4.1 Employment by industry within land category, 1995 ...... 347 JAO, 1999...... 182 Table 10.2 Protected areas in Kamchatka Oblast...... 349 Table 4.2 Protected areas in the Jewish Table 11.1 Protected areas in Sakhalin Oblast ...... 386 Autonomous Oblast...... 184 Table 11.2 Timber exports and major exporters Table 4.3 Natural monuments in the Jewish in Sakhalin Oblast, 1999 ...... 406 Autonomous Oblast...... 186 Table 5.1 Animal species of Amur Oblast...... 196 Table 5.2 Protected areas in Amur Oblast ...... 205 Appendixes Appendix A Major topological features in the rfe...... 415 Table 5.3 Structure of industry in Amur Oblast, 1992–1999 ...... 211 Appendix B The forest resources of Russia and the rfe ...... 416 Table 5.4 Employment in Amur Oblast, 1999 ...... 212 Appendix C Foreign trade in the rfe, 1992–2001...... 417 Table 5.5 Degraded forest lands in Amur Obast...... 213 Appendix D Foreign trade and full trade turnover, Table 5.6 Timber production in Amur Oblast, by region, 2000 ...... 418 1985–1999...... 213 Appendix E Distribution of rfe timber stock, Table 5.7 Forest Cover in Amur Oblast, 1999...... 213 by dominant species...... 419 Table 5.8 Main timber producers in Amur Oblast, Appendix F Average timber stock in the rfe, 1997 ...... 213 by dominant species...... 419 Table 5.9 Mineral resources in Amur Oblast ...... 216 Appendix G rfe Experts, Hotspot Conference, Table 5.10 Agricultural production in Amur 1998 ...... 420 Oblast, 1980–1999 ...... 219 Appendix H Catch quotas for major species in Table 5.11 Agricultural land use in Amur Oblast, the rfe basin, 2001...... 422 1996 ...... 219 Appendix I Russian timber exports to Northeast Table 5.12 Degraded agricultural lands in Amur Asia, 1991–2001 ...... 423 Oblast, 1996 ...... 219 Appendix J Chinese imports of Russian logs, Table 5.13 Major power stations in Amur Oblast ...... 221 1996–2000...... 423 Table 6.1 Protected Areas in the Republic of Sakha. . . . 236 Appendix K Gold production in Russia and the rfe, 1991–2001 ...... 424 Table 6.2 Major gold mining companies and associations in Sakha ...... 248

viii  THE RUSSIANNewell, J. 2004.FAR The EAST Russian Far East: A Reference Guide for Conservation and Development. McKinleyville, CA: Daniel & Daniel. 466 pages Preface

When a group of colleagues and I decided in 1997 to produce as the project developed, it became clear that this material a new edition of The Russian Far East: Forests, Biodiversity provides only a starting point: It describes problems incurred Hotspots, and Industrial Developments, we foresaw only a mod- by some industrial activities, it catalogues the biodiversity erate revision. “We will have a new edition by 2000,” I boldly “hotspots,” and it documents the plight of protected-area pronounced. Then we began adding new sections, doubling systems. In hopes of fostering the discussions about how to the length of each chapter, and encouraging our Russian achieve an ecologically sustainable economy in the region, regional coordinators to commission contributions from as we added the section Toward Sustainable Development. In it, many specialists as possible. The fi rst edition had eighteen many contributors question the current development trajec- contributing authors; this edition has more than ninety. tory and suggest some alternatives. Nevertheless, the rfe I found myself overwhelmed by the amount of material desperately needs more model development projects, more we had to translate and edit. These tasks were made more insight from the environmental community about what sus- diffi cult by my desire—almost obsession—to add informa- tainable development should look like, and more willingness tion (a tidbit about diamond mining here, about nuclear in the World Bank and other development agencies to look power there) in the chapters to ensure even coverage and to beyond fossil-fuel development and mining. The rather artifi - give the book the unifi ed tone necessary for a reference guide, cial chapter subdivisions in the book, Ecology and Economy, but without silencing the voices of the original writers. symbolize how far we have to go. Despite these changes and additions, the structure of this The reader may ask, “Why all the fuss about the rfe?” new edition remains fundamentally the same as that of the Quite simply because the rfe is the most biologically diverse fi rst one. This book, too, is divided into chapters by political region of the largest country on Earth. Its preservation is division (e.g., krai, oblast) and not by ecological boundary crucial not only for the plants and animals that depend on (e.g., temperate climate, forest, tundra), although the ecologi- healthy ecosystems, but for ourselves, who do likewise! The cal elements constitute discrete sections within the chapters. region is a vital storehouse of natural resources that will Russian environmentalists, politicians, and the corporate inevitably be tapped, particularly as globalization and foreign sector—although scientists perhaps less so — clearly identify investment further integrates its economy into the larger more closely with the political divisions. For instance, on North Pacifi c economy. We depend onrfe fi sheries for food, environmental issues Anatoly Lebedev, my good friend and rfe forests to absorb our carbon dioxide, rfe natural gas and colleague, rarely strays outside the borders of Primorsky Krai coal to supply our power plants, and rfe timber to build our and Dima Lisitsyin focuses solely on Sakhalin Oblast. houses. With this growing infl uence (and interdependence) As did the fi rst edition, this tries to reach out to as many comes, not only the responsibility for the international com- audiences as possible; I like to think of the book as a kind munity to work with Russians to ensure sustainable devel- of travel guide for the Russian Far East development com- opment, but also the responsibility to protect what should munity or, as my former colleague, Lisa Tracy, put it, “a remain intact. As I wrote in the preface to the fi rst edition: hybrid book.” My intention was to make the text as useful for the business person or World Bank offi cial as it is for the Rafting down the Bikin River in the summer of 1993 scientist or environmentalist; to bring all those involved in was my introduction to the Russian Far East. One the Russian Far East together into some kind of dialogue; to evening we hiked up from the village of Ulunga at provide so much useful information that the business com- the headwaters of the river to a lookout to watch the munity would have to have the book and, while scanning the sunset. Korean pine and fi r forests extended as far as various sections for data on natural resources, fi nd themselves the eye could see; no roads and no towns, only that absorbed by Dale Miquelle’s review of the plight of the Sibe- small village of fi fty families. Sitting up there in the rian tiger or by Geoffrey York’s account of the untrammeled mountains, seeing the river, the sky, and the trees, poaching that is devastating the salmon rivers of Kamchatka. I understood why we need wilderness preserved. I had initially planned to subtitle the book “a reference guide for sustainable development” rather than “conservation Josh Newell and development”—hoping that it would be a blueprint. But, Seattle, Washington

 Newell, J. 2004. The Russian Far East: A Reference Guide for Conservation P r e f a c e  ix and Development. McKinleyville, CA: Daniel & Daniel. 466 pages Acknowledgments

Tracing my path since the fi rst edition ofThe Russian Far East Rankin Holmes, and others at The Ecology Center, Inc, with began as an idea hatched with colleagues in Tokyo restaurant help from Oleg Svistunov (FoE –J), digitized the data on pro- in the fall of 1993, I am tempted to thank people chronologi- tected areas and hotspots and prepared an initial design for cally. Because there are, however, so many to acknowledge maps 1.7–1.16. Matthew McKinzie at the Natural Resources and because so many have helped me in stretches throughout Defense Council and Rory Newell (FoE –J) digitized the this period, it is better to thank them by subject. others. Guirong Zhou helped me prepare most of the maps themselves and Dennis Martin advised on their fi nal design. Project genesis Dana Morawitz helped with the regional reference maps and Andrei Laletin, Randy Helten, Emma Wilson, and Alexander with a number of the forestry maps; Joe Miller helped with Dobrynin were instrumental in developing the original 1995 the oil and gas maps. Phil Hurvitz, Luke Rogers, and Bill Hotspot Study and J. P. Myers, Charly Moore, and others Haskins provide helpful technical support. at the W. Alton Jones Foundation made the study a reality. Emma and I developed the outline for the 1996 Russian Far Figures East, with help from Rick Fox. In 1998, Emma, Rick, and I Frank Deserio developed and drafted the initial fi gures, and met for a two-day work session with Zbig Karpowicz at the Dennis Martin and I worked together to produce the fi nal iucn offi ces in Cambridge, England, where we developed the design. basic structure for the book. Eiichiro Noguchi provided useful ideas throughout the development process. Photography Thanks to all the photographers (listed on p. 449) who pro- Writing vided images for this book. This text would have been impossible without contributions from the more than ninety authors who wrote sections, Editing almost always for meager fi nancial reward. I thank them all Frances Bowles, the copyeditor, has been an absolute blessing for their writing, and for their patience in waiting for publica- to work with. I appreciate her insightful editorial queries, tion. I would also like to thank the University of Washington some of which led me to rearrange or cut entire sections, and Press and the National Bureau of Asian Research for allowing her understanding as I chronically broke deadlines. Jeremy me to publish a condensed version of Tony Allison contribu- Tasch, Alexander King, Melinda Herrold, Devin Joshi, and tion on the fi shing industry. Emma Wilson had the diffi cult task of both writing and editing chapters. A small army of editors also helped out: Annie Translation Belt, Vladimir Dinets, Ian Duncan, David Gordon, Jessica The daunting task of translating the contributions from the Graybill, Randy Helten, Christina Kincaid, Susan Newell, Russian authors fell to a number of talented individuals. Gloria Pan, Marta Steele, Maggie Suzuki. Sharon Vonasch Serge Glushkoff and his father Kirill Glushkoff translated proofread the entire book. most of the Russian contributions to the regional chapters; the Biodiversity Hotspots sections were translated by Herrick Reviews Fox. Other sections were translated by Misha Blinnikov, I would like to thank the following for their helpful reviews: Vladimir Dinets, Alexander King, Patricia Ormsby, Oleg Michael Bradshaw, Patricia Gray, Jessica Graybill, Anatoly Svistunov, and Emma Wilson. Lebedev, John Marzluff, Peter Newell, Doug Norlen, Timo- thy Nyerges, Jonathan Oldfi eld, Judith Thornton, and Craig Mapping ZumBrunnen. Mike Beltz played a large role in the developmental stages of the map making. We had initially thought to develop a data- Design base and so had the twelve Russian coordinators prepare a Thanks to Dennis Martin for his typographic and design number of thematic maps of protected areas, biodiversity hot- skill and his patience when dealing with an author (me) who spots, industries, indigenous peoples’ areas, and so on. Mike, perpetually changed his mind. x  THE RUSSIANNewell, J.FAR 2004. TheEAST Russian Far East: A Reference Guide for Conservation and Development. McKinleyville, CA: Daniel & Daniel. 466 pages General support Then, at some remove from the production, were those Thanks to all who provided support in one form or another: who know the project only as The Book, demanding all my Dmitry Aksenov, Marina Alberti, Ken Allen, Xan Augerot, attention and riding rough-shod over relationships—my Magnus Bartlett, Michael Biggins, Sergei Chebetov, Terry good friends from Brown, my friends from Tokyo and Choate, Rory Cox, Lucy Craft, Sue Daniels, Maxim Du- Seattle, my brothers and sister, my parents, and other loved binin, Justin Ferrari, Megan Finaly, Paige Fisher, Jim Ford, ones—all of whom I must thank for their forbearance. Richard Forrest, Dan Gotham, Robert Hathaway, Krista Jen- sen, Hiroaki Kakizawa, Naomi Kanzaki, Basia Kieska, Shane Funding Krause, Jonathan Lang, Dave Martin, Ikuko Matsumoto, This project would have been impossible with fi nancial sup- Bente Molenaar, Vladimir Moshkalo, Dylan Myers, Sang- port from the W. Alton Jones Foundation between 1993 and min Nam, Anna Newell, Damon Newell, Daniel Newell, 1998, the Pro-Natura Foundation (Hiroshi Okamoto and Nicholas Newell, Susan Newell, Keita Nishimura, Eiichiro Kiyoshi Okutomi), the Natural Resources Defense Council Noguchi, Yutaka Okamoto, Tokiharu Okazaki, Yuri On- (Christopher Paine and Matthew McKinzie), Bob and La- odera, Patricia Ormsby, Len Ottow, Alexander Perepecheko, dorna Eichenberg, and Howard and Elinor Smith. A special Jorli Perine, Dave Poritzky, Claes Lykke Ragner, Peter Riggs, thanks also goes out to the Urban Ecology program and the Lin Robinson, Tina Rohila, Chris Rusay, Peter Schlesinger, Department of Geography, both at the University of Wash- Dmitry Sharkov, Greg Shelton, Eric Shulenberger, Jirou Sugi- ington, which provided the facilities (offi ce space, computers, yama, Michael Steppler, Tom Stone, Yukiko Tomishima, Lisa printers, scanners, supplies) necessary to write and produce Tracy, Nathaniel Trumbull, Masanobu Yamane, and Andrei the book. Zhakarenkov.

 Newell, J. 2004. The Russian Far East: A Reference Guide forAcknowledgments Conservation  xi and Development. McKinleyville, CA: Daniel & Daniel. 466 pages Useful terms

Siberia. The name supposedly stems from the Tartar word The new constitution gives the president a large amount sibir, or sleeping land. To foreigners, the name usually of direct power. Boris Yeltsin introduced the Presidential refers to the vast expanse of Russia stretching from the Ural Decree in 1992 in order to pass economic and political re- Mountains in the west to the Pacifi c seacoast in the east. forms quickly. Unless used judiciously, this decree can under- Russians, however, generally consider Siberia’s eastern edge mine the very institutions that give legitimacy to the state as to be a series of mountain ranges stretching from western a democracy. Strangely, the deputies in the Duma authorized Chita Oblast northward through western Sakha to the Arctic the decree, which has served to weaken their power as legisla- Ocean. Beyond that lies what Russians call Dalny vostok, the tors as well as the power of those in the judicial branch. Far East. The president and his staff are responsible for the func- tioning of the executive branch, which consists of the Federal Russian Far East. Geographers disagree on the boundaries of Executive Government (formerly the Council of Ministers) the Russian Far East. Some limit the region to those areas and is chaired by the prime minister. Members are from the affected by the monsoon climate and Pacifi c Ocean, i.e., Pri- ministries, the state committees, and other government agen- morsky, Khabarovsk, Amur, Sakhalin, Magadan, Chukotka, cies and commissions. The president nominates the prime and Kamchatka. Others defi ne therfe by its economic ties minister and the heads of all executive bodies. The legislature with the Pacifi c Rim and include the Republic of Sakha; we (Duma and Federation Council) can approve nominees and have chosen the latter defi nition herein. The Far East and demand the resignation of cabinet members; the president Zabaikalye Association, a nongovernmental economic group has the power to dissolve the legislature and call for new that coordinates interregional programs, also includes the elections. The prime minister oversees the sizeable Execu- Republic of Buryatia and Chita Oblast. tive Administration of the Prime Minister; of his staff, eight deputy prime ministers require legislative and presidential approval. The Executive Administration develops and implements economic reforms and administers programs for each Basic structure of the Russian government industry. Russia is a federal state with a republican form of govern- The Kremlin, the seat of Russia’s national government ment.1 With the formation of the Russian Federation in 1991, since 1917, sits at the center of Moscow and houses the a loose federation of eighty-nine administrative divisions (see executive branch, several ministry offi ces, and the president’s Republic, Krai, Oblast, and Okrug, below) replaced Russia’s primary residence. Russian tsars began building the massive formerly unitary structure. In December 1993 a new constitu- structure—literally a walled fortress encompassing not only tion was adopted by a national vote. The constitution created government buildings but also Russian Orthodox churches— a two-chamber national legislature: the lower house, or in the fourteenth century. Duma, consists of 450 deputies elected on a territorial basis; the upper house, or Federation Council, consists of 178 depu- Republic, Krai, Oblast, Okrug. Administrative divisions (or ties, two from each of Russia’s eighty-nine administration regions) of the Russian Federation, similar to provinces in regions. Two-thirds of the Duma candidates are elected in Canada. The Russian Federation has twenty-one republics, a simple majority vote; the remaining third are elected from six krais, fi ftyoblast s (one autonomous), ten autonomous political party lists (requiring at least 5 percent of the total okrugs, and two federal cities, Moscow and Saint Petersburg. vote). State offi cials appoint representatives to the Federation Each republic, krai, oblast, and okrug has its own legislative Council. The people elect the president of Russia every fi ve and executive branch. The local legislature, which consists years. The president’s role is to establish and maintain the of an elected body, headed by a chairman, drafts and adopts political, legislative, and economic stability of the country. local laws and regulations. Generally, the governor appoints In addition, the president chairs the Security Council, which offi cials to lead executive agencies, commissions, and com- is responsible for preserving state security and political stabil- mittees, although sometimes the local legislature may also do ity as well as for defending the human rights and liberties of so. In some republics (such as in the Republic of Sakha), an Russia’s citizens. elected president, rather than a governor, governs a council xii  THE RUSSIANNewell, J. FAR2004. The EAST Russian Far East: A Reference Guide for Conservation  and Development. McKinleyville, CA: Daniel & Daniel. 466 pages of ministers, ministries, and agencies that form the executive each headed by a superboss who oversees the governors; the branch. rfe comprises one such district. In addition, Putin wants Generally, these administrative divisions have less au- to give the federal government the right to dissolve regional tonomy from the federal government than do the states in Dumas (parliaments) if federal rules are broken. The federal the United States. A republic, however, has greater autonomy and regional power struggle will continue to hinder effective from Moscow—with, for example, a greater leeway in paying governance. taxes and fees to the capital—than does a krai, oblast, or okrug, and is usually established in a region with a signifi cant non-Russian indigenous population. Furthermore, while Ministries, state committees, and agencies all krais and oblasts technically have the same status with respect to the federal government, in practice some have The following list, by no means complete, briefl y describes, more autonomy from Moscow than others, usually because in alphabetical order, most of the major ministries, commit- of differences in their historical development. Primorsky and tees, councils, and agencies relevant to this book. Khabarovsk, for example, maintain strong economic ties with the Pacifi c Rim; these ties, coupled with their great geograph- Authority on Hydrometeorology and Monitoring of the ical distance from Moscow, have at times led these adminis- Environment (Rosgydromet). Rosgydromet collects informa- trative regions to behave independently of, or even contrary tion on radiation and chemical contamination of the environ- to, federal directives. Some governors act autonomously, ment to distribute to relevant federal authorities, various passing laws that do not comply with federal legislation or branches of industry, defense organizations, and the public.2 misallocating federal funds. During the Soviet period, some The authority works closely with the Ministry of Internal krais included autonomous oblasts created for ethnic minori- Affairs and the Russian Space Agency. It is also active in ties. During perestroika, most oblasts in central Russia became international policy and coordinates with international in- independent from their krais, and many became republics. stitutions on such issues as climate change, ozone depletion, Specifi cally established for indigenous peoples, anokrug is environmental pollution, the Arctic, and the global ocean. an administrative subdivision most often under the jurisdiction of an oblast; some, however, are relatively free of this Committee on Land Resources and Land Management jurisdiction. Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, for example, is (Goskomzem). This committee, replaced by the Land developing economic ties with Alaska (importing fuel, food, Cadastre Service of Russia (Roskomcadaster), was respon- and other essential supplies) and becoming less infl uenced sible for land reform and developing land taxation. It helped politically and economically by Magadan Oblast. This is oversee the laws adopted in 1999, “On land reform” and partially because of Chukotka’s great geographical distance “On farm,” that paved the way for Russian citizens to own from the regional capital. land. Roskomcadaster has assumed its basic functions and a number of important land-use planning and monitoring Raion. An administrative subregion of a republic, krai, oblast, responsibilities.3 or okrug. Raion is often translated as district and less often as county. In this book, raion is left untranslated. There are Far Eastern Scientifi c-Industrial Council. Composed of fi shing about twenty-fi veraions in Primorsky Krai, fewer in other industry representatives, regional government offi cials, and regions. Most raions are similar in size to counties in the members of tinro (Pacifi c Institute of Fisheries and Ocean- United States. Large cities may encompass several raions. ography), Glavrybvod, and the Federal Fisheries Committee, This decentralization of power has disadvantages and ad- this council meets twice yearly, either in Moscow or in the vantages. The proliferation of new regional and federal legis- rfe. The council is essentially a forum for hammering out lation leads to laws that often confl ict. Similarly, the jurisdic- regional policies and negotiating quota allocations. Because tions of city and regional offi ces are often vague, overlapping, of sharply different positions among administrative regions and even contradictory. In addition, some regional offi cials over quota allocations, this council has lost some status as a are both inexperienced and poorly trained, most administra- unifi ed regional voice for the industry. tions are operating with inadequate budgets, and corruption within regional administrations remains an intimidating Federal Committee on Mining and Industry (Gostekhnadzor). problem. On the other hand, regional administrations have This committee oversees some facets (e.g., occupational unprecedented power over local governance, resource use and safety) of mining, oil, gas, and other hazardous industries.4 allocation, and future development. Citizens are now able to Gostekhnadzor also issues required licenses and permits for participate in decision making at the community level. all phases of industrial projects, from design to operation. President Vladimir Putin is trying to increase the central- ization of power, an effort strongly resisted by regional of- Federal Energy Commission (FEC). The fec regulates some fi cials. He has carved the country into seven federal districts, components of the energy sector, including electric utilities

 Newell, J. 2004. The Russian Far East: A Reference Guide for ConservationUseful terms  xiii and Development. McKinleyville, CA: Daniel & Daniel. 466 pages and thermal energy (oil, petrochemicals, natural gas) trans- duties include developing nuclear armaments, overseeing the port and transportation services (e.g., pipelines).5 The fec country’s nuclear facilities, and converting military facilities also determines the operating budgets for nuclear plants and to civilian use. Russia’s utilities monopoly, United Energy System. Finally, the fec reviews proposed programs for the developing power Ministry of the Economy (Minekonomii). The Ministry of the sector, and resolves disputes between regional energy com- Economy coordinates state policy to attract foreign invest- missions, wholesale market customers, and suppliers. ment and coordinates the activities of federal and regional executive bodies in regard to foreign investors. It also Federal Fisheries Committee. The Fisheries Committee is organizes international tenders, prepares concession and similar to the U.S. National Marine Fisheries service. The production-sharing agreements, and organizes credits from committee develops and implements fi sheries policy, coor- international fi nancial organizations (e.g., World Bank, Inter- dinates scientifi c research, grants licenses to fi shing fl eets, national Monetary Fund).9 and determines fi shing seasons, fi shing zones, and fi shing grounds. Within the committee administrative structure, but Ministry of Finance (Minfi n). Minfi n is responsible for the quite independent, is the Federal Research Institute of Fisher- federal budget, foreign and inherited (from the ussr) external ies and Oceanography (vniro). vniro coordinates biological debts, and establishing, regulating, and collecting taxes.10 assessments, helps determine fi shery quotas, and oversees Minfi n also has jurisdiction over numerous state committees. most scientifi c research related to fi sheries. One such committee is the powerful State Fund for Precious Metals (Gokhran) —formerly the Russian Committee for Federal Security Service (Federalnaya Sluzhba Bezopasnosti Precious Metals and Stones (Roskomdragmet)—which over- or FSB). Created in 1993 as one of the successors to the kgb, sees the selling and trade of precious metals and gemstones, the fsb is Russia’s internal intelligence service. Like other namely diamonds, platinum, palladium, and gold. Gokhran similar agencies, the Foreign Intelligence Service (Sluzhba closely tracks trade in precious metals and gems within Rus- Vneshney Razvedki or svr) and the Federal Border Service sia, requiring that a percentage of each be offered for sale to (Federalnaya Pogranichnaya Sluzhba or fbs), the fsb is Gokhran before being sold domestically or internationally. sub-ordinate only to the Russian president. Like the fsb, Another committee is the State Customs Committee (gtk), the fbs conducts counterintelligence operations, and also which advises Minfi n on import and export tariffs, and battles smuggling, enforces customs regulations, and the customs regulations. illegal harvest and export of natural resources. There are three fbs district headquarters in the rfe, in Khabarovsk Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations and Trade. This minis- (Far East), Vladivostok (Pacifi c), and Petropavlovsk- try coordinates and regulates Russian foreign trade and mili- Kamchatsky (Northeast). The fbs has recently become tary and technical cooperation with other countries. It works an important agency in the battle against illegal fi shing. with other federal agencies to pursue a unifi ed trade policy.11 The Northeast fbs, for example, operates about twenty- The ministry has branches in most of Russia’s administrative fi ve ships and forty aircraft, mainly around Petropavlovsk, regions. The State Inspectorate on Trade, Product Quality, Provideniya, and Magadan.6 The ships usually carry an and Consumer Protection (Gostorginspektsiya) also falls inspector from one of the rybvods (see explanation of under its jurisdiction. Glavrybvod) and make between fi fty and one hundred boardings during each patrol. Illegal catches are usually Ministry of Fuel and Energy (Mintopenergo). One of Russia’s confi scated and then sold. Revenue from fi nes and confi s- most powerful ministries, Mintopenergo manages all facets cated cargo goes to the Federal Fisheries Committee, with of federal energy policy (oil, natural gas, coal, and electric). a small percentage going to the fbs. Mintopenergo’s responsibilities include: 1) satisfying domes- tic fuel and energy demands, 2) ensuring foreign economic Ministry of Agriculture and Food. This ministry coordinates commitments are honored, 3) balancing federal and regional the agriculture and food processing industries and develops interests, 4) maintaining existing production and techno- harvest regulations and agrarian and land reforms.7 The logical relationships, 5) increasing effi cient use of natural Hunting Administration, a division within the ministry, resources, and 6) helping to create large vertically integrated oversees most of the country’s zakazniks (wildlife refuges, companies that link upstream and downstream activities.12 see below) as well as the hunting industry. Mintopenergo also represents the federal government’s interest in private companies, allowing the government to act as Ministry of Atomic Energy (Minatom). Minatom absorbed both shareholder and regulator—a clear confl ict of interest. all the functions, staff, and assets of its predecessor—the The ministry controls energy companies through a variety Ministry of Atomic Power and Industry (mapi), also known of means, such as restricting oil export quotas for certain as the Nuclear Energy Industry Ministry (1986–1992).8 Its companies. xiv  THE RUSSIANNewell, J. 2004.FAR The EAST Russian Far East: A Reference Guide for Conservation  and Development. McKinleyville, CA: Daniel & Daniel. 466 pages Ministry of Industry (Minprom). This ministry guides and the status of environmental protection. In 1996, the Yeltsin manages federal policy for science and technology, which in- Administration demoted the Ministry of Environmental cludes coordinating the activities of related federal executive Protection to a committee and abolished the Department agencies.13 The responsibilities of Minprom include: defi ning of Environmental Protection and Use of Natural Resources. the direction of research and development in Russia, preserv- Funding has been stripped from most federally targeted ing and promoting this scientifi c and technical potential, environmental programs and, since 1998, there have been two adapting science and technology to market economy condi- attempts to abolish two other government bodies charged tions, guiding federal support for scientifi c and technological with protecting the environment: the State Committee for innovation, and marketing high-tech products and services. Land Policy and the State Committee for the Affairs of the North (see pp. 000–000, for a summary). Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD). mvd has had a long, often infamous history in the Soviet Union and in post-Soviet Ministry of Transportation (Mintrans). Mintrans is responsible Russia.14 Its predecessor, the nkvd, operated Stalin’s gulags. for all facets of Russia’s transportation infrastructure (sea, The nkvd underwent a series of organizational and name river, air, car, and city—including trolleybuses, buses, trams, changes until 1954, when it became the mvd, and the security and subways).17 The ministry also works on international police (kgb) were fi nally separated from the street police. The transportation issues, such as attracting cargo transit into well-armed mvd has recently been criticized worldwide for Russia and developing international transportation corridors. its military operations inside Russia, notably in Chechnya. Today, mvd operates Russia’s correctional labor institutions, National Administration of Fishery Enforcement Resources pretrial detention facilities, and prisons. Surprisingly, mvd Restoration, and Regulation of Fishing (Glavrybvod). Estab- has increased in size during the post-Soviet era. Offi cially, lished in late 1993, Glavrybvod is part of the Fisheries Com- mvd has 264,000 staff, but some reports set the fi gure as mittee. It regulates the industrial harvest of fi sh and other high as 800,000. A range of decrees, orders, and instruc- marine mammals and plants in Russia’s internal waters, on tions— often marked “Secret,” and unpublished or publicly the continental shelf, and in the two-hundred-mile exclusive unavailable—regulate mvd actions. economic zone. There are six branches of Glavrybvod in the rfe, each responsible for regulating a particular region: Ministry of Natural Resources. On May 17, 2000, Presiden- Sakhalinrybvod, Primorrybvod, Amurrybvod, Okhotskryb- tial Decree 867 abolished the Russian Federal Forest Service vod, Kamchatrybvod, and Chukotrybvod. Okhotskrybvod, (Rosleskhoz) and the State Committee on Environmental however, lacks the resources to monitor part of its region (the Protection (or Goskomekologia), folding their responsibili- northwestern Bering Sea), so Kamchatrybvod does the moni- ties into the Ministry of Natural Resources.15 Both the forest toring for it and provides some fi nancing and equipment. service and the committee retain regional offi ces throughout Primorrybvod, the lead branch, collects information from the the rfe, which are now under the jurisdiction of the minis- other rybvods and relays it to Moscow. Glavrybvod has been try. These offi ces are referred to in this book with the region’s widely criticized for failing to regulate exports and punish name fi rst, e.g., Khabarovsk Forest Service and Khabarovsk fi shing violations; in1998 most of the Glavrybvod’s enforce- Committee on Environmental Protection. Once Russia’s ment duties were transferred to the fbs, which subsequently primary regulatory agencies, the forest service and state com- hired many Glavrybvod personnel. mittee may become less effective in managing resource use under the ministry’s jurisdiction. The ministry also actively Pacifi c Institute of Fisheries and Oceanography (TINRO). promotes industrial development and issues licenses to Although tinro’s functions are very similar to those of natural resource users. Of particular concern is the effect that vniro, their relationship is unclear. Offi cially,tinro is di- the new confi guration may have on Russia’s environmental rectly responsible to the Fisheries Committee, not to vniro. impact assessment process, which includes expertiza (State tinro’s headquarters are in Vladivostok, with closely aligned Environmental Review or ser) and ovos (Assessments of centers in Khabarovsk (Khftinro), Magadan (Maginro), Environmental Impacts).16 The powerful expertiza, man- and Chukotka (Chftinro). Two other institutes, Sakhniro dated by the 1991 Law on Environmental Protection and the (Sakhalin) and Kamchatka (Kamchatniro), are also similar 1995 Federal Environmental Review Act, assesses whether a in name and function to tinro, but are essentially indepen- proposed project meets Russian environmental regulations dent from it. tinro operates a research fl eet in Vladivostok and standards. The ovos, created by the former Ministry of that has been known, somewhat notoriously, to fi sh with Environment, seeks to establish the process for identifying scientifi c quotas and then sell the catch for profi t. environmental impacts and to obtain different views on the degree of these impacts. Putina Enforcement Operations. A joint fbs-Rybvod- The abolition of the Committee on Environmental Pro- Spetsmorinspektsia effort, some of the Putina (fi shing season) tection continued a decade-old trend in Russia of degrading enforcement operations have been quite effective not only

 Newell, J. 2004. The Russian Far East: A Reference Guide for ConservationUseful terms  x v and Development. McKinleyville, CA: Daniel & Daniel. 466 pages in catching poachers, but also in bringing together the three people to breed horses after migrating from Transbaikalia main enforcement agencies. to present-day Sakha. If disturbed, alas often turn into arid barrens or shrublands. Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS). Peter the Great established the Russian Academy of Sciences in Saint Petersburg Annual Allowable Cut (AAC). The amount of forest that can in 1724. The academy confers the highest level of education be cut in a region without overlogging; determined by each in Russia and has scientifi c institutes throughout Russia. region’s Forest Inventory Agency. The academy has approximately fi ve hundred members and publishes journals in all academic fi elds (humanities, social Bonitet. An aspect of forest productivity measured on a scale sciences, and natural sciences). In the rfe, the Far Eastern of I through V (I being the highest); bonitet is measured by Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (febras) includes the height that trees reach after a specifi c number of years. institutes throughout the region.18 Only an estimate, bonitet fi gures can be manipulated easily to suit bureaucratic needs or policy priorities. Russian Central Bank. The Central Bank of the Russian Federation (Bank of Russia), which is independent of fed- Broadleaved. Deciduous (also called “nemoral” in Europe eral, regional, and local government structures, carries out and “hardwood” in the United States) forests of various tree functions set by the Constitution of the Russian Federation species, usually characterized by high biodiversity. In the rfe, (article 75) and the Law on the Central Bank of the Russian broadleaved forests occur in the warmest climates, such as Federation (Bank of Russia) (article 22).19 southern Primorsky Krai. These forests often look surprisingly similar to the hardwood forests of the Great Smoky Special Marine Inspectorate (Spetsmorinspektsia). Part of Mountains; the two areas share many of the same genera of the now-defunct Committee on Environmental Protection, plants and animals. An unusual type of broadleaved forest Spetsmorinspektsia may no longer be functional. Even when is that of the Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolicus), which is operational, Spetsmorinspektsia is relatively weak, with few formed by a dominant tree species and tends to grow in dry vessels and limited staff and funds. areas between forest and grassland zones. The Mongolian oak country of the Amur Basin is not unlike the tallgrass prairies State Committee for Development of the North (Goskomsever). of eastern Kansas. This committee designs and coordinates programs for the vast, resource-rich Russian North and its indigenous peoples. Eastern Siberian (Angarian), Okhotsk-Kamchatkan, Goskomsever’s goals frequently confl ict with those of Russia’s Manchurian, and Dahurian fl oral and fauna regions. Russian natural resource commissions and committees.20 biologists usually track a species to its supposed origin— Eastern Siberian (Angarian), Okhotsk-Kamchatkan, Man- State Committee for Statistics (Goskomstat). Russia’s statistics churian, or Dahurian—and classify it accordingly. Grassland agency, Goskomstat collects data on topics ranging from in- species are usually referred to as Dahurian, whereas species dustrial production to employment (federal, regional, district, common to the rfe’s southern broadleaved forests are usually and city) and distributes it to industries, government agen- referred to as Manchurian. A wide array of species common cies, and the public.21 Goskomstat has eighty-nine regional to the coastal ecosystem—tallgrass meadows, stone birch, committees and more than twenty-two hundred district and Ayan spruce forests, for example—are said to form (raion) departments. Okhotsk-Kamchatkan fl ora and fauna. Species of the boreal forests and alpine regions of Eastern Siberia are called Eastern Territorial Fishing Industry Committees. Within each adminis- Siberian or Angarian fl ora and fauna. Although used widely trative region (krai, oblast), these committees coordinate and in Russian literature, this classifi cation method is often im- distribute quota allocations to fi rms, scientifi c institutions, precise. Eastern Siberian fauna, for example, includes species and other groups. with origins ranging from East Asia (musk deer) to America (Siberian chipmunk) to Central Asia (Siberian ibex) to the Himalayas (rosy fi nch) and elsewhere. Ecological terms Forest classifi cation. The Russian Forest Service classifi es Alas. A geographical phenomenon caused by melting forests by ecological importance, using three categories to permafrost. Prevalent in central and southern Sakha, alas indicate their allowable land use: Group I (highest), Group are believed to be remnant vegetation that covered most of II, and Group III. Northeast Asia during the last Ice Age. Isolated populations of rooks (Corvus frugileus) and other animals common to Lesistost. The percentage of a given territory covered by grasslands live in alas ecosystems. Alas allowed the Yakut forest. Defi nitions offorest differ slightly between regions: x vi  THE RUSSIANNewell, J. 2004.FAR The EAST Russian Far East: A Reference Guide for Conservation  and Development. McKinleyville, CA: Daniel & Daniel. 466 pages for example, thickets of dwarf Japanese stone pine may be a markedly continental climate, such as Northern Sakha. included or not. If the forest is logged or a settlement built on permafrost, thermokarst erosion may rapidly become catastrophic, with National park (natsionalnyi park). A federally protected territo- the widespread destruction of soil cover, river pollution from ry in which small-scale educational, recreational, and cultural increased runoff, and the collapse of man-made structures. activity, as well as scientifi c research is allowed. These parks Some Southern Sakha towns look as though they were used are usually split into zones: strictly protected for scientifi c for bombing practice, with craters caused by thermokarst ero- research, recreational, agricultural, and so on. In actuality, sion marking the streets and plazas. some are actually large suburban recreation areas. Many national parks are adjacent to or near zapovedniks. World Heritage site. A natural or cultural site, these areas are considered to have outstanding physical, biological, or Natural monument (pamyatnik prirody). Usually covering geological features. Threatened plant or animal habitats, between 100 and 500 ha, this designation protects particular scientifi cally or aesthetically valued areas, and areas set aside landscape features, such as caves, forests, lakes, waterfalls, simply for conservation, can all be nominated as potential and so on. Commercial activity on these territories is pro- World Heritage sites by government members. Nominated hibited by law. Most administrative regions have dozens of sites must be submitted to the World Heritage Center. natural monuments, but obtaining a complete list is usually diffi cult. Zakaznik. An area set aside for the preservation of smaller ecosystems or individual species. Zakazniks may be protected Ramsar site. A wetland of international signifi cance, as deter- federally or regionally. Restrictions on commercial activi- mined by specifi c criteria established by the member states of ties are sometimes limited to certain seasons. Categories of the Ramsar Convention. zakazniks include zoological, botanical, landscape, geological, and others. Many zakazniks have been established in order to Russian Red Data Book. The Russian variant of the World regulate commercial hunting so that viable wildlife popula- Conservation Union (iucn) listings, the Red Data Book tions may be maintained. lists rare and endangered species of fl ora and fauna. Russia publishes national and regional Red Data Books; the criteria Zapovednik. A strictly protected federal nature reserve. are similar to those used for compiling the iucn books. Un- Zapovedniks are established to protect representative areas of like in the United States, the listing of a species in the Red a particular landscape or bioregion. In theory, all forms of Data Book offers the species no legal protection; however, this commercial activity are prohibited; human activity is restrict- listing can be infl uential in determining where to create a ed to scientifi c research and monitoring. Somezapovednik s, protected area or to limit development. however, have small recreational zones; drastic budget cuts have forced many zapovednik directors to open the reserves to Smallleaved birch (Betula) and aspen (Populus tremulae, tourism. P. davidiana) forests. These forests are usually secondary and tend to be gradually replaced by other types of forest, most commonly by conifer forests. A notable exception is the park- Useful Russian terminology like forest of stone birch (B. ermanni), widespread in areas with a maritime climate. Birches and aspens might also grow Russians often use contractions when referring to agencies, in broadleaved forests, but never in pure stands, although companies, or other entities with cumbersome names. Here they do form isolated groves in the grasslands of the Amur are some frequently encountered Russian abbreviations and region, which greatly resemble the Canadian prairies. their English equivalents:  Dal — Far Eastern Territory of traditional nature use (TTP, from the Russian terri-  Gos toriya traditsionnogo prirodopolzovaniya). Territories set aside — State for the traditional subsistence activities of indigenous peoples.  Khoz — Ownership The term is often a euphemism for reserves created for indig-  Kom — Committee enous peoples, or even for rural populations in general.  Les — Forest, timber Thermokarst. Erosion due to permafrost. Its surface mani-  Min — Ministry festations (sinkholes, round-shaped lakes) often resemble  Nedr — Mining, mineral resources limestone karst formations. Thermokarst occurs naturally in almost all permafrost areas and creates some very unusual  Prom — Industry, industrial landscapes, particularly in places with no forest cover and  Ryb — Fish, fi shing

 Newell, J. 2004. The Russian Far East: A Reference Guide for ConservationUseful terms  x vii and Development. McKinleyville, CA: Daniel & Daniel. 466 pages Dallesprom. Far Eastern Forestry Department; now a private JV (sovmestnoe predpriyatie). A joint-venture company with company. international partners.

Goslesfund. State Forest Fund, originally an analogue of the OAO (otkrytoe AO). An open joint-stock company; it is U.S. Bureau of Land Management (blm). allowed to sell stock publicly and must regularly provide fi nancial data. Gospromkhoz. (gpx) State Enterprise; could be operating in hunting, fi shing, logging, or all of the above. OOO (Obshchestvo s ogranichennoi otvetstvennostiyu). Similar to a U.S. limited liability company: owners have title Kolkhoz. The collective farm (kollektivnoye khozyaistvo); once to a portion of the property, but hold no stock; they become the vision of socialist agriculture, in which peasants pooled owners by paying into a common fund.23 their land and resources to create large, effi cient, coopera- tive farms. The harvest was requisitioned by the state, which TOO (tovarishchestvo s ogranichennoi otvetstvennostiyu). in turn provided the kolkhoz with modern agricultural A limited liability company; now defunct. machinery. The kolkhoz system remains largely intact in many regions of post-Soviet Russia, despite government ef- ZAO (zakrytoe AO). A closed joint-stock company; it distrib- forts since 1992 to aid privatization. The transition to private utes stock to select shareholders, and shares may be sold only farming is slow: local offi cials oppose the disbanding of after being offered to current shareholders. collective farms and the general populace is wary of change and poorly informed about their rights of land ownership. Similarly, the Soviet farm (sovkhoz) is a state-owned farm, Weights, measures, and currency still in existence, which operates much like the kolkhoz. The metric system has been used throughout this study. Leskhoz. Originally differed from a lespromkhoz in that it was 1 hectare (ha) = 2.5 acres responsible for forest management, now many are logging businesses. 1 kilometer (km) = 0.6 mile 1 square kilometer (sq. km) = 0.4 square mile Lesnichestvo. Forest Service station, often also the territory serviced by such a station. 1 cubic meter (cu. m) = 1.3 cubic yards; in the timber industry, approximately 200 board feet Lespromkhoz.(lpx) Collective Forestry Enterprise, now usu- 1 kilogram (kg) = 2.2 pounds ally a private company. 1 ton (metric ton) = 1,000 kg or 2,204 pounds 1 centner (Russian) = 100 kg Russians also commonly use abbreviations when writing about the numerous forms of companies allowed under the u.s.$1 = 30.4 rubles (June 16, 2003) Russian government. Here are some that frequently appear in this book and their approximate English equivalents:

AO (aktsionernoye obshchestvo). A joint-stock (publicly owned) company.

GOK (gorno-obogatitelniy kombinat). An ore-enriching com- bine, generally in charge of individual mining operations, but subject to control from Moscow. This structure is in contrast to the artel, an independent mining operation working without state support.22

x viii  THE RUSSIANNewell, J. 2004. FAR The EAST Russian Far East: A Reference Guide for Conservation and Development. McKinleyville, CA: Daniel & Daniel. 466 pages