Pasture management for South East Queensland
compiled by Damien O’Sullivan
This publication has been supported by SEQ Catchments through funding from the Australian Government’s Caring for Our Country—Achieving groundcover targets in South East Queensland project.
© State of Queensland, 2013. The Queensland Government supports and encourages the dissemination and exchange of its information. The copyright in this publication is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0 Australia (CC BY) licence. Under this licence you are free, without having to seek our permission, to use this publication in accordance with the licence terms. You must keep intact the copyright notice and attribute the State of Queensland as the source of the publication. For more information on this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/au/ deed.en.
This publication has been compiled by Damien O’Sullivan of the Industry and Planning business group, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. The author acknowledges contributions from Ian Crosthwaite, Bill Edwards, Col Paton and Bruce Lord (SEQ Catchments).
ii Contents
Introduction...... 1 Key pasture management skills
Pasture basics...... 2 Managing pasture condition
Grazing systems...... 8 Grazing to suit your situation
Enhancing native pastures...... 11 Using legumes to increase carrying capacity
Establishing sown pastures...... 14 Best option for old cultivation land
South East Queensland land types...... 21 Selecting the best pasture mix
Legumes for South East Queensland pastures...... 37 Descriptions and planting rates
Grasses for South East Queensland pastures...... 49 Descriptions and planting rates
Further information...... 60 Contacts and other information sources
Workshops...... 62
Species list...... 63
iii iv To establish and maintain healthy Introduction and sustainable pastures, graziers need to know: • what plants are in the pasture The beef industry is a major and the condition of the pasture contributor to the wealth of the South • whether there are changes East Queensland region and this occurring in the numbers of valuable industry relies on productive broadleaf weeds, woody weeds pastures. This booklet aims to help or other unfavourable species graziers better understand the • how many stock to carry with development and management of the feed on hand (i.e. when is it pastures suited to the region. time to sell stock or begin to feed Selecting the best mix of grasses supplements?) and legumes for each land type will • how changes in stock or pasture ensure the best financial return on management will affect the investment from improved pastures. pasture composition or condition This booklet is designed to help all • how to maximise income without grazing property managers, from jeopardising pasture health those on small grazing blocks to • how to demonstrate that the properties of 10 000 ha or more. property management strategies are sustainable South East Queensland lies within the southern black speargrass region • how to use a system like of Queenland’s pasture communities. Stocktake to monitor changes in On the surface it may seem simple pasture condition over time. to manage a paddock full of grass but the way graziers manage stock numbers under a variety of climatic conditions can dramatically improve or deteriorate the condition of the ecological system.
1 • legumes—plants with a varying Pasture basics ability to fix nitrogen with the help of bacteria in root nodules (e.g. clovers) • sedges—grass-like plants (e.g. nutgrass) Pastures are complex ecosystems. A wide variety of natural phenomenon • woody weeds—woody plants and management decisions affect with the ability to compete with the composition and productivity of a pasture plants for sunlight, pasture over time. nutrients and moisture (e.g. unwanted regrowth, lantana) Pasture composition • other weeds—any undesirable The composition of pastures varies plant in a pasture that affects considerably. It is important for carrying capacity of the pasture graziers to have a clear idea of what due to its unpalatability, they expect from their pastures competition with more favourable and choose plant species that species or toxicity to livestock have the capacity to fulfil grazing (e.g. creeping lantana and African requirements. lovegrass). There are two very broad plant types Features of a healthy pasture found in most pastures: A healthy pasture has a: • annuals and weak perennials— • high percentage of palatable, plants that live for one or a limited productive, perennial grasses (3P number of growing seasons grasses) • perennials—plants with variable • small number of annual plants life spans, from a year to decades. (e.g. small burrgrass) In the grazing situation the main • small number of weeds (e.g. plants of interest are: verbenas) • grasses—low-growing vegetative • high frequency of desirable forbs plants that can tolerate grazing. (e.g. native legumes such as Stoloniferous grasses like couch glycine) and Rhodes grass spread by seed • variety of other favourable and underground roots called species. stolons. Tussock grasses grow in clumps as distinct individual What affects pasture plants condition and quality? • forbs—non-woody broadleaf Climate, soil type, plant type and plants grazing pressure all interact to determine the quality, productivity and sustainability of pastures.
2 Climate Data in Table 1 shows the perennial Climate, and rainfall in particular, has tussock grasses growing more dry a major effect on pastures. Given the matter per mm of rainfall. wide variation in climatic conditions Soil type within and between years, it is unreasonable to expect pasture bulk Generally, the better the soil, the and quality to remain constant. better the pasture. While we often look at a particular grass as being The nutritive value of a plant varies very good for stock feed, the protein with seasonal conditions and soil level of that grass varies depending fertility. In years of high rainfall, plant on soil fertility. Low soil phosphorus yield is often high but protein content and nitrogen are generally the most is low. The opposite is often the case common nutrient restrictions on in lower rainfall years. Frost, wind, pasture growth. humidity and heat can also affect pasture quantity and quality. Organic matter is an important soil component, providing plant nutrients, The effectiveness of rainfall is binding soil aggregates, improving the major determining factor for infiltration and feeding soil micro and pasture growth. A combination of macro organisms. Low organic matter the following factors will determine levels inhibit plant growth. the amount of effective rainfall and subsequent pasture growth: Once pasture cover drops below • ground cover—pasture 70–80% there is a serious risk of soil condition, plant type and species erosion due to increased run-off. (see Table 1) Much of the fertility in South East • soil type and condition— Queensland soils is carried in the aggregate structure, pore size top 1–3 cm of the profile so it is and amount of organic matter important to manage pastures in a and minerals way that will preserve and improve • rainfall intensity the quality of this soil zone. A • evaporation paddock with pasture composed of • slope annuals and large areas of bare soil • tree cover. loses significant quantities of fertile topsoil every year (see Figure 1). Table 1 – The effect of pasture type on water infiltration and dry matter production Pasture Water infiltration kg dry matter/ % mm rainfall Perennial tussock grasses 76 4 Stoloniferous grasses 55 3 Annual grasses 40 2 Bare ground 25 0
3 6000 Sown pastures 5000 Pastures sown into a prepared 4000 seedbed are the most productive, and the most expensive. Productivity 3000 of these pastures will usually decline 2000 after 5–8 years due to a lack of Soil loss (kg/ha) loss Soil 1000 nitrogen. They can be maintained for longer with fertiliser applications and 0 Perennial Stoloniferious Annual Bare careful renovation. Legumes are an tussock grass plants ground grass essential addition to sown pastures to reduce the effects of run-down. Figure 1 – Soil losses from pastures. Grazing Plant type Stock will select the highest quality diet available to them. Increasing the Each type of plant community has stocking rate reduces each animal’s something different to offer graziers. ability to select and so reduces the The contributions of the three quality of the diet. Forcing stock to eat main pasture types in South East more than leaf (e.g. stem) will reduce Queensland are outlined below. the weight gain per head. Native pastures About 25–40% of a pasture grass These pastures are often underused plant (above the ground) is leaf. To and undervalued. They are a cheap maintain strong pasture plants do resource, costing 1–6c per kg of not allow animals to use any more liveweight gain in cattle compared than a third of the grass growth over to around $1.60 per kg of liveweight 12 months. Using about one-third gain in cattle on a grain diet. of a grass plant gives stock the best Native pastures are still the main quality diet and avoids overgrazing pastures supporting Queensland’s the pasture (see Figure 2). grazing industry. They usually benefit from a careful burning regime and, with proper management, they can be productive and profitable. 1/3 for cattle
Native pastures + legume 1/3 for others Oversowing legumes into native pastures is a cost-effective way of 1/3 for soil increasing production. Stylos and wynn cassia are commonly used in South East Queensland. Clovers and medics Figure 2 – Using one-third of the available will perform well in wet winters and are pasture for stock helps maintain quality a worthy addition to any pasture. pastures.
4 If stock are allowed to continually 200 eat green shoots as they emerge, the plant is unable to build up 150 carbohydrate reserves in its roots. This causes root loss and a loss in 100 plant productivity (see Figure 3). 50 As the number of stock grazing on (kg/ha) lwg Annual a pasture increases, the potential 0 liveweight gain decreases (see Figure 10 8 6 4 2 4). Increased stocking pressure Stocking rate (ha/hd) results in the loss of more palatable Figure 4 – Weight gain (annual liveweight pastures species and a decline in gain in kg/head vs stocking rate head/ha). pasture quality.
Improving pasture between plant stem and leaf and palatability and productivity the time of the year (see Table 2). Several factors influence pasture Leafiness varies with pasture species palatability and productivity. Use the (see Table 3). following principles to help manage Perennial grasses live for more than pastures to achieve long-term a year, providing bulk and cover productivity. year round if managed properly. Leafiness If perennial grass cover declines, the result is inefficient energy Leafiness and the protein content of capture, loss of nutrients to the the leaves determines the palatablity plant, inefficient use of rainfall and and productivity of grasses. Nitrogen a decline in soil condition. So with content (and so protein) varies less pasture leaf produced per mm of rainfall there is a decrease in stock moderately carrying capacity. grazed plant over-grazed Age of pasture plants plant Most pastures have maximum energy and protein for a period of 40–60 days. Unless there is continued pasture growth there is an inevitable decline in the value of the pasture. Figure 5 shows the decline in crude protein and digestibility of black speargrass over time following rainfall. Figure 3 – An over-grazed plant compared to a moderately grazed plant. Note the difference in root mass.
5 Table 2 – Nitrogen content % of black 70 digestibility speargrass leaf and stem 15
crude protien Crude protein % 60 Early wet season Mid dry season 12 %N/kg dry %N/kg dry 50 matter matter 9 Digestibility % Digestibility Leaf 10.1 4.1 40 6 Stem 3.6 1.1 30 3 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 Days after rain Table 3 – Leaf percentage of the above- Figure 5 – Change in crude protein and ground portion of some grass species digestibility over time. Grass % leaf Green panic 30–45 grasses legumes Speargrass 30 Wiregrass 10 Golden beard high leaf per cent grass but low yield Organic matter digestibility matter Organic Legumes in the pasture Time Legumes provide an extra source Figure 6 – Digestibility of legume vs grasses. of protein for animals grazing the pasture as well as contributing Spelling pastures nitrogen to the soil for grasses in the Grasses need a period of rest (a spell) pasture to use. Compared to grasses if they are to set seed and produce to they also retain their digestibility for a their maximum potential, especially longer period of time (see Figure 6). after burning or heavy grazing. Spell pastures over the grazing season for at least six weeks or until the grass goes to seed. This may need planning over a number of years to ensure every paddock receives a spell over time. Lack of rest for pasture over the growing season is the main reason for loss of favourable pasture species. Fire Fire can be a useful tool for pastures if used correctly. In the speargrass Perennial stoloniferous grasses provide region, burning every 3–4 years is ground cover, protecting soil from erosion. recommended. This however will
6 depend on the season, stocking rates How to set carrying capacity and the grazing intention for the Step 1 – Determine the amount pasture. Most of the vegetation in this of feed available using pasture region has developed under a regime standards or pasture cuts. of fire. Grasses like black speargrass A Stocktake workshop will show you are adapted to fire and can increase how to do this (see page 61). in density with correct and timely burning. Step 2 – Aim to use between 25–40 per cent of feed grown to give stock Carry out burning in spring when the best quality diet and allow ground litter is damp and will not grasses the opportunity to grow to readily burn. Choosing the right their best potential. Determine how time to burn can be difficult and much feed the stock need and the dangerous. Remember a fire permit is triggers for removing stock from a required for any burning. Spell burnt paddock. pastures until they go to seed. The green pick after burning pasture is Step 3 – Budget to leave a proportion very palatable and nutritious to stock of the feed to provide for trampling by but grazing at this time will damage stock, ground cover, decomposition 3P grasses. and for other fauna (see Figure 2). Timber and woody weeds Woody weed density affects pasture growth. Generally, the less trees and woody weeds the more water is available for pasture growth (see Figure 7). However in the very long term a correct balance of trees and pastures is the best for maximum production and sustainability.
3000 Fodder conservation can supplement 2500 animals during periods of standing feed shortage. 2000
1500
Pasture yield (kg/ha) yield Pasture 1000
500 0 4 8 12 16 20 Tree basal area (m2/ha) Figure 7 – Tree basal area vs pasture yield.
7 Grazing systems Wet season spelling This system involves removing all stock from one or more paddocks (spelling) on a regular basis over the wet season. Research has shown wet There are many grazing management season spelling is one of the most systems available for stockowners effective ways to maintain a healthy to implement. Each system has and productive pasture. A joint advantages and disadvantages. If CSIRO/DEEDI study found that this used incorrectly, any of these grazing method of pasture management was systems can cause damage to the a common factor in nine successfully pasture and land resource base. managed beef operations studied across Queensland. The most common grazing systems are described below. Although the The recommendation is to remove names used for these systems varies stock from a paddock for at least six considerably within the industry, these weeks over the growing season. This descriptions will generally hold true. time period may vary depending on rainfall, with a longer time period Set stocked needed in some years. Essentially, This is a traditional grazing system the aim is to allow the better 3P where the same number of cattle are (palatable, productive and perennial) kept in a paddock all year, every year. grass species to go to seed. Over a A good example is a breeder paddock period of several years each paddock where an owner may aim to run 50 on the property can be spelled on a breeders each year. In dryer years rotation. cows will have to be fed or culled Rotational grazing (time based) to cope with the shortfall in feed. In better years cow numbers could be Under the timed rotational grazing increased but in most cases it would system cattle are moved to a new be better to allow the extra growth paddock after a pre-determined of pasture and enable the more period of time. Generally cattle on favourable species to go to seed. the property are grouped together into large mobs and each mob With set stocking it is common for is moved in a rotation around all some areas of the paddock to be available paddocks. Paddocks on preferentially grazed while areas most properties vary in size so bigger that are less accessible or further paddocks will be grazed for longer from water may experience very little whilst smaller paddocks may only be grazing pressure. If stock numbers grazed for a few days. This system are kept at recommended levels for allows paddocks to spell and the the land and pasture type this can be bigger numbers of stock in a paddock a low labour input system. spreads the grazing pressure away
8 from favoured areas such as creek damage to the pasture. Provided flats or areas of heavier soil types. An the water supply in each paddock advantage of the rotational system is is adequate for the increased that stock movements can be timed stock density, there is no need for to pass through the cattle yards additional fencing or infrastructure. for routine animal husbandry jobs. Cell grazing This can reduce the time needed for mustering several mobs held in a This system of grazing has a number of paddocks, as is the case centralised watering point and uses with set stocking. Provided the water electric fencing creating a set of cells supply in each paddock is adequate in a wagon wheel formation. Under for the increased stock density, there this system a single paddock is cut up is no need for additional fencing or into multiple cells and the cattle are infrastructure. moved through the cellss every 2–3 days, depending on pasture growth. Rotational grazing (seasonal) Like the rotational grazing system This system is similar to timed wet season paddock moves will be rotational grazing but the cattle are more frequent in an attempt to keep moved from paddock to paddock pasture in a vegetative state rather on a timing that is based on pasture than letting it go to seed. During growth and the season. Generally, winter the time between moves can paddock moves will be more frequent be increased. in the wet season in an attempt to Generally, managers using this keep pasture in a vegetative state system use a grazing chart to record rather than letting it go to seed. This the number of adult equivalents can promote plant tillering and help they have grazing over the area to increase the amount of leaf each and this will give them a number of plant produces. In winter, when grass stock days/ha. By combining this growth has finished the cattle move information with rainfall records, the less frequently. manager can estimate the feed grown Like time based movements in a per millimetre of rainfall. This system rotational system this method allows allows for very accurate estimates the spreading of grazing pressure of how much feed is available for over a larger area of the paddock, the coming season and enables the reducing patch grazing. This system operator to make early decisions has the advantage of taking into about stocking rates (e.g. when to account times when pasture is buy or sell). Grazing charts from susceptible to damage and using previous years are an invaluable tool spelling to allow grasses to go to when making future management seed. During winter when grass decisions. With detailed information growth has essentially stopped the about paddock carrying capacity longer grazing periods do not cause the operator can optimise pasture
9 utilisation. The system of cells claims a dramatic increase of soil needs to be carefully planned and carbon from 1.5% to 8% over eight may need significant investment in years. A key to this system is the long single wire electric fencing and water rest periods for the pasture. In more infrastructure. fertile areas an area of pasture may only be grazed for a total of 4 days/ High density grazing year. In drier environments each This is a very intensive grazing section of pasture may only be grazed system where cattle are grazed at once a year. Graziers have noted a high stocking rates and moved daily vast improvement in soil health and or 2–3 times/day. An example stock biology after using the system for density might be 740 animals, each three years. Research in Texas USA weighing 450 kg, on 1 ha (300 x 450 found that pasture composition could kg animals on 1 acre) for 24 hours. be beneficially changed in four years The stock are moved at least daily with a carefully managed high density with some operators moving the grazing system. stock up to eight times a day. Electric fencing is used and in many cases In summary water troughs are moved with the Research in northern Australia has stock. consistently shown that the major opportunities for improved land Proponents of this system suggest condition and productivity lie in: that stocking rates of 50% more animals are possible, compared to • better spatial distribution of other grazing systems. This system grazing pressure (through aims to mimic the effects of large location and number of water grazing animals in Africa and buffalo points, sub-divisional fencing) in the USA. Originally these animals • better matching of stocking rate moved quickly as they migrated with carrying capacity across an area, eating everything in • targetted use of wet season their path and fertilising the pasture spelling. with their manure and urine. These All grazing systems have their rangeland pastures were then rested advantages and disadvantages. for considerable time periods before Each stockowner needs to carefully the herds returned. examine each system and adopt a High density grazers generally aim method that suits their management, for the cattle to consume 60% of labour resources and ability to invest the pasture, trample 20% into the in the necessary infrastructure. soil and leave 20% standing. The Ultimately the aim of any grazing trampling of the pasture into the soil system is to maintain or improve gives soil biology the organic matter it the health of the pasture and soil needs to increase soil carbon levels. resources. One noted proponent of the system
10 tropical legumes such as wynn cassia Enhancing and stylos. However in wet winters native pastures clovers and medics will grow well. Grazing improved native pastures Legumes increase the quality of Depending on soil type, graziers can native pasture and so increase rely on the following ‘rules of thumb’ carrying capacity, breeder when planning to add legumes to performance and animal growth rate. their pastures: Introducing legumes can benefit • Some legumes will persist. native pastures and run-down Lotononis has been established improved pastures, increasing in some pastures for 18 years. At carrying capacity and property least 20 per cent legume in the income. Legumes supply some pasture sward is desirable. nitrogen to the soil and boost grass • Under good summer conditions growth, but their main benefit is in legumes in a pasture will give offering a higher protein diet to the an extra 0.1 kg per head per day grazing animals. The protein level over the 0.7 kg for grass-only of summer growing grasses drops pastures. as plants mature and remains low • Animals usually lose weight during autumn and winter. Legumes, during winter when grazing native with their high protein content, are an or improved grass-only pastures. excellent source of nutrition for stock However in mild winters, legumes and maintain their levels of protein such as lotononis, white clover much longer than grasses (Figure 6). and lucerne in pastures can add Most native pastures in South East an extra 0.5 kg per head per Queensland have one or more native day over the 0.3 kg expected for legumes present. Rhizobia on the grass-only pastures. roots of the legume fix nitrogen and Manage pastures with legumes over time this is made available in the carefully as wynn cassia and some soil for other plants to use. This helps stylos have low palatability and to minimise the decline in production can dominate pastures if grass is that usually occurs in fertilised sown grazed out, causing an overall loss pastures after 5–6 years. of production. Many legumes have deep tap roots Clovers, medics and lucerne can and are able to access moisture and also cause bloat in cattle when they nutrients deep down in the soil. make up a large proportion of an South East Queensland is generally animal’s diet. more suited to tropical and sub-
11 Case studies have shown that All legumes need to be inoculated at introducing legumes can increase planting to ensure the correct species stocking rates by up to 20 per cent. of rhizobia is available to fix nitrogen Of the extra income that legumes from the atmosphere through generate, 90 per cent comes from nodules that form on the roots. The the increased stocking rate and only inoculation process involves mixing 10 per cent from the extra weight the inoculant with a sticker and the gain per beast. However, long-term seed within 24 hours of planting. stability of the pasture should The inoculant is a living material and be considered. Many properties requires careful treatment. Follow the are already stocked to capacity recommendations that come with the even with some degree of pasture inoculant and use it before the expiry improvement. date, after which time viability is lost. Establishing legumes into Renovation existing pastures The grass pasture is very roughly cultivated and legume seed sown Legumes can be introduced into onto the surface. As the grass re- existing native or sown pastures in grows it competes with the legume a variety of ways as outlined below. seedlings and losses will be very Recommended planting rates vary high. This method is best where considerably depending on the temperate legumes, such as clovers planting mix and composition of the and medics, are sown into grass existing pasture. pastures in autumn. Frost will reduce the grass competition. Tropical legumes can be established this way but it is usually less successful. Ploughed strips Legume seed is sown on the surface of ploughed strips. The legume then spreads to the un-ploughed area by seed or runners. Usually the strips require two workings to reduce the grass competition. Strips should be ploughed on the contour and not across gully lines. Up to 20 per cent of the area may be disturbed to introduce the legumes. Depending on The addition of legume to a productive the legume chosen, kangaroos, hares native pasture will often provide a worth- and rabbits can cause significant while boost for both the livestock and the damage to the establishing legume pasture. plants.
12 Bandseeding Surface sowing A bandseeder plants, fertilises and Seed spread on the surface without sprays herbicide in strips in one pass. preparing a seedbed is often wasted. Bandseeding is better than preparing It has to compete with the established a cultivated seedbed because it is pasture and is often removed by ants. cheaper, there is less risk of soil The best chance of success is using erosion and the pasture is out of medics and clovers in autumn when production for less time. frosts kill off the competition and good rain is expected. Only one third of the total area is sprayed. The herbicide reduces There are some good examples of grass competition and so improves lotononis sown by air at very low seedling survival and growth. rates. These pastures have taken seven to ten years to become highly Another system used on various productive. Surface sowing is an implements is a broad flat foot option for seeding inaccessible areas. on a tyne. The foot cuts under the For example, seeds may be broadcast existing pasture, eliminating grass from the air or by hand into hilly competition for the pasture seeds country after a fire. Success depends sown into the ploughed area. on good rain after planting. Sod-seeding Animals Conventional sod-seeders do not Seed fed to cattle can be spread handle rough country as well as a in the manure. This is usually not bandseeders do. They have difficulty economical given current seed prices in placing small seeds near the surface and losses of highly digestible seeds, and do not remove grass competition such as lotononis. without a separate spraying operation. Best results have been from sod- Alternatively a small plot of pure seeding temperate legumes (lucerne legume can be grown, grazed when and medics) in autumn. seed is mature then the animals released into a suitable paddock. Crocodile seeder Hundreds of dollars of seed can be This is an implement with a large ‘harvested’ in this way. This is a very cylindrical drum to which shovel- effective way of spreading hard- like tools are welded. Seed placed seeded tropical legumes such as the in the drum escapes through holes stylos (e.g. fine stem stylo). at each shovel as the implement is towed along. It is a cheap method of establishment and a large 4WD can tow the implement.
13 Establishing sown Selecting pasture mix The mix of grasses and legumes pastures planted depends on the soil or land type and on the cost and availability of seed. The ‘Legumes for South East Sown pastures have the potential to Queensland’ and ‘Grasses for South improve stock production in many East Queensland’ sections (pages 37 areas of South East Queensland. and 49) provide detailed information Introduced grasses and legumes can to help select suitable species. rejuvenate run-down native pastures Preparation time and planning is and old cultivation country. important, it is best to plan up to It is not recommended to replace 12 months in advance for a pasture productive native pastures of black planting program. speargrass, Queensland bluegrass How much seed to plant or forest bluegrass unless they have Aim to plant 2–3 kg/ha total of grass been overtaken by unpalatable species such as wire grass. Careful seed and 2–3 kg/ha total of legume management of native pasture seed. The amount of seed you decide provides the cheapest long-term to plant will depend on the cost and fodder source for stock. The addition availability of seed. Obviously the of a tropical legume may be all that more seed you can afford to plant is needed to give native pasture a the better the establishment is likely worthwhile boost (see ‘Enhancing to be. Keeping grazing animals off native pastures’ on page 11). the the newly planted pasture until it goes to seed will mean much more New sown pastures will be the most seed will be added to the seed bank. productive for the first 3–5 years. If weather conditions are favourable, After this, there is usually a tie-up of the selected grasses and legumes nitrogen in the soil and production will form a greater part of the pasture decreases. To maintain production sward in the second season. levels fertiliser, scarifying and adding a legume will be required. Pure live seed (PLS) The rules of thumb for establishing All commercial seed should be sold sown improved pastures are: with a ‘statement of seed analysis’ label showing the independent • the better the seedbed the better laboratory analysis of the seed, the establishment including the germination percentage • sow most grass and small legume and a seed purity percentage. The seeds on the surface germination percentage indicates the • sow when there is good soil amount of fertile pasture seed in each moisture at depth kilogram you purchase. The purity • know the quality of the seed before percentage indicates how much inert planting.
14 matter or other seeds (e.g. weeds) are if the seed was uncoated because present in that batch of seed. Using the coating forms part of the weight. this information you can determine Ask your seed merchant for the the ‘pure live seed’ percentage (PLS recommended planting rate that %) of the batch of seed you are allows for the coating when buying purchasing. This will help you choose coated seed. Many companies the best value seed available and now have proprietary seed coating work out the required planting rate. mixtures with additives to help Aim to sow at least 1 kg of PLS/ha. To seedling establishment. Insecticides determine how much pure live seed can also be added if ants are likely you are getting, use the formula: to collect and bury sown seed. In Germination % x Purity % = PLS % the case of legumes the coating can 100 also include the rhizobial inoculum needed for the legume to fix nitrogen, In some cases the cheapest seed saving time and money. may not be as cheap as it seems. For example: Planting times Grass seed sample A costs $15/kg. When to plant is the most difficult Its germination percentage is 20% decision in establishing pastures. It and the purity percentage is 80%. seems it is always hot and dry after you plant! 20% x 80% = 16% PLS 100 Plant summer pastures from August to March. Early or late is the best Real cost = $15 x 100/16 option. Early rain in September will = $93.75/kg PLS be very useful for germination and Grass seed sample B costs $18/kg. establishment, while rain may fall Its germination percentage is 40% more reliably in January–February. and the purity percentage is 90%. Hot, dry spells from October to December often kill young seedlings. 40% x 90% = 36% PLS 100 April–May is the preferred time for temperate species such as lucerne, Real cost = $18 x 100/36 medics, clovers and vetches. = $50/kg PLS Grass weeds, particularly in old Coated seed vs uncoated seed cropping ground, can cause Fluffy seeds such as Rhodes grass establishment failures. Sometimes and creeping bluegrass can be the pasture will not be at its best until problematic to sow using commonly- the second year. Weeds are generally used equipment. This problem can worse in spring plantings. Delaying be overcome by using coated seed. planting until January–February is Generally you will need to plant often worthwhile but do not leave it so more coated seed per hectare than late that short, new pasture is frosted.
15 Pasture seeds are usually planted Seedbed preparation dry and will be dormant until the next Seedlings need some soil rain. The seed zone needs to be moist disturbance to establish. Few for three to four days for germination legumes and almost no grasses to occur. Along with surface moisture, will establish in undisturbed soils, pasture establishment relies on especially those with hard-setting deeper, subsoil moisture. surfaces. Cover crops Failure of sown pastures is often due Cover crops have been widely used to poor seedbed preparation so allow to establish pastures in South East ample time to prepare a suitable Queensland. Cover cropping involves seedbed. If preparation is left too late planting crops such as maize, oats, the result is often a rough, cloddy grain sorghum, forage sorghum and seedbed, poor weed control and millets at half their normal seeding little subsoil moisture. Prepare a firm rates, along with the pasture mix. seedbed for small pasture seeds. There are four reasons given to justify Avoid over-cultivation of soils that the use cover crops: are prone to setting hard or crusting • shading to protect young after rain. These soils include many seedlings on sandy soils South East Queensland forest soils • suppressing weeds and some old cultivation soils, which • providing grazing or some cash are often poorly structured and have return if the pasture fails a tendency to surface seal. • reducing erosion on steep country. Seedbed preparation does leave soils prone to erosion so try to follow these Of these reasons, only minimising guidelines to reduce soil loss: erosion is valid. Planting in early spring or autumn will avoid seedlings being • do not cultivate in gullies or burnt in sandy soils. Planting a cover drainage lines crop thick enough to suppress weeds • divert run-off water away from the also suppresses the pasture. cultivated ground A cover crop is often grazed before • leave grass strips in ploughed the pasture has fully established. areas Successful pasture establishment • avoid over-working soils to using cover crops occurs only in produce a very fine, powdery good seasons. Often the cover crop seedbed. will compete for moisture with the Planting rates pasture, inhibiting its growth and establishment. Planting rates for legumes and grasses are provided on pages 38 and 50 respectively.
16 Planting methods The planting method chosen depends on the seed type and machinery available. Often a neighbour with good pastures has the best experience for your local area. Seed can be spread using a rolling drum seeder, fertiliser spinner or combine drill with the seed hoses removed. Other options are full cultivation, sod seeding, bandseeding and crocodile seeder. Adding a legume during pasture cropping can also have some success (see ‘Enhancing native pastures’ on page 11). Planting fluffy seeds Fluffy seeds, such as Rhodes grass Fluffy seeds, like creeping bluegrass, are and creeping bluegrass, are hard easier to plant if the seed is coated. to spread with some planters. To make planting easier try mixing the seed with fertiliser, cracked grain or sawdust to act as a carrier. Mixing seed with sieved, dry sawdust is safer than using fertiliser as the Another option is to purchase coated carrier. Use twice the volume of seed. If mixing with fertiliser, do not sawdust to grass seed. Calibrate the leave seed and fertiliser mixed longer seeder using only sawdust, before than necessary. If the planting mix adjusting with seed and sawdust. includes inoculated legume seed, If broadcasting, only fill the hopper these seeds must be pelleted before with enough seed for 1–2 ha to mixing with fertiliser. prevent bridging. Use runs 1.25–1.5 m apart and check how far the seed has thrown. It may be better to plant across the wind. Many seed companies now offer coated seed. Using coated seed will generally make planting easier and more accurate. The coatings are lime based and contain various fertilisers. Roller or drum seeders are necessary to sow Remember to increase the planting uncoated, fluffy grass seeds such as Rhodes rate to compensate for the increased grass and bluegrasses. weight and volume of the coated seed.
17 Rolling and harrowing Rolling and/or harrowing will improve emergence on most soils. However, many old cultivation soils are poorly structured and tend to surface seal. Using a roller after planting can make crusting worse. Harrows on their back or chains and Plant pangola grass as runners because the weldmesh will cover seed from 0 to seed is generally infertile. 10 mm deep, depending how rough the seedbed is. Very loose soils, such Coated seed is advantageous if ants as red snuffy soils, may need rolling are likely to remove or destroy fluffy before and after planting. Rolling with seeds. The seed coating can have dual tractor wheels has proven very insecticide added to protect the successful on these red soils. seeds from ant damage. Fertiliser In the case of legumes, the rhizobia Old cultivation soils often have low inoculant can be added when the fertility. Before investing in pasture seed is coated and will remain viable improvement it is worth getting a for 28 days. soil test to determine if there are any Planting depth problems. A fertiliser program can Seed is usually placed on the surface then be implemented. Phosphorus, and lightly covered with soil. To nitrogen and potassium are the main achieve the best strike with most nutrients pastures need. Some red pasture grasses and legumes do soils in South East Queensland are not bury the seed more than 10 very acidic. These soils will benefit mm deep. However, lucerne, purple from applications of lime before pigeon grass and silk sorghum can planting the improved pasture. Lack be planted as deep as 25 mm. Many of nitrogen is a common cause of pasture establishment problems are poor grass growth and low nutritive caused by planting too deep. value, especially on some old cultivated forest soils. A small seeds box or a C-seeder mounted on a combine will allow planting at two depths.
18 Weeds Weeds can be a major problem when establishing pastures. They are usually worse in old cultivation ground. Ways to reduce competition from weeds include: • Delay planting until January– February to reduce the number of grass weeds. • Slash to reduce weeds, this will limit their growth and reduce competition for moisture. • Use herbicides to control grass weeds. Most herbicides will Healthy, recently established Rhodes grass damage young legumes. pasture. • If broadleaf weeds are a major problem, another option is to plant grasses and, once they are established, oversow with legumes. This way broadleaf herbicides can be used in the establishment phase of the grass.
19 First year management Allowing the pasture to seed in the first year is important for grasses that Grazing management in the first year reproduce only via seed rather than is critical to the establishment and runners. For example, Rhodes grass long-term viability of sown pastures. and creeping bluegrass will fill in the There are two general approaches: gaps without going to seed. 1. no grazing until the pasture seeds Frosted pasture can be grazed. After 2. lightly grazing once or twice spring rain, allow a build up of feed during the first summer–autumn. before grazing. Planning a forage Light grazing is preferable. The young sorghum crop for this time can give pasture it will provide some feed, and pastures a break. grazing will encourage the grasses to More pastures are destroyed in the spread out and reduce the build up first year due to overgrazing than for of too much growth that can smother any other reason. Sown pastures are the next generation of self-sown not indestructible. grasses and legumes. Heavy grazing will permanently damage the pasture.
20 South East Queensland land types
There are 16 land types identified for South East Queensland. Descriptions of characteristic land resource areas, landforms, woody vegetation and expected native pasture species for each main land type are provided in this section.
Alluvial landtypes
Blue gum on alluvial plains...... 25 Gum-topped box and blue gum on mixed alluvial...... 26 Scrub landtypes
Brigalow softwood scrub...... 22 Rainforest on basalt...... 23 Softwood vine scrub...... 24 Open forest landtypes
Gum-topped box open forest...... 27 Ironbark and bloodwood on non-cracking clay...... 28 Ironbark and blue gum on clay...... 29 Ironbark and spotted gum ridges...... 30 Ironbark on granite...... 31 Mixed open forests on duplex and loam...... 32 Mixed open eucalypt forest on coastal plains...... 33 Paperbark forest on coastal plains...... 34 Tall open forests on basalt...... 35 Tall open forests on steep hills and mountains...... 36
21 Brigalow softwood scrub
Land resource area Scrub Walloons (6b) (Noble, 1996).
Landform Undulating low hills and steep hills (3–10% slopes).
Woody vegetation Mostly cleared; brigalow softwood scrub, occasionally with belah.
Expected native pasture Minimal grassy understorey. composition
Desirable Forest bluegrass, Queensland bluegrass, Rhodes grass*
Intermediate Early spring grass, hooky grass, couch grass*, red Natal grass*, pitted bluegrass
Undesirable Wiregrasses, slender chloris
Legumes Woolly glycine, glycine pea
Suitable sown Rhodes grass, green panic, creeping bluegrass, leuceana, pastures shrubby stylo, Caatinga stylo, siratro, medics
* Denotes non-native ‘Expected Pasture Composition’ species.
22 Rainforest on basalt
Land resource area Red Volcanics (2a) (Noble, 1996).
Landform Undulating rises to rolling low hills and plateaus (slopes 3–40%).
Woody vegetation Original vegetation largely cleared. Mixed rainforest with crow’s and bumpy ash, hoop and bunya pines, black bean, yellow carabeen, red and white cedars, strangler figs, giant stinging tree. Flooded gum occurs along watercourse and rainforest margins.
Expected native pasture Golden beard grass, black speargrass, kangaroo grass, composition Queensland bluegrass
Desirable Forest bluegrass, Queensland bluegrass, kangaroo grass, black speargrass, Rhodes grass*, kikuyu*, paspalum*, mat grass*
Intermediate Early spring grass, couch grass*, red Natal grass*, pitted bluegrass
Undesirable Wiregrasses, blady grass, slender chloris
Legumes Glycine pea, woolly glycine
Suitable sown Kikuyu, paspalum, green panic, Rhodes grass, white pastures clover, glycine, siratro, leucaena
* Denotes non-native ‘Expected Pasture Composition’ species.
23 Softwood vine scrub
Land resource area Scrub Walloons (6b), Northern Mixed Volcanics (3c), Metamorphic Hills (4) (Noble, 1996).
Landform Mid to upper slopes of rolling hills (3–30% slopes).
Woody vegetation Largely cleared open softwood scrub with vine species. Other trees that may occur include crow’s and southern silver ash, blush tulip oak, broad-leaved leopardwood, red ash, rose satinash, red and white cedar, white beech, silky oak and hoop pine.
Expected native pasture Generally, in the natural state native pastures are composition restricted to Oplimensus aemulus and hooky grass (Ancistrachne uncunulata), both of which provide little grazing value.
Desirable Forest bluegrass, Queensland bluegrass, black speargrass, kangaroo grass, Rhodes grass*, green panic*
Intermediate Early spring grass, couch grass*, red Natal grass*, pitted bluegrass
Undesirable Wiregrasses, blady grass, slender chloris
Legumes Woolly glycine, glycine pea, clover glycine
Suitable sown Rhodes grass, green panic, creeping bluegrass, pastures leuceana, shrubby stylo, fine stem stylo, siratro, glycine, clover, medics
* Denotes non-native ‘Expected Pasture Composition’ species.
24 Blue gum on alluvial plains
Land resource area Fine Textured Alluvial Plains (1b) (Noble, 1996).
Landform Flat to gently undulating alluvial plains, levees and terraces (0–3% slope) along rivers and creeks.
Woody vegetation Predominantly cleared. Remnant Queensland blue gum woodland with occasional Moreton Bay ash, broad leaved apple.
Expected native pasture Forest bluegrass and Queensland bluegrass composition
Desirable Forest bluegrass, Queensland bluegrass, black speargrass, scentedtop, Rhodes grass*, creeping bluegrass*
Intermediate Umbrella grass, tambookie grass, couch grass*, spring grass, slender bamboo grass, liverseed grass*, pitted bluegrass, native panic
Undesirable Wiregrasses, slender chloris, native rats tail grass, blady grass
Legumes Rhynchosia, creeping tick trefoil, glycine pea, woolly glycine
Suitable sown Rhodes grass, creeping bluegrass, Angleton grass, pastures pangola, lucerne, leucaena, siratro, clovers and medics
* Denotes non-native ‘Expected Pasture Composition’ species.
25 Gum-topped box and blue gum on mixed alluvium
Land resource area Mixed alluvial plains (1c) (Noble, 1996).
Landform Alluvial plains, gently undulating levees and terraces, high river terraces and narrow drainage flats (0–6% slopes).
Woody vegetation Grassy open forest to woodland of gum-topped box and Queensland blue gum. Swamp mahogany, Moreton Bay ash, grey ironbark/narrow-leaved ironbark may also be present.
Expected native pasture Pitted bluegrass, wiregrass and barbed wire grass composition
Desirable Forest bluegrass, barbed wire grass, black speargrass, kangaroo grass, Rhodes grass*, creeping bluegrass*
Intermediate Pitted bluegrass, tambookie grass, umbrella grass, couch grass*, bottlewasher grasses, curly windmill grass
Undesirable Wiregrasses, slender chloris, native rats tail grass, blady grass
Legumes Emu-foot, creeping tick trefoil, woolly glycine
Suitable sown Rhodes grass, creeping bluegrass, pangola, lotononis, pastures Wynn cassia, siratro, white clover
* Denotes non-native ‘Expected Pasture Composition’ species.
26 Gum-topped box open forest
Land resource area Marburg Forest (7a), Metamorphic Hills (4), Granite Hills (5), Northern Mixed Volcanics (3c) (Noble, 1996).
Landform Undulating rises, colluvium, lower slopes, crests and ridges.
Woody vegetation Open forest to woodland of predominantly gum-topped box with narrow-leaved ironbark and sometimes scattered rusty gum, Queensland blue gum and occasional understorey of dry rainforest species.
Expected native pasture Wiregrass – pitted bluegrass pastures composition
Desirable Black speargrass, forest bluegrass, barbed wire grass, kangaroo grass, pitted bluegrass grass
Intermediate Spider grass (native couch), bottlewashers, umbrella grass
Undesirable Wiregrasses (e.g. dark), small burrgrass, slender chloris
Legumes Woolly glycine, emu foot, creeping tick trefoil
Suitable sown None suitable pastures
* Denotes non-native ‘Expected Pasture Composition’ species.
27 Ironbark and bloodwood on non-cracking clay
Land resource area Basaltic Uplands (2b), Forest Walloons (6a), Northern Mixed Volcanics (3c) (Noble, 1996).
Landform Predominantly mid to upper slopes of undulating hills and steep mountains.
Woody vegetation Woodland to open forest of silver-leaved and narrow- leaved ironbarks, and pink and variable-barked bloodwoods. Often associated with Moreton Bay ash, spotted gum, Queensland blue gum commonly on lower slopes, and rough bark apple along drainage lines.
Expected native pasture Black speargrass, pitted bluegrass, wire grass composition
Desirable Forest bluegrass, Queensland bluegrass, black speargrass, scentedtop, Rhodes grass*, creeping bluegrass*, paspalum*
Intermediate Pitted bluegrass, tambookie grass, umbrella grass, couch grass*, bottlewasher grasses, native panic
Undesirable Wiregrasses, poverty grass, slender chloris, woodland lovegrass, blady grass
Legumes Woolly glycine, rhynchosia, emu-foot, creeping tick trefoil
Suitable sown Rhodes grass, creeping bluegrass, shrubby stylo, fine pastures stem stylo, Caatinga stylo, siratro
* Denotes non-native ‘Expected Pasture Composition’ species.
28 Ironbark and blue gum on clay
Land resource area Basaltic Uplands (2b), Forest Walloons (6a) (Noble, 1996).
Landform Ridge crests, and mid to upper slopes in undulating rises to rolling low hills.
Woody vegetation Woodland to open forest of silver-leaved ironbark, narrow-leaved ironbark and Queensland blue gum. Often contains scattered Moreton Bay ash, yellow box and bloodwood.
Expected native pasture Forest bluegrass, Queensland bluegrass composition
Desirable Forest bluegrass, Queensland bluegrass, black speargrass, Rhodes grass*, creeping bluegrass*
Intermediate Umbrella/blowaway grass, tambookie grass, couch grass*, spring grass, slender bamboo grass, liverseed grass*, native panic
Undesirable Wiregrasses, blady grass, slender chloris
Legumes Glycine pea, woolly glycine, rhynchosia, creeping tick trefoil
Suitable sown Rhodes grass, creeping bluegrass, Caatinga stylo, siratro, pastures leucaena, medics
* Denotes non-native ‘Expected Pasture Composition’ species.
29 Ironbark and spotted gum ridges
Land resource area Marburg Forest (7a), Volcanic Peaks (3a), Metamorphic Hills (4), Northern Mixed Volcanics (3c) (Noble, 1996).
Landform Steep hills and mountains.
Woody vegetation Eucalypt open forest of narrow-leaved ironbark/grey ironbark, spotted gum with some softwood scrub. Patches of rusty gum and understorey of wattles and bulloak.
Expected native pasture Barbed wire grass, kangaroo grass composition
Desirable Black speargrass, barbed wire grass, kangaroo grass, tambookie grass, pitted bluegrass
Intermediate Bottlewasher grasses, hooky grass, couch grass*
Undesirable Wiregrasses
Legumes Glycine pea, narrow-leaved indigo
Suitable sown Not suitable for sown pastures. Legumes for dispersal: pastures shrubby stylo, fine stem stylo, Wynn cassia
* Denotes non-native ‘Expected Pasture Composition’ species.
30 Ironbark on granite
Land resource area Granite Hills (5) (Noble, 1996).
Landform Rolling hills and mountains.
Woody vegetation Narrow-leaved/grey ironbark and silver-leaved ironbark woodland. Pink bloodwood, spotted gum, wattles and red ash may also occur.
Expected native pasture Black speargrass, pitted bluegrass, wire grass composition
Desirable Forest bluegrass, barbed wire grass, black speargrass, tambookie grass
Intermediate Pitted bluegrass, silky umbrella grass, golden beard grass, red Natal grass*, couch grass*, native panic
Undesirable Wiregrasses, reedgrass, slender chloris, blady grass
Legumes Glycine pea, Birdsville indigo, rattlepod
Suitable sown Creeping bluegrass, Rhodes grass, pangola, shrubby pastures stylo, fine stem stylo, lotononis, Wynn cassia
* Denotes non-native ‘Expected Pasture Composition’ species.
31 Mixed open forests on duplex and loam
Land resource area Forest Walloons (6a), Helidon Forest (7b), Marburg Forest (7a), Metamorphic Hills (4), Northern Mixed Volcanics (3c) (Noble, 1996).
Landform Undulating to steep hills.
Woody vegetation Grassy open forest of narrow-leaved ironbark/grey ironbark and silverleaved ironbark with and bloodwoods (pink, brown, Clarkson’s and variable barked). Spotted gum, gum-topped box, Moreton Bay ash, grey gum, white mahogany may also occur. An understorey of bulloak and wattles may be present.
Expected native pasture Black speargrass, barbed wire grass, kangaroo grass, composition tambookie grass
Desirable Black speargrass, barbed wire grass, kangaroo grass, tambookie grass, Rhodes grass*, creeping bluegrass*
Intermediate Pitted bluegrass, couch grass*, bottlewasher grasses, lovegrasses, native panic
Undesirable Wiregrasses, reedgrass, slender chloris
Legumes Emu foot, woolly glycine, rhynchosia, creeping tick trefoil
Suitable sown Rhodes grass, creeping bluegrass, shrubby stylo, fine pastures stem stylo, Wynn cassia
* Denotes non-native ‘Expected Pasture Composition’ species.
32 Mixed open eucalypt forest on coastal plains
Land resource area Uplifted Coastal Plains (Glanville et al, 1991).
Landform Undulating plains, low hills and ridges.
Woody vegetation Mixed open eucalypt forest of bloodwoods, stringybarks, ironbarks, spotted gum, grey gums and smooth-barked apple.
Expected native pasture Golden beard grass, barbed wire grass, black speargrass, composition kangaroo grass, blady grass
Desirable Golden beard grass, barbed wire grass, black speargrass, kangaroo grass, Rhodes grass*, paspalum*
Intermediate Queensland blue couch*, cockatoo grass, mat grass
Undesirable Poverty grass, blady grass
Legumes Glycine
Suitable sown Not generally suitable for sown pastures. Rhodes pastures grass, paspalum and pangola may be suitable at some sites. Oversow with legumes: lotononis, shrubby and Caribbean stylos, siratro
* Denotes non-native ‘Expected Pasture Composition’ species.
33 Paperbark forest on coastal plains
Land resource area Coastal Plains (1a) (Noble, 1996).
Landform Coastal alluvial plains and low rises.
Woody vegetation Paperbark tea tree, bloodwoods, blue gum, swamp mahogany.
Expected native pasture Golden beard grass, black speargrass, kangaroo grass composition
Desirable Golden beard grass, black speargrass, kangaroo grass, Rhodes grass*, paspalum*, pangola*
Intermediate Queensland blue couch*, mat grass*
Undesirable Poverty grass, blady grass
Legumes
Suitable sown Pangola grass, Rhodes grass, paspalum, humidicola, pastures lotononis, creeping vigna, villomax, lotus
* Denotes non-native ‘Expected Pasture Composition’ species.
34 Tall open forests on basalt
Land resource area Red Volcanics (2a), Basaltic Uplands (2b) (Noble, 1996).
Landform Mainly on plateaus, but also occurs undulating rises to rolling low hills (slopes 3–40%).
Woody vegetation Flooded (rose) gum, Sydney blue gum, tallowwood, blackbutt, brush box with small areas of rainforest. Blue Mountains ash, stringybark, grey gum, grey ironbark and white mahogany may also occur.
Expected native pasture Forest bluegrass, Queensland bluegrass, black composition speargrass, tambookie grass, scented top
Desirable Forest bluegrass, Queensland bluegrass, black speargrass, tambookie grass, scentedtop, kikuyu*, paspalum*, green panic*, Rhodes grass*
Intermediate Umbrella grass, spring grass, slender bamboo grass, liverseed grass, pitted bluegrass
Undesirable Wiregrasses, blady grass, slender chloris
Legumes Glycine pea, woolly glycine, rhynchosia, creeping tick trefoil
Suitable sown Kikuyu, paspalum, green panic, Rhodes grass, white pastures clover, glycine, siratro, leucaena
* Denotes non-native ‘Expected Pasture Composition’ species.
35 Tall open forests on steep hills and mountains
Land resource area Metamorphic Hills (4), Marburg Forest (7a), Helidon Forest (7b), Northern Mixed Volcanics (3c) and Granite Hills (5) (Noble, 1996).
Landform Steep mountains and hills.
Woody vegetation Grassy open forest of wide range of species including grey gum, stringybark, blackbutt, tallowwood, spotted gum, narrow-leaved ironbark, bloodwood, brush box and scattered rainforest.
Expected native pasture Forest bluegrass, Queensland bluegrass, black composition speargrass, tambookie grass
Desirable Black speargrass, barbed wire grass, kangaroo grass, tambookie grass, Rhodes grass*, creeping bluegrass*
Intermediate Pitted bluegrass, bottlewasher grasses, lovegrasses
Undesirable Wiregrasses, reedgrass, blady grass, slender chloris
Legumes Emu-foot, woolly glycine, rhynchosia, creeping tick trefoil
Suitable sown Only on deeper soils on gentle slopes. Rhodes grass, pastures creeping bluegrass, shrubby stylo, fine stem stylo, Caatinga stylo, siratro, Wynn cassia
* Denotes non-native ‘Expected Pasture Composition’ species.
36 Legumes for South provided outlining the characteristics East Queensland of each species. Recommended planting rates pastures and inoculant Recommended planting rates vary considerably. If a legume is used in a Select legumes based on their mix of other legumes the lower rate suitability for the soil type and would be used whereas the higher their suitability for the production rate would be planted if the legume system. Table 4 lists the legumes is being used as a single species recommended for South East planting. Adjust the planting rate if Queensland. Ask for advice on the using coated seed (see Table 5). species or planting mix most likely to provide good quality feed during peak Many tropical legumes are production periods. Descriptions are hardseeded. This characteristic
Table 4 – Legumes for South East Queensland soils
Land type and main soils Suitable legumes Rainforest & Tall forest on Wynn cassia, leucaena, white clover (Haifa), basalt—red scrub/forest lotononis, fine stem stylo, serradella, vetch, lucerne, glycine, vigna Softwood scrub & Brigalow Wynn cassia, leucaena, white clover (Haifa), fine —brown clay stem stylo, serradella, vetch, lucerne, glycine, vigna Blue gum on alluvial flats Lucerne, medics, white clover, desmanthus, vetch, —black clay maku lotus, strawberry clover, siratro, glycine Ironbark & gum on clays Lucerne, medics, desmanthus, white clover, —black forest leucaena, vetch, siratro, seca stylo, glycine Ironbark on non-cracking Wynn cassia, seca stylo, fine stem stylo, white clay, duplex and loam— clover, medics, lucerne, lotononis, vetch, glycine, brown forest vigna Ironbark on granite—sandy Seca stylo, lotononis, Wynn cassia, fine stem surface soils stylo, siratro, serradella, vetch, vigna Mixed eucalypt on coastal Lotononis, seca stylo, fine stem stylo, creeping sands vigna, lotus, Wynn cassia, siratro, serradella Tall forest on hills & Ironbark Seca stylo, Wynn cassia, lotononis, siratro and spotted gum ridges— shallow stony soils Gum-topped box forest— Lotononis, seca stylo duplex: grey soil over clay 37 enables the seed to remain in the these seeds in a sown pasture it is soil for long periods and to germinate often beneficial to ‘scarify’ or ‘scar’ when conditions are favourable. Most the seed coat. Seed companies hardseeded legumes are resistant generally do this if necessary. to fire. To encourage germination of
Table 5 – Recommended planting rates for legumes Species Planting rate Rhizobium inoculant Annual medics 0.3–2 kg/ha in pastures. Up to 8 kg/ha Group AM for snail medic forage cropping. Burgundy bean 3–5 kg/ha. Seed coat needs scarifying. CB1717 Butterfly pea 3–4 kg/ha Tropical group M Clover 0.3–1 kg/ha Group B, TA1 Creeping vigna 1 kg/ha Group I (cowpea) or Group M Desmanthus 2 kg/ha. Seed coat needs scarifying. CB3126 Forage peanuts Main variety is Pinto which can be CIAT 3101 planted by seed or runners. Prine needs to be planted from runners. Glycine 2–4 kg/ha Group M Lab lab 12–20 kg/ha for single sowing with Group J grass; 5–8 kg/ha if sown with other legumes. Leucaena 2–2.5 kg/ha Leucaena, CB81 Lotononis 0.1–0.25 kg/ha. Also established via Group L, CB376 runners or cattle dung. Lucerne 1–6 kg/ha Group A, CC169 Maku lotus 2–3 kg/ha Group D, CC829 Siratro 0.5–2 kg/ha. Seed coat needs Group M scarifying. Serradella 8 kg/ha of podded seed. Group G, WU425 Stylo, fine stem 2–5 kg/ha. Seed coat needs scarifying. CB82, CB1650, CB1552 Stylo, shrubby 1–2 kg/ha. Seed coat needs scarifying. Group S but will readily combine with native rhizobia Vetch 2–4 kg/ha Group E, SU391 Wynn cassia 0.3–1 kg/ha Group M 38 Annual medics Burgundy bean Medicago spps Macroptilium bracteatum Many types of medics have been Burgundy bean is a summer-growing, trialled in South East Queensland twining perennial with dark red to including barrel medic (M. trunculata), burgundy flowers. common burr medic (M. polymorpha) It was selected for use on clay soils. It and snail medic (M. scutella). These is drought tolerant and has survived are winter/spring annuals and grow for up to three years on shallow clay well with early spring rainfall. soils. They are suited to clay or loam soils with a neutral to high pH. The snail It has the ability to germinate and medics such as Sava and Kelson can grow earlier in the season than other be used in crop–pasture rotations tropical legumes. It is susceptible to while the barrel medics such as frost. Jemalong, Cyperus and Paraggio It is very palatable to stock and needs perform best in pastures. Autumn, spelling to allow it to go to seed and after the threat of hot weather has persist in pastures. Burgundy bean passed, is the best time for planting. is well suited to sandy loams and Generally, snail medics have not clay loams. Tolerates slightly acid to persisted well in the South East alkaline soils. region, but burr medics are common. Seeds are large and can germinate in Medics will do best in wet winters. less-than-ideal conditions. It can be Bloat can be a problem if there is a hard seeded and the seed coat may large bulk of these legumes. Barrel require scarifying to ensure adequate medics are a worthwhile addition to germination. There are two varieties wheat crops to improve productivity of burgundy bean that are marketed and grazing on harvested stubble. together: Cardarga is an upright Seed is generally not expensive and growing plant; Juaninta has 19% they have been found to be very protein. beneficial for stock.
39 Butterfly pea Clover Clitoria ternata Trifolium spps Butterfly pea is a tropical summer- There are a number of clovers growing, twining perennial with available but generally white clover mauve to blue flowers. It can vary has been the most successful in in appearance depending on the South East Queensland. growing conditions. Commonly used Clovers are temperate legumes as an ornamental garden creeper. suited to high moisture situations, Butterfly pea grows well on a variety but are worth planting because they of soil types but performs best on are productive in wet winters and heavy alkaline black clay soils. early in spring. Clovers are the most persistent legume in kikuyu pastures. This tropical plant will not persist in cold areas subject to heavy frosts. In The main variety is Haifa. There are South East Queensland it needs to many other varieties but availability be planted high in the landscape and varies. Choose a variety suited to the be well established to survive winter sub-tropics. frosts. It is a very palatable, excellent quality fodder that is also suitable for hay. Milgarra is the main variety. This variety has some tolerance to flooding and waterlogging.
40 Creeping vigna Desmanthus Vigna parkeri Desmanthus virgatus Creeping vigna is a tap rooted twining Desmanthus is a summer-growing, plant that requires good annual woody perennial shrub. It usually rainfall of 1200 mm or more. The grows to around 70 cm in height plant is frost sensitive and suited to but can grow as tall as 1.5 m. Its warmer, elevated areas. Best growth taproot grows to a depth of 0.5 m. from the plant is in early summer Desmanthus grows on a wide variety and early autumn. It will handle of soils but is best suited to alkaline moderately fertile soils with a wide duplex and cracking clay soils. Frost range of pH. It is palatable and can will defoliate the shrubs but they will handle heavy grazing in a mixed re-grow from established crowns after sward once established. It can be frosting, provided there is sufficient established from stolons as well as soil moisture. seed. Vigna is tolerant of semi-shade. The seed coat is very hard and established stands should be allowed to set seed for two years to build up seed reserves. Once established it will tolerate heavy grazing. Desmanthus is palatable to cattle but not as favoured as leucaena. The three cultivars, Marc, Bayamo and Uman, have short, mid and late season flowering respectively. They are marketed as one under the name Jabiru. Desmanthus has an average crude protein of 21%.
41 Forage peanuts Glycine Arachis spps Neonotonia wightii Forage peanuts have not been used Glycine is a tap rooted trailing legume widely in South East Queensland that is suited to higher rainfall areas pastures because they are sensitive and good soil fertility. It is frost to cooler conditions. They may do sensitive so slopes and higher areas well in protected situations. are more suitable for the plant. Glycine has multiple small white flowers on an There are two main varieties. Pinto upright stem. is grown from seed and is used in coastal areas as a horticultural Being a twining legume it is ground cover. Prine is grown from susceptible to over grazing. Generally cuttings and has been trialled in the it is not as palatable early in the dairy industry in Central Queensland. season and stock will often leave it until pastures start to go to seed and dry off. The plant has a long growing season and is more tolerant of cooler conditions than other tropical legumes. Once established this plant is an agressive climber on other vegetation and in ungrazed situations has become a problem weed. Cooper and Tinaroo are two of the cultivars. Cooper is considered to be more drought-hardy than Tinaroo.
42 Leucaena Leucaena leucocephala Leucaena is a tree legume needing deep, fertile, well drained soil. Mature trees grow to 18 m high but should be kept lower in a grazing situation. It does best in areas with minimal frost. Lab lab Leucaena is slow to establish and Lablab purpureus needs careful weed management in Lab lab is a summer growing annual the early stages. that occasionally persists as a short- Leucaena is costly to establish but lived perennial. It is a vigorous robust very productive. Well managed stands trailing and twining plant. Stems grow have remained productive for over 30 to 3–6 m in length. years. Leucaena can be toxic to cattle. Inoculate cattle grazing leucaena It is an ideal plant for grazing and with a rumen bacteria to ensure cropping rotations or as an addition digestibility of the plant. to forage crops. It performs well as a green manure crop and has very good There are three main varieties. forage quality for grazing or as hay. Peru is one of the original varieties introduced by CSIRO. Cunningham Lab lab does not tolerate frost but is more highly branched and 30% will grow in a wide range of soils higher yielding than Peru. Tarramba from deep sands to heavy clays, establishes more rapidly, and is provided drainage is good and the pH marginally more psyllid-resistant is 4.5–7.5. Lab lab has an average and cool-tolerant than Peru and crude protein of 26%. Cunningham. There are two varieties. Rongai has Leucaena has potential to be an white flowers and is late-flowering, invasive weed if not managed with high dry matter production. correctly. The Leaucaena Network has Highworth is an earlier-flowering a Code of Practice for members to variety originally intended for grain follow to avoid weed problems. production. It has purple flowers and For more information on leucaena it is recommended to read the Meat & Livestock black seeds. Australia publication Leucaena: A guide to establishment and management. The Lab lab is an excellent addition to Leucaena Network also provides valuable information about establishing and summer fodder crops. managing plantations (www.leucaena.net).
43 Lotononis Lotononis bainesii Lotononis is an early summer- growing perennial with moderate frost tolerance. It prefers lighter Lucerne well drained soils but is found on a Medicago sativa variety of soil types; gravelly, sandy and loamy soils, but not generally on Lucerne is the king of fodder crops. It clays. is a perennial suited to fertile, deep, well drained soils. It does not persist It has yellow flowers and is a low well on shallow or acidic soils. growing, very palatable species, common on roadsides in South East All lucerne cultivars are summer- Queensland. It tolerates low fertility growing, but some cultivars are more soils and heavy grazing. It is slow, winter-active than others. As a result, and often difficult, to establish due cultivars can be described as winter- to hard seeds, but persists once dormant, semi winter-dormant, established. winter-active, and highly winter- active. Lotononis spreads by both runners and seed. It does not do well if it Growth in semi-dormant and dormant is shaded out by taller grasses, cultivars slows down during the particularly those with runners. It colder months. Generally these types performs well under rotational grazing have lower crowns and are more regimes. Lotononis has an average persistent in dryland grazing systems. crude protein range of 9–25%. Highly winter-active cultivars will provide year-round feed with only a slightly reduced production in winter, especially if they are irrigated. Winter- active cultivars fall between these
44 extremes. They have moderate winter Maku lotus growth and are moderately persistent Lotus pedunculatus under grazing. Maku lotus is a perennial that is Bloat can be a problem in pastures suited to waterlogged areas. It has a containing a high proportion of variable growth habit depending on lucerne. Rotational grazing is the environment, growing up to 60 essential to maintain the lucerne cm high. plant population within the pasture sward. This legume needs very good moisture levels but is tolerant of frost, Choose a lucerne variety that suits heavy grazing and low fertility, acidic your situation, there are many soils. It has poor drought tolerance cultivars available bearing in mind but does not cause bloat. the semi-dormant and dormant cultivars are best and most persistent for dryland pastures.
45 photo: David Gramshaw David photo:
Siratro Macroptilium atropurpurem Serradella Siratro is a perennial vine with a deep, swollen taproot and trailing, Ornithopus compressus climbing and twining stems. Serradella is a winter/spring annual It grows on a wide range of soils from for deep, light well-drained soils dark cracking clays to sands and and acidic sandy soils. It is a non- gravels, but does best on more fertile bloating legume. Seradella has not soils. It is sensitive to frost and rust been planted widely in South East but is drought resistant. Queensland but does have some potential in southern areas. Siratro persists best under rotational grazing and requires spelling to set The Maderia and Santorini varieties of seed to ensure persistence. Siratro yellow serradella are recommended seed requires scarification before for southern Queensland. planting. It has an average crude Slender serradella, the Jebala protein of 25%. The Aztec variety is variety, flowers mid-season and is rust resistant. hardseeded. It can tolerate poorly drained soils (shallow, stony soils that can become very wet) better than yellow serradella, and can produce a good bulk of forage in late spring.
46 Stylo, fine stem Stylosanthes guianensis var. Stylo, shrubby intermedia Stylosanthes scabra Fine stem stylo is a low growing (up to Shrubby stylo is a perennial shrub 30 cm high) perennial with fine hairs legume that grows to 2 m tall with a visible on the stems. It is tolerant of long taproot. It is tolerant of heavy cold, fire and heavy grazing. It needs grazing and drought. Plants are deep, free draining sandy soils to slow to grow in the first year and can perform best. become very woody with age. Fine stem stylo is palatable to stock Shrubby stylo is sensitive to heavy and responds well to regular grazing. frosts and waterlogging. It has hard It may be lost from a pasture if it seeds so establishment is slow if the is shaded out by tall grasses. Its seed is not scarified. Seed will spread resistance to fire makes fine stem over time in manure of stock and in stylo a useful addition to native pods attached to animal coats. pastures. Cattle will spread the seed in their dung once stylo is The two varieties, Seca and Siran, are established. suited to a wide range of soils except for heavy clays. Caatinga stylo is more It is hard seeded so seed requires suited to heavier clay soils. scarification before planting. Establishment is usually slow. Fine stem stylo has an average crude protein of 16%.
47 Vetch Vicia villosa ssp dasycarpa Wynn cassia Vetch is a spring growing annual Chamaecrista rotundifolia suited to most soils except those susceptible to waterlogging and Wynn cassia is a tropical legume that those that set very hard. It is a good is quick to establish and seeds well. pioneer species but needs to be It often dies in winter and returns spelled to allow seed to set. There is from seed. It is susceptible to frost a local native spurred vetch that is and drops leaves under drought common in South East Queensland conditions. pastures. It prefers lighter soils and can The main varieties are Namoi, Woolly withstand heavy grazing. Palatability pod and Poppany. is a problem in some areas and pastures must be managed carefully to ensure grass is not overgrazed. Wynn cassia has the potential to form a pure sward leaving no grasses if the pasture is overgrazed. It has been used to make hay in some coastal areas.
48 Grasses for South East Queensland production periods. Descriptions are pastures provided outlining the characteristics of each species. Select grasses based on their The best mix of pasture will depend suitability for the soil type and on cost and availability of seed. Table their suitability for the production 7 provides recommended planting system. Table 6 lists the grasses rates for sown pasture grasses. recommended for South East The planting rates given vary, with Queensland. Ask for advice on the the higher rates for single species species or planting mix most likely to planting and lower rates for mixes of provide good quality feed during peak species. Rates are for uncoated seed.
Table 6 – Introduced grasses for South East Queensland
Land type and main soils Pasture grass Rainforest & Tall forest on Rhodes grass, creeping bluegrass, kikuyu, basalt—red scrub/forest digit grass, panic, paspalum, purple pigeon grass, pangola Softwood scrub & Brigalow Rhodes grass, creeping bluegrass, panic, digit —brown clay grass, paspalum, purple pigeon grass, silk sorghum, pangola Blue gum on alluvial flats Rhodes grass, kikuyu, bambatsi, purple pigeon —black clay grass, silk sorghum, paspalum, Floren bluegrass Ironbark & gum on clay— Rhodes grass, creeping bluegrass, purple black forest pigeon grass, silk sorghum, bambatsi, paspalum, Swann bluegrass Ironbark on non-cracking Rhodes grass, creeping bluegrass, digit grass, clay, duplex and loam— purple pigeon grass, silk sorghum, paspalum, brown forest pangola Ironbark on granite—sandy Creeping bluegrass, Rhodes grass, digit grass, surface soils pangola Mixed eucalypt on coastal Creeping bluegrass, Rhodes grass, digit grass, sands pangola, paspalum Tall forest on hills & Ironbark Sown pastures on suitable on stable slopes and and spotted gum ridges deeper soils. Rhodes grass, creeping bluegrass, digit grass Gum-topped box forest Generally not suitable for sown pastures.
49 Recommended planting rates Table 7 – Recommended planting rates for grasses Grass Planting rate Comments Bambatsi 2–4 kg/ha seeds have long dormancy Bluegrass (creeping) 1–4 kg/ha fluffy seed Bluegrass (Floren) 2–4 kg/ha suited to alkaline soils Bluegrass (Swann forest) 2 kg/ha fluffy seed Digit grass 2–4 kg/ha can spread by stolons Kikuyu 0.5–1 kg/ha spreads by runners Panic 3–5 kg/ha shade tolerant Pangola n/a propagate via runners only Paspalum 2–4 kg/ha sticky seeds spread by animals Purple pigeon grass 2–4 kg/ha seeds have long dormancy Rhodes grass 2–4 kg/ha fluffy seed, most spread by runners Silk sorghum 2–4 kg/ha responds to warmer soil temperature
50 Bambatsi Bluegrass (creeping) Panicum coloratum var. Bothriochloa insculpta makarikariense Creeping bluegrass is a perennial, Bambatsi is also known as makarikari stoloniferous tussock grass that grass. It has distinctive bluish leaves grows to 0.9 m tall. The seed and with a white mid-rib. The foliage leaves have a strong scent when grows to a height of 70 cm. Bambatsi crushed. It grows well on low fertility spreads by seeds and stolons. soils, but not on waterlogged soils or very heavy clays. It is slow to establish, but tolerates light frosts and is very persistent once When growing on black soil creek established. It is well adapted to flats creeping bluegrass can be heavy, self-mulching black clay soils, unpalatable. Its main growth occurs black soil creek flats and melon hole in summer/autumn. It is tolerant country, it is tolerant of temporary of heavy grazing on most soils and waterlogging, flooding, drought and has been cut for hay in South East moderate soil salinity. Queensland. There is slow regrowth in spring. Bambatsi is cold tolerant and has high forage quality. It has a lower Seed is fluffy and difficult to spread nitrogen requirement than green unless coated. It generally takes panic. Seeds can have a long more than one season to establish. dormancy period. Photosensitization Average crude protein levels range has occurred in sheep, goats, cattle from 10% at the beginning of the and horses grazing bambatsi but it is growing season to 5% at the end of rare. Bambatsi is very palatable with the season. Creeping bluegrass is crude protein ranging from 5–19%. useful for erosion control. The varieties suited to South East Queensland are Hatch, Bisset and Alpha. Hatch is long stemmed and
51 Bluegrass (Floren) Dicanthium aristatum more robust than the other varieties, Floren bluegrass is a selected line of runners do not root down. Bisset angleton grass, an introduced species sends roots down from runners, that is common in Queensland. Floren is finer stemmed and flowers later bluegrass is not widely planted in than the other varieties. It is more South East Queensland at present. palatable than Hatch. Alpha flowers It is a late maturing, palatable earlier than other varieties but perennial growing to a height of 1.8 continues to flower throughout the m with a vigorous, spreading growth season. It spreads well from runners. habit. Floren bluegrass is suited to alkaline, cracking clay soils. On the Darling Downs it is used extensively to compete with the weed lippia. Floren bluegrass will tolerate flooding and saline conditions. It is palatable after frosting and persists well under heavy grazing.
52 Bluegrass (Swann forest) Bothriochloa bladhii subsp. glabra Swann forest bluegrass is a perennial tussock grass growing to 80 cm, generally with unbranched stems. The seedhead is green to purplish Digit grass and, along with the leaf, has a Digitaria milanjiana distinctive odour when crushed. Digit grass grows to 1.5 m. It is suited Swann forest bluegrass makes good to low fertility soils but may need hay if it is cut before flowering but phosphorus and potassium on less loses quality after that point. The fertile soils. It is very palatable, has main flowering is late in the season. early growth in spring and is drought This sub species of bluegrass has hardy. It can spread by stolons. It may its origins in India and is different to not establish well on heavy soils. Burnett bluegrass, or native forest Average crude protein ranges from bluegrass, Bothriochloa bladhii. 8 to 12%. There are four varieties available. Swann forest bluegrass grows well on both fertile and infertile soils but Jarra grows to 1.8 m with broad not on soils with high aluminium dark green to purple leaves. Jarra levels, such as the red acid soils. The does better in higher rainfall areas. seed is fluffy and therefore difficult to Strickland grows to 1.5 m and has sow. Maximum germination is grey green leaves. It is more drought reached 6–7 months after maturity. tolerant than Jarra. It has an average crude protein level Premier digitaria has performed well range of 7–14%. It is susceptible with legumes and nitrogen on infertile to leaf rust and not as palatable as soils, but it looses productivity when some other summer grasses. nitrogen declines. It is more widely adapted than the Apollo is a more recent release of native forest bluegrass, palatable, digitaria and gives more spring feed tolerates heavy grazing and survives in frost free conditions. seasonal frosting.
53 Kikuyu Pennisetum clandestinum Kikuyu is a productive and useful Crude protein levels can reach grass that spreads by runners. It 25% in well fertilised stands. New can be established from seed but is growth is very palatable and stock expensive and slow. Kikuyu usually will often eat out small patches of grows 30–40 cm high and will form a kikuyu in a mixed pasture. Lactating tight mat if heavily grazed. It requires dairy cows eating a high percentage highly fertile red and black soils with of kikuyu in their diet may need adequate moisture and will tolerate calcium and sodium supplements. low pH (acid) soils. It responds Nitrate poisoning, bloat and oxalate well to high levels of nitrogen and poisoning can also occur. Despite phosphorous. this, kikuyu can provide valuable green feed in winter. Kikuyu performs best if grazed to maintain a height between 5 and The two varieties of kikuyu are Whittet 15 cm. Kikuyu can become stemmy and Noonan. Whittet is a taller variety resulting in reduced leaf production if with broad leaves. It persists well allowed to grow too tall. Rest kikuyu on low fertility soils. Noonan seed pastures after grazing down to 5 cm. is available but this variety is more Kikuyu can dominate and exclude suited to turf. It is resistant to kikuyu other pasture grasses and legumes. yellows. In high rainfall areas a soil-borne parasite can cause ‘kikuyu yellows’. Rust and various insects can also cause damage and production losses to kikuyu stands.
54 photo: David Gramshaw David photo:
Panics Megathyrsus maximus (was Panicum maximum) The panics are a large group of are not rested. Panic responds well grasses that are very variable in to fertilising, and will be replaced by appearance. Green panic and Gatton other grasses as nitrogen becomes panic are the most common cultivars locked up in older pastures. Panic with Hamil grass being one of the tall spreads well, particularly in areas types grown more in the tropics. where it is not under grazing Panic is a bright green tussock grass pressure. with a wide leaf and stout stems Green panic is a fine stemmed growing to 1.5 m tall. Green and Guinea grass (Megathyrsus Gatton panic can flower throughout maximum var. trichoglume) with soft the season. They are shade tolerant leaves. It grows to 1.5 metres tall and and respond quickly to spring rain, is shade tolerant. It has hairy stems often being the first grass to appear in comparison to Gatton panic which after long dry periods. has smooth stem nodes. Gatton Panics are able to grow in a wide panic is more vigorous than green range of soil types but generally only panic with longer and wider leaves. It persist on more fertile scrub soils. often has red to puple colouration on Being very palatable to stock it is the stems and is easier to establish easily grazed out of pastures that and manage.
55 Pangola grass Paspalum Digitaria eriantha Paspalum dilatatum Pangola grass is extremely variable Paspalum is a leafy, tufted, sod- in form. It is a perennial that spreads forming perennial, arising from from runners. Only a very limited short rhizomes 4–8 mm in diameter. number of seeds are viable. To Paspalum has a thick fibrous root propagate, runners need to be system growing to more than 1 m harvested and planted into prepared deep. It is found throughout South soil during damp weather. East Queensland on a wide range of moderately fertile soils but it does Pangola grass is very productive best on more fertile soils. on lighter soils but will grow on a large range of soil types. This grass Paspalum responds well to fertiliser competes well with African lovegrass and provides stable ground cover to and other weeds. It has a moderate reduce the risk of water erosion. It is tolerance to salinity, it is palatable palatable, persistent and tolerates and tolerates heavy grazing. Pangola waterlogging. grass responds well to fertiliser and The sticky seeds spread by is cut for hay in tropical areas. The attachment to animals and vehicles. average crude protein of pangola An ergot (fungus) on seedheads can grass is 9–20%. be a problem but paspalum rarely forms a high proportion of pastures in South East Queensland and so there is insufficient ergot to cause ill-effects in cattle. The average crude protein ranges from 4–23%. The Hi-Gane variety is suitable for wetter areas.
56 Rhodes grass Chloris gayana Rhodes grasses are very common and widely planted in South East Purple pigeon grass Queensland. Most varieties spread by runners but are also easily Setaria incrassata established from seed although the Purple pigeon grass forms a tussock seed is fluffy and, if uncoated, is growing to 2 m high. The seedhead difficult to sow using conventional is a distinctive spike. It is adapted to planting equipment. It grows to 2 high fertility black and red clay soils m tall and has roots to 4 m depth. where it establishes more reliably Rhodes grass does best on fertile than Rhodes or panic grasses. Purple soils but will survive on lighter soils. pigeon grass mixes well with lucerne It responds well to fertiliser. and medics. Rhodes grass has good tolerance Purple pigeon grass is affected by to saline conditions and provides frosts but recovers to give good good ground cover. It has a crude spring and summer growth. It is best protein range from 17% when green planted as a pure stand as it can be to 3% when dry. Palatability reduces unpalatable and will not be grazed markedly after drying out or frosting. when there is other pasture available. There are several varieties of Rhodes It is most palatable when it is short, grass. Katambora has a fine leaf, is and it is useful for hay. Purple pigeon early flowering and is less vigorous grass establishes quickly and could and palatable than other varieties. be suited to short-term pasture leys It is more persistent, forms a denser on black soils. It is not recommended sward and shoots earlier in spring. for horses due to potential oxalate poisoning. The seed can lay dormant Callide is late flowering and takes a for up to a year. long time to respond in the spring. It
57 does best in fertile soils, is tall and Silk sorghum late maturing. It has long awns and Sorghum arundinaceum a long tuft of hairs at the awn base. Callide is a smaller plant and is more Silk sorghum is an erect, robust, frost tender than Katambora. tussocky perennial with numerous tillers and thick, short rhizomes Pioneer is the original variety. It has a that curve upwards to produce new high proportion of stem and less leaf shoots near the parental stool. Stems that the other varieties. It does not are solid and pithy, about 1 cm thick, continue growing into autumn and sometimes reaching a height of is less likely to respond to warmer 3–3.6 m. Leaves are 2.5–4 cm wide. winter weather. Topcut is derived from The seedhead has multiple branches Pioneer Rhodes with a finer leaf and that droop down as the seed ripens. stem. It has an erect, uniform growth Silk sorghum is suited to heavy, fertile habit and is ideal for hay production. soils and combines well with lucerne. Finecut is a leafy Katambora type for It is easy to establish and will persist better grazing and hay production. It for one to five years, depending on forms a dense mat over the ground. soil management and rainfall. Nemkat is resistant to nematodes. Silk sorghum requires nitrogen fertiliser to grow and persist well. It is drought tolerant but does not handle flooding. It responds well to the onset of spring and soil temperatures above 15 °C provide conditions for ideal growth. After long dry spells silk sorghum can be toxic due to high levels of prussic acid. Silk is a hybrid between ‘Krish’ [a hybrid of Johnson grass (S. halepense) and S. roxburghii] and S. arundinaceum.
58 Temperate grasses There are a number of temperate climate grasses that do well in the South East Queensland during winter if there is sufficient rainfall or irrigation. Ryegrass, fescue, cocksfoot prairie grass and phalaris are worth investigating, particularly if irrigation is available.
59 Further Pastures Australia information www.pasturepicker.com.au Pastures Australia is an incorporated joint venture for investment in the Department of Agriculture, genetic improvement, management and adoption of pasture plants across Fisheries and Forestry (DAFF) Australia. The partners are Australian www.daff.qld.gov.au Wool Innovation, the Grains Research Customer Call Centre open normal & Development Corporation, business hours Monday to Friday Meat & Livestock Australia, Dairy (telephone 13 25 23 for the cost Australia, and the Rural Research & of a local call within Queensland; Development Corporation. interstate callers 07 3404 6999) or The Pastures Australia Pasture email [email protected] Picker decision tool for farmers and advisors provides specific pasture SEQ Catchments recommendations for regions across Australia. Species selection can be SEQ Catchments refined to specific local conditions is a community- including climatic and soil variables. based, not-for-profit organisation helping FutureBeef to build a sustainable community FutureBeef is a collaborative program that cares for and values the natural for the northern Australia beef resources and biodiversity of South industry. The aim of the FutureBeef East Queensland, and that recognises program is to support sustainable the impact of personal and collective and profitable productivity gains for actions on the environment. northern beef producers. Mobilising and involving the community is a key action to set local www.futurebeef.com.au and regional priorities that address environmental issues and identify projects and partnerships to deliver tangible, on-ground solutions. www.seqcatchments.com.au Phone 07 3211 4404
60 Pasture photo-standards Tropical forages Pasture photo-standards are an www.tropicalforages.info essential tool in good grazing land Tropical Forages is a powerful tool management. The Pasture photo- for selecting forage species suitable standard CD will assist in developing for local conditions in the tropics pasture budgets and dry season and subtropics. It is invaluable business management plans. The for agricultural researchers and CD contains photo-standards and extension officers involved in corresponding pasture yields for improving animal production. many of Queensland’s common pasture communities. You will be able Tropical forages allows you to to search for standards according speedily: to region or by pasture type. Also • identify forage species suitable included is an order form to obtain for your climate, soils, production durable, full colour, laminated system and management via a copies of each of the pasture photo- selection tool built on LUCID™ standards for use in the field. • access comprehensive Creator: Department of Primary information on these species with Industries and Fisheries details of adaptation, uses and Publication year: 2003 management of forage species, Format: CD-ROM cultivars and elite accessions Price: $17 (incl GST) • view images of the plants and their use Phone 13 23 25 to order a copy. • search a comprehensive database of scientific references with abstracts.
61 Workshops
Stocktake: balancing supply Grazing Land Management and demand Grazing Land Management (GLM) Stocktake is a paddock-scale workshops provide land managers land condition monitoring and with a practical and planned management package. It has been approach to improving productivity developed to provide grazing land and sustainability. The workshops managers with a practical, systematic start by looking at grazing lands as way to: ecosystems and how they function. • assess land condition and long- Held over three days, GLM workshops term carrying capacity provide information that includes • calculate short-term forage long-term stocking rate calculations, budgets. forage budgeting, land condition assessment and information on sown pastures, fire and weeds specific to the land types, climate and production systems of specific regions. Check the FutureBeef website for details and registration for Stocktake and Grazing Land Management workshops. www.futurebeef.com.au
62 Species list
Legumes Arachis spps (forage peanuts)...... 42 Chamaecrista rotundifolia (wynn cassia)...... 48 Clitoria ternata (butterfly pea)...... 40 Desmanthus virgatus (desmanthus)...... 41 Lablab purpureus (lab lab)...... 43 Leucaena leucocephala (leucaena)...... 43 Lotononis bainesii (lotononis)...... 44 Lotus pedunculatus (maku lotus)...... 45 Macroptilium atropurpurem (siratro)...... 46 Macroptilium bracteatum (burgundy bean)...... 39 Medicago sativa (lucerne)...... 44 Medicago spps (annual medics)...... 39 Neonotonia wightii (glycine)...... 42 Ornithopus compressus (serradella)...... 46 Stylosanthes guianensis var. intermedia (stylo, fine stem)...... 47 Stylosanthes scabra (stylo, shrubby)...... 47 Trifolium spps (clover)...... 40 Vicia villosa ssp dasycarpa (vetch)...... 48 Vigna parkeri (creeping vigna)...... 41 Grasses Bothriochloa bladhii ssp. glabra (bluegrass, Swann forest)...... 53 Bothriochloa insculpta (bluegrass, creeping)...... 51 Chloris gayana (Rhodes grass)...... 57 Dicanthium aristatum (bluegrass, Floren)...... 52 Digitaria eriantha (pangola grass)...... 56 Digitaria milanjiana (digit grass)...... 53 Megathyrsus maximus (was Panicum maximum) (panics)...... 55 Panicum coloratum var. makarikariense (bambatsi)...... 51 Paspalum dilatatum (paspalum)...... 56 Pennisetum clandestinum (kikuyu)...... 54 Setaria incrassata (purple pigeon grass)...... 57 Sorghum arundinaceum (silk sorghum)...... 58 Temperate grasses...... 59
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