PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday Region

Queensland the Smart State

A guide for developing productive and sustainable pasture-fed grazing systems

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region

A guide for developing productive and sustainable pasture-fed grazing systems

Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries ii PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Many people have provided and Many photos contained in this book assisted with information contained in were sourced from Tropical Forages: this book. Thanks to the many Mackay an interactive selection tool (Cook, Whitsunday property owners, graziers B.G., Pengelly, B.C., Brown, S.D., and managers who have worked with Donnelly, J.L., Eagles, D.A., Franco, DPI&F over the past decades to trial, M.A., Hanson, J., Mullen, B.F., understand and develop successful Partridge, I.J., Peters, M. and Schultze- pasture technologies for productive Kraft, R. 2005. Tropical Forages: an and sustainable pasture-fed grazing interactive selection tool, [CD-ROM], systems. CSIRO, DPI&F (Qld), CIAT and ILRI, Brisbane, Australia). Thanks to Mick Quirk, Science Leader (Sustainable Grazing Systems) Additional photos have been provided within DPI&F Animal Science, for by Terry Hilder, Caroline Sandral, Paul his support and encouragement with Wieck, and Christine Peterson. this project. I gratefully acknowledge

Acknowledgements the ﬁnancial support provided by the Mackay Whitsunday Natural Resource Management Group (MWNRMG). Thanks to Kelly Flower and Vivienne Dwyer (MWNRM Group Inc.), Tanya Radke and Lee Cross (DPI&F) for their assistance in organising the agreement between DPI&F and MWNRM Group Inc.

Special thanks to those people who have given of their time to review and comment on early and progressive drafts; in particular John Hopkinson, John Hughes, Kendrick Cox, Ross Dodt, Terry Hilder, Caroline Sandral, Bill Schulke (DPI&F) and Nigel Onley (Consultant). Terry Hilder has greatly assisted with sourcing data and generating tables and graphs for Chapters 1 and 2 and sourcing photos for Chapters 4 and 5.

Formatting and publishing of this book was coordinated by the DPI&F, Central Region Communications & Information team.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region iii For today’s landholders, running a conserving the natural resource successful grazing enterprise requires (Gomez et al. 1996). a broad range of knowledge, skills and The aim of Pastures: Mackay/ experience. Gone are the days when Whitsunday region - A guide for the main requirement for running developing productive and sustainable some cows or horses was to have pasture-fed grazing systems is to access to land (any land), put a fence provide information and knowledge on

Foreword around it and provide water. Although, sown and native pasture systems in a even now some in the community form readily accessible to the Mackay believe this approach is acceptable Whitsunday region’s grazing sector. when running a few horses. Pastures has been compiled and In the words of Marlborough published by the Department of landholder/grazier Peter Emmery, ‘the Primary Industries and Fisheries, most cost-efficient way to reduce through the Sustainable Grazing age of turnoff is to improve (animal) Systems program within the Animal nutrition through improved pastures’ Sciences Group. Its contents draw and ‘the most economically efficient on a wide range of new and existing way to increase (breeder herd) fertility, information sources (see Chapter 10, providing phosphorus nutrition is References and Resources). adequate, is pasture improvement’ (Emmery 1997). Funding to print Pastures was provided by the Mackay Whitsunday Natural The three top priorities for sown Resource Management (MWNRM) pastures in the tropics and subtropics, Group. Pastures will be a useful tool as presented by Walker et al. 1997, are to assist implementation and delivery • Collating all available information of the MWNRM Group’s Sustainable on pasture cultivars and sown Landscapes (incentive) Program. pasture development and Information in this book will management into a readily progressively be updated and accessible form and extending made more locally relevant and it through pro-active extension applicable through landholder/grazier activities feedback, following participation • Integrating sown pastures into in the on-ground grazing land feeding systems and whole property management activities demonstrated development and implemented at Grazing Land • Monitoring the health and condition Management (GLM) and Stocktake of sown pastures to determine rate workshops and field days. and cause of decline. ‘It is not enough to know – One must A farming (or grazing) system is said also apply. It is not enough to wish to be sustainable at the farm level if – One must also act’ (Goethe). it satisfies the farm (property/grazing) Harry Bishop manager’s needs (over time) while

iv PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 1 Overview of Mackay Whitsunday region ______1 • Location • Climate • The natural environment • Natural resource assets • Who is the MWNRM group? Contents 2 Proﬁle of Mackay Whitsunday beef industry ______4 • Special features and brief beef industry statistics

3 Pasture-fed beef production options ______7 • Native grass pastures • Native grass oversown with legumes • Sown (improved) grass pastures • Sown grass/legume pastures • High nitrogen input grass pastures • Special purpose pastures

4 Mackay Whitsunday land types ______16 • Alluvial ﬂats and plains • Coastal eucalypt forest and woodlands • Coastal rainforests • Coastal tea tree plains • Coastal wetlands • Eucalypt hills and ranges • Marine plains and tidal ﬂats • Poplar gum dominant eucalypt woodlands • Wet highland rainforests

5 Sown pasture species information (grasses and legumes) ______26 • Grasses – Most planted grasses – Alternative grasses – Possible weedy/problem grasses – Water grasses • Legumes – Most planted legumes – Alternative legumes – Temperate cool-season legumes – Short term ‘ley’ legumes – Browse shrub (leucaena) – Possible problem legumes

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region v 6 Selecting sown pasture grasses, legumes and mixtures ______64 • Pasture type choices • Importance of legumes • Ideal pasture species to plant • Brief history of tropical pastures in MW region

7 Establishing and managing sown pasture systems ______68 • Planning • Establishing sown pastures • Pasture planting methods • Best time of year to plant • Fertilising sown pastures • Grazing management

8 Special purpose pastures ______75 • Irrigation • High N on grass • Hay • Short term pasture leys • Ground covers • Tolerance to: salinity-cold-shade-waterlogging-grazing • Leucaena grazing systems on coast • Pastures for horses

9 Weeds and legislation ______86 • Legislation • MW Regional Pest Management Group • More information sources • Weeds table listing State declared class

10 References and resources ______88

11 Appendixes ______90 1 Native pasture communities of MW region (pre-development) 2 List of sown pasture species available for MW region 3 History and role of sown pasture grazing systems in MW region 4 Producer demonstration sites using high N pasture-fed grazing systems 5 Code of Practice for the sustainable use of leucaena/grass pasture systems 6 Risk of ‘big head’ in horses grazing tropical grasses

vi PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region

Location

The Mackay Whitsunday (MW) catchment/region 1 occupies a narrow coastal strip on the central coast of WHITSUNDAY Queensland extending from Whitsunday south of Bowen, Proserpine, Rivers Airlie Beach and the Whitsunday (WRICMA) Islands in the north to Sarina and Carmilla in the south,

a distance of approximately BOWEN 300 kilometres. It is about CITY OF MACKAY 80 kilometres wide near Mackay and extends from the Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea coast in the east to the Eungella Tableland headwaters of the Pioneer Pioneer River in the west. The (PICMA) catchment encompasses an area of SARINA 940,000 ha. For statistical purposes

the Mackay Whitsunday Natural NEBO Resource Management (MWNRM)

Region consists of the four shires Serina Landcare of Whitsunday, Mackay, Sarina and (SLICMA) Mirani. However the actual Mackay Whitsunday catchment boundary BROADSOUND excludes bits of Mirani and Sarina shires and includes bits of Broadsound Figure 1: Boundary and location map of and Bowen shires. The MW region Mackay Whitsunday region has a population of about 113,000 people, with most living in the larger urban centres of Mackay, Sarina and Overview of Mackay Whitsunday region Whitsunday Overview Mackay of Proserpine. Approximately 70 percent of the region’s population resides in Mackay. Figure 1 presents a boundary and location map.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 1 Climate

The region’s climate is humid and of December and March. Table 1 tropical with hot wet summers and presents mean monthly rainfall data cool dry winters. Annual rainfall for six sites in the region plus Tully varies signiﬁcantly, from more than and Rockhampton. Figure 2 graphs 2000 mm in elevated sections of the monthly rainfall to show and compare coastal ranges down to 1000 mm per potential seasonal forage growth year in other inland areas. January is cycle for Tully (northern wet tropics), the hottest month (mean 30°C) and Mackay and Rockhampton (drier July is the coldest month (mean 11°C) central tropics). for the coastal city of Mackay. Most (around 70 percent) of the region’s rainfall occurs between the months

800 Tully 17.93 deg S, 145.01 deg E 700 Mackay 21.20 deg S, 149.12 deg E 600 Rockhampton 23.38 deg S,150.45 deg E 500 400 300 200

Annual average (mm) average Annual 100 0 Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Figure 2: Mean monthly rainfall graphed to show seasonal forage growth cycle for Tully, Mackay and Rockhampton

Table 1: Mean annual rainfall by calendar month for six Mackay Whitsunday centres plus Tully and Rockhampton

Site Rainfall (mm) No. rain Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Year days Mackay 36 30 28 45 81 179 342 352 281 144 93 62 1677 126 Dalrymple Hts 67 56 39 58 94 201 347 429 324 179 114 103 2017 111 Elaroo 26 22 22 39 75 155 321 320 232 101 53 44 1414 81 Sarina 31 29 24 53 100 186 372 378 274 123 79 55 1708 89 Carmilla 33 28 27 53 106 196 293 312 190 80 56 44 1423 89 Proserpine 37 34 36 41 74 179 362 381 304 151 92 63 1763 111 Rockhampton 38 25 28 48 66 112 162 170 106 56 45 51 908 94 Tully 147 136 117 101 158 274 587 721 729 539 339 195 4057 155 Source: Clewett et al Australian Rainman & Streamﬂow (2003)

2 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region The natural environment more strategic and involves addressing the cause of problems rather than The Mackay Whitsunday region’s symptoms alone. The new logic is that highly valued natural environment management plans need to protect and features the Great Barrier Reef World when necessary restore assets, both Heritage Area and Whitsunday Island natural and cultural. group, extensive wetlands, protected wilderness areas such as Eungella Who is the Mackay and Cape Conway National Parks and Whitsunday Natural many unique plant and animal species. Resource Management About 550,000 ha of native vegetation remains in the region as a diverse (MWNRM) group? array of terrestrial, island, aquatic and estuarine ecosystems. In 2004 this group was ofﬁcially designated by government (Australian Closed eucalypt and paperbark tea tree and State) as the regional body to forests and rainforests grow in coastal facilitate and deliver management and near-coastal areas while further of natural resources in this region, west, vegetation communities change in partnership with the wider to eucalypt dominated open forests community (private, public, industry and woodlands. Aquatic ecosystem and government). Funding support health in the Mackay Whitsunday is through the Natural Heritage Trust region typically varies from poor in (NHT) program. The MWNRM Plan some areas of intensive urban and 2005 document sets out the regions agricultural land use, such as the Vision; ‘the region we share will meet lower Pioneer and Proserpine ﬂood our environmental, economic and plains, to virtually pristine in forested social needs into the future’. catchments like those of Repulse and Flaggy Rock creeks. More detail on MW Natural Resources, Resource Targets and Management Natural resource assets of Action Targets is available in the MWNRM Plan 2005 and copies are MW region available from the MWNRM Group, 38 Tennyson Street, Mackay; or visit The primary natural assets in the www.mwnrm.org.au. Section 6, in region are land, water, biodiversity the Plan (Land pages 66-88) is of and climate. The primary human particular interest and relevance to the assets relating to natural resources grazing sector. are the abilities and capacities of the community for long-term adaptive management of their natural resources and the cultural values inherent in natural systems. Until recently, natural resource management tended to be ‘problem-based’. The new approach is

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 3 2

Grazing is the largest land use in the The cane and cattle industries are Mackay Whitsunday region. Grazing closely linked with more than 50 accounts for 76 percent of the region’s percent of the region’s beef cattle land use area while sugar cane owned and managed by integrated accounts for 15 percent of the land cane and beef enterprises. Many use area (Table 5). However on gross cane farmers took advantage of the dollar value sugar cane is by far the tropical sown pasture boom in the late largest industry (Table 4). Agricultural 1960s and early 1970s by using their Commodities by LGA Estimates for farming knowledge and equipment the year ending 30 June 2001 lists to clear and cultivate country, not 538 beef enterprises carrying 133,641 yet under cane, and planting it to beef industry beef cattle (Table 2). DPI&F tail tag records tropical pastures for grazing. When suggest many more enterprises have cane assignments were increased they ‘some’ cattle than ABS data indicates. converted the best of these pasture It is estimated that improved sown areas to cane and developed new areas pasture systems provide approximately to pasture. Subsequently many of 90 percent of grazed forage demand these cane farmers purchased fattening with 10 percent supplied from country west of the coastal ranges and remaining areas of native pastures, transported their coastal bred weaners mainly in the eucalypt hills and west for fattening. ranges.

Table 2: Meat Cattle at 30 June - total number (n) RSE of Local RSE of estimate Establishment Estimate establishment Government area % count (number) Proﬁle of Mackay Whitsunday Whitsunday Mackay of Proﬁle count % Mackay (C) 43384.6 5.8 222.2 2.9 Mirani (S) 25080.3 12.6 124.3 4.1 Sarina (S) 36065.5 6.7 125.6 4.1 Whitsunday (S) 29111 8.3 66.1 5.5 Total 133641.4 33.4 538.2 16.6 Source: Agricultural Commodities by LGA Estimates: Year ending 30 June 2001 RSE = residual standard error

4 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Table 3: Number of enterprises (with various number of beef cattle per enterprise) at 30 June 2001 Queensalnd Government area

Local 50 to less 100 to less 200 to less 500 to less Less than 50 Government area than 100 than 200 than 500 than 1000 Mackay (C) 88.6 51.5 30.7 30.2 14.4 Mirani (S) 58.9 20.9 26.5 11.9 2.5 Sarina (S) 46 18.9 18.8 25.6 5 Whitsunday (S) 22.2 12 7.3 7.1 7.2 Total 215.7 103.3 83.3 74.8 29.1

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Agriculture Census 2001.

The predominant beef business is fertiliser inputs to develop productive breeding and sale of weaners, stores (fattening) sown pasture systems. or cull cows. This differs to the far northern wet coastal areas that are In the MW region more than 50 predominately buy-in stores and percent of the region’s beef cattle fatten (for the domestic market). The are run by approximately 10 percent MW region is bordered on the west by of enterprises. There are many small Brigalow Area 3 which provides good beef operations running a few cattle cattle ‘fattening’ pastures and creates (Table 3). For the central Queensland a ready market for coastal bred stores. region approximately 20 percent of Also land types used for grazing in beef cattle numbers are grazed on the the MW region are predominantly coast and 80 percent in the hinterland. moderate to low fertility and need high The distribution of beef enterprises is

Table 4: Overview of Mackay Whitsunday industry value ($) and status (2002) Industry Value $m Status Cropping:Sugar 201.7 Decline or limited growth expected until world prices improve. Some cane Cane land is reverting to grazing land. Cropping: 17.6 Continued growth expected as cane farmers look for complimentary crops. Horticulture and other crops Livestock grazing 24.4 Some expansion as marginal cane land is returned to pasture. The Borthwicks abattoir at Baker’s Creek is a signiﬁcant regional asset. Investors/retirees are also buying small farms to produce cattle. Livestock dairy 3.3 Declined markedly since dairy deregulation, future uncertain, milk is shipped to Rockhampton. Aquaculture 1.7 Expansion dependent upon development of / access to, necessary technology and achievement of sustainable management practices. Timber and forest 0.5 Steady with likely reduction of logging on State land, more timber will need products to be sourced from public and private plantations to sustain production. Recent expansion of private hardwood plantations for pulp. Total 249.2 Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics; Agriculture Queensland (unpublished data); Dodds 2003.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 5 Table 5: Mackay Whitsunday Catchment - current land use (based on area of land) Total Sugar Sugar Catchment Total protected Grazing Grazing cane and cane and Catchment area protected area sq km % other crops other sq km area % sq km sq km crops % Proserpine 2535 265 10 2070 82 200 8 O’Connell 2387 219 9 1904 80 264 11 Pioneer 1570 174 11 1100 70 296 19 Plane Creek 2539 79 3 1830 72 550 21 Total/Mean 9031 737 8 6904 76 1310 15

approximately 80 percent coastal and The statistics on the local beef industry 20 percent hinterland. The Borthwick’s are best used to show relative numbers Abattoir in Mackay processes 90 and size comparisons rather than percent of through-put for the export accurate calculations. market and 10 percent domestic.

6 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region A landholder has a number of basic sizes, watering points and buildings). pasture-fed grazing systems to choose To do this you will need to access from for a whole-of-property/whole- aerial photography or satellite imagery of-enterprise pasture development or and cadastral and topographical maps. pasture upgrade program. 3 All this information, coupled with Pasture-fed options for whole landholder local knowledge and property/enterprise: experience, provides a robust platform to initiate the whole-of- 1. Native grass pastures property development plan based 2. Native grass over-sown with on the property land type map. The legumes appropriate grass/legume species can 3. Sown (improved) grass pastures then be matched to the land types and 4. Sown grass/legume mixed pastures pasture-fed grazing system(s) that best suit your property. 5. High nitrogen input grass pastures 6. Special-purpose pastures (hay, There are several ways to get help irrigation, weed management, etc) with this process, including the DPI&F delivered Grazing Land Management Managing a successful grazing (GLM) and Stocktake workshops enterprise requires knowledge and (more information Chapter 7), private experience in many areas; natural consultants, NRW, AgForward resources management (land and workshops and regional NRM groups. vegetation), pasture management, cattle management, climate variability, KEY TIP marketing and business management Matching property land types and to name a few. pasture species with landholder local knowledge and experience is the key A good starting point is the property to economic and sustainable beef land type map. You need to know production systems. what natural resources you have to

Pasture-fed beef production options production beef Pasture-fed work with; land (soils, vegetation, The following diagram provides a topography), water (rivers and creeks, framework for integrating information underground and surface storages). on beef production systems into a You also need to know your property whole-of-enterprise/whole-of-property, infrastructure (roads, fences, paddock approach.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 7 When selecting sown pasture species, Attend a Grazing Land Management, consider: Stocktake or AgForward workshop or contact a private consultant, NRW • Current or desired enterprise(s) for or regional NRM group, to access the your property relevant: • Desired stocking rate/carrying • Aerial photography or satellite imagery capacity in relation to pasture area • Soil/vegetation maps available • Topographic maps (also see Chapter 7) • Potential risk for selective overgrazing • Maintenance costs (particularly Develop property plan, land type map fertiliser inputs) for the pasture and paddock fencing overlay etc species and land type combinations • Existing weed infestations will inﬂuence species selection and Select suitable pasture-fed grazing system(s) seeding rates • Slope and topography limitations • Fencing requirements, according Select grasses and legumes to suit land to land type and grazing systems type(s) and grazing system(s) selected.

KEY TIP Develop a pasture establishment, Monitoring land and pasture condition, management and maintenance program, and balancing stocking rate to pasture and implement it available (forage budget), is a key component of any management and maintenance program. Monitor land and pasture condition, pasture and animal productivity and The diversity and number of pasture- enterprise profitability. fed grazing systems selected for a property development program will be Figure 3: Property development or pasture upgrade grogram influenced by the number of different land types, the nature of the cattle enterprise (breeding or finishing) and Productivity and sustainability of the grazing system used (rotational or introduced sown pasture systems continuous grazing). depends on selecting the most appropriate variety or species for Pasture-fed grazing the particular grazing system and land type(s) on your property. The systems: production and management of most 1. Native grass pasture systems sown pasture species is strongly influenced by land types (soils, fertility, In the MW region remnants of native slope, drainage, water ways, frost, etc). spear grass dominant pastures tend

8 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region to be isolated to the relatively small, regrowth and maintain native pasture less-accessible and/or timbered terrain seed-banks. of the eucalypt land types east of the Clarke/Connors range; small areas of 2. Native grass/legume pasture undeveloped coastal tea tree plains and systems salt and water couch on marine plain The quality (protein in particular) of and tidal flats (refer Chapter 4 and native grasses falls quickly following Appendix 1). flowering and seed set. Forage quality can be improved by over-sowing with These native pastures, when present, adapted legumes. Over-sowing a native can play an integral role in the overall pasture with a perennial legume can management of the property; lift animal live weight gains (LWG) by • Inputs are minimal and they have 20 to 50 kg/hd/yr. While introducing a low maintenance requirements legume improves animal production, it • They maintain ecosystem diversity does not increase carrying capacity, so and provide a natural habitat for stocking rates should not be increased. native fauna and flora As most remnant native pastures in • The timbered eucalypt range and the MW region are confined to hilly undeveloped tea tree areas provide or timbered terrain with inherent low important refuge zones for livestock fertility, the stylos are the best adapted during inclement weather (summer legume (see Eucalypt hills and ranges cyclones and winter frosts). land type p.22). Wynn cassis is another option but can become unpalatable KEY TIP on low fertility soils (see Chapter 5). Remnant native pastures in the MW Villose jointvetch is another option in region tend to be isolated to small areas wetter range areas. Although stylos of hilly eucalypt country with fragile soil types, low in fertility and requiring can survive and grow in soils with low careful management phosphorus (P), from as little as 5 ppm, a minimum soil P level of 10 ppm Native grass pasture systems in the is recommended to maintain cattle MW region are not able to sustain growth and stylo populations. heavy grazing pressure. Stocking rates Where mechanical soil disturbance is should be light enough to maintain impractical, heavy grazing or strategic sufficient pasture ground cover to burning prior to distributing stylo help prevent weed incursions and soil seed can reduce grass competition. erosion. Unpalatable weedy grasses With this establishment method it may such as rats tail, thatch and grader take a number of years to achieve the grass, and unpalatable broad-leaf desired 60:40 grass to legume ratio. species such as lantana, sicklepod and flannel weed, can quickly dominate Legumes can dominate native pastures overgrazed pastures. Strategic burning that are heavily grazed over summer and wet season spelling in eucalypt (green grass is more palatable than land types can help manage woody legumes and is preferentially grazed

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 9 during the growing season). Native adapted to a wide range of soil types pastures need to be spelled for 6 to 8 and climatic conditions weeks over summer to replenish their • Sown grass pastures in good stored root reserves and encourage condition are competitive against seed set. weeds, minimise erosion, and reduce run-off water, thus reducing soil and A ﬁre (post early storms) every 2 to nutrient losses. 4 years will encourage regeneration of black spear grass and will reduce The limitations of sown pasture woody weed thickening. It will also systems include: maintain the grass-legume balance. • Establishment and maintenance costs KEY TIP The aim of over-sowing native pastures • Risk of failed establishment with stylo legumes is to improve animal • Potential environmental-weed risk performance, NOT to increase carrying of introduced species capacity and stocking rate. • Pasture rundown (soil nutrient decline or nutrient tie-up, see Chapter 7). 3. Sown pasture systems KEY TIP Sown grass and grass plus legume systems are the most widely used Most improved grasses were collected from locations with inherent moderate grazing options for the MW grazing to high fertility. Their persistence and sector and play a critical role in productivity is reliant on maintaining economic and environmental adequate soil fertility. sustainability of the local grazing industry (refer Appendix 3). Matching improved grass species Positive features of sown pasture to land type/soil type and grazing systems (compared to native pasture systems to be used is the key to systems) include: realising the pasture-fed grazing system’s full potential. A thorough • Increased yield and diet quality understanding of a species’ attributes (protein), longer growing period, and management requirements will higher cattle live weight gain assist in making appropriate species • A wide choice of improved grasses selections, as in Table 6.

10 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Table 6. Attributes of commonly grown improved grasses in the MW region (also see Chapter 5).

Grass species Rhodes grass Signal grass Pangola grass Tully grass Creeping blue attributes Chloris Brachiaria Digitaria Brachiaria grass gayana decumbens eriantha humidicola Bothriocloa insculpta Protection Low-Medium High High Very high Medium against weeds Palatability High Medium, Very high Low, but Medium-high improves with improves with fertility fertility Soil type Versatile, Versatile, Very versatile Versatile, Versatile, requirements requires good requires good more including well drainage drainage palatable if drained clays fertile Sward Very quick Medium Slow * Very slow * Slow-medium establishment Water logging Low-medium Low-medium High Very high Medium tolerance Cool season High Medium Low Low Medium tolerance Grazing Low, requires High High Very high Medium tolerance regular spelling Compatibility High Low Low Very Low Medium with legumes Shade tolerance Low High Low High Low Suitability hay Medium Low Very-high Low High production Response to High High High High Medium-high fertility Suitability for High if regular Very Low Good, some moderate High horses spelling palatability risk of ‘Big- Head’ limitations Ability to Low Stunt virus Slow Slow compete with palatability and Rust establishment, establishment weeds with susceptible low relative decreasing vegetative palatability fertility planting Niche zones Cold and salt High nitrogen Versatile High nitrogen Horse tolerant, sown systems, soil and hay systems, paddocks and with slow weed options, weed weedy and hay options establishing management management water logged spp situations * Add Rhodes grass seed to mixture when planting, for quick ground cover and early grazing

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 11 4. Sown grass/legume pasture increase the spread of legume. systems This can eventually lead to legume dominance, especially in stylo (or The inclusion of legumes in sown Wynn cassia) native grass pastures. pasture systems will deliver a number At other times the grass component of significant benefits: can out-compete and dominate the • Legumes ‘fix’ atmospheric nitrogen legumes, particularly for improved which increases the protein content sown grass systems. of legume plants. This nitrogen • Tussock grasses that are compatible subsequently becomes available for with legumes (due to an open sward uptake by companion grasses thus structure) are more susceptible to increasing pasture yield and quality weed invasion than competitive (refer Chapter 6) stoloniferous grasses that form a • Increased pasture quality and yield, dense sward. improves animal weight gain • Molybdenum needs to be applied • The deep tap roots of legumes are every 3 to 4 years to maintain extremely efficient at extracting nitrogen fixation in legumes soil moisture and nutrients which • The application of extra nitrogen enables most legumes to grow fertiliser to grass/legumes pastures longer into the dry season to increase dry matter yield or • Productive legumes can lift available extend grass growth further soil nitrogen levels and help reduce into the winter will also put pasture rundown. extra competition on the legume component. KEY TIP The persistence of improved grass KEY TIP species in a pasture is largely Grass/legume pasture systems determined by the availability of require careful grazing and fertiliser nitrogen and phosphorus in the grazing management to maintain legume system. persistence and the optimum 60:40 grass to legume balance.

The beneﬁts of an improved grass/ legume pasture are well recognised; Legume selection however their more difﬁcult Graziers have access to a wide range management requirements are of legumes adapted to a variety of soils often seen as a limitation. Special (see Chapter 5) management considerations for grass- legume pastures: The most commonly planted pasture legumes in the MW region: • Selective overgrazing of grass in the wet season can weaken the Stylo legumes, a diverse range of grass component. Selective grazing varieties/cultivars for different land of the legume late in the season types, soils and situations: when they are setting seed can • Caribbean stylo (Verano and

12 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Amiga), Caatinga stylo (Unica but fix more nitrogen and provide and Primar). Short-lived better quality forage: perennial/annual varieties (depending on conditions), • American jointvetch, (the annual fine, branched, medium Glenn and short-lived perennial height. Adapted to low fertility Lee) are palatable legumes well environments but require adapted to low-lying situations moderate levels of phosphorus and tolerant of waterlogging. (10 ppm) to achieve a reasonable (Glenn can become ‘weedy’ in level of production and ungrazed waterways) persistence. • Villose Jointvetch (Reid and • Commom stylo (Nina and Kretschmer) are short-lived (2 Temprano). Short lived to 4 years) perennial, palatable perennials, coarse, branching legumes tolerant of heavy stems to more than one metre grazing, adapted to low lying tall are recent varieties with good areas and moderately tolerant anthracnose disease resistance. of waterlogging, marketed as They are a high yielding legume Villomix. hay crop for the tropics or as a Trailing /climbing legumes (Cardillo pioneer pasture legume. The new centro, Aztec-atro (siratro), Glycine) varieties (currently marketed as are generally suited to the more ‘Stylhay’) require moderately fertile areas of the MW region. well drained soils and have These legumes are very palatable the ability to produce high dry and careful grazing management, matter yields. Previous varieties monitoring and maintenance of soil Graham, Cook and Schofield fertility is required to achieve long- are susceptible to anthracnose term persistence. These legumes are disease and seed is no longer capable of climbing fences and trees available. and can become nuisance plants in • Shrubby stylo (Seca and the absence of grazing. Siran). Strong and hardy, erect/ branching, drought tolerant Molybdenum (Mo) is a very important perennials. They require soil trace element to ensure vigorous careful grazing management legume growth via effective root and monitoring to prevent nodulation and nitrogen fixation. stylo dominance in native Healthy root nodules should be pink grass pasture situations. Fire, in colour; pale green nodules indicate followed by strategic wet season ineffective nitrogen fixation which spelling can stimulate grass re- may indicate molybdenum deficiency. establishment in Seca dominant The twining legumes (centro and pastures. glycine) have a higher requirement for Mo then do the stylo legumes Jointvetch legumes, require higher that have a lower demand for both rainfall and soil fertility than stylos macro and micro nutrients. Siratro and

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 13 the jointvetch legumes are probably and marketing as other producers intermediate for Mo requirements. are (more often) forced to sell in dry (more information in Chapter 7). conditions • Hay production can be a viable KEY TIP option Legumes and grasses in a mixed sward • Flexibility in managing other are selectively grazed at different grazing systems operating on the periods in a season; this phenomenon must be considered in the overall property. management of grass/legume pastures. KEY TIP A competitive vigorous grass pasture 5. High nitrogen input grass is the most effective deterrent to weed pastures infestations. In the higher rainfall areas of the MW region, and on fertile land types, There are a number of critical high levels of animal production have management requirements associated been achieved by applying 100 to 200 with a successful high N grazing kg/ha Nitrogen (N), or 220 to 440 kg/ enterprise: ha of urea, to sown grass pastures. This system is becoming more • The response of the grass sward to commonplace with the ‘conversion’ of high N inputs is reliant on all other smaller sugarcane farms to intensive essential soil nutrients (phosphorous, livestock enterprises. potassium calcium and sulphur) being present. As the duration and Beneficial outcomes with the adoption level of production increases, trace of high input pasture systems: element deficiencies (particularly copper and selenium) may start • Weed competition is not normally a to limit animal LWG and general problem in high N pastures because health (consult a nutrition specialist of the strong competition provided or veterinary officer). An annual soil by the vigorous grass sward and plant analysis is recommended • Stocking rates of 2.5 adult to monitor soil and plant macro and equivalents (AEs) per hectare/year micro nutrients. are achievable with a normal wet • Timing of N application is important season (see Chapter 8) in the MW region. Nitrogen should • Cattle can fulfil their full genetic be applied towards the end of the potential to meet the specifications wet season (April/May) to minimise for high value markets leaching and to allow the grass to • The need for supplementary feeding ‘bulk up’ prior to the onset of cooler is reduced or negated due to the temperatures in autumn/winter that high yield and quality of forage slow grass growth. produced • In fattening and breeding enterprises • Flexibility in livestock purchases cattle with high genetic potential

14 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region should be selected to realise the full of oxalates which can cause ‘big potential of forage system and offset head’ disease in horses. Rhodes the high input costs. grass, Bisset creeping bluegrass, • The high N pasture system should be Floren bluegrass and Indian ‘couch’ associated with the most fertile land bluegrasses have low oxalate type/soil types with greatest water content and are readily grazed by holding capacity and using the most horses. Signal grass has high oxalate responsive grasses (refer to Chapter levels but most horses don’t eat 5). signal grass. • Short-term pasture leys (1 to 2 6. Alternate-use or Special-purpose years) are increasingly being used pastures (refer Chapter 8 for more as fallow and disease break-crops in detail) sugarcane. Many of our introduced sown pasture • Ground cover and amenity species are very versatile in adapting pastures for orchards, agro-forestry to a wide range of conditions, wood lots, horticultural crops, situations and uses. Examples include: playing ﬁelds, parks and house yards. • High nitrogen input grass pasture • Pasture species tolerant to; salinity systems. and soda patches, waterlogging • Hay production, either dedicated and ﬂooding, cold and frost. shade, hay enterprises or opportunistic heavy grazing (weaner and holding grazing enterprises making grass paddocks), strong vigorous grasses hay by spelling paddocks in late for weed management. summer and baling for hay in Autumn. Hay making removes high levels of N, K and P from the soil and these nutrients need to be reapplied as fertiliser to maintain hay yields. • Supplementary irrigation, particularly on high nitrogen input and pasture hay systems. • Browse shrub (Leucaena) plus grass. This pasture system is currently very productive and persistent on fertile clay soils west of the coastal ranges but current leucaena varieties are not well adapted to coastal wet tropics (acid, shallow, lower fertility soils and psyllid sap-sucking insect). • Horse pastures. Many tropical pasture grasses contain high levels

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 15 Land type is a term used to describe on their capability to grow pasture units of land with close-to-similar for grazing, for ease of recognition capability to grow pastures or crops. and management by the region’s 4 A land type is a composite of and grazing sector. As landholders/ described by, its vegetation, soils, managers progress their property topography and location in the land management plans they may landscape. For the purposes of this wish to, or need to, split their land publication, the 95 regional ecosystems types into smaller units based on that exist in the Mackay Whitsunday soil type, to reﬁne and improve their region (Environmental Protection pasture management inputs (including Agency 2004a) have been grouped fertiliser) and to better achieve planned into nine broad land types based production outcomes.

Alluvial ﬂats and plains Mackay Whitsunday land types land Whitsunday Mackay

A well grassed small alluvial ﬂat adjacent to a well vegetated stream

16 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Description: Alluvial flats and levees watering points for cattle grazing on associated with small to large creeks associated flats and plains. and streams that are frequently Land use limitations: Flooding and flooded. water logging on clay soils with Vegetation: Some of these areas restricted access in wet conditions. would have originally been rainforest Recommended conservation vegetation with blue gum and Moreton management: Large gum trees Bay ash. Disturbed areas tend to have provide important habitat for a regrowth of eucalypts. Originally range of wildlife, including arboreal black spear grass and blady grass marsupials (gliders), boobook and barn native pasture communities where tree owls, white-bellied sea eagles, kites vegetation was more open. and various other birds. These gums Suitable sown pastures: Callide are important food trees for koalas rhodes grass, signal grass, bisset and greater gliders in the region. creeping blue grass, pangola grass, Blue gum trees flower regularly and Tully grass with stylo and jointvetch reliably, providing a major blossom legumes. Angleton grass has and nectar source for sugar gliders, naturalised many lower clay soil flats nectareous birds and bees. This and gully areas. riparian vegetation is an important corridor for migrating wildlife, often Introduced weeds: Weedy sporobolus forming the only connecting corridor grasses, including Giant rats tail in the landscape. Manage grazing and (potential), sicklepod, general broad fire use to preserve tree vegetation leaf weeds, lantana, grader and thatch and to encourage some regeneration grasses. of blue gum where over-thinning has Soil: Deep with a sandy loam to light occurred. Blue gum forests also require clay topsoil over a grey to brown periodic flooding to exist (about once sandy loam to clay subsoil. The soil every 5 to 20 years). types include Rudosols and Dermosols. They have moderate to high fertility and water holding capacity with rooting depth of one metre. Land use and management recommendations: The areas not used for cane growing are very suitable for pasture improvement. Best to fence separate from less fertile land types to avoid over grazing. Retain trees on bed and bank of streams and maintain good pasture cover to avoid erosion during flooding. Where possible use controlled grazing on in-stream riparian areas and install off-stream

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 17 Coastal eucalypt forest and woodlands

Description: Gravely and low fertility soil types are Chromosol, Sodosol and soil on undulating and low hill slopes Rudosol of low to moderate water that support eucalypt woodlands. holding capacity and fertility and 30 to 60 cm rooting depth. Vegetation: Narrow leaf ironbark, grey ironbark, cabbage gum, pink Enterprise: Breeding/growing, bloodwood, Moreton Bay ash, poplar fattening possible in limited areas with gum, occasional blue gum and patches high fertiliser inputs. of broad leaved tea tree, originally Land use and management supporting black spear grass and blady recommendations: Moderate to high grass native pasture communities. fertiliser inputs to maintain high Suitable sown pastures: Rhodes grass, productive sown pastures. Woody green panic, signal grass, Tully grass, regrowth control could be required Bisset creeping bluegrass, Indian in previously cleared areas. Where bluegrass, Floren bluegrass / angleton stylo and Wynn cassia legumes sown, grass with stylo, jointvetch, Wynn careful grazing management required cassia legumes. to prevent legume dominance. Introduced weeds: Introduced weedy Land use limitations: Low soil Sporobolus grasses (including Giant phosphorous and potential woody rats tail), lantana, general broad leaf weed regrowth following disturbance weeds, including devil’s fig, sicklepod, of eucalypt vegetation. sida and flannel weed, urena/pink burr, Recommended conservation noogoora burr, snake weed, grader management: Habitat is important for grass and thatch grass. significant fauna, including northern Soil: Shallow to moderately deep sand quoll, grey goshawk, squirrel gliders, to loam to gravely soil of mostly acid red-tail black cockatoo, orange-footed and intermediate volcanic rock origin. scrub fowl. Appropriate fire regime to Texture contrast soils have grey to maintain vegetation community and brown clay sub-soil. The dominant structure.

This site north east of Proserpine was used for ﬁeld activities at a MWNRMG/ DPI&F Stocktake workshop; lower slope has been developed to Kazungula setaria sown pasture.

18 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Coastal rainforests pasture improvement. Retain trees on bed and bank of streams, and slopes Description: Upper slopes and drainage greater than 20 percent. Selective lines of low coastal hills with elevation logging of timber trees is possible if less than 500 m, may have remnant or undertaken in accordance with the regenerating rainforest vegetation. 2006 Code applying to a Native Forest Practice on Freehold Land; best fenced Vegetation: Vine forest vegetation separate from less fertile land types including White, Mackay and peach to avoid over grazing; maintain good cedar, bumpy/silver ash, red kamala, pasture cover to avoid gully erosion forest sirus, etc; blue gum, swamp during high rainfall periods; use mahogany, Moreton Bay ash on fringes; off-stream watering points for cattle originally pastures sparse or absent grazing where possible. native pasture community. Much of this land type is now developed to sugar Land use limitations: Vegetation cane or sown pastures for grazing, status should be checked before depending on slope. any new development. Soils can be susceptible to erosion so be mindful of Suitable sown pastures: Rhodes, signal, slope limitations (less than 20 percent). Bisset, Tully and pangola grasses, jointvetch and centro legumes. Cleared Recommended conservation areas not purposefully planted to sown management: Existing rainforest pastures, or following pasture rundown, vegetation has high conservation value are now colonised by guinea grass. as habitat for threatened flora and fauna species include rufous owl, Proserpine Introduced weeds: Susceptible to rock wallaby, burrowing skink and general broad leaf and grass weeds, endemic ground-dwelling lizards. depending on pasture and grazing Remnant areas should be fenced for management. controlled grazing and fire management Soil: Shallow to moderately deep, to protect remnant edges. gradational to texture contrast soils less than 0.6 m deep. Soil types include Brown Dermosol and Chromosols. A common soil description could be 20 to 30 cm clay loam to light clay topsoil with brown to reddish clay subsoil; moderate to high water availability (55 to 70 mm) with rooting depth 55 cm; soil fertility moderate to high. Enterprise: Fattening/finishing. Management recommendations: Areas not used for cane growing, not growing remnant rainforest or not greater than Sown pastures in Seaforth area on coastal rainforest 20 percent slope are very suitable for land type, with high range in background.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 19 Coastal tea tree plains fertility, water availability with rooting depth 20 to 60 cm. Description: Very low fertility, flat Enterprise: Breeding and growing; to undulating land with a sandy to finishing only possible with high sandy-loam surface that supports fertiliser inputs. predominantly tea tree with scattered eucalypts and cabbage palm. Land use and management recommendations: Tea tree sucker Vegetation: Broadleaved tea tree, pink regrowth can be a serious problem. bloodwood, narrow leaved ironbark, With new country or clearing regrowth cabbage palm, occasionally grass leave clumps or strips and blade- tree and small areas of bull oak and plough, disk plough (6 to 8” deep) grevillea. Originally black spear grass on deeper soils or Grasslan pellets native pasture community, smaller on shallow soils to prevent tea tree areas of blady grass and low density of regrowth on the areas to be pastured. native legumes. Tully and pangola grass recommended Suitable sown pastures: Pangola for low areas subject to flooding. grass, Tully grass, signal grass, Rhodes Land use limitations: High input costs grass, setaria, with legumes jointvetch, for sown pastures, tea tree regrowth stylo and centro. problems, summer flooding and water Introduced weeds: Introduced weedy logging can affect pasture growth sporobolus grasses, (including Giant and cause problems for animal and rats tail), broad leaf weeds including vehicle movement. Soil compaction devil’s fig, sida and flannel weed, and ‘debil debil’ formation (surface urena/pink and noogoora burr, snake roughness) necessitates more frequent weed, grader and thatch grasses. renovation (tillage). This country is very susceptible to erosion (gully, Soil: Shallow to deep sandy loam stream and creek frontages) despite the topsoil over a grey to yellow clay. The lack of elevation and slope. dominant soil types are Sodosols, with hard setting sandy to loam topsoil over Recommended conservation sodic clay subsoil. Low to very low management: This land type has a conservation status ‘of concern’ and a biodiversity status of ‘endangered’. It is known habitat for grey goshawk, eastern small-eyed snake, the bar- breasted honey-eater and squirrel gliders, orange-footed scrub fowl and red-tail black cockatoos. Fencing off undeveloped frontage areas to manage grazing during the wet season will reduce erosion and disturbance.

Breeder cattle resting in Callide Rhodes grass sown pasture.

20 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Permanent and semi-permanent wetlands are ﬁsh breeding habitats and attract much bird life; they therefore require managed grazing.

Coastal wetlands Enterprise: Finishing. Land use and management Description: Frequently flooded and recommendations: Fence where waterlogged plains which include possible to protect sensitive areas. swamps. Land use limitations: Flooding. Vegetation: Mixed melaleuca/ tea Hymenachne is now a Class 2 tree, occasional blue gum, leichhart declared weed in Queensland and tree, pandanus and cabbage palm with state government policy prevents its understorey of blady grass, salt and fresh planting. Acid sulphate soils can be water couch, reeds, bulrushes and sedges. present and professional advice should Suitable sown pastures: Pangola grass, be sought before excavating in these Tully grass, and jointvetch legumes. wetland areas. Areas of para grass, hymenachne and Recommended conservation aleman have naturalised from past management: Habitat for migratory plantings. birds which are protected by Introduced weeds: Introduced weedy international treaties. Important sporobolus grasses and common fisheries habitats should be kept broadleaf weeds, environmental weeds free of declared and environmental hymenachne, para, aleman grasses. weeds. Known habitat for threatened plant species black ironbox and Soil: Deep, clay to gradational soil. fauna species rufous owl, grey The main soil types include Vertosols, goshawk, eastern small-eyed snake, Dermosols and Hydrosols with sandy azure kingfisher and the locally rare clay loam to medium clay surface bar-breasted honey-eater and for over clay loam to heavy clay. Have barramundi fish. Fencing off sensitive moderate to high fertility and water areas (where possible) for controlled holding capacity (70 to 80 mm) with grazing during wet season will reduce up to one metre rooting depth. disturbance and assist erosion control.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 21 Mixed eucalypt vegetation on range country in Brightly area west of Eton. Eucalypt hills and ranges and some down-slope risk of salinity if over cleared. Description: Higher hills and ranges Enterprise: Breeding. with moderate to steep slopes supporting eucalypt woodlands and forests. Land use and management recommendations: Limited sown Vegetation: Ironbark, Moreton Bay pasture development possible. Woody ash, pink bloodwood and scattered regrowth control may be required in poplar gum, originally with black earlier cleared areas. Where stylo and spear grass native pasture community wynn cassia legumes have been sown, understory. careful grazing management is required Suitable sown pastures: Green panic, to prevent native grasses being grazed Bisset creeping grass, Indian bluegrass, out resulting in legume dominance. on soils with sufficient depth, with Clearing is not recommended on slopes legumes stylo and jointvetch. Wynn more than 20 percent. cassia, when surface sown into less accessible and steeper areas of native Land use limitations: Shallow pasture, can dominate native grasses. soils susceptible to erosion, low soil phosphorous, steep topography. Introduced weeds: Introduced weedy Sporobolus grasses (including giant Recommended conservation rats tail), lantana, snakeweed and other management: Habitat for the broad leaf weeds. threatened fauna species such as northern quoll, glossy black cockatoo Soil: The mostly Chromosol, shallow to and squirrel glider. Conservative grazing moderately deep soil has low fertility, and fire regimes to allow thinning of firm to hard setting dark sandy loam community and recruitment of canopy to sandy clay loam topsoil with brown species, where appropriate, to maintain clay subsoil. Water availability is low eucalypt community. Protect living and to moderate, rooting depth 20-50 cm dead trees with hollows.

22 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Marine plains and tidal ﬂats

Description: Flat land in and adjacent grazing in association with less to mangrove and salt couch areas. sensitive land types (coastal tea tree and wetlands). Vegetation: Mangrove associations, melaleuca tea tree and cabbage palms. Land use limitations: These soils Original native pasture community are frequently flooded and have ‘pastures sparse or absent’. Marine waterlogged (poorly drained) subsoil. (saltwater) couch, fresh water couch, Low infiltration rates except when samphire and sedges. very dry. Acid sulphate soils underlay most of these areas. Professional Suitable sown pastures: Very limited advice should be sought prior to any options for sown pasture or introduced excavation work in these areas. weeds; water grasses hymenachne and para grass have colonised some fresh Recommended conservation water lagoon areas. management: Mangroves are a protected plant species and provide Soil: Very deep cracking and non- valuable marine and fish habitat. cracking clay. The dominant soil Waterbirds are the most common types include Hydrosols, Vertosols fauna of marine plains and tidal flats and Sodosols. Light clay topsoil over because these areas provide abundant grey clay subsoil, moderate to high food for both local and migratory fertility, moderate to very high salinity, species. Control cattle grazing with low water availability (50 to 65 mm), strategic fencing to protect soft moderate rooting depth (45 cm) for edges and allow wetland plants to adapted plants. complete seeding. Where grasses such Enterprise: Growing cattle. as para grass and Hymenachne have established, use strategic grazing to Land use and management ensure they do not spread and exclude recommendations: Opportunistic native plants.

Periodically grazed marine plain and tidal ﬂats east of Koumala

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 23 Poplar gum dominant eucalypt woodlands

Description: Flat to slightly undulating grey to brown clay sub-soil. low hills which experiences occasional (one in every 10 to 50 years) flooding Enterprise: Breeding and growing, (or continually saturated soils for fattening possible in limited areas with several weeks) and supports eucalypt fertiliser inputs. woodlands dominated by poplar gums. Land use and management recom- Vegetation: Poplar gum dominant, with mendations: Moderate to high fertiliser swamp mahogany, pink bloodwood, grey inputs to maintain high productive iron bark, Moreton Bay ash, originally sown pastures. Woody regrowth control supporting black spear grass and blady could be required in areas previously grass native pasture communities. A lot cleared for pasture. Where stylo or of this land type has been developed to wynn cassia is sown into native pasture cane or sown pastures. use grazing management (spelling) or fire to prevent loss of native grasses Suitable sown pastures: Rhodes grass, and subsequent legume dominance. green panic, signal grass, Tully grass, Bisset creeping blue grass, Floren/ Land use limitations: Low soil angleton grass, legumes stylo, jointvetch. phosphorous, and moderate to poor drainage. Introduced weeds: Introduced weedy sporobolus grasses (including giant rats Recommended conservation values: tail), lantana, general broad leaf weeds, Conservation rating ‘of concern’ and including devil’s fig, sida and flannel a biodiversity rating ‘endangered’. A weed, urena/pink and noogoora burr, diverse vegetation unit which has been snake weed, grader and thatch grasses. poorly surveyed for flora and fauna. Significant fauna species include the Soil: Mostly Sodosols and Chromosols black-chinned honeyeater, squirrel with moderate to deep soil of low to glider and koala. Conservative grazing moderate fertility and water availability, regime to allow recruitment of canopy and 30 to 60 cm rooting depth. Have species. Appropriate fire regime to hard setting sandy loam surface over maintain eucalypt community.

Poplar gum can occur on hills and ﬂats; this is a poplar gum dominant ﬂat north west of Kinchant dam.

24 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Wet highland rainforests

Description: Rainforest on high hills and steep slopes of Clarke range with elevation more than 700 m.

Vegetation: Rainforest vegetation including red, white and Mackay cedar, hoop pine, red Eungella satinash, scrub cherry, black tulip oak, quandong spp; on fringes - flooded/rose/sugar Heavily grazed kikuyu grass pastures on Eungella gum. Originally native pastures tableland. sparse or absent, considerable areas developed for dairy farms, post 1940s. (depending on topography), retain trees Narrow leaf mat grass has naturalised on bed and bank of streams. Selective following fertility run down post logging of timber trees is possible, if clearing. undertaken in accordance with the 2006 Code applying to a Native Forest Suitable sown pastures: Rhodes grass, Practice on Freehold Land. Maintain setaria grasses, kikuyu grass with good pasture cover to avoid erosion clovers, creeping vigna and forage during high rainfall periods and use peanut legumes. off-stream watering points for cattle Introduced weeds: Introduced weedy grazing where possible. sporobolus grasses (giant rats tail), Land use limitations: For pasture lantana, susceptible to general broad development be mindful of slope leaf and grass weeds depending on limitations (less than 15 to 20 percent) pasture and grazing management. and tree vegetation status should be Soils: Shallow to moderately deep checked before development. Fertility (Dermosols, Ferrosols and Chromosols) rundown is quick after cleared (5 with hard setting to firm surface years). Need to be vigilant with lantana texture, dark loam to clay topsoil over control. red or brown clay sub-soil. Moderate Recommended conservation to high water availability, 0.5 to 1 m management: Very high conservation rooting depth, originally moderate values, where existing rainforest fertility but quickly runs down in vegetation remains. Habitat for absence of fertiliser inputs once threatened fauna species including cleared. rufous owl, Eungella honeyeater, Enterprise: Initially developed for Proserpine rock wallaby, Eungella day dairy farms, currently breeding, and frog and Eungella tinker frog, skink finishing with fertiliser inputs. and endemic leaf-tail geckos. Protect remnant edges from encroachment Management recommendations: via appropriate grazing and fire Suitable for pasture improvement management.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 25 This chapter describes more than 20 sown grass species and more than Sown grass species 20 sown legume species that are Most planted grasses 5 adapted to various land, climate and management conditions throughout the region. Where available, photos Rhodes grass are provided to assist with recognition and identification. Species are grouped into several categories to assist with deciding which is best adapted to your property conditions. Five grass species and seven legume species are grouped as widely planted / most used throughout the region. A large grouping of ‘alternative species or species planted in the past’ contains useful species options. Many of these ‘alternative’ species are suited to specific conditions and situations. Some are still growing in the region but seed is now difficult to obtain or not available. There is also a small grouping of ‘possible problem / nuisance species’ that all landholders should be aware of. Chloris gayana, cvv. Callide (1963), Katambora (1967), Finecut (1993), Topcut (1990s), Nemkat (1992), and Pioneer (1901). Sown pasture species information species pasture Sown Strengths • Quick to establish and runners root-down at the nodes to form new plants • All varieties very palatable pre- flowering, variety differences after flowering • Very responsive to increased soil fertility • Low oxalate levels in forage • Good compatibility with legumes • Good cold tolerance, good salt tolerance • Hay options.

26 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Limitations Rhodes grass responds well to • Poor tolerance of waterlogging phosphorus and nitrogen, where other • No shade tolerance nutrients are adequate, and is popular • Allows weed invasion under in intensive input irrigated pasture continuous grazing systems; an ideal crop where irrigation water may be saline. • Requires high fertility for production and persistence. Cultivars or varieties Rhodes grass is a tufted perennial Callide Rhodes is the best performer grass (one to two metres tall) with in the MW region and is the variety stoloniferous runners that root-down recommended for grazing. It is at the nodes to quickly thicken the vigorous, late maturing and remains stand. Its seed germinates fast (1 to leafy and palatable well into autumn. 7 days) and seedlings grow rapidly It is a good opportunistic hay crop but providing quick growth and ground can develop coarse stems, so cut and cover. The Rhodes grass sward process pre or early flowering; or as remains relatively open allowing good wrapped silage. compatibility with companion legumes, Katambora is a mid-season flowering but weeds can invade if continually variety with finer leaves and less grazed short. Young growth of all demanding of fertility than Callide. rhodes grass varieties is very palatable Commercial seed became quite variable but varieties differ in palatability once (with plenty of off-types) during they flower and seed. Callide is more the 1980s and seed is now seldom palatable then the Katambora types. available. Nemkat is a Katambora Because of its palatability Rhodes grass type selected for root-knot nematode is best managed using a rotational, or resistance as leys for tobacco farms. periodic summer spelling system. Topcut (selected from Pioneer) and Rhodes grass grows best in fertile well Finecut (selected from Katambora) drained loams to clays, excluding are varieties initially selected for heavy cracking clays. It has high hay production in the Middle East. salt and cold tolerance and few pests They have thinner leaf and finer and diseases. Rhodes grass seed stems than Callide and therefore dry (particularly Callide) is often sown and cure quicker when cut for hay. with slower establishing grasses (Tully, However they are not as vigorous Bisset creeping blue grass, signal grass) and productive as Callide for grazing to provide quick ground cover and systems. Pioneer was a very early early grazing. It can be surface-sown pioneer pasture grass that is now not and rolled-in following planting of available. pangola by runners. Rhodes grass is an ideal pasture for horses as it has low oxalate levels. It should be grazed carefully (regular spelling) to avoid weed invasion.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 27 Signal grass remain dormant for up to six months and should be stored before planting.

Palatability of signal grass, as with humidicola, greatly depends on the fertility status of the soil, particularly phosphorus levels. Signal is more leafy (less stem growth) then humidicola and therefore usually has higher protein and digestibility, under low fertility situations. Signal grass is less palatable than pangola and the Rhodes grasses; for evenness of grazing it is recommended that each be fenced and grazed separately.

Brachiaria decumbens (syn. Urochloa Signal grows on a wide range of decumbens) cv. Basilisk (1966) soils from deep sands to well drained Strengths clays. It is tolerant of low fertility and acid soils. It can tolerate short • High production under high input, term flooding but not waterlogging. It high fertility, intensive management performs best with annual rainfall of systems 1000 mm and above. Signal grass has • Persists under low input, low better cool season growth than Tully fertility, heavy grazing systems humidicola and stays green well into • Competes well with weeds the dry season. It has moderate shade • Good seed quality and yield, plus tolerance and will recover well from good seed availability and price frost and accidental fire. Signal grass • Has moderate shade tolerance. has few pests or diseases. It has caused photosensitization in young cattle, Limitations sheep and goats in South America and • Low tolerance of poor drainage and Papua New Guinea, but only isolated waterlogging cases in Australia, on northern wet • Difficult to maintain legumes tropics. • Has high oxalate levels but NOT Signal grass is very responsive to eaten by most horses. nitrogen and phosphorus fertiliser and Signal grass forms a dense sward from is the preferred grass in the northern short stolons that root at the nodes. wet tropics for high input beef However it doesn’t spread by runners production systems using high rates of like Tully humidicola or pangola. It is nitrogen. It has probably been the most tolerant of heavy grazing and resistant planted grass in the region over the to weed invasion. It establishes faster past decade. than humidicola, but freshly harvested seed (of both signal and Tully) can

28 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Pangola grass Queensland; well adapted to sands, loams and clays, low to high fertility, dry to wet and waterlogged sites and is tolerant of heavy grazing. It responds well to nitrogen, giving linear dry matter increases of up to 300 to 350 kg/ha N (when other nutrients and moisture are not limiting). Pangola has less cool season growth than Signal grass.

Pangola is regarded as one of the higher quality and digestible tropical grasses and retains reasonable palatability at mature growth stage. It is a popular grass hay, especially where Digitaria eriantha subsp. pentzii cv. irrigation is available for spring and Pangola, (formally D. decumbens) early summer growth. Excess summer Pangola was released in Australia in growth is often baled at the end of 1962, following testing of vegetative wet season, for yard feeding weaners material from Hawaii, and previously during the weaning process. released in Florida, USA in 1943, following testing of vegetative material The MW region is the major pangola from South Africa. grass pasture area in Queensland with an estimated 20,000 ha and Strengths some individual properties having • Palatable, productive, persistent up to 500 ha of pangola pastures. • Tolerant of heavy grazing, Originally pangola was widely grown waterlogging, drought and fire in the northern wet tropics but its performance declined during the • Spreads from stolons/runners and 1970s and 80s due to rust, aphids and competes strongly with weeds Crabgrass leaf beetle larvae. Pangola • Maintains good nutritive value even was virtually replaced by signal grass at maturity. and Tully humidicola, which are better Limitations adapted to wet tropics conditions. • Vegetative planting only Pangola grass flowers throughout • Recorded as having caused big head the summer growing season but both in horses male and female flowering parts are • Limited cool season growth highly sterile and no viable seed is set. Pangola can only be established using • Susceptible to pangola stunt virus vegetative material. Mature runners are and rust. spread onto a prepared seedbed, disced Pangola is a stoloniferous creeping in and/or rolled. Over-sowing seed grass widely planted throughout of a quick establishing grass (Callide

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 29 Rhodes grass) following planting and to winter period. The most practical prior to rolling, will provide quick long-term management plan is to plant ground cover, stronger competition alternative grasses when developing with weeds and early grazing, while new areas. pangola spreads to a complete sward. Although pangola grass contains low The most serious threat to pangola levels of total oxalates, relative to grass, in the long term, is its Kazungula setaria, there are recorded susceptibility to pangola stunt virus. cases of big head in horses grazing Over the past decade this virus has pangola grass for extended periods. been identiﬁed in small areas of There are many examples of horses in pangola pastures from Sarina to the MW region that have spent their Proserpine. The virus is spread by a life grazing pangola pasture with no leaf hopper but spread occurs very obvious symptoms, with no apparent slowly. Symptoms are stunting and access to other grass species or slow growth, distorted seed heads, supplements. So although pangola does yellowing, and plants becoming more not appear to be a major hazard for susceptible to leaf rust in the autumn MW horses, caution should be taken.

Tully humidicola

(Brachiaria humidicola (syn. Urochloa Limitations humidicola) cv. Tully (1981) • Slow to establish Strengths • Can become coarse and unpalatable • Competes strongly with weeds in low fertility systems under light • Maintains good ground cover even grazing with heavy grazing • Difﬁcult to maintain companion • Tolerant of waterlogging legumes • High carrying capacity under • Low commercial seed yields result in high input, high fertility, intensive higher seed prices. management systems Tully humidicola is a versatile, • Persists under low input, low vigorous and dense mat-forming grass, fertility and heavy grazing systems tolerant of heavy grazing and resistant • Moderate shade tolerance. to weed invasion. It is commonly

30 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region known as humidicola or Tully grass not grazed over summer and becomes and as koronivia grass throughout mature. Better production occurs when the Pacific. Sometimes referred to as grazed moderately heavily during rapid creeping signal grass in the literature. summer growth periods and more leaf Its main limitation as a pasture grass is produced. Tully humidicola pasture is its slow establishment phase, can be used for summer spelling of sometimes taking two to three years ‘softer’ grasses (Rhodes, Jarra and to form a complete ground cover. This Strickland grasses) and is ideal for problem can be overcome by adding laneways, weaner and holding paddocks. quick establishing rhodes grass seed in the planting mixture (to provide Humidicola is also ideal for small sized quick ground cover and early grazing) properties or hobby-farms that want and humidicola will subsequently to carry some cattle and horses. It is dominate. also ideal for regeneration of paddocks taken over by serious weeds such as Humidicola is a stoloniferous perennial GRT and other weedy sporobolus grasses grass that spreads by runners and roots or sicklepod, etc. Renovate/plough and strongly at the nodes. Once complete over-sow mixture of Tully and Rhodes ground cover is achieved, humidicola grass. Once a dense sward of Tully competes very strongly with weeds but is formed it will limit weed seedling also with companion legumes. Villose establishment from seed in the soil. jointvetch and pinto forage peanut are legumes which can grow with Most horses seem to graze humidicola, humidicola, at least until it forms a although some people say otherwise, dense sward. particularly when it is mature. The International fact sheet on Brachiaria Humidicola grows on a wide range of humidicola (www.tropicalforages.info) soils from deep sands to heavy clays. states the grass has low calcium content It is very tolerant of poor drainage, and that high oxalate levels may induce waterlogging and flooding and can big head in horses. It recommends survive prolonged dry periods. It grows feeding horses a calcium supplement (if best in annual rainfall of 1000 mm humidicola makes up the majority of a and above, has less cool season growth horse’s diet). than signal grass and has moderate shade tolerance. It will recover well Potential commercial seed yields in from frost and accidental fire. tropical Australia are reasonable (200 to 400 kg per hectare) but has high It tolerates low fertility but in such a risk of crop loss which keeps seed price system, feed quality, palatability and well above most other seed. Fresh digestibility is also low. Humidicola seed may be dormant and should be can be managed in both low or high stored for at least six months at low input production systems, depending temperatures and low humidity. Seed on the market product or outcomes can rapidly decline in quality if stored required. Palatability, quality and inappropriately, such as hot and humid digestibility can decline if the grass is conditions.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 31 Creeping blue grass grass is mainly sown for grazing but also makes good hay if cut when stems are still leafy and succulent. It is a low oxalate grass and suitable for horses. The fluffy seed can be difficult to sow unless pelleted or mixed with a ‘carrier’. Seeding rates of one to three kg per hectare grass seed mixed with two to three kg per hectare of legume seed should be adequate. Mixing 0.5 to 1 kg per hectare of Callide rhodes grass with (Bothriocloa insculpta cvv. Bisset the seed mixture will provide quicker (1989), Hatch (1978), Cedo (2004) ground cover to suppress weeds and provide earlier forage for grazing. Strengths • Grows on heavy clays as well as less Although adapted to low fertility soils, creeping blue grass will respond fertile forest soils well to added nitrogen, when other • Tolerant of moderate to heavy soil nutrients are in adequate supply. grazing and dry periods Bisset has also been used in irrigated • Bisset cultivar spreads forming dense hay production systems. The quality/ sward from runners nutritive value of forage declines • Very tolerant of fire with maturity and particularly after • Palatable, particularly Bisset, with seed set. Seed yields of around 100 to low oxalate levels. 150 kg per hectare can be expected but this varies greatly depending on soil Limitations nitrogen levels. The timing of harvest • Can be slow to establish and slow is critical as the seed dislodges readily regrowth after winter season when ripe. Freshly harvested seed has • Fluffy seed can be difficult to spread, high a level of dormancy which breaks if not appropriately processed down over four to nine months of • Not shade tolerant. storage. Creeping blue grass is a versatile Cultivars perennial pasture grass, spread from Bisset is the variety planted in the MW runners. The Bisset variety roots at region and has finer, better developed stem nodes to form new plants and runners/stolons and rooting at the a dense sward. Creeping blue grass nodes than Hatch. Bisset is barely prefers neutral to alkaline, moderate affected by leaf rust, is palatable, and fertility soils including sandy loams flowers in early May, several weeks to heavy clays. It is best adapted to later than Hatch. Hatch is an earlier, areas receiving 700 to 1000 mm (28 less palatable variety, less runners/ to 40 inches) rainfall but also in areas stolons and fewer tendencies to root receiving up to 1500 mm (60 inches) down. Cedo is a recent variety not yet on well drained soils. Creeping blue grown in this region.

32 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Alternative grasses or grasses planted in past

Floren blue grass / Angleton grass grass with clumps that expand by rooting at lower stem nodes in contact with moist soil. Floren is weakly stoloniferous, thus forming a close competitive sward over time in higher rainfall situations. It is native to India but a number of different eco-types are now naturalised throughout northern Australia. Floren is best suited to alkaline to neutral clay soils. It has a low phosphorous requirement, but responds to added phosphorus and particularly to nitrogen. It has good ﬂood tolerance and some salt tolerance. Floren has been widely sown throughout the drier clay soil regions of central Queensland (700 to 1000 mm AAR rainfall). It grows well on lighter soils in higher rainfall areas but there is currently little information available Dichanthium aristatum cv Floren on its performance in the MW region. (1995), Bloomsbury strain angleton It is readily eaten by cattle and horses. grass (1960s)

Strengths Jarra and Strickland digit • Palatable, withstands heavy grazing, (or finger) grass is competitive with broadleaf weeds • Tolerant of flooding and moderate waterlogging, fire, moderate shade and salinity • Low oxalate, safe for horses.

Limitations • Slow spring growth and lower total production than pangola or signal grass • Not well adapted to acid soils, best on alkaline or neutral soils • Commercial seed cost remains high, relative to most other grass options. Digitaria millianjiana cvv. Jarra (1991), Floren blue grass is a perennial tufted Strickland (1995), Arnham, NT (1996)

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 33 Strengths conditions and is slightly more tolerant • Very palatable of waterlogging and cool conditions. It • Stoloniferous pangola-type grass is very palatable and requires careful with commercially available seed grazing management. Arnhem was • Quick establishment. released in the Northern Territory in 1996. There is limited experience of its Limitations performance in Queensland. It has a • Intolerant of heavy grazing and of tussock growth habit with no stolons poor drainage and is quite tolerant of waterlogging. It • Susceptible to weed invasion (very is less palatable than pangola and can palatable and less stoloniferous) tolerate heavy grazing. • Check commercial seed label to avoid contamination by annual African star grass Digitaria summer-grasses. Cynodon nlemfluensis These digit grasses are more palatable Strengths than pangola but less stoloniferous • Rapid establishment from vegetative (fewer runners) and intolerant of plantings and tolerates heavy waterlogging. Jarra and Strickland do grazing not tolerate heavy continuous grazing. • LWG per animal and per hectare They grow best on well drained similar to pangola but requires more fertile soils and make good grass hay. management Because of the high palatability of • Low oxalate levels digit grasses, they require wet season • Makes good hay. spelling, or some form of rotational grazing to improve persistence and Limitations weed control. • No seed available and may be difficult to find source of runners for Cultivars planting Jarra has wide leaves and grows more • Forage quality drops rapidly after erect and taller than pangola, from five weeks of regrowth one and a half to two metres when in • Less palatable than pangola. flower (with typical digit seed-head). Jarra was first released in the northern African star grass is a robust perennial wet tropics as a rotational pasture grass that spreads by stolons (runners) ley-crop on banana farms, to break that root-down strongly. Grows best in the burrowing- nematode cycle. It is sandy to heavy clay soils with 600 to also used on the Mareeba Irrigation 2000+mm rainfall. Was mainly used on Area as a grass hay break-crop, to dairy farms or for stabilising water- utilise accumulated soil nitrogen ways, banks or erosion prone slopes, following stylo and other legume due to its quick spread by stolons. seed crops. Strickland has narrower Generally palatable but less palatable leaves and is closer in appearance to then pangola grass which it can invade pangola. It was selected for grazing under heavy grazing. Tends to require (and hay) under more subtropical higher fertility than pangola grass.

34 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Indian bluegrass or Indian pertusa flower within one month of rain. Their ‘couch’ spread and distribution is strongly Late flowering variety influenced by grazing management and droughts. Continual heavy grazing or frequent mowing favours its spread. It is adapted to a wide range of soils including heavy clays; is tolerant of low fertility; seeds early and continuously, while moisture is available; and is less palatable then most native grasses. Cattle prefer to graze black spear grass over the summer wet season which has allowed the Indian bluegrass runners to spread and invade. However the Indian bluegrass has at least provided ground cover and stabilising of the soil surface against soil erosion. Cultivars Bothriochloa pertusa cvv. Keppel Keppel is the most suitable grazing (1987), Dawson (1991), Medway (1991), variety for the MW region and is an Bowen strain or ecotype; also but less alternative grass for sowing when common Emerald and Capella strains improving production in eucalypt or ecotypes. woodland country (undulating hills and range areas). It is a late flowering Strengths type with vigorous fine leafy runners • Relatively palatable and very and stems and is an alternative to tolerant of heavy grazing Bisset creeping bluegrass. Dawson is • Grows in infertile soils and provides mainly sold as an amenity/turf grass effective ground cover for these soils. for sports and playing fields as it is Limitations a late flowering and shorter growing type than Keppel and Medway. • Generally not as productive a pasture for high rainfall coastal areas, relative to other sown pasture alternatives such as pangola, signal, Tully, Bisset, Rhodes.

Indian bluegrasses are strongly stoloniferous, perennial and are colonised/naturalised throughout large areas of north Queensland (Bowen, Dalrymple and Nebo Shires). The Bowen strain predominates and can

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 35 Setaria Cultivars Kazungula setaria is the variety best adapted to the MW region and during the 1960s to 1980s it made up approximately 75 percent of sown pastures planted in the region. Kazangula features include reliability of establishment, adaptation to low and high fertility, adaptation to waterlogging, competitiveness with weeds, and persistence of stand. Some Setaria sphacelata var. anceps cvv. original Kazangula pastures are still Kazungula (1962), Nandi (1963), productive today, 35 years on. It is palatable to stock with good weight Narok (1969), Solander (1985). gains. It quickly runs to seed with S. sphacelata var. splendida cv. summer rain and blows over in the Splenda (1981). wind and new stems quickly grow up Strengths (Kazungula variety) and run to seed again. A dense tangle • Tolerant of ﬂooding and of stems of low quality litter can build waterlogging up in the absence of summer slashing • Tolerant of low fertility, acid soils or grazing. However the build up of • Reliable establishment litter tends to hold soil moisture and • Good cold tolerance (relevant to ensures continuing green leaf into the most other tropical grasses) winter. Very little Kazungula, or other • Palatable. setaria grasses have been sown in the past decade, probably because other Limitations current grass options are seen as easier • Heavy early ﬂowering/seeding to manage. reduces feed quality • Kazungula variety tends to develop Nandi is less vigorous than Kazungula, thick stems, requires regular summer more compatable with legumes and the grazing variety most sown in south east coastal • Very high oxalate levels. areas, mainly on dairy farms with higher fertiliser use. Narok is a more Setaria is an erect, tufted, thick cold tolerant variety with higher winter stemmed grass of African origin with production. Solander is a hybrid setaria a spike-like seed head and grows up from more frost resistant accessions to two metres tall. It is the most cold with better seed production than Narok. tolerant of tropical grasses and has Both Norok and Solander are used on moderate shade tolerance. It also has Atherton Tablelands as dairy pastures the highest oxalate levels of all tropical where higher fertiliser use is economical. grasses. Horses should not graze setaria Splenda is a hybrid created by crossing exclusively for more than one month variety splendida with variety sericea to at a time, in the absence of calcium improve seed production and adaptation and phosphorus supplements. to hot and humid coastal environments.

36 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Guinea grasses region on loamy-surfaced and alluvial soils in undulating eucalypt woodland country with rainfall below 1000 mm. Green panic is very shade tolerant and often grows best under the canopy of trees. Gatton panic is bit more robust with a longer growing season. Medium types (1.5 to 2.5 m): Common, Riversdale and Makueni Megathyrsus maximus (Syn. Panicum Common guinea grass has naturalised maximum) cvv. Hamil (1956), Gatton many areas of the MW region, particu- (1964), Petrie (1966), Makueni (1973), larly in coastal hilly country cleared of Riversdale (1975); plus common and rainforest vegetation but too steep to Coloniao guinea) grow cane, and receiving greater than 1000 mm annual rainfall. Common Strengths guinea is very palatable to cattle pre- • Palatable, leafy, high quality pre- seeding and is a good fattening grass. flowering stage However it cannot withstand heavy • Tolerant of long dry conditions continuous grazing and will quickly • Shade tolerant. allow invasion of broadleaf and other Limitations grass weeds. Riversdale was a variety selected from common guinea types • Requires fertile soils, including high but now not available. Makueni varie- nitrogen for high production ty is a selection from Kenya with better • Intolerant of waterlogging and of cool season growth which is adapted heavy grazing to below 1000 mm rainfall areas. • Becomes thick-stemmed and low quality if not grazed over summer. Tall types (2.5 to 3.5 m): Hamil, Coloniao Guinea grasses are an extremely variable species, featuring generally Hamil variety, some times called giant erect densely tufted crowns with guinea, was originally sown as a short rhizomes from roots. They can ‘pioneer’ pasture grass following early be divided into three groups - short, clearing of coastal rainforest country. medium and tall types. It will tolerate moderate waterlogging. It is more robust and later flowering Short types (1 to1.5 m); Gatton and than common guinea. Pre-seeding, Petrie Hamil is coarse in appearance but Petrie (common name green panic), was quite palatable to stock. However, once previously known as P. maximum var. it becomes tall and mature it is too trichoglume. Petrie green panic has been coarse and unpalatable, and difficult planted extensively throughout Queens- to manage, compared to currently land on developed Brigalow country available grasses. Coloniao type guinea and is sometimes sown in the MW is no longer available.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 37 Elephant grass into dense clumps of upright thick stems (to 3 cm diameter at base) and up to 3.5 m tall. Native to Africa but now a range of types are naturalised in most subtropical and tropical countries. Although elephant grass can produce viable seed, seed set is usually very poor and seed is rarely harvested. Various types of elephant grass are naturalised along many roadsides throughout the Mackay Whitsunday region.

In the ‘early days’ elephant grass was grown on alluvial and scrub soils as green-chop to feed dairy cows. At least one beef enterprise in Mackay Whitsunday region maintains a small irrigated block of elephant grass to provide green-chop to feed weaners in the yards during the two to three week weaning process.

Capricorn was selected as a late Pennisetum purpureum cv. Capricorn ﬂowering, leafy, grazing type (1962) of medium height. However as Strengths commercial seed production was not • High dry matter yields, an option, vegetative material was predominantly over summer months mainly available via nominated ‘seed’ • Very palatable, high quality forage plots. It would currently be difﬁcult to guarantee vegetative supply of cultivar • Drought tolerant from extensive, Capricorn. deep root system. Limitations Bana grass is a hybrid ecotype of elephant grass (P. purpureum X • Needs well drained, fertile soils and P. glaucum) and is commonly used good moisture for production for windbreaks in orchards. • Sensitive to waterlogging • Matures rapidly developing thick stems, which lowers quality • Low production over winter months • Vegetative planting only.

A tall robust perennial grass with underground stems (rhizomes), grows

38 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Paspalum species Rodd’s Bay plicatulum was the second most popular grass planted during There are six quite different species of the early years of the tropical sown paspalum that have been planted, or are pasture development ‘boom’ in the currently available for planting. General MW region, prior to and during the characteristics are listed but some spe- 1970s and 1980s. It was particularly cies do vary from these generalisations. well adapted to low fertility coastal tea Currently very few of these paspalum tree country subject to waterlogging. grasses are planted in MW the region. Very little or no Rodd’s Bay plicatulum Strengths is sown these days, largely replaced by • Tolerant of low fertility soils Tully humidicola for these situations. • Tolerant of heavy grazing Cultivar Bryan became available in • Tolerant of waterlogging late 1970s and was more palatable • Shade tolerant but little was planted in this region and currently commercial seed is not • Low oxalate levels and suitable for available. It was always very difﬁcult horses. to obtain seed of the cultivar Hartley. Limitations • Low palatability, particularly as Paspalum atratum cv. HiGane (1998); plants mature common name higane paspalum. • Several regarded as ‘weedy’ in HiGane or atratum paspalum has certain situations. been tried in a few plantings in the MW region since late 1990s but few Paspalum dilatatum; Formed the basis commercial plantings have been of early sown dairy pastures in New successful. It is a tall grass (two to South Wales and Queensland and is three metres) with thick stems and now naturalised as a ‘low key’ pasture wide leaves but is quite palatable. It is grass throughout both states wherever sensitive to waterlogging and requires dairy farms have existed. There are no higher fertility than other paspalums. recorded cultivar names in Australia. Paspalum plicatulum cvv. Rodd’s Bay Paspalum notatum cvv. Pensacola (1963), Hartley (1963), Bryan (1975); (Florida 1944), Argentine (Florida 1950), common name plicatulum. Competidor (NSW 1986), Riba (NSW 1995); common name bahia grass.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 39 Bahia grasses are variable, sward- Paspalum wettsteinii cv. Warral (NSW forming perennials with fibrous 1960s); common name broadleaf rhizome-like stolons with deep strong paspalum. roots at the nodes that grow 40 to 70 cm tall. They are a commonly sown pasture and amenity grass in tropical and subtropical parts of the United States of America. Competidor is the most palatable of the cultivars available in Australia but seed is very difficult to obtain. Seed merchants often suggest cultivar Argentine as an equivalent alternative but it is difficult to ensure that Argentine seed (mainly imported from the US) is free of the coarser, quite aggressive and less palatable Pensacola types. Competidor is often used as an amenity lawn grass for heavy use parks and sporting fields but is also capable of producing high dry matter yields. Cultivar Riba is a Warral broadleaf paspalum should recent selection by, and for, the turf not be planted in Queensland. It industry. was released by the New South Wales Department of Agriculture in the Paspalum nicorae cvv. Blue dawn 1940s, and was subsequently used as a (1998), Blue eve (1999); common pasture for dairy cattle in Queensland. name Brunswick grass. It is now naturalised in some Blue dawn brunswick grass is another Queensland dairying areas, including dual purpose pasture and amenity Mackay Whitsunday. However, the turf grass, which came about due to grass seems to be much less palatable interest from the amenity/turf industry. to cattle in Queensland and is often It is a perennial erect growing grass brought into the Department of with long, deep, vigorous rhizomes Primary Industries and Fisheries for in the top 10 cm of soil. Double the identification as it is not being eaten normal rates of glyphosate herbicide by cattle. Warral is very shade tolerant are required to eradicate Blue dawn and in the past has been recommended once it has established. Blue eve is a as a possible ground cover for forestry, selection from Blue dawn designed for but there are better options, namely turf use, with a finer, lower-growing legumes such as Pinto and Prine forage sward with fewer seed heads. peanut. Signal grass and green panic are also better options, once the trees are established, though more testing of ground cover species for tree crops is required.

40 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Molasses grass Kikuyu grass

Melinis minutiflora Molasses grass originated in Africa Pennisetum clandestinum cvv. and is now naturalised throughout Whittet (1970), Breakwell (1971), tropical and subtropical countries. Crofts (1983), Noonan (1983) Originally used as a pioneer pasture Strengths species for developing hilly country because of its characteristics such • Productive under heavy grazing as fast-establishment, tolerance • More frost tolerant than tropical of low fertility, ability to quickly grasses for tableland areas cover disturbed country and build • Moderate tolerance to waterlogging up sufficient fuel load for a fire to and shade. manage woody regrowth. However, Limitations the grass declines with regular severe fire and heavy grazing. Molasses grass • Requires fertile soils/systems for has pink-purple flowers and leaves persistence and production that become sticky and have a strong • Production declines markedly at ‘molasses’ aroma. No cultivars are temperatures more than 21°C released in Australia; seed production • High oxalate levels, high nitrate is difficult, and commercial seed is not levels with high N usage. available. A stoloniferous and rhizomatous perennial mostly growing 30 to 40 cm tall. Stolons form a thick mat on the ground surface. Kikuyu has been used extensively as a dairy pasture and is now naturalised on the Eungella Tableland. It reverts back to mat grass when fertility is allowed to decline. Soil phosphorous levels should be

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 41 above 15 ppm and good production Kikuyu can be planted vegetatively or requires 150 kg/ha of N per year, in split by seed. The flowering stems are very applications to avoid nutrient runoff. short, and are practically enclosed by Well fertilised and managed kikuyu the leaves, making seed difficult to produces very high quality forage (more harvest. It can be used as turf grass than 25 percent protein and 70 percent under regular mowing. digestibility). However it requires regular defoliation to maximise leaf production Whittet is a tall variety with broad and minimise stem percentage. leaves and stems and better persistence Kikuyu pastures can be oversown under lower fertility. Breakwell has with temperate species (rye grass and fine narrow leaves, more prostrate clovers) to maintain animal production stolons/runners and forms a denser over winter. It is best to weaken the sward. Crofts is taller and more kikuyu stand first, by disc ploughing or upright than Whittet and more cold spraying with a low rate of glyphosate tolerant. Noonan has a growth habit (1 L/ha). Kikuyu is very sensitive to intermediate to Whittet and Breakwell glyphosate and can be killed by a dose (parents), better seed production and of 3 L/ha. Of the tropical legumes, only better dry matter production during creeping vigna and forage peanut have cooler months. It has better field demonstrated promise in their capacity tolerance to ‘kikuyu yellows’ which is to grow with kikuyu grass. not significant to Eungella Tableland.

Possible ‘weedy’ or nuisance grasses:

Grader grass regarding its arrival - one claim is that the seed was in straw packing around electrical insulators; another claims the seed came from straw stufﬁng used in imported horse collars. Locals chaffed the ripe seed heads and feed it to draft horses with pollard and molasses. Locally it was called ‘Habana oats’ or ‘wild oats’. It subsequently spread along roadsides and became known as ‘grader grass’. Grader grass is readily grazed by stock before it sets seed but quickly runs to seed and becomes unpalatable to cattle. As an Themeda quadivalus annual it sets a lot of seed and germinates Grader grass is native to India where it quickly, on early storm rains, and can is an annual component of perennial dominate sown pastures and grow to two native pastures. It was ﬁrst recorded metres tall during the establishment year. in Queensland at Habana in 1935, at The best, and only economical means of Grech’s tram siding. Several theories exist control, is to keep perennial sown pastures

42 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region healthy and vigorous with good ground Scented top cover, to prevent establishment of grader grass from seed. Being an annual, it has to re-establish from seed at the start of each wet-season. The use of ﬁre will remove ground cover and actually stimulate mass germination of grader grass (more information from Bishop 1981). Thatch grass

Capillipedium spicegerum Scented top is a stout and robust perennial native grass with stems up to 1.5 m tall. When crushed, the inﬂorescence gives off an aromatic odour. The grass is widespread in forest country in eastern Queensland, is readily eaten by cattle, and responds to good fertility (Tothill and Hacket Hyparrhenia rufa 1983). However, during the 1990s and early 2000s the DPI&F received Thatch grass is native to Africa and plant specimens of scented top for is used as a pasture grass for cattle identiﬁcation from numerous coastal grazing in Brazil. Like grader grass, properties where it is invading and it has a low leaf to stem ratio, and spreading into sown pastures and is not becomes unpalatable and turns being eaten by cattle. brown on maturity, but thatch grass is a perennial. As a perennial, it has Scented top can become coarse and replaced grader grass along many less palatable to stock in poor coastal road sides and highways throughout soils with higher rainfall, and coastal Queensland. Often mistaken for grader cattle have not adapted to this grass. grass, thatch grass stands more erect In such cases it is recommended that (stems and seed heads) and re-grows the scented top be slashed or sprayed from the old crowns with the onset with glyphosate, to reduce seed set. of storms. It is advisable to restrict its Existing sown pastures should also be spread into pasture paddocks using renovated, or new pastures established, pasture and grazing best management to compete with this native scented top practice to ensure strong, vigorous, grass, using fertiliser and grazing best perennial sown pastures. management practice.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 43 Forest blue grass Coastal cattle have not adapted to Forest blue grass which can become Bothriochloa bladhii coarse and less palatable when Forest blue grass is a widespread native grown in poorer coastal soils with forage grass mainly found growing in higher rainfall. In such cases it is heavy clay soils in grassy forests and recommended that forest blue grass be woodlands, predominantly west of the slashed or sprayed with glyphosate, to coastal ranges. The inﬂorescence and reduce seed set. Existing or new sown leaves can be strongly aromatic but the pastures should also be renovated or grass is readily eaten by stock (Tothill established using fertiliser and grazing and Hacket 1983). However, during best management practice to compete the 1990s and early 2000s the DPI&F with the native forest blue grass. received plant specimens of forest blue grass for identiﬁcation from numerous Warral broadleaf paspalum coastal properties, as it was spreading This grass should not be planted. See into their sown pastures and not being previous paspalum grasses, pg 40. eaten by cattle.

Water grasses

All introduced water-grasses are now Brachiaria mutica considered ‘environmental weeds’ in Queensland, and State government Para is a creeping perennial grass with policy restricts planting of para and long, coarse stolons that root readily other species such as Aleman and at the nodes. Native to tropical Africa, Hymenachne grass in sensitive wetlands. it has been naturalised in tropical Australia and used as a pasture grass The following information is to assist in seasonally inundated or high recognition of these species. rainfall locations. It is capable of high production, being second to pangola Para grass grass in early yield comparison trials under irrigation and high nitrogen inputs in far north Queensland. It will grow in water up to 30 cm deep. It can be established from runners or from seed, but the seed is most often not available due to difﬁculty of harvest. However in ungrazed situations para grass can become an environmental weed.

44 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Aleman grass Hymenachne

Echinochloa polystachya cv. Amity, (1987) Aleman is a sub-aquatic perennial grass with semi-upright stems emerging from a long rhizome root system. It will grow in water up to one metre deep and will survive in two Hymenachne amplexicaulis cv. Olive, metre deep water for short periods. (1987) Native to North America, it is very palatable and was introduced as a Hymenachne is a perennial pasture grass to complement para stoloniferous grass with upright, grass grazing systems. It sets very little ascending stems and stems that run viable seed. on wet ground or float on water and develop adventitious roots. It is native to North America where it was used as a dry-season grazing forage as it will grow in two metre deep water, and occasionally in three to four metre deep water where its stems float on the surface. It has low drought and salt tolerance but produces viable seed that can establish in silt line following flooding.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 45 Sown legume species Legumes most commonly planted

Common stylo recommended when planting into new country. Depending on the situation, common stylo can be used as a hay crop or ground cover/green manure crop for horticultural or forestry tree crops. Cutting or heavy grazing of mature stands (post flowering) can kill plants due to lack of new growing points on lower stems. It is best to stimulate lower branching early by grazing or cutting (to 15 to 20 cm) in the first few months. Strengths • Highly tolerant of current anthracnose fungal strains • High dry matter yields, makes high protein hay (best cut during early Stylosanthes guianensis var. flowering stage) guianensis cvv. Nina (2003), • Leaf stays green into dry season Temprano (2003), retailed as ‘Stylhay’. • Adapted to low fertility soils, (Previous cvv. Schofield, Cook, responds well to added phosphorus. Endeavour (1971) and Graham (1980) now not available due to susceptibility Limitations to anthracnose). • Short lived perennial (improved with Common stylo is a robust, semi- rotational grazing pre-flowering) erect, short-lived, perennial legume • Intolerant of waterlogging herb/sub-shrub that grows to 1 to • Seed tends to drop on ripening, 1.5 m tall. It prefers moderately fertile, reducing commercial seed yield. well-drained sandy loam to light clay soils that receive 1000 to 2000 mm of rainfall. The legume can extract phosphorus very efficiently from low P soils. It nodulates adequately on native rhizobium but the use of a commercial product to inoculate the legume is

46 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Caribbean stylo Shrubby stylo

Stylosanthes scabra cvv. Seca (1977), Siran (1990)) Shrubby stylo is an erect/semi-erect, Stylosanthes hamata cvv. Verano strong, perennial legume (one to two (1973), Amiga (1988)) metres tall) with a strong deep tap root Caribbean stylo is an annual to short- (up to four metres). It is very drought lived perennial, semi-erect, heavily hardy and well adapted to infertile, branched herbaceous legume 0.3-1 m acid, and friable to hard setting soils. tall. Performance of the two varieties It is not adapted to heavy clays. With is very similar and both are adapted infertile soils, phosphorus supplements to sandy-surfaced duplex to clay may need to be fed to cattle to achieve loam soils receiving 900 to 1500 mm best animal performance. Shrubby rainfall. stylo is mainly sown in areas with 600 to 2000 mm rainfall, and is not very Strengths tolerant of waterlogging. Established • Tolerant of current anthracnose plants are susceptible to ﬁre which can fungal strains be used to control legume dominance • Tolerant of drought, good situations. Shrubby stylo is a legume regeneration from seed that can be added to most sown pasture seed mixtures. • Adapted to low fertility soils, responds well to added phosphorus Strengths • Can spread via seed in cattle dung. • Tolerant of current anthracnose fungal strains Limitations • Widely adapted, persistent perennial • Less palatable than green grass • Tolerant of drought and adapted to during wet/growing season low fertility soils • Can become dominant under • Can spread via seed in cattle dung. continuous heavy grazing • Potential threat of anthracnose in Limitations ‘wet’ years and long term • Lower palatability during wet/ • Intolerant of prolonged growing season, cattle prefer green waterlogging. grass

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 47 • Can become dominant under seeding than shrubby and Caribbean continuous heavy grazing stylos • Not as productive as jointvetch • More cold tolerant then shrubby and or centro legume in high P input Caribbean stylos. pasture systems Limitations • Potential threat of anthracnose and little-leaf diseases in long term. • Highly speciﬁc rhizobium requirement • Drops leaf in cool/dry season Caatinga stylo • Not yet widely evaluated on wet coastal areas.

American jointvetch

Stylosanthes seabrana cvv. Primar (1996), Unica (1996); common name caatinga stylo The characteristics, growth and form of Caatinga stylo is in-between shrubby and Caribbean stylo types. It was specially selected for inland, heavy clay soils of brigalow and downs country. It was selected for anthracnose tolerance but needs to be monitored when sown in wetter coastal areas. Generally retailed as a mixture of the two varieties. Aeschynomene americana cvv. Glenn (1984) and Lee (1994) Strengths American Jointvetch is an erect or • Hardy and drought-tolerant, short ascending, branched, annual (Glenn) lived perennial or short-lived perennial (Lee) shrub • More suitable for clay and clay-loam legume that grows 0.5 to two metres soils than shrubby and Caribbean tall and one to1.5 metres wide. It stylos becomes more branched and leafy • Earlier ﬂowering, and more proliﬁc if grazed early once established.

48 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Grazing should be managed to ensure Villose jointvetch a good seed set which is essential for regeneration of the annual Glenn as it dies off during winter. Glenn ﬂowers in late March to early April with Lee ﬂowering four to six weeks later. The seed spreads readily via cattle dung. Glenn can be a nuisance weed of other legume seed crops and in irrigation channels.

Strengths Aeschynomene villosa cvv. Reid and Kretschmer (retailed as ‘Villomix’). • High nitrogen fixation and high Villose Jointvetch is a prostrate to weakly digestibility and nutritive value of erect, short-lived (two to four years) leaf material perennial legume with stems up to one • Very palatable metre long. It is tolerant of heavy grazing • Grows in low-lying wet areas and and more compatible with stoloniferous waterlogged soils grasses than American jointvetch. It is adapted to a wide range of soils (sands • Tolerates low fertility, responds well to clays) and best adapted to more than to added phosphorus 1000 mm of rainfall. Villose Jointvetch • Persistent and prostrate under heavy will nodulate with native rhizobia but it grazing is best to use special jointvetch rhizobia • High seed yields and seed readily at first planting. available Strengths • Moderate shade tolerance. • High nitrogen fixation Limitations • High palatability, high quality, high digestibility, forage • Annual (Glenn) or short lived • Responds well to added phosphorus perennial (Lee) • Perennial, fine stems, semi-prostrate/ • Glenn best grazed during wet semi-erect habit season, has poor quality stand-over • Tolerant of heavy grazing forage (annual) • Grows in low wet areas but cannot • Mature growth is susceptible to tolerate prolonged waterlogging powdery mildew (leaf fungus) with • Good seed yields via direct and the onset of winter suction harvesting • Quite susceptible to heliothis attack • Some shade tolerance. in seed crops. Limitations • Seed pods shatter requiring direct and suction seed harvesting • Susceptible to powdery mildew in autumn/winter.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 49 Bargoo jointvetch pasture systems, but commercial seed is not currently available. Strengths • Persistent, hardy legume on well drained sandy to light clay soils • High quality, palatable forage but low-yielding • Tolerant of heavy grazing and low fertility soils • Tolerates mild frosts, recovers well from heavy frosts and following ﬁre. • Moderate shade tolerance. Aeschynomene falcata cv. Bargoo (1973) Limitations Bargoo jointvetch is a ferny-leafed, • Growing tips susceptible to trailing, perennial legume with a woody anthracnose and seed pods drop tap-root. It was tested extensively, as they ripen throughout growing and is now naturalised, in some of the season subtropical spear grass country in south east Queensland. Its target area locally • Commercial seed rarely available as would be eucalypt hilly country with difﬁcult to harvest black spear grass, and other low input • Low dry matter production.

Alternative legumes or legumes planted in past

Centro Centro is a perennial, trailing-climbing legume with a strong tendency to root at the nodes of trailing stems. Common centro was a legume for early beef and dairy pastures in wetter tropical areas with early seed imported from Papua New Guinea and south- east Asia. Common centro is now naturalised throughout the MW region particularly on developed coastal and tableland rainforest hilly country, especially in situations inaccessible to Centrosema molle cv. Cardillo (1995), cattle grazing. and common centro; was previously Belalto has poor seed production C. pubescens and little commercial seed was ever Centrosema pubescens cv. Belalto (1971) produced.

50 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Siratro

Cardillo centro with dense sward

(Macroptilium atropurpureum cvv. Siratro (1971), Aztec (1994), retailed as Common Aztec-atro centro with sparse sward Siratro is an herbaceous, perennial legume, with trailing, climbing, Cardillo is the ideal centro to plant. It twinning stems and with a swollen roots much more from the nodes and taproot once established. The original forms a dense mat of legume on the Siratro was a foundation legume ground and is one of the few legumes for early tropical sown pasture that can persist with stoloniferous development in the MW region during grasses, particularly under rotational the late 1960s and 1970s. Although grazing. It has better cool season it establishes and grows quickly growth then common and much higher it is susceptible to waterlogging, harvestable seed yield than did Belalto. continuous grazing and to leaf rust. It Strengths has poor persistence in continuously grazed sown pastures, particularly in • Good seed production (Cardillo) coastal tea tree country. It is a climbing • Cardillo persists longer than siratro legume and can potentially become under grazing on coastal tea tree a nuisance weed in tree crops, in the country subject to intermittent absence of grazing. short-term waterlogging events • Appears to have some shade Aztec was bred and selected from tolerance. siratro for rust resistance and is claimed to have higher leaf production. Limitations All commercial seed is now sold • Requires moderate to high fertility, as Aztec-atro. It remains a highly including molybdenum productive pasture legume and ﬁxes • Requires speciﬁc rhizobium large amounts of nitrogen but requires • Seedlings slow to establish relative careful grazing management to persist to siratro and glycine. in grass/legume pasture systems. Aztec

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 51 should be grazed lightly to moderately, Glycine with rotational spelling. A good seed set and seed drop should occur in the establishment year and every two to three years subsequently, to ensure soil seed reserves for regeneration of replacement seedlings. Only limited plantings have occurred in recent years but its rust resistance may be breaking down, particularly if there is a return of wet humid summers. Neonotonia wightii cvv. Tinaroo (1962), Strengths Clarence (1962), Cooper (1962), Malawi (1976) • Wide soil and climate adaptation • High nutritive value and palatability Glycine is a strong, deep rooting legume with long branched and • Good nitrogen ﬁxation, including trailing/climbing stems. It was used with native rhizobia in most soils extensively during the 1970s and • Drought resistant. 1980s as a legume in dairy pastures. It demands high amounts of nutrients, a Limitations long growing season and can tolerate • Intolerant of poor drainage cooler weather than most tropical • Declines under continuous grazing legumes. Glycine grows best in well • Requires moderate fertility or added drained, moderately fertile soils in fertiliser, particularly phosphorus tableland areas, including Atherton and and molybdomum Eungella where the Tinaroo variety is mostly used. Although a considerable • Susceptible to leaf rust in long term. amount of glycine still persists in pastures around the MW region, it is now seldom sown due to its aggressive climbing habit, which can make it an environmental problem ‘weed’ in tree crops and ungrazed situations such as new subdivisions and housing estates. Strengths • Better cool season growth then most tropical legumes • Late ﬂowering, long growing season. Limitations • High nutrient requirements, including molybdenum • Can become environmental problem ‘weed’ in subdivisions and treed areas.

52 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Butterﬂy pea Round-leaf cassia (useful pasture legume or nuisance weed?)

Clitoria ternata cv. Milgarra (1991) Butterfly pea is a vigorous, persistent, perennial legume adapted to sandy loam to clay soils and 700 to 1500 mm of rainfall. It is grown extensively in Chamaecrista rotundifolia cv. Wynn the heavy clay soils of inland central 1984) and north Queensland. It has a role Round-leaf cassia is a short-lived as a pasture legume, a ley legume in perennial (with more than 900 mm farming systems and as a hay crop. It is rainfall) or self-regenerating annual adapted to moderately fertile, loam to (with less than 900 mm rainfall), clay soils on the coast and has minor herbaceous legume with shallow use as a green manure rotation and/or taproot and semi-erect growth from hay crop in fallow cane land. It initially 0.5 to one metre tall. It grows best in has upright growth and subsequently free-draining lighter soils of low to develops rambling/climbing stems. moderate fertility. Wynn cassia flowers It nodulates readily from native soil early and continues flowering until rhizobia and has good nitrogen fixation it is too dry or cold. Cattle tend not but seed should be inoculated for initial to eat it during the growing season, plantings. Butterfly pea is sometimes particularly in higher rainfall and low used as an ornamental garden or trellis fertility situations. Due to its massive plant and has predominantly blue with seed production and low seasonal some white flowers. Young seed pods palatability, Wynn cassia often can be eaten as a vegetable. becomes dominant under moderate to Strengths heavy grazing, as green grass is grazed • Perennial legume, adapted to loams in preference over summer. and clay soils Wynn cassia has recently received a • Dual purpose grazing, hay, ley lot of negative press from the Northern legume for cropping soils. Territory, south east Queensland Limitations (Gympie, Bundaberg, Miriam Vale) • Sensitive to waterlogging as well as several landholders in the • Sensitive to competition from MW region. Other graziers regard it as vigorous companion grasses. a useful pasture legume, particularly

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 53 if it has been sown with a vigorous Both Pinto and Rhizome forage peanut companion grass such as Bisset are strongly-perennial herbaceous creeping blue grass or signal grass. legumes. Both are multi-purpose legumes for grazing, hay, and ground Strengths cover for horticulture and tree crops. • Tolerant of low fertility, acid soils • Rapid establishment and spread Pinto develops a strong taproot and spreads by forming a dense ground- • High seed yields. cover mat of stolons. With the onset Limitations of ﬂowering, seed pods are produced • Frost sensitive underground, attached to the plant by a ‘peg’, until maturity. Each pod • Acts mainly as an annual contains a single seed. Rhizome peanut • Low palatability, particularly during has a more upright growth habit summer growing season with erect stems developing from • Tends to dominate under heavy underground crowns and rhizomes. stocking, grass can get grazed-out. Rhizome produces very little seed and needs to be sown vegetatively using rhizomes. Pinto forage peanut Harvesting the seed or rhizomes of both Pinto and Rhizome for planting requires considerable mechanical sward disturbance and planting material is costly, relative to most other pasture species. In the early development stage for both forage peanut cultivars, a special harvester was imported from Florida USA, where forage peanut is widely sown. Arachis pintoi cv. Amarillo (1987) Strengths Rhizome forage peanut • Persistent and productive under heavy grazing • Tolerant of low fertility (particularly Rhizome), responds well to increased fertility • High quality forage, palatable and highly digestible • Survives prolonged dry periods (particularly Rhizome), re-grows from underground seed or rhizomes Arachis glabrata cv. Prine (1995) • Shade tolerant (particularly Pinto)

54 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region • Pinto tolerant of waterlogging, creeping tropical grasses such as Tully Rhizome of short-term waterlogging humidicola, pangola and signal grass • Mat forming, good ground cover for (other compatible legumes are rhizome landscaping and under tree crops and pinto forage peanut and possibly villose jointvetch and Cardillo centro). • Combines well with competitive It has prostrate stems that root strongly sward grasses. at the nodes and flower continually Limitations from April to December when moisture • Needs good moisture/high rainfall is available. It tolerates waterlogging, for high production, more than acid and infertile soils, and responds 1500 mm for Amarillo, more than well to added phosphorus. Its seed 1000 mm for Rhizome pods are segmented and break and fall as the seeds mature. Commercial • Seed/nuts form underground, high seed is not available but hetero can seed costs, difficult to eradicate once be established readily from cuttings. established, attracts rodents and Cattle will spread the seed via their scrub turkeys dung. Considerable areas of hetero still • Sowing by seed requires highly exist in the northern wet tropics and specific rhizobium for nitrogen several MW properties planted small fixation areas in the 1970s. Problems with • High establishment cost, slow commercial seed harvesting has greatly establishment (depending on sowing restricted its use. rate) Strengths • Above ground forage dries off over long dry spring to early summer • Compatible with stoloniferous period. grasses and tolerant of heavy grazing • Can be planted vegetatively and Hetero spreads via prostrate stems • Seed is spread via cattle dung • Palatable and good protein forage • Very shade tolerant.

Limitations • No commercial seed available • Requires high rainfall (more than 1500 mm).

Desmodium heterophyllum cv. Johnstone (1971) Hetero is a perennial tropical legume that is compatible with vigorous

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 55 Temperate cool-season legumes

Clover legumes (White, Subterranean, Kenya white)

Trifolium repens cvv. Haifa, Ladino Trifolium semipilosum cv. Safari (1964) common name white clover (1973) common name Kenya white clover White clover is a temperate legume with sufﬁcient heat tolerance to Kenya white clover is a perennial grow in tableland areas of the tropics tropical clover with many similarities (including Eungella and Sarina range to white clover. It has a stronger areas) where there is sufﬁcient rain or taproot and better heat and dry period irrigation during autumn through to tolerance than white or Clare clover. the spring period. It tends to act as an Kenya white clover was grown in annual, dying off over summer and Eungulla and Atherton Tableland regenerating from soil seed reserves dairying areas during the 1970s and during autumn. It combines well with 1980s but persistence and production kikuyu grass but requires annual was somewhat erratic and the legume phosphorous applications and regular has lost favour. grazing to maintain a high legume component. Haifa was the preferred variety for Eungella and Sarina dairy farms with Ladino an earlier variety.

(Trifolium subterranean cvv. Clare common name subterranean clover Clare subterranean clover is a true annual that can be sown as a legume component with rye grass for autumn through spring feed on tableland areas, where moisture is available. There is a need to use high sub-clover seeding rates (10 to14 kg per hectare) to provide quick pasture grazing.

56 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Creeping vigna • Top growth cut by light frosts but recovers from crown • Susceptible to diseases and lacks persistence on humid coast • Seed is difﬁcult to obtain.

Lotus

Vigna parkeri cv. Shaw (1984) Creeping vigna is a perennial legume with climbing and prostrate stems, which root at the nodes and form dense ground cover. It is suitable for sandy to well drained red clay soils in subtropical and tropical tableland areas. The best growth for creeping vigna occurs during Lotus uliginosus (synonym L. moist periods in autumn and spring. It pedunculatus) cv. Maku grasslands (NZ has been successfully grown with kikuyu 1975), Sharnae (NSW 1991) grass on Eungella Tableland dairy farms but requires careful management during Lotus is a stoloniferous perennial establishment and second years (periodic legume with scrambling stems and an moderate grazing to reduce competition underground crown. It is a temperate from companion grasses to ensure long legume ideal for subtropical and tropical term legume persistence). tableland areas. It tolerates wet and waterlogged soils and low fertility better Strengths than clovers. It does not cause bloat in • Persistent and will spread by runners cattle or sheep. Lotus has been grown on under managed heavy grazing some Eungella dairy farms but has not • Can tolerate moderately low fertility been extensively used in the MW region. and acid soils but responds well to added phosphorous and molybdenum Strengths • Moderately shade tolerant • Adapted to infertile and acid soils • Nodulates with native rhizobium but and wet, poorly drained soils it is recommended seed be inoculated • Frost tolerant with commercial product for new • Does not cause bloat in cattle or sheep plantings. • Moderate shade tolerance. Limitations Limitations • Can be slow to establish and may not • Poor drought tolerance seed in ﬁrst year • Requires speciﬁc inoculation • Susceptible to dry periods greater • Low seedling vigour, slow to establish, than three months slow to regrow following grazing.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 57 Short-term, ley or green manure legumes

Greenleaf desmodium seldom sown but Greenleaf seed is available from north Queensland. The legumes may have a minor role to play as a green manure crop to improve soil organic matter in tree crop rotations.

Strengths

• Suitable for cooler areas with long growing season • Shade tolerant.

Desmodium intortum cv. Greenleaf Limitations (1964) • Poor persistence under heavy Silverleaf desmodium grazing • Requires high fertility • Susceptible to root eating larva of soil weevils.

Desmodium uncinatum cv. Silverleaf (1971) Greenleaf and Silverleaf desmodiums are large trailing and scrambling, short to moderately lived perennial legumes suited to cool tableland areas in the tropics. The plants lower stems root at the nodes when in contact with moist soil and can be planted vegetatively using rooted cuttings. Both were important pasture legumes for dairy cattle at Eungella and Sarina range during the 1970s and 1980s. Greenleaf and Silverleaf desmodiums are now

58 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Lablab Cowpea

Lablab purpureus cvv. Rongai (1962), Vigna unguiculata cvv. Ebony PR Highworth (1973), Endurance (1996), Arafura, Meringa, Red (on pre-release) Caloona (1975), Kalkie

Lablab is a vigorous herbaceous, Cowpea is an herbaceous, semi-erect, prostrate to semi-erect, climbing, climbing, annual forage legume and annual legume grown mainly for is one of most widely used legumes grazing forage or as a green manure throughout the tropical world. Ebony crop. It has a longer autumn growing PR, Arafura and Meringa are later season then cowpea and has better maturing (longer growing season) resistance to Phytophthora root forage types while Red Caloona is a and stem rot, and to insect attack. faster maturing grain and forage dual- Endurance is a perennial lablab but purpose variety. had poor seedling vigour and not much was planted. Strengths Strengths • Multi-purpose (grain, green manure, grazing, hay) • Multi-purpose (green manure, • Ease of establishment, large seed grazing, hay) and large yields in short time, high • Ease of establishment in ‘rough’ seed yields seedbed, large seeded • High nutritive value and high • Adapted to wide range of soils, palatability tolerates acid soils and is more • Adapted to wide range of soils, tolerant of short term waterlogging tolerates acid soils better then most then cowpea legumes • Drought tolerant. • Drought tolerant. Limitations Limitations • More sensitive to waterlogging then • More sensitive to waterlogging and soybean. ﬂooding then lablab, soybean and • Cattle can take time to acquire a butterﬂy pea taste for lablab and its coarse stems • Can be sensitive to plant pests. have limited grazing value.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 59 Soybean Burgundy bean Glycine max cvv. Leighhardt , Y-Y, Stuart Soybean is an herbaceous, semi- erect, climbing, annual legume grown widely around the tropical world as a high value grain crop. It has become an important multi-purpose crop for sugar cane farming systems in the last decade. It is mainly planted as a green manure ‘break’ crop on fallow cane land but can be a high value grain crop Macroptilium bracteatum cvv. Cadarga if seasonal conditions allow. It can also (2000), Juanita (2000) be a useful hay crop. Burgundy bean, including the erect The Leichhardt, Stuart and Y-Y Cadarga and trailing Juanita varieties, varieties are long growing season are herbaceous, perennial legumes types and are specially adapted to the adapted to heavy textured soils tropical coastal areas from Mackay and tolerant of cooler temperatures to far north Queensland. In trials to than butterfly pea. Due to its high find green manure legumes tolerant palatability it is normally a short-lived to waterlogging held in Mackay in pasture legume but can regenerate well the late 1980s, soybean demonstrated from seed fall. It is potentially a useful superior survival to several weeks short-term ley legume alternative to of cyclonic rain than did cowpea or lablab or butterfly pea. To date there is lablab (Bishop, unpublished data). little experience of Burgundy bean in MW region. Strengths Strengths • Versatile multi-purpose (green manure, grain, hay) crop for fallow • Adapted to wide range of soil cane land texture, including heavy clays • High nitrogen fixation for soil • Germinates and grows under cooler improvement conditions than butterfly pea • Extremely palatable, requires • More tolerant of waterlogging then rotational grazing, non-bloating cowpea or lablab. • Regenerates well from seed set. Limitations Limitations • Requires better seed bed preparation • High palatability restricts use to ley and weed control than cowpea or and short-term phase pastures lablab • Specific rhizobium required • Seed for planting is more expensive than for cowpea or lablab. • Susceptible to bean mosaic virus (Cadarga variety) in wet conditions.

60 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Browse shrub legumes

Leucaena

Tip sucking psyllids

Leucaena leucocephala subsp. glabrata • High nutritive quality and cvv. Taramba (1995), Cunningham digestibility for ruminant livestock (1976), Peru (1962) are the forage • Highly persistent perennial legume varieties recommended for leucaena/ shrub/tree grass grazing systems. Cultivar K8 • Strong deep root system, tolerance (University of Hawaii 1960s) is a tall of dry periods and retains leaf into predominantly timber variety, little dry season used in Australia. • Moderate tolerance to salt in soil The leucaena legume browse-shrub/ profile grass pasture system, is based on • Good nitrogen fixation and subsp. glabrata, and this system can can provide multiple products be the most productive, profitable and sustainable grazing system available in and services to a wide range of northern Australia. The most suitable production systems. soils are deep (more than one metre), Limitations fertile, clay loam to heavy clays, and • Poorly adapted to shallow, infertile, occur predominantly west of the acid soils coastal ranges. Suitable soils within the MW region are very limited, plus • Needs to be inoculated with very the leucaena psyllid (a sap-sucking specific rhizobia for nitrogen fixation insect) can greatly reduce leucaena • Relatively weak in seedling stage, forage yields in humid coastal areas. slow to establish, susceptible to weed Consequently there are currently very competition few, if any, successful leucaena/grass • Attacked by sap-sucking psyllid grazing systems in the MW region. insect in humid coastal areas Strengths • Can become a nuisance plant in • Highly productive on suitable (deep, absence of grazing (environmental fertile, clay) soils weed)

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 61 • Mimosine’ in forage can cause ill Queensland’. The code aims to restrict thrift in animals eating > 30 percent leucaena planting near potential weed leucaena in diet, need to inoculate risk zones, minimise seed production cattle with rumen bacteria (available in grazed stands, diminish the risk of DPI&F Brian Pastures R.S. Ph: 4161 live seed dispersal and control any 3700). plants that escape from grazed stands (Refer to Code in Appendix 11.5). Leucaena leucocephala subsp. leucocephala is native to southern Mexico and has been naturalised throughout the Asia-Paciﬁc region for centuries. It probably entered Australia in the late 1800s and is now naturalised and widespread, being particularly visible along roadsides in tropical and subtropical Queensland. It is an earlier ﬂowering type with low leaf production and is not recommended for use in grazing systems. The Leucaena Network (made up of commercial leucaena growers) is working with local shire councils throughout Queensland to develop and implement a strategic plan to eradicate this ‘feral’ leucaena from roadsides. The University of Queensland is currently developing a forage hybrid leucaena (‘KX2’) with improved psyllid resistance, cold tolerance and lower seed yield, and is due for release in 2008-2009. It is also ‘proposed’ that a sterile hybrid be developed for timber production.

Leucaena is listed as an environmental weed by some local authorities in Queensland, due to its ability to regenerate and spread from seed. As mentioned above subsp. leucocephala is the predominant culprit with respect to weediness. However the Leucaena Network has developed a ‘Code of Practice for the sustainable use of leucaena/grass pasture systems in

62 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Possible problem legumes

Archer axillaris (useful pasture legume Round leaf Wynn cassia or nuisance weed)?

Chamaecrista rotundifolia cv. Wynn Useful pasture legume to some and a nuisance weed to others (see fact sheet description this Chapter, pg 53).

Macrotyloma axillare cv. Archer (1966); previously Dolichos axillare Archer axillaris is a trailing and twining perennial legume that develops a strong woody taproot. It has moderate shade tolerance and the ability to climb up trees. The young growth of the legume is less palatable then old growth and initially not relished by cattle. However, once cattle become accustomed they will readily eat the legume, but will select other legumes where available. Commercial seed is not available and Archer axillaris is not recommended for planting due to its low palatability and risk of becoming a weed in native woodlands and forests.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 63 Chapter 3 of this book presents achieve quick ground cover, and early information on the different pasture- forage for grazing. Jointvetch and fed grazing systems that can be used stylo legume seed is often added to 6 in the MW region. Chapter 5 provides the mixture to provide nitrogen for a comprehensive list of pasture species the grass and high protein forage for available to choose from. This chapter the grazing animals, at least for the provides information on selecting ﬁrst two to four years, by which time pasture types. the pangola, Tully and signal grasses will dominate and ‘push-out’ the Pasture type choices rhodes grass and the legumes. Once the pasture becomes grass dominant, Grass-only pastures using one species applications of bag-nitrogen are or variety are simple to sow and required to maintain vigorous growth the easiest to manage. However this and high forage production. Other equates to ‘all the eggs in one basket’ examples of single grass-only pastures

legumes & mixtures & legumes and the simplest option does not are for hay production and short-term always give the best outcome. forage crops using sorghum species.

Local examples of single species grass Legume-only pasture grazing systems pastures are pangola, signal and Tully are not generally recommended as humidicola. These three pasture types they provide insufﬁcient energy and develop into strong, dense swards and protein excess to grazing animals’ persist over the long term. However normal requirements. Long-term pangola and Tully are most often sown legume-only pastures can increase soil as mixtures using a quick establishing acidity due to nitrogen leaching from

Selecting sown pasture grasses, grasses, pasture sown Selecting grass such as Callide rhodes grass to the accumulated nitrogen ﬁxed by

The Tully humidicola grass plot (front left) demonstrates its competitiveness against the invasive weedy sporobolus Giant Rats Tail grass, in a sown pasture species demonstration trial at Mirani

64 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Pangola grass is starting to over-run the Callide rhodes following over-sowing the pangola runners with rhodes grass seed at planting

legumes. In the absence of a grass to of nitrogen in the soil are held in utilise this nitrogen it is leached down the form of organic matter which the soil profile. This can also happen is constantly being broken down, over time with grass-legume mixed releasing ammonia. Ammonia is then pastures that have become legume converted by soil bacteria into nitrates dominant through continuous heavy which is the form taken up through grazing, particularly with Wynn cassia plant roots. Nitrates are soluble so can and shrubby stylos. Legume-only be leached from the soil and lost in pastures can be grown for hay, short- runoff water. term legume forage crops for grazing or legume green-manure crops. Legumes have an association with nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil for Grass-legume mixed pastures have mutual benefit. These bacteria obtain many advantages. They provide their main food requirements from nitrogen, improve diet quality and the legume roots and in return these digestibility and slow or prevent soil special bacteria provide the legume fertility decline and pasture run-down. with nitrogen. This process takes place However grass-legume mixed pastures in the nodules that form on the legume require very careful grazing, fertiliser roots. As well as supplying the legume and weed management. Optimum plant with nitrogen and thus high grass-legume balance is around 60 protein content, the nodules eventually to 40 but even 20 percent legume (by fall off and decay and the nitrogen dry matter yield) will significantly becomes available to associated contribute to pasture and animal grasses. Many introduced pasture production. legumes require specific bacteria that needs to be applied to the seed Importance of legumes prior to sowing. This process is called ‘inoculating the legume seed with its Nitrogen is required in large specific rhizobium’. The recommended quantities by all plants and is the rhizobium is available from seed main component of protein. Reserves merchants.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 65 Molybdenum (Mo) is a very important • Ease of establishment and speed soil trace element to ensure vigorous • Response to low/high soil fertility/ legume growth via effective root fertiliser inputs nodulation and nitrogen fixation. • Competition against weeds Healthy root nodules should be pink in colour; pale green nodules indicate • Compatibility with legumes ineffective nitrogen fixation which • Ground cover/soil stabilisation. may indicate molybdenum deficiency (see Chapter 7 for more information). Brief history of tropical pasture species used in the Ideal pasture species to Mackay Whitsunday region plant Following initial experimental and Many grasses and legumes are demonstration work from 1960 to available for sowing in the Mackay 1966, the area planted with tropical Whitsunday region (see appendix pastures increased to 60 000 ha by 4 and Chapter 5). When choosing 1979, reaching an annual peak of the most suitable grass and legume 5000 ha in 1974-75. Approximately species the following factors should be half of this development was by considered: sugarcane farmers with land surplus to cane requirements (Bishop and Walker, • Land type/soil type; fertility, 1980). The paper ‘Pastures for the texture and drainage Mackay wet coast’ (published in the • Climate; rainfall and temperature July-August Queensland Agricultural • Management system; high, medium Journal) lists and describes 19 grasses or low input system (from eight genera/ 12 species) and 15 • Saleable commodity being legumes (from six genera/10 species). targeted; breeding weaners / stores, The most common grass planted at growing / fattening / finishing, hay that time was Kazungula setaria, production, etc. followed by Rodd’s Bay plicatulum. Some species characteristics to Together they made up greater than consider: 90 percent of the grass component of sown pastures, largely because • Growth habit (erect clump/stools or of their reliability of establishment, stoloniferous/runners) adaptation to most conditions (wet • Persistence (long term / short term) and dry, low and high fertility) and • Waterlogging / flooding tolerance long term persistence. Some of these original pastures are still productive • Drought tolerance today, 35 years on. However, very little • Cold and frost tolerance Kazungula has been sown in the past • Grazing tolerance decade, probably because other grass • Palatability options are seen as easier to manage. During the normal summer wet season

66 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region

(of the 1970s) Kazungula quickly grew Today the new stylos and the four tall and ran to seed, fell over, ran to jointvetch legumes offer better seed and fell over again, throughout persistence and production options summer. This built up a dense tangle for sustainable pasture systems. The of stems of low quality litter and most recent centro (Cardillo centro) smothered legumes, but Kazangula roots down much more at the nodes setaria quickly sent up new green leaf forming a more dense sward and and was competitive with broadleaf climbs less than common centro. More weeds. In a grazing trial conducted on information and options for sown the ‘Tedlands’ property at Koumala in grass and legume pasture species is the 1970s, live weight gains of around available in Chapter 5. 180 kg/year were achieved from Kazungula/siratro pastures stocked at 1 AE/ha. Similar performance was recorded for Kazungula plus nitrogen pastures, stocked at 2 AE/ha (Walker 1980). Rodd’s Bay plicatulum is not sown in current times because of its low palatability.

Over the past decade Rhodes grass (mainly Callide variety) and signal grass have been the most planted grasses. Bisset creeping blue grass is also becoming popular for grazing and for hay. However these three grasses (signal, Rhodes and Bisset) are susceptible to (moderate) waterlogging. Pangola grass and Tully humidicola are very tolerant of waterlogging and of heavy grazing pressure but are slow to establish.

The main legumes sown up to 1980 were Siratro and Schoﬁeld stylo. Persistence of both under continuous grazing was poor and neither could survive in waterlogged soils. The saying of that time, ‘sensitive weed is my best legume’, was mostly a cynical comment but it was also true as sensitive plant did, and still does, add a lot of nitrogen to heavily grazed coastal pasture systems.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 67 This chapter describes and provides Planning steps when developing new information on the processes and sown pasture systems: activities involved in developing a productive and sustainable sown • Mark the development site or 7 paddock on your property map pasture grazing system. • Determine land type(s) and soil Planning type(s), soil drainage, slope/streams, tree/vegetation cover and status, Planning is a key component of cattle watering points, fence lines, any pasture development activity current or potential weed status/ and needs to start well ahead of threats, etc. planting time. Figure 3 in Chapter • Arrange for soil testing at the site 3 presents a basic framework for and where applicable check if a property/enterprise planning and permit for weed or woody regrowth for developing pasture-fed beef control is required production systems. The desired • Select pasture species mixture outcome should be a strategic part of based on land type, site conditions sown pasture systems pasture sown the property management plan and and class of animals/target market whole of enterprise business plan. (growing, breeding, fattening/ Careful planning will greatly enhance ﬁnishing or a combination of all

Establishing and managing managing and Establishing the process of developing productive three); or an alternate use such as and sustainable sown pastures and hay, agistment, water-way, leys the economic success of the beef rotation, land stabilisation, nutrient enterprise. ﬁlter belt, etc. (See Chapter 6 for a

Developed coastal tea tree country with emerging tea tree regrowth problem

68 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region guide to selecting pasture species soil and the primary root (radical) and and mixtures) primary stem (plumule) emerge to • Erect any required fencing prior to create a secure, independent seedling. planting the pasture 2. Plant establishment (1 to 4 months). • Measure and record paddock size so Grasses form their characteristic fibrous seed requirements and stocking rate root system until onset of tillering can be calculated accurately (multiple stems) and legumes form their • Calculate number of cattle the characteristic tap root and secondary pasture area will safely carry and roots. This allows the new seedling to still meet target market obtain its moisture and nutrient require- • Attend a ‘Stocktake’ workshop ments from the soil and photosynthesis on forage budgeting and setting begins in the leaves. The green stocking rate based on pasture chlorophyll in the leaf traps the sun’s supply and demand. Monitor rays to convert the water and nutrients, stocking rates to ensure good taken from the soil, into starches that pasture and land condition and provide energy for plant growth. to maintain sustainable economic production. 3. Pasture development, consolidation and sward thickening into a permanent Establishing sown pastures pasture (1 to 3 years). This is the period of rapid plant growth, development of The pasture establishment phase is tillers or secondary branches, spread probably the most important event of stolons/runners, and the occurrence in developing sustainable sown of first flowering and seed set. During pasture systems. Successful rapid this phase seed production allows new establishment ensures a healthy seedlings to fill in gaps and replace any pasture that will deliver sustainable weak or dying plants, thus maintaining production while maintaining land a dense healthy pasture sward. A dense condition. Poorly established pastures pasture sward greatly helps to minimise will deliver low production and weeds, increase rainfall penetration and declining land condition. It therefore effectiveness, reduce runoff and warrants as much planning, care and improve water quality entering the attention as possible, within time and streams. cost constraints. Rainfall following sowing is usually Establishment processes (seed-plant- the critical issue with regard to pasture) successful pasture establishment. As rainfall, outside of irrigation, cannot Pasture establishment occurs in three be controlled efforts must concentrate phases: on providing optimum conditions for 1. Seed germination and seedling establishment, which are; emergence (1 to 4 weeks). • Treat sowing of pastures as if planting The seed takes up moisture from the a crop

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 69 • Prepare best possible seed bed for the at first rain, rolled into the soil with a particular site; fine but not powdery, light roller or by using a light harrow and firm not loose and cloddy or drag-chain. Most pasture seed is • A wet soil profile prior to planting small and burying it greater than 1 (if possible) will greatly improve cm deep may reduce establishment, establishment success particularly for some grasses. • Select species best adapted to site In situations where land has been and conditions cleared of tea tree or some eucalypt • Plant at recommended seeding rates country and not followed up by deep (seed cost is small when compared to (15 to 20 cm or 6 to 8”) cultivation with total cost of pasture establishment) disk or blade ploughing, any subsequent • Use high quality seed and check sucker or seedling (woody) regrowth germination percentage may require attention prior to seed bed • Sow shallow (no deeper than 1 cm preparation. Treatment and control of or 3/8”) and distribute seed evenly woody weed regrowth areas prior to • Minimise weeds during renovating the area to a sustainable establishment process. pasture production system must be done in accordance with current Seedbed preparation vegetation management legislation. A good seedbed is friable and fine Seed quality enough to allow good contact between seed and soil but not so fine and When purchasing seed remember to powdery to crust following rain. A check seed quality; ask for a copy of clean seedbed will reduce competition a recent seed analysis report. Review for the germinating sown seed. The soil the purity of seed being purchased seed reserves from any pre-existing (percentage) as opposed to inert, non- grass and broadleaf weeds can be seed matter and other seeds including reduced by allowing weed seeds to ‘weed seeds’ (prohibited seeds are germinate following first rain then listed in the report). The germination spraying with a herbicide before test shows the number of seeds that sowing pasture seed onto surface and produced normal seedlings, based on rolling seed into soil. This can be done laboratory tests. several times but caution is required if Purity multiplied by germination using glyphosate (Roundup) herbicide percentage gives the percentage of pure on light soils to avoid any possibility live seed, which is the best indicator of of residue risk. Weed seed banks seed quality. If seed has 80% purity can also be reduced using shallow and 60% germination, pure live seed cultivation but each cultivation will content is only 48%. bring fresh weed seeds to the surface. Both methods will also increase pasture Inexpensive seed may prove much establishment costs. Sown seed may be more expensive when compared on a left on the surface to be covered by soil ‘pure live seed’ basis.

70 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Pelleted seed Healthy root nodules should be pink in colour; pale green nodules indicate Commercially pelleted seed allows ineffective nitrogen fixation which easier handling and distribution of may indicate molybdenum deficiency. fluffy grass seed, such as Rhodes grass, Bisset and the various blue Mo is best sprayed directly onto bare grasses. Pelleting of legume seed soil prior to sowing of the legume and free flowing grass seed (signal, based pasture. Sodium Molybdate is Tully, setaria, panics) is generally not the form recommended for spray-on necessary. Sometimes insecticides, application and should be applied at fungicides, fertiliser or legume a rate of 100 to 200 g/ha of elemental inoculums can be included in seed Mo, mixed in water and boom spray or coat on request. However with most aerial apply every 3 to 4 years. Foliar pelleted seed the sowing rates need to spraying in established pastures should be increased as pelleted seed usually be timed when the pasture has been contains much less ‘live seed’ per heavily grazed. Broad-acre spraying kilogram than non-pelleted seed. onto well grown, bulky pasture can The ‘live seed’ percentage should be cause cattle to ingest the sprayed requested when purchasing pelleted on Mo and concentrate it into small seed. ‘patch’ areas of the paddock, via their urine. Molybdenum Trioxide can be Legume seed inoculation used as a seed coating with lime but Seed of some legumes require is not suitable for spray application inoculation with a specific rhizobium (detailed information on molybdenum bacteria prior to sowing, to ensure the is available in Incitec Pivot AGRITOPIC legume plants can fix nitrogen via January 2005, or www.incitecpivot. their root systems (clovers, creeping com.au). The earlier traditional vigna, Lotus, centro, forage peanut, method of applying Mo to single super desmodiums, Caatinga stylo, leucaena). phosphate is no longer a real option, Other legumes can nodulate and fix for reasons of cost (transport from nitrogen from ‘common’ rhizobia SEQ) and the difficulty to achieve even already in the soil (stylos, American distribution of the Mo. and villose jointvetches, siratro, butterfly pea). However when planting Pasture planting methods into ‘new’ country not previously growing legumes it is recommended The aim is to apply the pasture seed all legume seed be inoculated with the mixture evenly over the whole site/ appropriate rhizobia, available from paddock, at the recommended sowing seed outlets. rate, with the seed lightly covered. Molybdenum (Mo) is a very important Most pasture seed is small and burying soil trace element to ensure vigorous it greater then 1 cm or 3/8” deep can legume growth via effective root reduce establishment, particularly with nodulation and nitrogen fixation. grasses.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 71 Options for distributing seed include: Best time of year to plant • Contractors - Particularly for larger pastures development or if you have limited equipment. Stock and Station or Obviously the best time to plant Rural Supply Agents/Companies pasture seed would be just before three usually offer soil sampling and to five consecutive days of steady rain testing, supply of seed and fertiliser with similar follow-up rain within and ground or aerial application of two to three weeks. During the 1970s both. and 1980s recommendations were to • Combine seeders or air-seeders -This sow seed from late October through option may require modifications to to December, to catch early storms so suit smaller pasture seed. the pasture was established earlier and • Fertiliser spreaders - Grass seed was thus better able to handle likely and legume seed not requiring wet and waterlogged periods during inoculation can be mixed with January and February. Early planting fertiliser, but inoculated legumes also resulted in quicker establishment require an inert carrier such as and the pasture could be stocked/ cracked grain, bran, sand or sawdust. grazed by the end of the wet season However, evenness of spread is after the first seed crop had dropped. difficult to achieve with a fertiliser There now seems to be a higher risk spreader. of prolonged hot and dry heat-wave • Roller drum seeders - Can put periods between less frequent early different seed sizes in different summer storms over the past two compartments. decades and germinating seedlings • Crocodile seeders - Similar to roller can die if the soil profile is not wet-up drum principal but ‘rolling’ cylinder prior to sowing pasture seed. Another has ‘lugs’ that scoop small holes in risk of sowing in early summer is ground to catch seed as machine strong competition to establishing travels along; usually used where pastures from broadleaf and other a ploughed seedbed cannot be common weeds, which have a bigger prepared, or where sowing legumes soil seed-bank and seem to germinate into native pastures or rundown and establish faster then pasture sown pastures. seedlings. Late summer, autumn sown • Bucket brigade - Suitable for smaller pastures have less competition from areas of several hectares, use a weeds but often do not set seed, are ‘carrier’ mixed with seed. not fully established, and can only be lightly grazed until the second summer. It is important to calibrate for correct seed application rate prior to sowing, This drier and more variable weather for whatever machine or method is pattern during the 1990s and onwards used. If difficulty is experienced the has made when to plant a bit of a machine supplier or Rural Supply Agent guessing game! However, over the should be contacted for assistance. past decade and currently there

72 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region has been a lot of research studies With any new pasture development, and development of new weather whether from sugar cane to pasture, forecasting models, systems and new land to pasture, or renovation approaches to assist landholders with of previously pastured areas, a land management decisions relating to soil nutrient analysis (soil test) is seasonal weather forecasts. Examples recommended as an integral part include Southern Oscillation Index of the pasture development and (SOI) and Madden Julian Oscillation ongoing pasture maintenance process. (MJO) or ’40-day wave’. Believers and Attention to fertiliser requirements optimists can access more information is good insurance against pasture from Climate Note at www.dpi.qld.gov. establishment failure. Expenditure on au/climate or through the DPI&F on land and seedbed preparation, plus 13 25 23. the cost of seed and its distribution, is wasted if pastures are not adequately Fertilising sown pastures fertilised. An enterprise with limited funds should only sow an area that its The majority of soils in the MW budget can accommodate, as per the region are phosphorus deﬁcient enterprise business plan, rather than and applications of phosphorus are reduce fertiliser application rates. required for both pasture growth and Phosphorus increases the liveweight for animal growth and production. gain of animals for the following Virgin coastal tea tree country is reasons: usually very low in phosphorus (around 3-5 ppm bicarb P), as well as • Increased pasture yield (higher dry low in potassium and molybdenum. matter production) Although friable earth soils on the • Increased pasture quality (higher coastal undulating and low hilly protein and P content in grasses and country, originally supporting legumes) rainforest and eucalypt vegetation, • Increased pasture digestibility have better physical properties (for (higher conversion of pasture to example Hay Point, Kuttabul and beef). Habana areas) some of these soils in their virgin state can still be For strong, healthy, beef pastures, phosphorus deﬁcient. The upland the ideal phosphorus level is around rainforest areas are inherently fertile 15 ppm (bicarbonate) in the top but fertility rundown has occurred 10 cm or 4” of soil. Higher input because of clearing and development dairy pastures and pasture-fed beef to dairy pastures. Fertiliser application, production systems generally aim for and ongoing fertiliser maintenance, is greater than 20 ppm P. Once the surface required on all soil types to maintain soil drops below 10 ppm P, pasture yield pasture condition and meet animal and quality, and animal performance, production targets. has already start to decline.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 73 How much fertiliser? Optimum pasture growth is achieved from soils with pH6 to pH7 (slightly Previous experimental work and acid to neutral). The economics of experience has shown that for liming pastures is doubtful unless sustainable pasture and cattle soil acidity is in the low pH 5’s. High production a minimum application fertiliser input systems could expect a of around 20 kg/ha of phosphorus pasture growth response to the element (approximately 100 kg/ha of Triphos calcium, or the raising of pH by liming or DAP or 200 kg/ha of straight which can make trace elements more Superphosphate) is required at planting readily available to pasture plants. for grass legume mixed pastures. A similar application is required at the beginning of the second year Grazing management to build soil P reserves. If sowing grass-only pastures Di-Ammonium The key to good grazing management Phosphate (DAP) can be used as it is matching forage availability with has 18 percent nitrogen (as well as 20 forage demand and adjusting stock percent phosphorus) and will boost numbers accordingly. The amount of grass growth. A further application of forage available does not equal total 100 kg/ha Urea (45 percent Nitrogen) pasture grown. Arriving at the end of in autumn (March/May) will keep grass the dry season with no forage (pasture) growing longer into the cooler weather. on the ground (eaten bare) means In grass-legume pastures the legumes this pasture has already been given a provide the nitrogen and legumes severe shock, whether native or sown retain higher protein as they mature, pasture. relative to grasses. Under continuous heavy grazing any When extra nitrogen fertiliser is surviving desirable pasture plants will applied regularly to grass pasture, have small root systems and be slow to or when grass-legume pastures are re-start growing when rain does arrive. receiving higher inputs of phosphorus, Pastures will also be slow to develop these pastures will also need extra sufficient leaf area to replenish their potassium (K), probably a minimum root system energy reserves. There 50 kg/ha/year of muriate of potash) will be a lot of bare ground providing depending on soil potassium status as an opportunity for weedy species per soil analysis. Pastures with high to establish/re-establish from high fertiliser inputs require regular soil reserves of weed seed already in the testing to monitor all nutrients, with soil. When first rains are substantial particular attention to calcium, sulphur, and the ground surface is bare, the molybdenum and copper. resulting runoff will transport the fertile surface soil (as sediments) into Soil acidity should also be monitored the creeks and rivers and out to the under high input management systems, reef. The resulting runoff, erosion as high rates of nitrogen can increase and increase in weed growth are the the risk of acidification via N-leaching. start of declining pasture and land

74 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region The continuously grazed and ageing paddock of Callide rhodes grass (right) has been invaded by Parramatta grass, a weedy sporobolus grass. The pangola grass (on the left) remains weed free.) condition, and subsequently, declining in first year. A short duration light animal production. If repeated grazing pre-flowering of sown annually, the land and enterprise species, to ‘knock down’ weeds and income earning capacity will decline open pasture to more light, may be and remedial management costs will an advantage. greatly increase. • Withhold grazing once grasses and legumes start to flower to maximise To achieve pasture production systems seed set and seed fall and ensure that are economically sustainable, future seedling re-establishment. In ensure your property comes out of the a new pasture, good management dry season (including droughts) with can turn a two to four kg/ha seed pasture stubble on the ground. This investment at sowing into a 100 kg/ ‘stubble’ is not wasted pasture but ha return to the soil seed-bank with rather an essential part of a healthy one good seed set. sustainable production system. KEY TIP Grazing principles for the establishment year Grazing systems are often a personal choice, with many types and combina- • No grazing until plants have tions used. However, stocking rate has developed a strong root system; a greater influence on animal production than the grazing system used. budget for little animal production

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 75 Grazing and land management tools Utilisation affects pasture growth; Two grazing land management continuous heavy grazing education packages and workshops, of above ground originally developed for native plant leaves and pasture grazing lands, are now being stems will greatly reduce below customised for catchment regions that ground plant root utilise more intensive sown pastures systems. production systems (Coastal Intensive Grazing system options GLM Package 2). • Set stocking (constant number of These workshops present and discuss a cattle per paddock or per property, range of principles and activities that every year) optimise pasture and land condition • Variable stocking rate (adjusting and the flow-on to economic and cattle numbers based on pasture sustainable pasture-fed beef production forage available) systems. Land owners and managers are encouraged to use their local • Continuous grazing (cattle in experience, knowledge and skills to paddock all year round) test and adapt these principles to their • Rotational grazing (varying from specific conditions on their property time-control or cell-grazing to some and to apply what works best for them. form of summer-spelling system). 1. The Grazing Land Management Grazing management tips and sayings (GLM) Education Package is a MLA EDGEnetwork® workshop delivered • What you see above ground (leaf over three days. This workshop growth) is what is happening below builds on the participating graziers’ ground (roots); pasture plants understanding of their properties and continually grazed short have small the way they manage them. An out- root systems of-doors follow-up day provides the • Stock light enough that you don’t go opportunity to discuss processes and into shock when it hasn’t rained for a progress. few months • When animal performance starts to The GLM workshop covers: slip, pasture condition has already • Grazing resources of land and deteriorated vegetation (ecosystems) and the • More enterprises go broke from over- factors that affect grazing lands grazing than from under-grazing (climate, grass, trees, cattle, fire) and • There are three main causes of things that make grazing lands tick pasture degradation; over-grazing, (soils, plants, graziers) regular over-grazing and continuous • Tools available to manage land over-grazing. condition and enhance diet quality

76 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Grazing Land Management and Stocktake workshops introduce land owners and managers to a range of grazing management options and tools that can be adapted and applied to suit their own property conditions.

(managing grazing, using sown and include broadleaf plants and grasses native pastures, managing weeds, that are less palatable than the sown managing tree-grass balance, using species. Weeds decrease diet quality ﬁre) and animal carrying capacity. Weeds • How to combine this knowledge to also compete with sown species for soil develop a grazing land management moisture and nutrients. Because most plan. weeds are not grazed they grow faster and can quickly dominate pasture 2. The Stocktake (Balancing forage systems. Weeds can be a cause of supply and demand) Workshop and a symptom of poor pasture/land is a paddock-scale land condition condition. monitoring and management package developed by DPI&F. It involves one KEY TIP day of interactive sessions developed A competitive vigorous grass pasture to provide grazing land managers with is the most effective deterrent to weed a practical, systematic way to assess infestations land condition and long-term carrying capacity, and to calculate short-term forage budgets. In other words, the Practices to lessen weed problems workshop helps participants ‘take stock’ when establishing sown pastures of their grazing resources and points to • Good seedbed preparation. Where improved management decisions. the seedbed is known to have high weed seed soil reserves, allow a couple of germination events Weed management in followed by herbicide spray-out pastures prior to sowing improved pasture seed mixture. By deﬁnition a weed is a plant out • Use adequate seeding rate to get of place. Weeds in sown pastures quick and full ground cover.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 77 • Mix a fast establishing grass (such Two particular weeds are a serious as rhodes grass) when sowing a threat to the sustainability of pasture known slow establishing grass (Tully grazing systems in the Mackay humidicola or pangola grass by Whitsunday region: runners). – Introduced weedy sporobolus • Ensure adequate fertiliser is applied grasses, including Giant Rats Tail for maximum pasture growth and Grass (GRT), and seed set. – Sicklepod, a non-nitrogen fixing • Broadleaf weeds are more easily annual legume that seeds profusely controlled with herbicides in early with seed remaining viable in the growth stage. Act early, ‘one year’s soil for around 20 years or more. seed is seven years (plus) weeds’. It is important that these weeds be • Graze lightly, with regular spelling, recognised. On properties that don’t in the year of establishment and have these weeds, every effort should allow sown species to set a good be made to ensure the property stays seed crop for ongoing regeneration that way. Land owners/managers from seedling plants. should work ‘day and night’ to • In subsequent years, avoid eradicate small areas of these weeds. overgrazing to ensure adequate It is necessary to develop a whole-of- stubble and litter on ground for property weed/pasture/grazing land healthy pastures. The majority management plan and be fanatical and of weeds are relatively poor persistent with control and reduction competitors and thus adequate and measures on properties with large areas, healthy pasture will greatly reduce to prevent weed spread to clean areas. germination and establishment of Information Fact Sheets on risk, any weed seed already in the soil; management and control of most ‘weed prevention is better than a weeds are available on the Department subsequent cure’. of Natural Resources and Water • Where existing pastures are and website - www.dnr.qld.gov.au/ experiencing some weed factsheets/pests/. competition, the strategic application of low rates of N (55 kg/ Other information sources include: ha or 125 kg/ha of urea) early in the • Local Shire Council weeds officers wet season (Dec/Jan) can increase • DPI&F on telephone13 25 23 and the competitiveness of the grass local DPI&F Extension Officers sward. Herbicide application and pasture spelling (post N application) • Stock & Station and Rural Supply may be required where weed Agents/Companies pressure is high. • Neighbouring properties

78 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Most sown pasture systems are rain always limited and costly to apply grown, paddock grazed systems. so water use efﬁciency is of prime However there are many uses for sown importance. grass and legume species and this chapter describes some alternative or Tips 8 ‘special purpose’ systems. • Ensure all soil nutrients are in adequate supply at all times (annual Irrigated pastures soil testing) • Match forage system to suit animal (abstracted from DPI&F note; Agdex needs to meet target market product 134/20) (include cold tolerant grasses for Grazing irrigated pastures can be a winter production; Callide rhodes, relatively cheap form of feed-lotting setaria, ryegrass) for beef cattle. Irrigated pastures are • Excess forage can be baled for hay intensive systems and need careful (on the Mackay Whitsunday coast and speciﬁc management. Irrigated the winter to spring period is more pasture systems do not incur the favourable for hay making then the costs of cartage and handling of feed summer months). material. However, establishment and production maintenance costs are high, Nitrogen requirements

Special purpose pastures purpose Special so good pasture management and (see next section 8.2 High fertiliser marketing of the target beef product is input on grass pastures) needed. Suitable species (more information Irrigating selected grasses and Chapter 5) fertilizing with high rates of nitrogen (N) provides the most productive, water • Rhodes grass varieties (Callide most efﬁcient and cost effective scheme. productive) Combined grass and legume pasture • Bisset creeping blue grass mixtures will provide good live weight • Jarra and Strickland digit grasses gains per animal but cannot sustain • Pangola grass increased stock numbers, relative to irrigated grass plus N pastures. • Setaria (Solander or Kazangula for Therefore grass plus N pastures are better autumn/winter production) more water efﬁcient. • Ryegrass (for winter production).

When planning for a full year of irrigation, 8 to10 ML of water per High fertiliser input / hectare should be budgeted for. intensive nitrogen on grass Rainfall at the right time would pasture systems reduce irrigation needs, particularly in the summer months of December Pastures sown with a grass and to the end of March for the Mackay legume mixture with moderate soil Whitsunday region. Water supply is phosphorous (P) levels of around 10

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 79 to 12 ppm P should carry one adult • increased quantity and quality from equivalent (AE of 450kg liveweight) pasture hay paddocks per hectare/per year, with weight gain • increased water use efficiency of of 160-180 kg. With ‘bag’ nitrogen, irrigated pasture systems. 50 to 180 kg N per hectare\year on grass only pastures, plus higher inputs A summary of MW producer of phosphorus (soil levels of 15 to 20 demonstration sites using high N on ppm P) should carry two to four AE’s/ grass is in Appendix 11.4 ha/year with similar liveweight gains. Supplementary irrigation could again Hay crops increase carrying capacity but expect some loss of per animal weight gain. The MW climate (wet and humid Obviously these high input systems summer and showery autumn) is a produce high LWG/ha. significant impediment to commercial hay production. However, many With regular and increasing grazing enterprises make late autumn applications of phosphorus and pangola grass hay from summer nitrogen, particularly where irrigation spelled pasture paddocks. There are is used, it will become necessary to also quite a few commercial hay apply other soil nutrients such as enterprises producing mainly grass potassium, calcium (lime), sulphur and hay but some legume hay as well. The possibly trace elements. With high best quality hay is usually produced input systems soil and plant testing/ with supplementary irrigation during analysis should occur each year to the winter and spring months. Some ensure nutrient deficiencies are not enterprises concentrate on wrapped limiting production, for both plants pasture silage which allows more and animals. flexibility during autumn when persistent showers can be expected. Reasons for using high input production systems Most pangola grass hay (two to five months growth) is used for feeding • increased overall carrying capacity weaners in cattle yards during the of property two weeks immediately following • increased opportunity to meet more weaning. This pangola hay maintains target product markets its palatability and reasonable quality. • increased flexibility in managing Together with supplements, such as other native or sown pasture M8U (molasses plus urea), weaners paddocks maintain body weight and the process • improved weed control/management is a key management strategy to through stronger pastures quieten weaners and get them familiar • increased pasture quality and with working through the stock yards carrying capacity in weaner paddock and crush as well as being ‘tailed’ out to graze pasture paddocks close by. • increased pasture growth and quality longer into winter months Sown grasses used for hay production

80 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region include pangola grass, rhodes grasses, ents from the soil, relative to grazing, Bisset creeping blue grass, and as the entire crop is cut and removed Strickland and Jarra finger grasses. from the paddock. For sustainable However any of the sown grasses production these nutrients need to be grown in the Mackay Whitsunday replaced. Annual maintenance fertiliser region would make reasonable pasture requirements are 20 kg/ha of P and hay if cut at pre or early flowering 50 kg/ha of K and for production, 50 growth stage. The quality of grass hay kg/ha of N per cut (50 kg N is obtained depends on soil P, N levels and stage from 110 kg urea). With irrigation, of maturity when cut. more cuts per year are achieved and this may require the addition of more P Lucerne (Medicago sativa) is not a and K. It is good insurance to get a soil legume for hay production in the test done each year, or every two years Mackay Whitsunday region. Hot, for lower input systems, to determine humid and/or wet summers lead to exact fertiliser requirements. heavy grass invasion and lucerne is very susceptible to waterlogging and Yield root diseases. Even in well drained In rain-grown situations on the soils the new ‘tropical’ lucernes Mackay coast, annual production virtually act as an annual crop due to of 18 to 20 tonnes per hectare is grass invasion and reduced summer common from pangola and Callide, growth. Although legume hay has Rhodes grass. With irrigation and higher protein content and therefore using more nitrogen, production could demands a higher price, it normally reach 40 tonne per hectare. Adverse yields less than grass hay on an annual weather conditions and low fertiliser basis, and costs more to grow and make. use will limit hay production. The Alternative legume hay crops include price received for grass hay depends common stylo (Stylhay), butterfly on seasonal demand and supply. pea, soybean, cowpea and lablab (see Most grass hay is used for weaner or species details in Chapter 5). drought feeding purposes. It is not used for production feeding. Fertiliser requirements Vender Declaration Forms should All coastal soils are low in phosphorus accompany all sales or trading of hay, (P) and potassium (K). Some are low to ensure declared or nuisance weeds in calcium (Ca) and may need the (weedy sporobolus grasses, sickle pod, addition of lime. Typical requirements grader or thatch grasses, parthenium, are 20 kg of P and 50 kg of K per others) are not spread and to protect hectare. For high production add sellers’ reputation and purchasers’ nitrogen (N) at 50 kg/ha/cut. Liming confidence. at one tonne per hectare every three to five years is required if calcium levels More information on hay making, are low, or if the pH is below 5.5. including the process, is available via the DPI&F web site, Prime Notes CD, or Hay production extracts lots of nutri- on 13 25 23.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 81 Pasture leys/short term Species options pastures (more information Chapter 5) Short term legume leys: There is an increasing demand for • Cowpea tropical pasture species that present minimum weed potential especially on • Soybean properties where sugar cane farming • Lablab and cattle grazing are integrated land • Stylhay uses. An increasing number of cane • Burgundy bean enterprises throughout Queensland • Butterfly pea. are adopting the new farming system practise of moving away from cane Medium term grass / legume leys (two monoculture and integrating short to three years): term legume leys and complementary crops or medium term pasture leys on • Callide rhodes grass - very quick to fallowed cane land. establish, high drymatter yield, late flowering Bundaberg cane farmer Andrew • Jarra and/or Strickland finger Howlett believes the days of cane grass - quick establishment, very monoculture are over. Due to low palatable to stock, less aggressive cane prices he successfully trialled than pangola grass, sensitive to peanuts as a complementary crop but waterlogging is planning to rotate back into cane. • Villomix - a companion legume However, peanuts will remain part of but seeds early and may regenerate his cane and cropping mix (Australian when returned to cane Canegrower Vol. 28, No. 4 2006, p. 20). • Stylhay or Burgundy bean. Gordonvale (north Queensland) cane growers John and Helen Amadio have integrated their horse breeding Ground cover pastures operation into their cane fallow (horticultural and forestry management program. They now tree crops) establish pastures on their fallow blocks and sometimes keep the fallow The benefits of ground cover pastures pastures for two years (Australian to horticultural and forestry tree crops Canegrower Vol. 28, No. 4 2006, p. can include weed control, erosion 13). There is an increase in the number control, soil improvement through of central region cane farms planting addition of organic matter and legume ‘green manure/break’ crops as nitrogen, and provision of grazing well as soybean seed and peanuts as once trees crop has established. ‘cash’ crops. Depending on the tree crop type, ground cover pastures can compete for available moisture.

82 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Species options Leucaena/grass grazing (more information Chapter 5) systems on the ‘wet’ coast • Forage Peanut, Pinto or Prine (shade (more information Chapter 5) tolerant) • Villose jointvetch, Villomix There are well publicised, very successful, productive, proﬁtable and • Caribbean stylo, Verano sustainable leucaena pasture grazing • Greenleaf desmodium systems, based on three cultivars of • Signal grass, Tully humidicola, Leucaena leucocephala subsp. glabrata Green panic, Competidor paspalum, (Tarramba, Cunningham and Peru), Blue Dawn paspalum (all shade growing on deep fertile clay soils tolerant). predominately west of the coastal ranges. Many coastal soils are shallow Tolerance and infertile with acid reaction (less than pH 6). In addition, the sap (more information Chapter 5) sucking psyllid insect is most common • Salinity - Rhodes grasses, pangola, in coastal areas, and can delay new Floren (not as tolerant as rhodes) spring growth of leucaena by six weeks. • Cold - Kazungula and Solander setaria, rhodes grasses, Kikuyu, Currently there are no leucaena Ryegrass, Clovers, creeping vigna, grazing systems, or properties with Lotus recognised successful leucaena grazing • Shade - Signal grass, Tully systems, on the Mackay Whitsunday humidicola, Green panic, coast. This indicates that leucaena, as Competidor paspalum, Blue Dawn a pasture production system for cattle paspalum, Pinto and Prine forage grazing, is currently not adapted to peanut this region. There is plenty of leucaena • Waterlogging - Tully humidicola, visible along many of our coastal road pangola, Kazungula setaria, networks, but most, if not all, is a type Paspalum grasses, Glenn and Lee that found its way to Australia in the American jointvetch (high), Villose late 1800s (often referred to as ‘feral’ jointvetch (moderate), Pinto and leucaena). Prine forage peanut There is some interest from landholders • Grazing - Tully humidicola (very in growing leucaena under irrigation high), pangola and African star on the coast. Also, research being grass (high), Signal grass, Bisset conducted by the University of (moderate). Kazungula setaria, Glenn Queensland is aiming to develop a jointvetch and Villose jointvetch, leucaena variety that is more tolerant Stylos. of acid soils and psyllid attack, and has lower seed yields. It is due for release in 2008-09.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 83 The ‘feral’ leucaena seen on coastal and mobile lips which enable them to roadsides is L. leucocephala subsp. selectively and heavily graze pastures. leucocephala. It is a smaller tree ‘Horse’ pastures are easily recognised with less leaf and sets plenty of seed because they have alternating areas of early. It is not recommended for heavily and lightly grazed pasture. This grazing systems. Due mainly to its pattern is referred to as ‘lawns’ and visibility on roadsides, plus spread ‘roughs’. into water courses and creeks, many local councils and community groups A large proportion of the Australian perceive all leucaena as a serious horse population is owned and environmental weed. managed on small land holdings ranging from one to four hectares, Leucaena Code of Practice (see many of which become seriously Appendix 11.5) degraded by continuous grazing It is extremely important that anyone by horses. This is likely to result in planting leucaena as a grazing system ‘horse sick’ pastures, soil erosion and becomes familiar with and implements compaction, and severe soil mineral the Leucaena Code of Practice. This imbalances by nutrient transfer code has been developed by The between grazed ‘lawns’ and dunging Leucaena Network (made up of ‘roughs’. commercial leucaena growers) and is Many commercial beef properties also made available with all purchases of run their horses in designated horse leucaena seed. The intent of the code paddocks. Problems similar to those is to demonstrate that landholders are on small holdings can occur in these using and managing their commercial pastures. areas of leucaena responsibly, with respect to environmental weed The owners of small land holdings face issues. The key issue is to reduce seed the greatest challenge in achieving dispersal via grazing management. a desirable level of pasture feeding, simply because they lack adequate land area and/or have too many horses to Pasture management for allow paddocks to be rotated effectively horses enough to prevent degradation. In these cases it is better to conﬁne individual Source: Feeding horses in Australia: A horses to small yards and to maximize guide for horse owners and managers the pasture area available on the by John R. Kohnke, Dr. Frank Kelleher remainder of the land. and Dr. Penny Trevor-Jones. RIRDC Publication No. 99/49. 242 pages. This The pasture area should be subdivided book is available for sale from DPI&F with temporary fences and individual ofﬁces for $36.10, or free on the web. horses allowed a period at pasture each day, either singly or in company, Horses are hard on pastures. Unlike depending on paddock size and the cattle, horses have upper incisors nature of the individual horses. As

84 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region with larger holdings, paddocks should inputs, irrigation and supplements the be rotated on a regular basis to avoid carrying capacity can be increased; but overgrazing and to allow the pasture do be aware that horses need a lot of to recover. grass.

Cattle can be used to even out the Information on the risk of ‘big head’ grazing in horse paddocks, especially in horses grazing tropical pasture if used in rotation on a seasonal basis. grasses is in appendix 11.6 This may also aid in breaking parasite cycles. Fire also has a role in native Water requirements for cattle and pastures. During periods of drought horses or slow pasture growth, it may be necessary to exclude horses from the The amount of water livestock pasture areas completely. consume is subject to considerable variation. Consumption depends on the Pasture requirements type, age and condition of the animal; available fodder; climatic conditions; Horses require/eat as much or more and the quality of the water. The pasture then do cattle. An adult following table provides a guide to the equivalent (AE) beef animal (450 kg amount of water that cattle and horses live weight) is equivalent to a (14- might be expected to consume each 15 hands) stock horse. An AE beef day (litres). animal requires approximately 1 ha of rain grown sown pasture (that Further information is available from receives moderate fertiliser inputs) on Tim Biggs, DPI&F, Gatton QLD 4343 or a per-year basis. With higher fertiliser DPI&F on telephone 13 25 23.

Average daily consumption Peak daily consumption Type of cattle Dairy cows in milk 70 85 Dairy cows in dry 45 60 Beef cattle 45 60 Calves 22 30 Type of horses Working 55 70 Grazing 35 45

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 85 Pest plants (weeds) are those plants are broken into two sections including growing in the wrong place at the a strategic plan (an overview of the wrong time. Weeds usually spread Shires goals and priorities) which is rapidly and produce unwanted reviewed every four years, and an 9 economic, environmental or social annual action plan which is reviewed impacts. They may have been yearly. Local governments also have accidentally or intentionally introduced the ability to locally declare, under into an area, or could be native plants a subordinate local law, significant that have become weedy due to pests not currently declared under inappropriate management. Some of the State legislation. major negative impacts of weeds include All local councils now have designated reduced land condition, competition Pest Management Officers, to implement with pastures, reduced grazing potential, Shire pest management plans. These toxicity to stock, reduced water quality, officers are responsible for maintaining lower ecosystem/biodiversity values and roadsides, and other council public affects on human health. lands, free of declared pests. Local (abstracted from MWNRM Plan 2005, section 6.5 Pests) 6.5 section 2005, Plan MWNRM from (abstracted Weeds and legislation and Weeds Weeds can be classified on different Pest Management Officers are a good levels of priority or significance source of information to landholders based on invasiveness, impacts, on identification and managing pests. potential spread, and their economic, They have an important role and are environmental and social aspects: responsible for implementing the State Government’s (LP&SRM) Act 2002. • Weeds of National Significance Under this Act it is the Landholders (WONS) - 20 WONS are recognised responsibility for pest management with nine WONS occurring in MW and thus the Pest Management Officers region (Table 7). role is to ensure all landholders within • Within Queensland (State) Declared the region are meeting their pest Weeds, under the Land Protection management obligations. (Pest and Stock Route Management) The Mackay Whitsunday Regional Pest Act 2002 (LP&SRM) Act 2002, Management Group was initiated in July are plants that are or could have 2002 to focus all individual stakeholder significant economic, environmental pest planning and activities on common and social impacts. This legislation agreed strategic outcomes. Stakeholders has Class 1 and Class 2 weed involved include Local Shire/City categories and aims to prevent the Councils (Mackay, Broadsound, introduction and establishment of Nebo, Mirani, Sarina, Whitsunday); new weeds, prevent the spread of Department of Natural Resources and established weeds and reduce the Water; Queensland Parks and Wildlife extent of existing weeds where Service; Ergon Energy; Queensland Rail; feasible. Class 3 weeds are referred to Department of Main Roads; Mackay as environmental weeds. Areas (Cane) Productivity Service; • All Local Government Shires currently Agforce; Sarina Landcare Catchment need to develop Pest Management Management Association; Whitsunday Plans (plant and animal). These plans Catchment Landcare; Pioneer Catchment

86 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region and Landcare Group; and the Mackay those that are also WONS and shows the Whitsunday Natural Resource priority allocated by the Regional Pest Management Group. Management Group. In 2004 the Regional Pest Management More information on pest plants Group came to a consensus on a and animals appears in the Mackay prioritised list of both Declared Whitsunday Natural Resource and Non-State Declared pest plants Management Plan 2005; Section 6.5 p. currently occurring within the Mackay 72 to 78 and Appendix 6 p.138-141 Whitsunday Region. Table 7 shows the lists a very wide range of local pest and State declared pest plants, indicating environmental plants/weeds.

Table 7. State State declared Priority Common name Scientific name WONS Declared Class class 1-3 Pest Plant # Priorities in 1 Mimosa pigra Mimosa pigra 1  the Mackay 2 * Rats tail grass – Giant rats tail grass, Sporobolus pyramidalis, S. natalensis, 2 Whitsunday Giant Parramatta grass, Parramatta S. fertilis, S. africanus, Region grass, American rats tail grass. S. jacquemontii. 3 Sicklepods – Sicklepod, Hairy Senna obtusifolia, S.tora, S.hirsuta 2 senna 4 Parthenium Parthenium hysterophorus 2  5 # Hymenachne Hymenachne amplexicaulis 2  6 Rubbervine Cryptostegia grandiflora 2  7 # Salvinia Salvinia molestra 2  8 # Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes 2 9 # Water lettuce Pistia stratiotes 2 10 Singapore daisy Sphagneticola trilobata 3 11 Bellyache bush Jatropha gossypifolia 2 12 Prickly acacia Acacia nilotica 2  13 Parkinsonia Parkinsonia aculeata 2  14 Giant sensitive plant Mimosa invisa 2 15 Mother of millions Bryophyllum sp. 2 16 # Cabomba Cabomba sp. 2  17 Broadleaf pepper tree Schinus terebinthifolius 3 18 Captain cook bush Thevetia peruviana 3 19 Harrisia cactus Eriocereus spp. 2 20 Lantana Lantana spp. 3  21 Tobacco weed Elephantopus mollis 2 22 Chinee apple Ziziphus mauritiana 2 23 Thunbergia Thunbergia grandiflora 2 24 African tulip Spathodea campanulata 3 25 Dutchmans pipe Aristolochia sp. Other than native sp. 3 26 Asparagus fern Asparagus aethiopicus, A. africanus, 3 A. plumosus 27 Cats claw creeper Macfadyena unfuis-cati 3 28 Prickly pear Opuntia spp. Other than O. ficus-indica 2 29 Camphor laurel Cinnamomum camphora 3 * Note: Currently there are five Sporobolus species declared under the Land Protection (Pest and Stock Route Management) Act 2002 including Sporobolus pyramidalis, S. natalensis, S. africanus, S. fertilis, S. jacquemontii. Difficulties arise at all levels identifying between these five species. S. pyramidalis and S. natalensis are priority 2 within this region, however the remaining species may fall below priority 2, dependent on the shire/city council. # Aquatic weeds

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 87 Bishop, H.G. and Walker B. (1980) and Management’. Proceedings of a Pastures for the Mackay wet coast, National Conference, Townsville 25-29 Queensland Agricultural Journal, Vol. November 1996. pp 42-58. (Reef CRC, 10106, No. 4 p. 340-361. GBRMPA and James Cook University, Townsville. Emmery, P. (1997) Priorities of beef producers in northern Australia Tothill, J.C. and Hacker, J.B. (1983) for new forage cultivars. Tropical The Grasses of Southern Queensland, Grasslands 31, 260-265. University of Queensland Press, St Lucia. Environmental Protection Agency (2004a) Wildnet search, EPA Mackay. Walker, B. (1980) Effect of stocking rate on perennial tropical legume Gomez, A.A., D.E. Swete Kelly, J. grass pastures; A thesis as presented in K. Syers and K.J. Coughlan. (1996). fulﬁlment of the Degree of Doctor of Measuring sustainability of agricultural Philosophy, UQ. systems at the farm level. p401-410 in Doran, J.W. and Jones, A.J. (1996). Weston, E.J, Doughton, JA, Dalal, RC, Methods for assessing soil quality. Strong, WM, Thomas, GA, Lehane, KJ, SSSA Special Publication No 49, Soil Cooper, JC, King, AJ, and Holmes CJ. Science Society of America, Madison, (2000) Managing long-term fertility References and resources and References Wisconsin, USA. of cropping land with ley pastures in southern Queensland. Tropical Hardy, Scott (2003) Soils and Land Grasslands, 34, 169-176. Suitability of the Whitsunday Coast area Central Queensland, Whitsunday Weston, E.J. (1988) Native Pasture Shire Council. Communities; in Native Pastures in Queensland, the resources and their Holz, G.K. and Shields, P.G. (1985) management (Editors W.H. Burrows, Mackay Sugar Cane Land Suitability J.C. Scanlan and M.T. Rutherford), Study Part 2. Land Suitability, QDPI p. 21-33. Land Resource Bulletin QV85002. Wills, A.K. and Baker, D.E. (1988) Humphreys, L.R. (1980) A guide to Plane Creek Sugar Cane Land better pastures in the tropics and sub- Suitability Study, QDPI Land Resource tropics, 4th Edition, Wright Stephensen Bulletin QV88003. & Co. (Australia) Pty. Ltd., p. 57.

Lambert, G. and Graham, G. (1996) Other information sources and Sown Pasture Notes, Central further reading Queensland. • Mackay Whitsunday Natural Loch, D. (2003) Turf – the sleeping Resource Management Plan 2005. giant, Tropical Grassland Society of Can be obtained via the MWNRM Australia newsletter, Vol. 19 No. 2. Ofﬁce, 38 Tennyson Street, Mackay Rayment, G.E. and Neil, D.T. (1996) Qld 4740, website: www.mwnrm.org. Sources of material in river discharge. au, via email at admin@mwnrm. In ‘The Great Barrier Reef- Science, Use org.au, or phone 07 4953 5298.

88 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region • DPI&F website www.dpi.qld.gov.au. For extensive lists of grasses and Useful links include: legumes, each with sketch of – Plant industries>Field crops & stem, leaf and seed head plus brief pastures>pastures description and characteristics. – Animal industries>Beef >Beef • Tropical Forages, an interactive pastures>Stocktake for information selection tool; www.tropicalforages. on forage budgeting and assessing info/. A detailed International land condition and long term database containing descriptions carrying capacity of sown pasture species listed in – Plus lots of other beef industry alphabetical order by scientiﬁc information. names; or purchase as CD from Tropical Grasslands Society via e- • Available for sale from the mail, [email protected] Queensland Government bookshop online at www.publications.qld.gov. • Incitec Pivot AGRITOPIC January au, by phoning DPI&F on 2005, or (www.incitecpivot.com.au) 13 25 23, Fax 61 7 3246 3534, for information on Molybdenum. Email: [email protected] • NRW website for weed legislation – DPI&F Prime Notes CD and a wide and Fact Sheets (description, threat range of books. to land, vegetation and pasture): – Managing a beef business in www.nrm.qld.gov.au/pests/. the subtropics (2004). DPI&F, Queensland. ISBN 0-7242-0270-2. • Using herbicides on lantana, a guide to best management practices – Plants of central Queensland (2003). (2006) NRM&W ISBN 1 74172 E.R. Anderson. Department of 112 1. Copies from landcentre_ Primary Industries and Fisheries, [email protected] or Queensland. ISBN 0 7345 0249 4. phone 07 3896 3224. – Managing southern speargrass: a grazier’s guide (1993), I.J. Partridge. • Weeds in Australian Cane Fields; DPI&F Qld. ISBN 0-7242-5389-0. Part A, a guide to identiﬁcation of weeds. BSES Bulletin No. 28 • DPI&F newsletters 1989. This publication is now out – Beeftalk - Taking stock of your of print but for cane farmers and future (prime news and views others who have a copy it is a very for beef producers of south east useful publication for identifying Queensland), a bi-annual newsletter. and controlling common grass and – Northern muster - Taking stock broadleaf weeds of the region. The of your future (prime news and Mackay Area Productivity Board views for beef producers of north is planning to update this ‘Weeds’ Queensland), a quarterly newsletter. guide but updates may only be accessible to levy payers via their • Tropical Grasslands Society www. web site. tropicalgrasslands.asn.au/pastures.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 89 1: Native pasture grasses until cleared and sown to communities (types) in the introduced pastures. However, much of the region’s remaining rainforests 11MW Region, pre-development are contained in national parks, state forests or timber reserves. Although Role of native pastures the littoral (marine) areas contain a rich ground flora, these pastures have Although native pastures originally Appendix a low productive value. The exception provided the main source of forage for is on some tidal flats where valuable grazing animals in this region, they seasonal grazing is obtained from now play a relatively minor role as Sporobolus virginicus (marine/sand grazing enterprises rely predominantly couch) and Paspalum distichum on sown pasture systems. Remaining (water couch). Prominent soils in the areas of native pasture in the MW rainforest areas are friable earths and region occur mainly in the hilly range fertile loams; in littoral zones they country where slope and shallow are plastic clays and texture contrast soils, forest/woodland vegetation and soils with grey clayey subsoils; and the dry winter/spring climate rule in heath areas, infertile sandy earths. out cropping options and conditions This pasture community would have are not favourable for replacement originally occupied approximately 30 pastures. Small areas of coastal tea percent of the Mackay Whitsunday tree country also remain undeveloped. catchment region. However some of these native pasture areas have been modified by over- Blady grass (Imperata cylindrica) sowing the native grasses with legumes such as the stylos and the jointvetches Blady grass includes a composite to improve pasture quality and their of sandy coastal lowlands and grazing productivity. Refer Chapter 3 undulating low hills with open forest for more information. and woodland communities. The major trees are Melaleuca (tea tree/ Of the 14 broad native pasture paper bark) species, Eucalyptus and communities defined for Queensland, Corymbia species and Lophostemon based on aggregation of 35 vegetation (swamp mahogany) species. The zones (Weston 1988), only three are characteristic grasses are Themeda present in the Mackay Whitsunday triandra (kangaroo grass), blady grass region; and Heteropogon triticeus (giant spear grass). Soils are generally infertile, Pastures sparse or absent mostly with a shallow A horizon Closed forests and two coastal and an impervious B horizon in the communities, namely rainforest, duplex profiles. Intensive use, as in littoral and heath, are grouped cane growing, is only possible in together because they have limited soils with deeper top soil and where usefulness for animal production in much of the remaining area has been the natural state. Rainforest has few sown to improved pastures. This blady

90 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region grass pasture community would have 2: List of sown pasture originally occupied approximately 30 species for the MW region percent of the Mackay Whitsunday catchment region. Sown grasses Black spear grass (Heteropogon Most common contortus) Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana cvv. Black spear grass is the most Pioneer, Callide, Samford, Katambora, extensive native pasture community Topcut, Finecut, Nemkat,) in the Mackay Whitsunday region. Signal grass (Brachiaria decumbens cv. Woodlands and open forests on Basilisk) undulating plains and low hills to higher range areas to the west of the Tully humidicola (Brachiaria catchment. Tree vegetation consists humidicola cv. Tully) mainly of Eucalyptus spp. (E. crebra Bisset creeping blue grass / E. drepanophylla (Iron bark), E. (Bothriochloa insculpta cvv. Bisset, mollucana (Grey gum / Gum topped Hatch) box), E. tereticornis (Blue gum / Forest red gum), Corymbia tessellaris, Pangola grass (Digitaria eriantha (Moreton bay ash / Carbeen). Induced subsp. pentzii, previously Digitaria by management practices, black decumbens) spear grass (H. contortus) is the most All five grasses are capable of high characteristic native grass species, production, provide good dense although Bothriochloa bladhii (Forest ground cover and, with appropriate blue grass) and Themeda triandra management, compete well with weeds. are dominant in some parts of the community. While black spear grass Alternative and previously planted occurs on almost all soil types, a lot grasses of its area is confined to shallow and Digit or finger grass (Digitaria infertile texture contrast soils and milianjiana cvv. Jarra, Strickland) earths. Most areas have been modified, some extensively, by tree ring barking African star grass (Cynodon or poisoning and sowing of improved nlemfluensis) pastures. This pasture community Angleton grass (Dichanthium would have originally occupied aristatum, common or Bloomsbury approximately 40 percent of the strain, cv. Floren) Mackay Whitsunday catchment region. Indian blue grasses / Indian ‘couch’ / pertusa (Bothriochloa pertusa cvv. Medway, Dawson and strains Keppel / Yeppoon, Emerald, Bowen) Setaria (Setaria sphacelata var. anceps cvv. Kazungula, Nandi, Norok, Solander, Splenda)

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 91 Guinea grasses: Water grasses – Megathyrsus maximus (Syn. Para grass (Brachiaria mutica) Panicum maximum), cvv. Riversdale, Aleman grass (Echinochloa polystachya Makueni, Hamil, Coloniao, common) cv. Amity – Green panic (Megathyrsus maximus Hymenachne grass (Hymenachne (Syn. Panicum maximum var. amplexicaulis cv. Olive trichoglume) cvv. Petrie, Gatton) Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum All introduced water grasses are now cv. Capricorn) considered ‘environmental weeds’ in Queensland, and State government Paspalum grasses: policy restricts planting para and other – Paspalum, (Paspalum dilatatum, no species such as Aleman grass and recorded cultivars) Hymenachne in sensitive wetlands. – Plicatulum, (Paspalum plicatulum cvv. Rodd’s Bay, Bryan, Hartley) Sown legume species – Hi-gane, (Paspalum atratum cv. Most common HiGane) Stylo: – Brunswick grass, (Paspalum nicorae – Common stylo (Stylosanthes cvv. Blue Dawn, Blue Eve) guianensis var. guianensis, new cvv. – Bahai grass (Paspalum notatum cvv. Nina, Temprano; old cvv. Graham, Pensicola, Competidor, Argentine, Cook, Endeavor, Schoﬁeld) Riba) – Caribbean stylo (Stylosanthes Molasses grass (Melinis minutiﬂora, no hamata, cvv. Verano, Amiga) cultivars registered) – Shrubby stylo (Stylosanthes scabra cvv. Seca, Siran) Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum cvv. Whittet, Crofts, – Caatinga stylo (Stylosanthes Breakwell, Noonan) seabrana cvv. Unica, Primar) Jointvetch: Potential problem grasses – American jointvetch (Aeschynomene (Introduced and native) americana cvv. Glenn, Lee) Broad-leaf paspalum (Paspalum – Villose jointvetch (Aeschynomene wettsteinii cv. Warrigal), is very villosa cvv. Reid, Kretschmer; unpalatable. marketed as Villomix) Grader grass (Themedaquadivalus) Alternative and previously planted Thatch grass (Hyparrhenaia rufa) legumes Scented top (Cappillipendium Centro: spicegerum) – Centrosema mollo (Syn. Centrosema Forest blue grass (Bothriochloa bladhii) pubescens) cvv. Cardillo, Common – Centrosema pubescens cv. Belalto

92 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum Short-term, ley or green manure cv. Aztec) legumes Glycine (Neonotonia wightii cvv. Lablab (Lablab purpureus cvv. Rongai, Tinaroo, Clarence, Cooper, Malawi) Highworth, Endurance Butterﬂy pea (Clitoria ternatea cv. Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata cvv. Ebony Milgarra) PR, Arafura, Meringa, Red Caloona, Kalkie) Round-leaf Wynn cassia (Chamaecrista Soybean (Glycine max cvv. Leighhardt, rotundifolia cv. Wynn) Y-Y) Forage peanut: Burgundy bean (Macroptilium – Pinto peanut (Arachis pintoi cv. bracteatum cvv. Cadarga, Juanita Amarillo; nine other cultivars in The Greenleaf Desmodium (Desmodium Americas) intortum cv. Greenleaf – Rhizoma forage peanut (Arachis glabrata cv. Prine; eight other Browse shrub legume cultivars in Florida and one in South Leucaena (Leucaena leucacephala cvv. Africa). Taramba, Cunningham, Peru) Hetero (Desmodium heterophyllum cv. Potential problem legumes Johnstone) Archer axillaris (Macrotyloma axillare Temperate and cool-season legumes cv. Archer; previously Dolichos axillare, has low palatability) White clover (Trifolium repens cvv. Haifa, Ladino, El Lucero, Kopu) Round-leaf cassia (Chamaecrista rotundifolia cv. Wynn) Subterranean clover (Trifolium subterranean cvv. Clare) Kenya white clover (Trifolium semipilosum cv. Safari) Creeping vigna (Vigna parkeri cv. Shaw) Lotus (Lotus uliginosus (synonym L. pedunculatus) cv. Maku Grasslands, Sharnae) Greenleaf desmodium (Desmodium intortum cv. Greenleaf) Silverleaf desmodium (Desmodium uncinatum cv. Silverleaf)

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 93 3: History and role of sown manage. During the normal summer wet season (of the 1970s) Kazungula pastures in MW region quickly grew tall and ran to seed, fell over, ran to seed and fell over again, Liveweight gain from native pasture throughout summer. This built up a is low due to low quality of pasture dense tangle of stems of low quality in all but the early wet season (Bishop litter and smothered legumes, but it and Walker 1980). Experimental and quickly sent up new green leaf growth demonstration work on introduced and it was competitive with broadleaf sown tropical pastures for the MW weeds. In a grazing trial conducted on region progressed during the 1960s. the ‘Tedlands’ property at Koumala in This was followed by a period of rapid the 1970s, live weight gains of around development of sown tropical pastures 180 kg/year were achieved from for beef and dairy cattle grazing, Kazungula/siratro pastures stocked reaching a total of around 60 000 ha at 1 AE/ha. Similar performance was by 1979-80. Half of this development recorded for Kazungula plus nitrogen was undertaken by cane farmers with pastures, stocked at 2 AE/ha (Walker land surplus to cane requirements. 1980). Rodd’s Bay plicatulum is Sown pasture development reached no longer sown because of its low an annual peak of around 5000 ha in palatability. However it is a safe 1974-75. Beef cattle numbers in the tropical grass for horses. Mackay Whitsunday region increased from around 80 000 in 1967 to Over the past decade Rhodes grass towards 200 000 in 1980. This increase (mainly Callide variety) and signal was largely attributed to the expansion grass have been the most planted of tropical pasture development and grasses. Bisset creeping blue grass is improved cattle breeds and improved also becoming popular for grazing herd management (Bishop and Walker and for hay. However these three 1980). grasses (signal, Rhodes and Bisset) are susceptible to (moderate) waterlogging. The most common grass planted at Pangola grass and Tully humidicola that time was Kazungula setaria, are very tolerant of waterlogging and followed by Rodd’s Bay plicatulum. of heavy grazing pressure but are slow Together they made up greater than to establish. 90 percent of the grass component of sown pastures, largely because The main legumes sown up to the of their reliability of establishment, 1980s were Siratro and Schoﬁeld adaptation to most conditions (wet stylo. Persistence of both under and dry, low and high fertility) and grazing was poor and neither could long term persistence. Some of these survive in waterlogged soils. The original pastures are still productive saying of that time, ‘sensitive weed today, 35 years on. However, very is my best legume’, was mostly a little Kazungula has been sown in the cynical comment but it was also true past decade, probably because other as sensitive plant did, and still does, grass options are seen as easier to add a lot of nitrogen to heavily grazed

94 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region Sensitive weed (Mimosa pudica) in run down sown pastures. Sensitive weed is a naturalised legume that adds a lot of nitrogen to the soil and pasture system but its dominance is a symptom of heavy continuous grazing and/or rundown in soil fertility, particularly phosphorus. coastal pasture systems. Today the Given that ongoing broad-scale new stylos and the four jointvetch tree clearing is no longer an option legumes offer better persistence and to maintain or increase production production options for sustainable for some properties, landholders pasture systems. The most recent will need strategies that optimize centro (Cardillo) is promising; it roots production from land already cleared. down much more at the nodes forming Sown pastures have an important a denser sward and climbs less than role in achieving this outcome in a common centro. sustainable way.

Positive role sown pastures play in The positive features of sown pastures sustainable production systems include: • Longer growing season means sown A farming or grazing system is said pastures retain nutrient value longer to be sustainable at the farm level if it and animals gain weight for longer. ‘satisﬁes the farm/grazing manager’s needs over time while conserving the • Higher nutritive value in both natural resource’ (Gomez et al. 1996). grasses and legumes results in Sustainable production systems include quicker liveweight gain, and meets virtually all agriculture related land use market demand for younger age of enterprises in the landscape that rely on turnoff. natural resources of land, vegetation, • High dry matter yield, high seed and water, and certainly includes cattle yield, and capacity to increase soil grazing, cropping, horticulture and organic matter, which means higher agroforestry systems. Mining has a carrying capacity, cheaper, quicker less obvious link with agriculture but and easier propagation, and less certainly is a signiﬁcant end-user of sediments and nutrients in runoff sown pasture technologies. water.

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 95 • More tolerant of grazing, more • Water quality; erosion prevention, competitive against weeds, and stabilisation of banks, roads, more cover on the ground. waterways, riparian filter zones to • Can be used to lighten grazing reduce sediments/nutrients entering pressure on native pastures during streams. stress periods, on a whole property • Mine site rehabilitation. basis, resting native pasture in late • Amenity parks, gardens, playing summer to allow seeding. fields, etc. The annual value of turf • More responsive to fertiliser and sod and seed in Queensland is $50 moisture inputs which is sustainable to 60M (Loch 2003). for high and low input systems. • Lifestyle blockies, hobby farmers, • Selected for adaptation to niche species available for small, intensive, situations, such as climate (frost high-input systems. resistance), rainfall (drought or • Weed control (parthenium, GRT, water-logging tolerant), shade Broadleaf, etc). Good pasture tolerance (growing in fertile area development/management is often under tree canopy), soil fertility, soil the only economic management for texture, etc. broad scale weed outbreaks. • Selected for landscape stabilisation • Salinity, deep-rooted perennial (creeping sward forming, less grasses have important role in erosion). paddock and catchment hydrology • Helps deliver the healthy food that (grasses and legumes have varying the community/consumers demand tolerances to salinity). that is readily available, fresh, safe • Provide flexibility in property and reasonably priced. management planning. • Can be an environmentally friendly alternative to grain feedlotting (high Stresses and limitations on input pasture-fed grazing systems). sustainability of sown (and native) • Can maintain/improve the pastures: sustainability of farming land (ley • Climate; total rainfall and its pastures) through inputs of nitrogen variability is a major challenge to and organic matter (Weston et al. sustainable pasture systems. 2000). • Soil fertility; low phosphorus and plant rooting depth. The uses and limitations of sown pastures in sustainable production • Tree vegetation density; competition systems include: for light and moisture. • Management; stocking pressure Uses and long term stocking rate, fire, • Grazing, hay and silage crops. competing land uses. • Ley pasture crop/pasture rotation • Excessive expectations by land (grain, horticulture, sugar cane, managers; grazing too early, agroforestry). stocking pressure above land type

96 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region capability, not reducing stocking 4: Demonstration sites pressure to allow seed set, etc. using high N Pasture-fed • Environmental weed threat; requires awareness of management practices grazing systems to restrict spread away from sown target area. Producer demonstration sites: • Human population growth; houses, To demonstrate the use of high rates towns and cities. of nitrogen on grass pastures, producer demonstration sites were established Critical issues, impacts and threats in the Mackay Whitsunday region (to pasture and land condition) between 1992 and 1996 with funding from Meat and Livestock Australia. Weeds are rated by the Mackay Fertiliser from Incitec was spread by Whitsunday grazing sector as one Crokers Rural and project managed by of the major issues with regard to the Department of Primary Industries productivity, viability, and land with then extension ofﬁcer George condition. A highly variable rainfall, Lambert as project leader. The aim was combined with cyclic commodity to improve the quantity and quality prices for beef and sugar, places extra (protein) of the grass in order to fatten land use management pressures on cattle while increasing stocking rates the grazing industry (largest extensive on that pasture from one beast per land use) and sugar cane industry hectare to three or more beasts per (major intensive land use). hectare. For the grazing industry, integrated whole-of-property management Background systems and tools for calculating, Dairy farmers started using high rates implementing and managing safe of nitrogen fertiliser on rye grass stocking rates is the critical issue in pastures during the mid 1970s to sustainable management and use of boost autumn, winter, and spring milk natural resources. Soil erosion, and production. Many coastal graziers thus sediment and nutrient loads were fertilising areas of pangola grass in runoff water, is closely related for several purposes such as hay to ground cover (Rayment and Neil making, weaner, hospital and holding 1996). Stocking rates need to be set paddocks. Most considered the practice on the basis of forage budgeting via uneconomic for fattening and doubted the Stocktake workshop information other grasses would respond the same package. Not all the pasture forage way as pangola. grown is to be made available for grazing. Some of the pasture dry Method matter produced needs to be retained for plant health and to achieve more Following farmer meetings held than 70 percent ground cover. throughout the region four producer demonstration sites were established at Proserpine (Callide rhodes grass);

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 97 Bloomsbury (pangola grass); Koumala 131kg/head over 341 days when (pangola grass); and Mt Christain paddock was destocked due to lack (signal grass). Following soil tests of grass from dry conditions and the all other nutrient deﬁciencies were demonstration was not continued. corrected and demonstration paddocks Preliminary ﬁrst year results suggest were fertilised with 180 kg N per pangola can carry more stock and hectare per year (equates to 400 kg give higher LWG than signal grass. Urea per hectare per year).

Summary It must be noted these were demonstrations, not trials with replicated treatments, so summary points are generalisations only:

• Koumala – Steers on pangola fertilised with 180 kg N per hectare put on over 160 kg/ha/year stocked at 3 to 3.5 AEs/ha. In dry years stocking rate dropped to 2.5/ha. • Bloomsbury – Comparing performance of pangola with 180 kg N/ha/yr and without N. Animal performance was about the same (150-160 kg/head/year), but carrying capacity was 3.1 and 2.0 animals/ha respectively. The fertiliser just paid for itself in the ﬁrst two years but 1994 was a complete failure because of drought. • Proserpine – Callide Rhodes with 180 kg N/ha. Stocking rate varied from 2.75 to 3.1 /ha according to dryness of the year. Steers were fattened and met Japanese speciﬁcations. • Mt Christian – Signal grass and pangola grass was compared with 180 kg N/ha and stocked at 3.7 and 4.5 animals/ha respectfully. First year weight gains were disappointing with signal grass gaining 102 kg/head and pangola

98 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 5: The Leucaena Code of 4. Control escaped leucaena seedlings Practice and plants - on creek banks and other adjoining areas where cattle do A Code of Practice for the not normally have access Sustainable use of Leucaena/Grass Pasture Systems in Queensland - on public roadsides (after first obtaining a permit from Main Purpose of the Code Roads or Shire Council) (updated May 2006) 5. Fully fence leucaena paddocks to The Code aims to promote the avoid the unlikely risk of stock responsible, sustainable and productive spreading ripe seed development of leucaena/grass 6. Keep leucaena at least 10m away pastures. It is essential that the Code from external fence lines be adopted by all graziers and natural 7. Replant poorly established leucaena resource management agencies. (can not be remedied by encouraging ripe seed drop) Features of the Code 8. Graze or cut leucaena to keep it The Code targets those features within reach of animals and so of leucaena that predispose it to minimise seed set weediness and advocates management 9. Graze leucaena strategically to to limit their impact. minimise flowering and seed set Aims of the Code 10. Establish vigorous grass in the inter- • Restrict leucaena planting near to rows to potential weed risk zones - provide competition to minimise • Minimise seed production in grazed establishment of leucaena stands seedlings • Diminish the risks of live seed - use the excess fixed nitrogen the dispersal system produces • Control of escaped plants from - provide ground cover and grazed stands. prevent soil erosion 11. Do not plant leucaena in pure stands Tenets of the Code with no grass as 1. Plant leucaena ONLY if you intend to - the system will be more prone to graze it and are prepared to manage soil erosion it - on light-textured soil this may 2. Do not plant leucaena near creeks or cause soil acidification over time major watercourses 12. Be familiar with any Local Law 3. Maintain a dense grass buffer that may have been established, between leucaena plantings and and assist your Local Government creeks or boundary fences agency to identify any escaped or

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 99 feral leucaena so that action can be 6: Risk of ‘big head’ in taken to control it horses 13. Give a copy of this Code to all who should have an interest in Big head in horses grazing tropical the responsible establishment and pasture grasses management of leucaena. Big head is a condition of horses For more information contact The and donkeys caused by a calcium Leucaena Network: deﬁciency. The condition is usually Executive Ofﬁcer associated with introduced tropical Ph. 07 4939 5711. pasture grasses. It occurs when Email [email protected] oxalates in the grass bind calcium and prevent the horse from absorbing it. Cattle and sheep are not normally affected because rumen bacteria break down oxalates, freeing the bound calcium.

Signs of big head include: • Lameness – animals appear stiff in the joints and have a shortened gait. • Ill thrift – loss of condition on pastures which look nutritious. • Swollen jaw bones – upper jaws, lower jaws or both. Some or all horses on a pasture may develop big head. The disease can develop within two months of horses being grazed on hazardous pastures but commonly takes six to eight months. Mares and foals are more susceptible than stallions and geldings, but all can suffer from the disorder.

Which grasses are hazardous? Cases of big head have occurred on introduced tropical grasses including buffel, green panic, setaria, kikuyu, guinea grass, para grass, pangola, signal grass and purple pigeon grass. The hazard is greatest when these grasses provide all, or almost all, of

100 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region the available feed. There is no record • 1 kg of low cadmium rock of the disease being caused by native phosphate mixed with 1.5 kg grasses, introduced temperate grasses molasses. (such as ryegrass) or the sorghums. • 1 kg of a mixture of one third Safe tropical grasses include rhodes ground limestone and two thirds grass, the paspalums, the couches and dicalcium phosphate (DCP) mixed creeping blue grass. with 1.5 kg molasses.

Author’s note: Although pangola grass Either of these mixtures should be contains low levels of total oxalates, fed to each horse once a week. The relative to Kazungula setaria, there are molasses is used as a carrier and recorded cases of big head in horses attractant. There is no cause for grazing pangola grass for extended concern if horses eat a weeks worth of periods (McKenzie 2005). However supplement in one or two days as it there are many examples of horses in contains enough mineral to last them the Mackay Whitsunday region that the full week. The weekly amount can have spent their life grazing pangola be divided up and fed to horses each pasture, with no apparent access to day if desired. Twenty kilograms of other grass species or supplements, good quality lucerne hay will provide with no obvious symptoms (David approximately the same amount of Lemon, Mackay Vet and Ross Dodt, calcium and phosphorus as the above DPI&F; personal communications). So mineral mixtures. Other mineral although pangola does not appear to mixes which provide a 2:1 calcium to be a major hazard for MW horses, due phosphorous ratio can be used but are caution should be taken. likely to be more expensive than rock phosphate or ground limestone and How can big head be prevented? DCP. Use native pastures where possible. The lameness and ill thrift caused Horses should not graze hazardous by big head can be cured. Affected pastures for more than one month. animals should be fed double the Horses can be grazed on these pastures amount of mineral supplement if they have access to other ‘no risk’ outlined above for at least six months pasture. If only hazardous grasses are to replace the mineral lost from their available, encourage the growth of a bones. The swelling of the jaws may legume component in the pasture to not fully disappear if the animal is provide a source of oxalate-free feed, severely affected. and provide a calcium and phosphorus supplement. For further information contact Dr Ross McKenzie DPI&F Yeerongpilly, Mineral and supplement mixtures QLD 4105 on 13 25 23. which will provide the required amount of calcium and phosphorus for horses include:

PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region 101 102 PASTURES: Mackay Whitsunday region