Plant Species and Functional Diversity Along Altitudinal Gradients, Southwest Ethiopian Highlands

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Plant Species and Functional Diversity Along Altitudinal Gradients, Southwest Ethiopian Highlands Plant Species and Functional Diversity along Altitudinal Gradients, Southwest Ethiopian Highlands Dissertation Zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Dr. rer. nat. Vorgelegt der Fakultät für Biologie, Chemie und Geowissenschaften der Universität Bayreuth von Herrn Desalegn Wana Dalacho geb. am 08. 08. 1973, Äthiopien Bayreuth, den 27. October 2009 Die vorliegende Arbeit wurde in dem Zeitraum von April 2006 bis October 2009 an der Universität Bayreuth unter der Leitung von Professor Dr. Carl Beierkuhnlein erstellt. Vollständiger Abdruck der von der Fakultät für Biologie, Chemie und Geowissenschaften der Universität Bayreuth zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines Doktors der Naturwissenschaften genehmigten Dissertation. Prüfungsausschuss 1. Prof. Dr. Carl Beierkuhnlein (1. Gutachter) 2. Prof. Dr. Sigrid Liede-Schumann (2. Gutachter) 3. PD. Dr. Gregor Aas (Vorsitz) 4. Prof. Dr. Ludwig Zöller 5. Prof. Dr. Björn Reineking Datum der Einreichung der Dissertation: 27. 10. 2009 Datum des wissenschaftlichen Kolloquiums: 21. 12. 2009 Contents Summary 1 Zusammenfassung 3 Introduction 5 Drivers of Diversity Patterns 5 Deconstruction of Diversity Patterns 9 Threats of Biodiversity Loss in the Ttropics 10 Objectives, Research Questions and Hypotheses 12 Synopsis 15 Thesis Outline 15 Synthesis and Conclusions 17 References 21 Acknowledgments 27 List of Manuscripts and Specification of Own Contribution 30 Manuscript 1 Plant Species and Growth Form Richness along Altitudinal Gradients in the Southwest Ethiopian Highlands 32 Manuscript 2 The Relative Abundance of Plant Functional Types along Environmental Gradients in the Southwest Ethiopian highlands 54 Manuscript 3 Land Use/Land Cover Change in the Southwestern Ethiopian Highlands 84 Manuscript 4 Climate Warming and Tropical Plant Species – Consequences of a Potential Upslope Shift of Isotherms in Southern Ethiopia 102 List of Publications 135 Declaration/Erklärung 136 Summary Summary Understanding how biodiversity is organized across space and time has long been a central focus of ecologists and biogeographers. Altitudinal patterns of richness gradients are one of such striking patterns in the landscape. Despite its historical and ecological importance as a heuristic natural experimental site for development of ecological theories, the emergent patterns and mechanisms that structure them are poorly understood. This is partly because of the complex relationships of species to the environment and the choice of the response variable itself, i.e. using taxonomic richness as a metrics of diversity. This thesis, therefore, applies plant functional types (hereafter PFTs) approach to study the response of vegetation to environmental factors in the southwest Ethiopian highlands. It focuses on the classification of the vegetation into a few main plant functional response categories and relate them to environmental variables. For pattern identification and mechanistic explanations, a deconstructive approach of the taxonomic richness into its constituent components was used. Furthermore, the potential effects of land use/land cover change and global warming on the biodiversity of the study area was investigated. The results reveal that the application of plant functional types is a promising tool to understand vegetation-environment relationships. Local topographic attributes (altitude and slope) and soil properties found to structure the variance in the relative abundance of PFTs along environmental gradients. Moreover, specific response to drought favours the abundance of species with thorns/spines and tussocks in the lowlands as opposed to chilling which favours rosettes and rhizomes PFTs in the highlands. Concerning patterns of richness along altitudinal gradients, various structures of richness appear for total vascular plant species and growth forms. Woody plants, graminoids and climbers showed a uni-modal structure while ferns and herbs revealed an increasing pattern of richness along the altitudinal gradient. By contrast, total vascular plants species richness did not show any strong response to altitudinal gradients. Climate related water-energy dynamics, species area relationships due to the physical shape of the mountain, local topographic and soil conditions were found to be predominant factors structuring the observed richness in the study area. The threats to biodiversity loss due to land use/land cover change and global warming is eminent in the study area. Land conversion for agricultural purposes was a pervasive process that had a deleterious effect on the biodiversity of the study area. Population growth, socio- 1 Summary economic challenges (poverty) and government policy regimes drive land cover change processes. In addition, recent climate change poses a serious challenge to the biodiversity of the study area. The results of model predictions indicated that biodiversity of the study area will suffer severe consequences of lowland biotic attrition (i.e. the net loss of species richness in the tropical lowlands caused by altitudinal range shifts in the absence of new species arriving), range gap shifts and contraction, and extinction due to expected warming at the end of this century. The model also predicted that endangered and endemic species with restricted elevational ranges will disproportionately suffer from range contraction and extinction due to warming. In conclusion, the plant functional types approach was found to be an essential tool to reduce complexity of the vegetation of the study system and to elucidate vegetation-environment relationships. Moreover, the identification of emergent patterns and attributing them to mechanistic explanations are pre-requisites for conservation planning to save biodiversity of the study area. The study also evidenced that land use/land cover change and global warming will present strong threats to the loss of biodiversity in the study area. Salvaging biodiversity in the future requires the consideration of the effect of land use and climate change on vegetation responses. Consequently, nature conservation strategies and future reserve designs should take into account options of human assisted migration across fragmented landscapes and creating dispersal routes for species to track to new thermal niches. 2 Zusammenfassung Zusammenfassung Seit längerem streben Biogeographen und Ökologen nach dem Verständnis, wie Biodiversität in Zeit und Raum organisiert ist. Die höhenbedingte Abnahme der Vielfalt ist hierbei eines der prägenden Landschaftsbilder. Trotz der historisch gewachsenen ökologischen Bedeutung als heuristisches, natürliches Studiengebiet sind die zugrundeliegenden Muster und Mechanismen noch weitgehend unklar. Dies liegt nicht zuletzt an der komplexen Beziehung zwischen Arten zu ihrer Umwelt und auch in der Wahl der Untersuchungsmethodik an sich. Als Beispiel sei der häufige Gebrauch der taxonomischen Vielfalt als ausschließliches Biodiversitätsmaß genannt. Diese Arbeit wendet insofern den erweiterten Ansatz der Pflanzenfunktionstypen an (im Folgenden: PFTs) um die Reaktion der Vegetation auf diverse Umweltfaktoren im Südwesten des äthiopischen Hochlandes zu erforschen. Ziel der Studie ist es, die Vegetation in einige wenige Hauptkategorien von Pflanzenfunktionstypen zu klassifizieren und diese in Bezug zu ihrer Reaktion auf Umweltvariablen zu setzen. Der Ansatz der taxonomischen Vielfalt wurde somit und ergänzt, um sowohl räumliche Muster zu identifizieren, als auch die dahinter befindlichen Mechanismen erklären zu können. Darüber hinaus wurden sowohl potentielle Einflüsse von Landnutzungs- und Landbedeckungswandel, als auch die Auswirkungen der globalen Erwärmung auf die Biodiversität des Untersuchungsgebietes analysiert. Die Ergebnisse verdeutlichen, dass der Ansatz von Pflanzenfunktionstypen vielversprechend ist, um Vegetation-Umwelt-Beziehungen zu verstehen. Lokale topographische Parameter (z.B. Höhe und Hangneigung) scheinen die Varianz in der relativen Häufigkeit der PFTs entlang eines Umweltgradienten zu beeinflussen. Des Weiteren erklärt die spezifische Adaption an Hitzeereignisse die hohe Abundanz von Arten mit Dornen/Stacheln und Tussock-Gras in den niederen Lagen. Hinsichtlich der Vielzahl von Arten entlang des Höhengradientens, scheinen verschiedene Strukturmuster für die Gesamtheit der Gefäßpflanzen und Wuchsformen zu existieren. Holzgewächse, Schlingpflanzen und Graminoide kennzeichnet eine Verteilung entlang der Höhe, wohingegen Farne und Krautartige entlang des Höhengradientens in ihrer Häufigkeit zunehmen. Demgegenüber besteht nur ein schwacher Zusammenhang zwischen der Gesamtzahl an Gefäßpflanzen und der Höhe. Im Untersuchungsgebiet wurde die 3 Zusammenfassung klimabedingte Wasser-Energiedynamik, das Arten-Flächenverhältnis in Bezug zum Gebirgsprofil, lokale topographische Einflüsse sowie Bodencharakteristika als entscheidende Einflussgrößen hinsichtlich der beobachteten Vielfalt erkannt. 4 Introduction Introduction Drivers of Diversity Patterns Diversity is unevenly distributed over the surface of the earth. The most conspicuous spatial pattern of species diversity is a latitudinal gradient of decreasing richness of species from equator to poles (Gaston 2000; Willig et al. 2003). This pattern is consistent for several organismal groups such as terrestrial plants (Mutke & Barthlott 2005; Barthlott et al. 2007), coral reefs, mammals, fish and birds (Willig et al. 2003). However, notable exceptions to this classical pattern are quite common for different taxonomic groups (Heywood 1995). Some taxonomic groups
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