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THE ASIAN CINEMA EXPERIENCE Styles, spaces, theory

Stephen Teo The Asian Cinema Experience

This book explores the range and dynamism of contemporary Asian cinemas, ­covering (, , South , , ), Southeast Asia (, , ), South Asia () and West Asia (Iran), in order to discover what is common about them and to engender a theory or concept of ‘Asian Cinema’. It goes beyond existing work which provides a field survey of Asian cinema, probing more deeply into the field of Asian Cinema, arguing that Asian Cinema constitutes a separate pedagogical subject and putting forward an alternative cinematic paradigm. The book covers ‘styles’, including the works of classical Asian Cinema masters, and specific genres such as ­horror , and Bollywood and , two very popular modes of Asian Cinema; ‘spaces’, including artistic use of space and perspective in Chinese ­cinema, ­geographic and personal space in Iranian cinema, the private ‘erotic space’ of films from and Thailand, and the persistence of the family unit in the urban spaces of Asian big cities in many Asian films; and ‘concepts’ such as Pan-Asianism, Orientalism, Nationalism and Third Cinema. The rise of Asian nations on the world stage has been coupled with a growing interest, both inside and outside Asia, of Asian culture, of which is increasingly an ­indispensable component – this book provides a rich, insightful overview of what exactly ­constitutes Asian Cinema.

Stephen Teo is Associate Professor in the Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.

01 FM.indd 1 8/13/12 4:16:19 PM Media, Culture and Social Change in Asia Edited by Stephanie Hemelryk Donald RMIT University Melbourne

Editorial Board: Devleena Ghosh, University of Technology, Sydney Peter Horsfield, RMIT University, Melbourne Chris Hudson, RMIT University, Melbourne K.P. Jayasankar, Unit for Media and Communications, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Bombay Michael Keane, Queensland University of Technology Tania Lewis, RMIT University, Melbourne Vera Mackie, University of Melbourne Kama Maclean, University of New South Wales Anjali Monteiro, Unit for Media and Communications, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Bombay Laikwan Pang, Chinese University of Hong Kong Ursula Rao, University of New South Wales Gary Rawnsley, University of Leeds Ming-yeh Rawnsley, University of Leeds Jo Tacchi, RMIT University, Melbourne Adrian Vickers, University of Sydney Jing Wang, MIT Ying Zhu, City University of New York

The aim of this series is to publish original, high-quality work by both new and ­established scholars in the West and the East, on all aspects of media, culture and social change in Asia.

1 Television Across Asia Television industries, programme formats and globalisation Edited by Albert Moran and Michael Keane

2 Journalism and Democracy in Asia Edited by Angela Romano and Michael Bromley

3 Cultural Control and Globalization in Asia Copyright, piracy and cinema Laikwan Pang

4 Conflict, Terrorism and the Media in Asia Edited by Benjamin Cole

5 Media and the Chinese Diaspora Community, communications and commerce Edited by Wanning Sun

01 FM.indd 2 8/13/12 4:16:19 PM 6 Hong Kong Film, Hollywood and the New Global Cinema No film is an island Edited by Gina Marchetti and Tan See Kam

7 Media in Hong Kong Press freedom and political change 1967–2005 Carol P. Lai

8 Chinese Documentaries From dogma to polyphony Yingchi Chu

9 Japanese Popular Music Culture, authenticity and power Carolyn S. Stevens

10 The Origins of the Modern Chinese Press The influence of the Protestant missionary press in late Qing China Xiantao Zhang

11 Created in China The great new leap forward Michael Keane

12 Political Regimes and the Media in Asia Edited by Krishna Sen and Terence Lee

13 Television in Post-Reform China Serial dramas, Confucian leadership and the global television market Ying Zhu

14 The cultural politics of India’s other Edited by Selvaraj Velayutham

15 Popular Culture in Fluid identities in post-authoritarian politics Edited by Ariel Heryanto

16 Television in India Satellites, politics and cultural change Edited by Nalin Mehta

17 Media and Cultural Transformation in China Haiqing Yu

18 Global Chinese Cinema The culture and politics of hero Edited by Gary D. Rawnsley and Ming-Yeh T. Rawnsley

01 FM.indd 3 8/13/12 4:16:20 PM 19 Youth, Society and Mobile Media in Asia Edited by Stephanie Hemelryk Donald, Theresa Dirndorfer Anderson and Damien Spry

20 The Media, Cultural Control and Government in Singapore Terence Lee

21 Politics and the Media in Twenty-First Century Indonesia Edited by Krishna Sen and David T. Hill

22 Media, Social Mobilization and Mass Protests in Post-colonial Hong Kong The power of a critical event Francis L. F. Lee and Joseph M. Chan

23 HIV/AIDS, Health and the Media in China Imagined immunity through racialized disease Johanna Hood

24 Islam and Popular Culture in Indonesia and Malaysia Edited by Andrew N. Weintraub

25 Online Society in China Creating, celebrating, and instrumentalising the online carnival Edited by David Kurt Herold and Peter Marolt

26 Rethinking Transnational Chinese Cinemas The Amoy-dialect film industry in Cold War Asia Jeremy E. Taylor

27 Film in Contemporary Southeast Asia Cultural interpretation and social intervention Edited by David C. L. Lim and Hiroyuki Yamamoto

28 China’s New Creative Clusters Governance, human capital, and investment Michael Keane

29 Media and Democratic Transition in South Korea Ki-Sung Kwak

30 The Asian Cinema Experience Styles, spaces, theory Stephen Teo

01 FM.indd 4 8/13/12 4:16:20 PM The Asian Cinema Experience Styles, spaces, theory

Stephen Teo

01 FM.indd 5 8/13/12 4:16:22 PM First published 2013 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2013 Stephen Teo The right of Stephen Teo to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patent Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Teo, Stephen. The Asian cinema experience: styles, spaces, theory/Stephen Teo. p. cm. – (Media, culture and social change in Asia series) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Motion pictures–Asia. 2. Popular culture–Asia. 3. Culture in motion pictures. I. Title. PN1993.5.A75T44 2012 791.43095–dc23 2012014045

ISBN: 978-0-415-57146-3 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-415-81514-7 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-203-11565-7 (ebk) Typeset in Times New Roman by Sunrise Setting Ltd

01 FM.indd 6 8/13/12 4:20:11 PM For Mr Varghese

01 FM.indd 7 8/13/12 4:16:22 PM 01 FM.indd 8 8/13/12 4:16:22 PM Contents

List of figures xi Preface xiii Acknowledgements xiv

Introduction 1

PART I Styles 13

1. Kurosawa and classical style in Asian Cinema 15 2. Satyajit Ray and the Indian sensitivity of affect 35 3. The historical blockbuster style 52 4. The abstract transnational style of anime 72 5. Asian horror and the ghost-story style 92 6. The ‘Bollywood’ style 111

PART II Spaces 131

7. Space in Asian melodrama 133 8. Iranian cinema and inward space 154 9. Domestic space and the family in South Korean cinema 171 10. Erotic space in Asian films 190

01 FM.indd 9 8/13/12 4:16:22 PM x Contents PART III Theory 207

11. The world and Asian Cinema 209 12. Asian Cinema and other cinemas 223

Coda 239 Filmography 243 References 249 Index 260

01 FM.indd 10 8/13/12 4:16:22 PM Figures

1.1. The final spurt of violence in Sanjuro (1962) 18 1.2. The ronin in (1960) watches as the two sides fight 22 1.3. The ronin arrives to save his friend in Yojimbo (1960) 23 1.4. A typical Kurosawan wipe cut in (1957) 27 1.5. The mask-like faces of Lady Asaji and Washizu in Throne of Blood 32 1.6. Washizu’s look of terror in Throne of Blood (1957) 32 1.7. Contrasting faces in Throne of Blood (1957) 33 1.8. Mifune Toshiro maintaining his mask-like countenance right to the very end in Throne of Blood (1957) 33 2.1. The final freeze-frames that close Charulata (1964) 40 2.2. The negative images of a funeral that open The Adversary (1971) 41 2.3. The Indian sense of shame and embarrassment in Days and Nights in the Forest (1970) 46 2.4. Aparna (Sharmila Tagore) looking away 46 2.5. Apu’s grief-stricken face in The World of Apu (1960): an unforgettable rasa moment 50 3.1. The emotion of Anarkali’s love, expressed from the back, in Mughal-e-Azam (1960) 58 3.2. The arrogance and narcissism of Bahar, expressed frontally in Mughal-e-Azam (1960) 59 3.3. Jebat turns away from Tuah to face the camera, showing us his private anguish in Hang Jebat (1961) 62 4.1. Weightlessness, floating and gliding in Te Wei’s Feelings from Mountain and Water (1988) 75 4.2. Waves splashing onto a rock obscuring a boatman, in Feelings from Mountain and Water (1988) 76 4.3. The body movements and hand gestures of Sun Wukong in Princess Iron Fan (1941) 77 4.4. Kaneda tries to explain his way out of a tight situation in Akira (1988) 83

01 FM.indd 11 8/13/12 4:16:22 PM xii Figures 5.1. Negative images of the epiphany of horror signalling the entry of the protagonists into the yin realm in Ringu (1998) 100 5.2. The pontianak figure with her long black hair terrifying the male protagonist­ in Body # 19 (2007) 105 5.3. The monstrous-feminine pontianak about to dispose of a male victim in Body # 19 (2007) 106 6.1 Shahrukh Khan dances the ‘Pain of Disco’ number in Om Shanti Om (2007) 127 7.1. Bhootnath looking away to screen right as he converses with the choti bahu in Sahib Bibi aur Ghulam (1962) 136 7.2. Close-ups of the choti bahu’s eyes and mouth in Sahib Bibi aur Ghulam (1962) 136 7.3. Lightning in the sky, foreboding a melodrama of high emotion in Mizoguchi’s The Lady of Musashino (1951) 143 7.4. Interior spatial dynamics in a key scene from The Lady of Musashino (1951) 144 7.5. Yukiko looks out of her cabin window at the doctor in the next scene, as he stands to attention to mark his farewell, in Floating Clouds (1955) 146 7.6. Anasuya emoting in space in Ritwik Ghatak’s Komal Gandhar (1961) 148 7.7. Unconventional use of space emphasising a couple’s break-up in Wong’s 2046 150 8.1. The Iranian landscape in the opening shot of The Wind Will Carry Us (1999) 155 8.2. Faces in the cinema and the act of looking, from Abbas Kiarostami’s Shirin (2008) 164 8.3. The female gaze in Mohsen Makhmalbaf’s Gabbeh (1996) 165 8.4. The inward space of man adjusting to the outside world, in Kiarostami’s The Wind Will Carry Us (1999) 170 9.1. Characteristic over-emotion in an Asian domestic scene, from The Host (2006) 180 9.2. Characters squatting down throughout (2003) 183 9.3. The mother in (2007) squatting down in deep moments of crisis 185 9.4. The construct of domestic space in modern Korea and the missing link of the family, in The Show Must Go On (2007) 187 10.1. Confucian benevolence and social repression in an erotic scene in Hong Sang-soo’s Virgin Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors (2002) 196

01 FM.indd 12 8/13/12 4:16:22 PM Preface

The motivation for writing this book has come partly from my work as a film scholar and partly from my experience growing up in the small town in Malaysia where I was born. In my previous writing, I have thus far focused on Chinese films and auteurs and the histories of the Chinese and Hong Kong cinemas (Teo 1997, 2005, 2007, 2009). This book is a departure from my focus on Chinese films. My Malaysian background has spurred me towards writing a book about other Asian cinemas. Malaysia’s population is a multicultural mixture of Malays, Chinese, Indians, Eurasians and many other indigenous communities, and thus it can be truly characterised as an Asian country that is itself representative of the diversity of Asia. Growing up in the East Malaysian state of Sarawak, I had the unique privilege of a highly diversified filmgoing cultural experience, watch- ing not just Hollywood and European films but also Chinese (Hong Kong and Taiwanese), Indian (Bollywood), Malay (Malaysian and some Indonesian films) and Japanese films. To Malaysians, subtitles were and still are a normal com- ponent of watching movies. I would like to believe that this book is the natural end result of my own growing-up experience as a film-goer, one brought up on a ­multiplicity of Asian and other cinemas. I have carried this experience into adult life as both a critic and an academic, such that I cannot imagine a life without watching films from multiple national cinemas. Asian Cinema is itself an aggregated form that denotes a varied, complex and multilinguistic source of films and, having grown up with it, it was not strange or forbidding to me to design and teach a course on it when I was asked to do so at the start of my teaching career in 2000. This is not to say, however, that I have not grappled with the question of how to define Asian Cinema. This book represents the ongoing attempt on my part as a teacher–researcher of Asian cinemas to resolve the ontological question ‘What is Asian Cinema?’ As a teacher I had always sought to evolve a pedagogical concept of Asian Cinema, to identify certain characteristics and qualities of Asian film practice and theory. I have tried to identify what was distinctively Asian about Asian films and whether the different cinemas of Asia could be said to form an Asian cinematic entity. This book marks the effort that I have put in to resolve these concerns thus far.

01 FM.indd 13 8/13/12 4:16:23 PM Acknowledgements

In conceiving and writing this book, I must acknowledge many institutions and individuals. First, the Asia Research Institute (ARI) of the National University of Singapore gave me the opportunity to organise a workshop on the very subject of Asian Cinema. The workshop was held in March 2007 under the title Asian Cinematic Practice: Towards an Alternative Paradigm. I extend my thanks to all the participants: Mette Hjort, Moinak Biswas, Pang Laikwan, Mitsuhiro Yoshimoto, Amir Muhammad, Kenneth Paul Tan, Nikki Lee Jiyeon, Edna Lim, Anchalee Chaiworaporn and the late Alexis Tioseco. I am grateful to Professor Chua Beng Huat, the head of ARI’s cultural studies research cluster, who was instrumental in giving me the support to pursue my research at ARI under a research fellow- ship stint from 2005 to 2008. I would also like to thank Professor Anthony Reid, Professor Lily Kong and Professor Prasenjit Duara, the former and current heads of ARI. Professor Duara has been something of a mentor and I want to thank him particularly for reading the chapters on Kurosawa and Ray and giving some very useful comments. During my time in ARI I benefited from the collegiality and friendship of Kim Soyoung, Madhava Prasad and Chen Kuan-hsing, who are all Asia experts, and I only wish I could have spent more time with them. This book began in earnest under the auspices of a start-up grant awarded by my current institution, the Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information, Nanyang Technological University, which I joined in 2008. My thanks go to the Chair of the school, Dr Benjamin Detenber, and the associate chair of research, Dr Theng Yin Leng, for their endorsement of this project. I am grateful to the dean of our college, Professor Alan Chan, for his strong support of my research endeavours in Asian Cinema. Special gratitude is reserved for my research assistant Lim Chee Harn, who worked with me for a year in researching this book and followed it through the writing, helping to collate materials, find information, read books and articles, watch films and DVDs, edit my copy and co-teach some of my classes on Asian Cinema at the Wee Kim Wee School, from where he graduated, all the while offering helpful comments and suggestions. I am also indebted to Saifuddin Ahmed, a graduate student who helped me to decipher much of Bollywood’s mysteries and provided me with resources on Ray and other Indian film-makers.

01 FM.indd 14 8/13/12 4:16:23 PM Acknowledgements xv A note of thanks also goes to RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia, to Professor Stephanie Hemelryk Donald, the Dean of the School of Media and Communication, who gave me access to RMIT libraries and facilities to undertake my research and writing. I am grateful to Adrian Danks and to Deb Verhoeven who have shown their usual support for my endeavours. RMIT invited me to give a public lecture in October 2007 on the subject of Asian Cinema, which I entitled ‘Towards a Theory of Asian Cinema’, that also flows out of ideas from this project. In Singapore the Cinematheque at the National Museum has been very helpful in granting me some access to their archive materials. I would like to extend my thanks to Ms Lee Chor Lin, the Director of the Museum, Warren Sin and Zhang Wenjie. They invited me to participate in a public forum on Satyajit Ray accompanying a retrospective on the director in October 2010, during which I shared the forum with Mr Shyam Benegal and Mr Dhritiman Chatterjee. Both Mr Benegal and Mr Chatterjee gave me some useful pointers about Ray and I am grateful to them. I also thank Dilip Basu, who offered to read my chapter on Ray. The following individuals have each in their own way provided me with assistance and support in this project: Abhishek Scariya, Darrell Davis, Emilie Yeh, Meaghan Morris, Ang Peng Hwa, Foo Tee Tuan, Adam Knee, Michael Campi, Winnie Fu, Chan Wing-chiu, Wendy Ong, Phoebe Lim, Sri Deva Rani, Valerie Yeo, Zakir Raju, Tan Yuan Sheng, Grace Mak and Liew Kai-khiun. Finally, I owe an eternal debt to my wife, Lim Bea Fung, who has been an enduring and patient presence throughout the long and sometimes difficult process of research and writing. I thank her for putting up with my idiosyncratic habits, to say the least, as a writer and a scholar of film (particularly the countless hours spent watching an indescribable range of DVDs). I believe she shares the sense of relief that I have each time a project ends, as well as the sense of elation each time a book comes to fruition.

01 FM.indd 15 8/13/12 4:16:23 PM 01 FM.indd 16 8/13/12 4:16:23 PM Introduction

Asian Cinema as phenomenological experience In the past twenty years or so the term ‘Asian Cinema’ has been a headlining item in international film festivals, journals, magazines, newspapers, video stores, academic curricula and blogs. Just what exactly is ‘Asian Cinema’ and what is its significance as a name that has come into popular usage in film and cultural studies? This book sets out to examine the phenomenon commonly called ‘Asian Cinema’. It aims not just to explain what it is but also to articulate it as a theory so as to facilitate a conceptual understanding of the term, which is otherwise used in a matter-of-fact fashion to refer to a wide array of film industries in the continent of Asia, including those of China, Japan, India, Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea, Thailand, Singapore, Iran, Indonesia and Malaysia – to mention only those coun- tries whose films are covered within this volume. It is not the intention of this book to provide a field guide to all the cinemas of the Asian continent but rather to emphasise and examine the nature and the subject matter of Asian films to determine a broad theory of or outlook on Asian Cinema. The proposition is that there is a holistic concept of Asian Cinema which one can feel and grasp through the experience of watching and analysing Asian films as a cumulative whole – thus, the title of this book: The Asian Cinema Experience. The word ‘experience’ implies a more phenomenological reception of Asian films but, from this experiential reception, we are prompted to cognitively explore the cultures, languages and societies depicted in the films. Knowledge and learning is an inherent part of the phenomenological experience of watching Asian films. It leads us to a qualitative, if also more theoretical, understanding, as opposed to a more quantitative, survey-like and preliminary awareness of the various film industries of Asia and their productions. This book therefore rejects the country- by-country survey approach characteristic of a fair number of volumes published in recent years (Lent 1990; Hanan 2001; Vasudev et al. 2002; Ciecko 2006; Carter 2007; Vick 2008; Hunt and Leung 2008; Davis and Yeh 2008). It also avoids the tendency to put Asian cinemas into regional clusters (for example, East Asia or South Asia) in the interest of cultural homogeneity. While fully cognisant of the fact that Asia as a whole is not and can never be culturally homogenous, this book opts to present Asian Cinema as a vast and complex network of film industries

02 Introduction.indd 1 8/10/12 6:53:21 PM 2 Introduction connected to each other through a shared narrative. It aims to discover what is common about the divergent cinemas of Asia in order to engender a unified outlook or theory of Asian Cinema. What all the previous books demonstrate is the necessity for further theorising of the term ‘Asian Cinema’ – the need to define it, and to explore the boundaries of its usefulness. This book is a response to that need as well as to the recognition that Asian Cinema is so extensive and multifaceted that specific areas and concerns demand more rigorous and detailed research. Here my attempt to provide an evaluative and analytical assessment of Asian Cinema falls under three broad categories: ‘styles’, ‘spaces’ and ‘theory’. Such categories are my way of trying to contain the breadth and complexity of Asia as a whole, the diversity of the topics and themes addressed in Asian films and the range of genres and the different styles and aesthetics represented. To develop a theory from this diversity and complexity is perhaps over-ambitious but it is nevertheless a necessary part of defining the term. Such an effort is certainly fraught with problems, not least the problem of defining Asia itself, a vast continent with many different nations, cultures, languages and political systems with their disparities of wealth and resources. Where does Asia begin and where does it end? Are countries such as Russia, Turkey, Israel and Egypt part of the Asian Cinema hemisphere? (I have, in fact, chosen not to include these countries in this book and I leave it to other scholars to pursue and argue the case that they should be included.) ‘Asian Cinema’ is, to be sure, difficult to define exactly, but the term is widely used in our present era as if it is something that is readily understood by the general public. Today the term is used to cover courses being taught in schools and universities, and it is often used in journalism. Its meaning seems simple enough – it refers to films from Asia generally, to indicate what is new, strange and exotic about a category of non-European, non-Hollywood films. The one measure that is invoked is that all these films hail from Asia and all come in various forms and genres. They run the gamut from the commercial to the artistic, from the exploitative to the most esoteric. Because of their range and diversity, Asian films need to be studied in greater depth for cultural nuances and quirks, the genres defined more explicitly and given more distinctness from their qualities of universality, the stories and the content examined more closely for their variations and disparities, considering the multiple cultures and societies which are all represented within the nomenclature ‘Asian Cinema’. Yet the term is indeed used as a handy abbreviation to refer to all Asian films which otherwise are categorised into the specific national cinemas of the Asian continent. It can refer to films of broad regions (South Asian, East Asian or the Arab World) or it can refer to cinemas of a narrower territorial entity, often a city where the film industry is based (Bollywood, Tollywood, Hong Kong, Shanghai); it can refer to cultish genre movies dubbed ‘excessive’ or it can refer to sophisticated art movies. The holistic scope of the term is both an advantage and a disadvantage. It allows the scholar to theorise freely, but in the final analysis its broadness may be too vague for it to emerge as a discipline. As the idea of Asian Cinema is put forward, its insufficiency as a theoretical concept is exposed

02 Introduction.indd 2 8/10/12 6:53:22 PM Introduction 3 and its subordination to the concept of in particular (the tendency to reduce Asian Cinema to specific national cinemas such as Chinese cinema, Japanese cinema, Indian cinema and so on) makes a theory of Asian Cinema even harder to pin down. It is therefore vital in any discussion on Asian Cinema to think about how a theory of Asian Cinema can be formulated and grasped. I do not propose at this stage to go into a discussion of theory at length but it is necessary to outline some of the factors that I will invoke in theorising and writing about Asian Cinema in the following chapters. Theorising is necessary in order to rise above the shallow or the merely platitudinous in writing about Asian film. It is easy to say that Asian Cinema is united by a sense of Asian values, such as family, hard work and loyalty, or by some spiritual quality such as Zen or the Dao. One could also say that Asian films are exceptional because they tell interesting stories in interesting ways. No doubt, the premise of an Asian Cinema experience is that Asian films are interesting and their methods of telling stories are therefore worthy of study. Such a truism needs some justification although it seems self- explanatory, and hence the book is designed to justify in what way Asian Cinema is indeed an experience and how it is so. Theorising about Asian Cinema is an inherent task of this experience. The book, then, is on the whole a theoretical speculation on the concept of Asian Cinema. At the same time most of the chapters are grounded in textual analysis so as to isolate discerning characteristics and styles that can possibly sustain an Asian Cinema theory. Theorising Asian Cinema is itself an ideological imperative in the discipline of film studies, which is so completely dominated by Euro- and America-centrism. The theorising factors that I will outline below are concepts and ideas that will hopefully anchor our appreciation and awareness of Asian Cinema as we think more about how it can stand up as a theoretical force. These are not necessarily new ideas, nor indeed ideas specifically to do with Asian Cinema, and they have been mentioned before by other writers. They are recapitulated here as a source for thinking and rethinking about Asian films, to suggest a framework to pursue a greater understanding of Asian Cinema.

Theorising factors One of the factors which I consider to be the most fundamental and pervasive, the most immediately distinctive, the most cinematic and the easiest to understand is that of the face. The idea of a phenomenological experience of Asian films implies that we have a direct encounter with the situations and the characters within the film narratives. If we think of experiencing Asian films by watching Asian faces and taking in what they reveal to us, we are directly experiencing a factor that will lead us towards greater appreciation of the films. Asian physiognomy is therefore crucial in understanding Asian Cinema. Asian faces constitute a physiognomic database of emotion and experience. They may reveal fear, anxiety and sentimen- tality, or coolness, thought and spirituality. This roughly echoes Deleuze’s idea of the face as ‘affective-image’ (see Deleuze 1986: 87), but Deleuze’s concept of the face is more abstract, and in a sense faceless, whereas Asian faces broadly typify

02 Introduction.indd 3 8/10/12 6:53:22 PM 4 Introduction Asian Cinema, projecting an ‘other’ kind of cinema into the theoretical domain of cinema so theorised by Deleuze which is otherwise overwhelmingly identified with European or Caucasian faces. The face as a factor in film theory is borrowed from Bela Balazs, who theorised about the face in his Theory of the Film, in the chapter entitled ‘The Face of Man’. There, Balazs theorised about the racial, national and class characteristics of the face and he referred to the cinema’s ability to reveal a ‘new world – the world of microphysiognomy which could not otherwise be seen with the naked eye or in everyday life’ (Balazs 1952: 65). The close-up was the device to reveal the face, and Balazs favoured silent cinema as the ideal medium to reveal microphysiognomy, though the concept would work equally in sound film if perhaps less efficaciously, according to Balazs. Generally, Balazs believed that cinema would take ‘human culture in a visual direction, endowing man with a “new face” (which) could restore man’s “visibility” and thus also create the foundation of a new internationalism’ (Balazs, quoted in Nagl 2009: 25). To Balazs, ‘man possessed a “fixed” physiognomy that expressed racial character, perceived as an inherited ensemble of physical gestures, which our facial features only vary individually’, and the face constituted a battlefield in which ‘“soul” and “fate”, “personality” and “type”, “ego” and “id” were seen to grapple eternally’ (Nagl 2009: 25). Balazs therefore argued that ‘human physiognomy resembled a glass mask through which a “truer” face gleaned’ (Nagl 2009: 25). Since the idea of ‘face’ in Asian culture is that which one puts on in public and which hides the inner being, Balazs’ argument is not an idea that is strange to Asians. In Asian Cinema we ought to be looking through several layers of glass masks, in effect. To ‘lose face’ is to reveal too much and, all the more so, therefore, we need to look at Asian faces in Asian films, which become all the more fascinating inasmuch as they are an instrument to glean the true soul of Asian Cinema. The Asian face, then, is the key to the soul of Asian Cinema, and there is an element of ‘devotional engagement’ (Nayar 2010: 40) with the face in Indian cinema that we can draw on to address the face and its connotation of the soul. Indian critics have evolved a theory of frontality (also sometimes called the tableau form) that is connected to religious iconicity. Geeta Kapur argues that ‘there is a transfer of iconicity, if one might put it like that, between god and saint to the viewer’ (Kapur 1987: 86). ‘More importantly, there is a transfer of effect by a frontal contact, with all the implied qualities of such a relationship’, and such a transfer acquires ‘specially cinematic virtues’, by which Kapur means that it is not necessarily tied to an ‘ultimate verisimilitude’ but is more a phenomenological grasping of ‘existential meaning that accrues from the choice of certain language conventions, especially where the instance of a rare subjectivity, indeed of saintliness and grace, are involved’ (Kapur 1987: 86). Frontality heavily implies a public response as it involves a direct address to the public, despite subjective meanings that may arise out of the actor’s face, as Vasudevan has intimated: ‘The publicness of character derives from the idea that the subject is constituted in and through an address to an audience’ (Vasudevan 2011: 44). This ‘publicness’

02 Introduction.indd 4 8/10/12 6:53:22 PM Introduction 5 emphasises once again the phenomenological trait of experience in Asian Cinema, and this experience is predicated on a devotional engagement with the face. Sheila Nayar attributes frontality in the Indian cinema to an oral tradition:

We might postulate that the frontal privilege given to the face is no more because the face serves as the nexus of emotional expressions (as exhibited in the eyes, facial muscles, etc.) than because the face is an adjunct to the mouth, whose primacy comes from its being the residence of speech. (Nayar 2010: 41)

Nayar’s emphasis on speech and orality helps us to consider other parts of the face and eventually the body itself as factors essential to one’s appreciation and understanding of Asian Cinema. In fact, Asian Cinema contains some of the most popular body genres in – the Bollywood song and dance genre and the Asian film (on the notion of ‘body genres’ see Williams 1991; also Tasker 1993). Such body genres are perfect for thinking about Asian Cinema as phenomenological experience, which leads to a cognitive recognition of wider issues. Wimal Dissanayake states that dance sequences

which are de rigueur in Indian popular films, are the key to comprehending the totalities of popular reception … The dances contained in Indian films enable us to question such categories as gender identity, masculinity, and femininity, regimes of visuality, and the carnal consciousness of the body. (Dissanayake 2003: 220)

It can be said, then, that the body in Asian genres exerts an immediate phenom- enological impact on reception. Aaron Anderson has provided a useful account of such a phenomenological experience in his analysis of the Asian . He described the martial arts genre as a ‘movement-art’ which ‘implies a phenomenological – or bodily – involvement in reception’ (Anderson 2009: 194). The movement of martial arts is characterised as choreographed dance.

In this way, viewed movement evokes different phenomenological percep- tions (perceptions felt rather than thought) and bodily memories (sensations remembered as feelings rather than as consciously considered recollections) within each body engaged in interpretation. Movement in and of itself is the medium through which kinesthetic (felt, body-to-body) communication takes place, and so the transference of any movement’s ‘meaning’ always involves a range of nonlinear elements. For example … choreographic rhythmic pat- terns within, or accompanying, movement can contribute significantly to the enjoyment and understanding of any movement performance. This may be, in part, because everyone feels the presence of his or her own internal rhythmic heartbeat and breathing patterns and most people also learn a more esoteric understanding of rhythmic cycles of time. (Anderson 2009, his emphases)

02 Introduction.indd 5 8/10/12 6:53:22 PM 6 Introduction Anderson goes on to state that many Asian martial arts forms ‘incorporate into their practice what might be described as spiritual or philosophical elements, and these are difficult, if not impossible, to separate from other, functional elements in the practice of the forms themselves’ (Anderson 2009: 195). As such, Asian martial arts forms ‘offer challenges for understanding of movement’ (Anderson 2009). This is an acknowledgement of the body as a factor which may allow us to theorise about the distinctiveness of Asian Cinema. While I do not concentrate on the martial arts genre in this book (for a study of this particular genre, see Teo 2009), I am borrowing Anderson’s diagnosis of the body as phenomenological experience to underscore a theorising factor in understanding Asian Cinema. The body as experience can direct us to a more soulful realisation of our existence, and the way that it can do this is through affect – emotion or feeling – as another factor which is possibly unique in Asian Cinema. There is in fact a classical theory formulated on emotion in Indian poetics known as rasa theory. According to Pravas Jivan Chaudhury, rasa literally means ‘taste or savor, and, as used to denote the essence of poetry, it signifies the peculiar experience that poetry affords us’ (Chaudhury 1965: 145). Rasa is the experience by the self ‘of some emotion in its generalized form’ so that ‘this self is self-aware through awareness and enjoyment of an emotion which colors it’ (Chaudhury 1965: 146). The kind of emotion is dependent upon the nature of the poem or the work of art and there is a range of emotions, with ones that are predominant and others that are subsidiary. As rasa stresses the ‘experiential and subjective side of poetic meaning’ (Chaudhury 1965: 145), the theory boosts the essential thesis of this book, which is that Asian Cinema should be experienced and is itself an experience in that it contains drama and characters who radiate rasa which is then passed on to the audience who are themselves emotional beings. Emotion is, therefore, a key factor of experience. Rasa can thus be incorporated into Asian Cinema as a theory of emotion or affect which raises one’s self-awareness through an appreciation and enjoyment of Asian emotion in cinema. Rasa theory is increasingly applied to the discourse on Indian cinema and I will refer to it in my discussions of Bollywood and other Asian films in this book. Hence, I will attempt to expand on the idea of rasa theory as a distinctive part of Asian Cinema theory in the chapters that follow. For now, suffice it to say that rasa is a helpful theoretical device that allows us to understand how emotion is applied in Asian films and how it enhances the audience’s experience. Indian artists have, of course, long known the magic of emotion in their music and drama and have applied it to films, and many Asian directors in their own ways have resorted to emotions as inherently artistic components of drama as well as cultural expressions of behaviour. The display of heightened emotion can be a sophisticated part of the culture and art of Asian Cinema. Lest this should conjure up a picture of Asian films as being highly melodramatic (and this is certainly a part of the effect), the connotation of emotion as a theory, or at least as a theorising factor, is to point up the role of emotion as a cultural and aesthetic ingredient which may be easily misunderstood.

02 Introduction.indd 6 8/10/12 6:53:22 PM Introduction 7 For our purposes, then, emotion can be understood as a theorising factor that promotes a wider conception and appreciation of Asian Cinema. Emotion is not merely personal or private but also contains many latent issues of social and national importance which can form a network of related factors in further theoris- ing Asian Cinema. Ciecko, in her chapter ‘Theorising Asian Cinema(s)’ (Ciecko 2006: 13–31), has already rehearsed some of these factors as generic topics which flow out of the ‘texts and contexts’ in the ‘social life of Asian Cinema’. Ciecko gives a somewhat sweeping view of Asian cinematic issues, including questions of national cinema, globalisation and localisation, the influence of Hollywood and the reaction against it. The significance of these issues, as well as others, will depend on the texts and contexts. Aesthetic, political and economic concerns are encoded within these texts and contexts. Asian religions such as Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism and Islam, as well as the ‘wide range of governing sociopolitical structures and systems including constitutional monarchy, parliamentary and multi-party democracy, socialism and communism’, all contribute ‘to the contextual fabric of Asian cinema as cultural production and social experience’ (Ciecko 2006: 17). Contexts are certainly indispensable to understanding Asian Cinema, and it is perhaps best to characterise Asian Cinema as a web-like ball threading together many related issues, one issue leading to the next and so on. For example, the topic of national cinema will yield issues of nationalism, colonialism and postcolonialism. It can also bring us to the question of Hollywood, since the concept of national cinema is often seen as a counterweight to Hollywood by domestic film industries in Asia. There are several layers to the Hollywood question: Hollywood as threat; the Asian imitation of Hollywood; Asian Cinema as an alternative to Hollywood; and Asian Cinema as a connection between the local and the global (the latter being symbolised by Hollywood). Hollywood also symbolises the technology of cinema, a modern art form that engages with the Asian traditions of storytelling. Ciecko has mentioned the element of the ‘popular’ in connection with Asian Cinema, which can connote many things, including mainstream audience appeal, the over-determined nature of production, the use of genres and stars, and narrative accessibility (Ciecko 2006: 16). Asian films assert a cinematic identity of their own through Hollywood-style spectacle and genre. Asian Cinema, it can be argued, is essentially an engagement with Hollywood as the universal model of popular, vernacular cinema, but in this engagement Asian Cinema evolves its own paradigm of the popular. On another level, Hollywood also signifies an engagement with modernity on the part of Asian nations and cultures, as expressed in Miriam Hansen’s contention that Hollywood cinema provided ‘to mass audiences both at home and abroad, a sensory-reflexive horizon for the experience of modernization and modernity’ (Hansen 2000: 10). Hansen has applied her theory of Hollywood as an influential model of ‘vernacular modernism’ to the early Chinese cinema (Hansen 2000), and other scholars have essentially followed her cue in the literature on China (see Lee 1999; Tang 2000; Zhang 2005; McGrath 2008). Much ink has already been spilled on the question of Asian modernity touching on Asian cinemas and

02 Introduction.indd 7 8/10/12 6:53:22 PM 8 Introduction their historical relationship with Hollywood or European cinema, such that there is no real need for me to repeat it as one of the major themes in this book, though it will feature as a sub-theme in some of the discussions, as in Chapter 5’s examination of horror. Modernity has become an intellectual mantra as it relates to Asian Cinema or Asian Culture as a whole because of Asia’s fast-growing economies and the perception of these economies as the testing ground of Western modernity in the developing Third World. In many respects, Asian Cinema is the epitome of modernity in Asia, but, as Jameson has warned, ‘the critique of modernization risks tipping the scales’ in a Third World ‘classically fixated on the dualism between the Old and the New, between tradition and Westernization, culture and science, religion and secularization’ (Jameson 1992: 206–7). Today, the scale of Asian modernisation is so startling that Jameson’s perception of Asia as Third World may already be outdated, and Asian films are now perceived to be so fashionably modern that in the case of something like Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000), for example, which may strike many Western viewers as a modernist approach to the martial arts genre, it behooves the Asian critic to point out the opposite – that, in fact, it is quite traditional. Asia is classically fixated on the dualisms between old and new, tradition and Westernisation, culture and science, religion and secularisation, and there may be no way of avoiding the issue of modernity, but what this book seeks to do is to show that Asian film-makers have transcribed both the popular and the modern in their own vernacular fashion. Modernity in Asian Cinema is, of course, a transformative project – as the name ‘Bollywood’ attests. It is an Indian transcription of Hollywood modernity and the vernacular, and it comes across as something altogether unique and not always appreciated. Bollywood makes the case that it makes better sense for the Asian critic to tip the scales of the modernisation discourse toward those properties that transform modernity into something else, or something Asian: Asian as a sign of altered states, altered modernity, emerging from the hegemonic field of Hollywood or Western modernity. The state of altered modernity represents the complexities of modernisation in Asia, leading both to gain and to loss. With modernisation comes consumerism and urbanisation of the sort that threatens traditional familial ties, overhauls gender roles and relationships, secularises society and transfuses vernacular genres with a sense of the contemporaneous (see again Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon). Asian Cinema so transparently encapsulates the redecorated and retouched effects of modernisation that it seems pointless to consider it as an allegory of modernity. Under the circumstances, what does one make of Asian Cinema having influenced Hollywood, as in the case of Hollywood remakes of Asian films? Could it be said that Hollywood is re-engaging with modernity? What, then, is Asian Cinema really, in terms of the modernity discourse? As a late starter in the Jamesonian schema of the geopolitical aesthetic Asian Cinema should be more postmodern than modern, but while Jameson’s aesthetic is a forewarning of global doom, Asian Cinema’s lateness gives us intriguing possibilities to consider how the concept could work as a more positive model of late twentieth-century

02 Introduction.indd 8 8/10/12 6:53:22 PM Introduction 9 millennial film-making, yielding a postmodernist development of film scholarship that is not too encumbered by Eurocentric movements in film studies. Thus, from the factor of Hollywood modernity and Asian Cinema’s response to it we may see a network of theoretical concerns that are constantly evolving or even changing. Gender and family could lead to issues of class and social hierarchies, generational conflict and generation change. As societies develop and turn from tradition we may see cities appearing and disappearing, as it were. Law and order is an issue, and so is crime and punishment. There are matters of the heart and mind, as well as those of the supernatural, religion, ritual and worship. Such issues will be explored in greater detail as we move into the chapters to follow, but the point I am making here is that they all generate factors which may be employed in discussing a theory of Asian Cinema. Nationalism, colonialism and postcolonialism generate a certain idea of national cinema which may be seen as a necessary stage towards a wider conception of Asian Cinema. Nationalism and colonialism also engender other theoretical concepts which Asian Cinema must outgrow, such as Third Cinema theory, often linked with Asian cinemas of the ‘Third World’ (I touch on this in Chapter 12). The reaction against Hollywood generates a conception of Asian Cinema as an alternative paradigm, but, as I have intimated above, there is more complexity to this particular issue than meets the eye: Asian Cinema is not exactly anti-Hollywood (again, more on this in Chapter 12). Gender issues generate a theory of melodrama in Asian Cinema and thus a certain genre that constitutes a special entity that defines Asian Cinema. Similarly, crime and punishment, the mind and the supernatural, religion, ritual and worship are all elements that constitute a field of topics energising the analysis of genres (such as Asian horror and crime thrillers). Genres can encompass nationalistic sentiment (such as the Chinese martial arts film) or come to fulfill a certain national essence (such as , or J-horror: the name itself already a sign of a certain nationalistic presence residing in the genre or perhaps taking over the genre). Ciecko refers to genre, to stars, auteurs and fans, and to cinematic spectacle as further factors in finding commonalities in Asian Cinema; the implication is that commonalities that exist in popular traditions, genres and styles may allow for a unified vision of Asian Cinema. Ciecko gives a special mention to melodrama as a factor that pervades ‘across genres of Asian cinema’ (Ciecko 2006: 26) and ‘permeates film narratives, impacts representational strategies, and regulates and unleashes displays of affect’ (Ciecko 2006: 27). This is an interesting factor to think about briefly here, in that we have an idea of Asian Cinema being unified in essence and generic substance by nothing more than melodrama. Within Asian Cinema, we may in fact think of melodrama not so much as a genre or as a ‘structure of feelings’ (according to Raymond Williams, quoted in Ciecko 2006: 27), but as a lifestyle that determines the behaviour of Asian characters. This is a factor that I will certainly engage with in discussing specific films in the following chapters. Melodrama brings us to issues surrounding the family, an Asian institution if ever there was one, and, in many cinemas in Asia, the family is synonymous

02 Introduction.indd 9 8/10/12 6:53:22 PM 10 Introduction with melodrama either as structure or genre (it can be argued that the family substantiates melodrama as genre). The family can be both unitary and fragmentary, involving questions of generational change and conflict, problems of youth and the etiquette and conservatism of social hierarchies. It can be metaphorical, as in the , where the theme of brotherhood and patriarchal authority functions as a shadow of the family in the space of the criminal underworld. All in all, Asian Cinema implies a special point of view, a certain way of looking at and thinking about Asian films, even if we broadly accept the idea of transculturalism as an intrinsically universal factor in the appreciation of Asian films. Transculturalism, in the formalistic and stylistic sense that David Bordwell has envisioned it (Bordwell 2005), is really the artful manipulation of film, but Asian Cinema is the sum total of transcultural universality and local knowledge that goes on to determine the Asian cinematic point of view. This special point of view may be linked to another factor that I mentioned above – that of the portrayal of Asian faces or physiognomies, bodies and gestures, emotions and their behavioural patterns – the way Asians look, both in terms of looking and being looked at. All these factors, and more, are entirely germane to this book’s theoretical concerns. There may be other points and issues that are not listed here but which will become obvious in the chapters following. This book does not claim to be the last word on Asian Cinema and is intended to open the lid on Asian Cinema as the receptacle of problems and possibilities in order to facilitate thought, understanding and further discussion on the subject.

Parts and chapters I have chosen to divide the book into three parts which I have characterised as ‘styles’, ‘spaces’ and ‘theory’, headings which provide the conceptual framework for the discussions. They are meant to reflect the broadness of the subject while providing some direction for the analyses and to guide the reader through the book. Hopefully, readers will regard these headings not merely as hypothetical models but also as practical routes toward discovering commonalities in Asian Cinema and understanding what theoretical areas of Asian films can be regarded as foundational grounds for a unified theory of Asian Cinema. In Part I, ‘Styles’, genres and auteurs form the basis of the discussion. In Part II, ‘Spaces’, Asian Cinema is understood as a geographic region, involving settings from the rural to the urban, from the private bedroom to the communal living room. There is also the notion of space as we might think of it in Chinese paintings, as apparent in the films of certain directors (Ozu, Hou Hsiao-hsien and Wong Kar-wai, for example), whose manipulation of this kind of space constitutes theoretical ana- lytical models. In Part III, ‘Theory’, we pursue more conceptual issues raised in conjunction with the rise of Asian cinemas in recent years. These issues revolve around rival theories such as World Cinema, National Cinema, Third Cinema and Hollywood, and how Asian Cinema may compete with them and eventually become an alternative paradigm.

02 Introduction.indd 10 8/10/12 6:53:22 PM Introduction 11 The first two chapters of Part I, are devoted to discussions of the great classical Asian stylists Kurosawa Akira and Satyajit Ray. Kurosawa and Ray were also the two greatest Asian directors responsible for the rise of Asian Cinema in the 1950s and its discovery by the West. These chapters focus on the directors’ works to determine how a classical Asian Cinema style emerged that was narrative and theme-based with a social-humanist preoccupation. Chapter 3, ‘The historical blockbuster style’, assesses and critiques the blockbuster style as a major form associated with historicist epics in Asian production. The chapter acknowledges the theme of nationalism in these epics. Nationalism manifests as a monumental style and the chapter asks whether this is a style that adds to and defines Asian Cinema in some way, or whether it distracts from our vision of Asian cinema as an intimate, low-budget but socially conscious exercise. Japanese anime is probably the most popular and well-known form of Asian Cinema and, as such, merits a whole chapter devoted to an analysis of its style and characteristics: this is Chapter 4, ‘The abstract transnational style of anime’, in which a critical investigation and critique of anime as both style and genre helps to place questions of cultural identity within the medium’s real or perceived transnationalism. Chapter 5, ‘Asian horror and the ghost-story style’, examines the horror genre, focusing on the ghost-story tradition that is seen across the whole spectrum of Asian cinemas, including the Japanese, South Korean, Hong Kong, Malaysian and Thai cinemas. The chapter explicates the characteristics and themes of the ghost story, with its focus on female spirits, in an effort to improve our understanding of Asian beliefs, fears and superstitions as reflected in Asian Cinema. The final chapter in this section, Chapter 6, offers a viewpoint on the unique Bollywood style. With its emphasis on extravagant song and dance, Bollywood is a major mode in Asian Cinema, recently given more prominence by semi-Bollywood productions such as Slumdog Millionaire (2008) and Western productions that evoke the Bollywood style (for example, Baz Luhrman’s 2001 musical Moulin Rouge). Previously dismissed as fundamentally local and accessible only to South Asian audiences and the Indian Diaspora, it is now receiving greater critical attention. A discussion of key Bollywood films, old and new, will form the basis of this chapter, which is devoted to an understanding of Bollywood as an integral style of Asian Cinema. In Part II, four chapters aim to delineate space in various dimensions and shapes as a crucial indicator of Asian distinctiveness in Asian Cinema, exploring the notion that Asian films may be united by a certain language of space. The fallback position of film theorists may be to declare that Asian Cinema is united by the language of film – that, where culture divides, the semiotics of film unites. However, the idea of Asian Cinema itself is inherently fragmented and will need much theorising on a microanalytical level to imply that it is a unified entity at all. These chapters attempt to find a justification through the element of space as a common film sensibility that marks Asian cinemas. Chapter 7 deals with the space of Asian melodrama, investigating how Indian and Japanese directors mobilise space in film to display unique styles and compositions that go a long way

02 Introduction.indd 11 8/10/12 6:53:22 PM 12 Introduction towards a definitive sense of Asian aesthetics. Chapter 8 deals with geographic and personal space in Iranian cinema, which has impressed film-goers with its poetic and humanistic treatments of its subject matter. The chapter will focus on the films of Abbas Kiarostami and other Iranian directors in terms of how they use the wide geographic space of Iran to delineate an inward space of personal occurrences and national experiences. This kind of approach is an important step towards affirming the concept of Asian Cinema as an inter-Asian method of communication and exchange, especially since Iran is still largely an isolated entity in the community of nations. The idea of domestic space centring on the family is treated in Chapter 9, in relation to the South Korean cinema. The films of Bong Joon-ho, Lee Chang-dong and Kim Ki-duk are given special attention for their remarkable delineation of a heavily domesticated kind of space in which the family resides. The family unit is seen to break down but it ultimately regroups with renewed strength and inner resolve. Erotic space is the subject of Chapter 10, which looks at sexuality as another distinct component of the Asian cinematic experience. Sex is associated with culture and society, and the chapter examines the social and cultural space that is conjured up in acts of sex. In Part III, Chapter 11 examines how Asian Cinema has outgrown the concept of World Cinema to become a transcultural medium in its own right. The principle here is that Asian Cinema already functions like a virtual World Cinema. Chapter 12 continues the discussion of Asian Cinema in relation to other concepts and rival theories: National Cinema, Third Cinema and Hollywood. How does Asian Cinema overcome these theories and come into its own? How does nationalism affect Asian cinemas? Is the concept of Third Cinema an antidote to nationalism? How does Asian Cinema accommodate ideas of Third Cinema? This chapter will also present more analysis of Asian Cinema’s relationship with Hollywood. Can Asian Cinema develop as an alternative paradigm to Hollywood? Is Hollywood basically an industrial model copied by Asian film industries? An attendant issue is that of cultural identity. How do Asian directors and critics assert cultural identity in a context of an unequal exchange in the field of discourse driven by Western domination and knowledge? The book ends with a brief coda, ‘Asian Cinema as conclusion’. The object of analysis and of our theorising may defy definition, but the book has striven to begin a process of examining and looking at Asian films through direct experience in order to reach towards a foundational theory of Asian Cinema.

02 Introduction.indd 12 8/10/12 6:53:23 PM References

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