ACADEMIC PAPERS Social entrepreneurship: Understanding consumer motives for buying The Big Issue Received in revised form.

Sally A. Hibbert completed her PhD on Mood and Motivation at Stirling University. She joined Strathclyde Business School in 1996 and is currently a Senior Lecturer in Marketing at Nottingham University Business School. Her research centres on consumer behaviour, focusing in particular on donor behaviour, ethical consumer behaviour, consumer disadvantage and shopping behaviour.

Gillian Hogg is Head of the Department of Marketing at Strathclyde Business School. She joined Stirling University as a researcher in 1992 and completed her PhD on quality professional service firms. Her teaching and research interests are focused on understanding consumer behaviour and consumption and she has published widely in the areas of ethical consumption, consumers’ response to the internet, service consumption and shopping behaviour.

Theresa Quinn is a graduate of the MSc Marketing programme at the University of Strathclyde.

Abstract Keywords: This paper examines consumer response to a particular social entrepreneurship initiative, The Big Issue. Focusing on consumer motivation, the research explores the utilitarian value of the Social product as compared to the desire to help the homeless as the primary motivation for purchase. entrepreneurship, The research found that, although the utilitarian value partly motivated purchase, consumers homelessness, widely perceived there to be a helping dimension to the exchange. Consumers valued the donor behaviour, empowerment goals espoused by The Big Issue and found it rewarding to play a part in the charitable giving, empowerment process. The appearance and manner of The Big Issue vendors influenced consumer beneficiary reactions to the initiative, indicating a need for careful management of ‘beneficiary portrayal’ portrayal in this context.

INTRODUCTION declaring their support for this approach Social entrepreneurship can be loosely as a means of alleviating social defined as the use of entrepreneurial disadvantage. Socially entrepreneurial behaviour for social ends rather than for behaviour can be identified in a number Sally A. Hibbert Nottingham profit objectives, or alternatively, that the of areas, however, broadly speaking, it University Business profits generated are used for the benefit falls into two categories: the first relates School, Jubilee of a specific disadvantaged group to the provision of public services in new Campus, Wollaton Road, Nottingham, (Leadbetter, 1997). As such the concept of and innovative ways and generally takes NG8 1BB, UK ‘social entrepreneurship’ has attracted place under the auspices of established Tel: 0115 951 5151 e-mail: sally.hibbert@ the recent interest of policy makers, with social services; the second is a broader nottingham.ac.uk government departments and agencies activity within which individuals set up

Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 4, 3, 159–172 Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1472-0817 159 Sally A. Hibbert, Gillian Hogg and Theresa Quinn

new approaches to specific problems its July 1999 to June 2000 business within the social economy. The term plan, is: ‘caring capitalism’ has been coined to describe this type of activity because the ‘To enable homeless people to earn an achievement of relevant social goals income by operating a profitable business which produces, markets and distributes a relies on competitiveness in the quality weekly magazine and to use the marketplace. As such it is of interest to success of this enterprise to support and consumer researchers, yet there is very promote strategies which tackle social little research available into the attitudes exclusion nationally and internationally.’ of the various consumer groups which participate in, or benefit from, these The core value of the BI is to help the activities. homeless by involving them in an The purpose of this research is to empowering process, rather than simply explore consumer responses to The Big providing them with free services as is Issue (BI) venture. Primarily, the typical of charities. This orientation is objective of the research was to examine reflected in the BI’s tag-line ‘a hand up consumer motives for buying the BI not a hand out’. Entrepreneurial magazine and, in particular, to initiatives of this type are strongly understand whether they see the supported by the UK government, which purchase as a commercial or an altruistic has expressed a preference for activities exchange. Furthermore, given that that aim to draw the ‘socially excluded’ homeless people themselves sell the into mainstream economic life. BI magazine, the research explores how vendors may be homeless, ex-homeless consumer motives are influenced by or vulnerably accommodated beneficiary portrayal conveyed through individuals. Anyone from the age of 16 BI vendors. years and above can sell the magazine. Vendors are entitled to sell the BI BACKGROUND magazine for up to two years after they The BI magazine is a nationwide are housed; they currently buy the publication and has grown to become a magazine for 40p and sell it to the public UK household name, such that even the for £1, thus making a profit of 60p. The BI BBC’s programme Eastenders has its own may be sold only by badged vendors. To vendor. Started in 1991 in London by become a badged vendor applicants John Bird, replicating a similar initiative must satisfy the organisation that they in New York, the magazine is produced are genuinely homeless and agree to by independent UK companies as part of follow the vendor Code of Conduct, a social franchise. There are separate which prescribes behaviour and editions of the magazine produced in specifically prohibits begging alongside Wales, the North of England, London, selling the magazine. South-West England and Scotland. In The effectiveness of the BI depends on Scotland alone approximately 65,000 understanding the reasons why copies are sold per issue. Funds to consumers choose to support the support the cause of homelessness are initiative. As an organisation the BIiS accumulated because most of the profits clearly wants the magazine to be a from these companies are directed into purchase for its own sake, having the side The BI Foundation, an associated charity effect of helping the homeless, and set up in 1998. Thus consumers do not believes that the quality of the product is give to the charity but make a purchase a driving motive. The nature of the sale from the commercial organisation that and the role of the homeless themselves donates its profits to charity. as vendors, however, mean that it is The mission statement of The Big closely associated with charitable giving. Issue in Scotland (BIiS), as identified in This paper seeks to build an

160 Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 4, 3, 159–172 Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1472-0817 Social entrepreneurship understanding of consumers’ motives Internal motives for entering into exchanges with this type In terms of an individual’s internal of social enterprise. The conceptual motives for helping, perhaps the most framework adopted is concerned only fundamental debate centres around the with the motivation for purchase and issue of whether prosocial behaviour is beneficiary portrayal and does not driven by altruistic or egoistic motives attempt to replicate previous studies (Griffin et al., 1993; Batson et al., 1989; which have identified a range of social Cialdini et al., 1987). According to Batson and psychological factors that influence et al. (1989), empathy, experienced when both buying and helping behaviour. altruistic motives are at work, results in a Rather, the research concentrates on the need to lessen the distress of the victim. unique factors of the BI as social In contrast, egoistic motives are entrepreneurship, consumers’ desire for associated with personal distress and the BI magazine vis-a`-vis their desire to people engage in helping behaviour to help the homeless and the influence of reduce their own distress rather than to the people selling the magazine, who are relieve the suffering of the victim also the beneficiaries, on consumers’ (Cialdini et al., 1987). Although these two motivation to buy. motives appear to be opposites, it is generally accepted that helping LITERATURE REVIEW frequently contains a rewarding There has been a vast amount of research component (Baumann et al., 1981; Harris, on consumer motives for buying 1977) as well as an altruistic dimension. products in commercial settings. Despite If, therefore, purchasing the BI magazine great diversity in approaches and is partly motivated by a desire to help, applications, there is general agreement empathy and personal reward are likely within this body of work that, at a to feature among consumers’ reasons for fundamental level, consumers buy goods buying. Studies of consumer donation because of the utilitarian and non- behaviour more generally provide utilitarian (eg emotional, epistemic, insights into the specific form that these social) benefits ensuing from the use/ motives might take. This body of consumption of the item purchased research has identified a range of motives (Sheth et al., 1991). In contexts such as that constitute rewards for helping. charity trading or social enterprises, Economic reasons for giving that have where the trading organisation is able to emerged, most notably in research help people in need as a consequence of conducted in the USA, are tax consumers’ purchases of their product, advantages and enhancing chances of the intangible rewards of helping are career progression (Dawson, 1988). likely to play at least some role in Social and emotional rewards identified motivating consumers to buy. Consumer include public recognition, self-esteem, helping behaviour in general is an area the satisfaction of expressing gratitude that has been relatively neglected by for one’s own wellbeing, relief from marketing researchers (Bendapudi et al., feelings of guilt and obligation, the 1996). Motivation is, however, one anticipation of reciprocation and simply dimension of consumer helping feeling good about oneself (Burnett and behaviour that has received relatively Lunsford, 1994; Bruce, 1994; Dawson, more attention in the existing body of 1988; Amos, 1982). Research has not research. The two main aspects of identified a similar range of dimensions motivation that have been explored in of empathy; however, evidence the literature are the external stimuli that advanced in models of helping decision prompt helping and internal motives for making suggests that there is some helping that moderate a person’s complexity to the empathetic motive. For response to those stimuli. example, Guy and Patton (1989) suggest

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that individuals assess whether or not the the cause of the need, beneficiary/donor beneficiaries ‘deserve’ helping, weighing similarity, labelling, social comparisons up whether or not they are ‘to blame’ for and the helping choices provided. the position in which they find Bendapudi et al. (1996) identify request themselves. The decision models also variables to include the nature (money, emphasise that people’s propensity to time, blood) and the size of the request. help is influenced by their assessment of This paper suggests that request whether or not they can ‘make a variables that influence consumer difference’ to the beneficiary. response also incorporate the mode of These types of motives also influence ask, which refers to where, when and by why people choose not to give or cease to whom donations are solicited. support a particular charity. McGrath Several of these stimulus factors are (1997) recorded that between worthy of investigation to gain an 40–60 per cent of all new donors to understanding of consumer motives to charities lapse. He posited that, while buy the BI. A key feature that initial motives for giving may be differentiates the BI initiative from altruistic, subsequent and repeat charities is that the homeless themselves donations may be due to the satisfaction sell the magazine. Moreover, it is that a donor derived from the first gift. primarily the vendor from whom a McGrath (1997) found that lack of consumer buys a magazine who benefits satisfaction emanated from concerns from the sale, although there is a about charities failing to make efficient contribution to the homeless more use of funds, spending too much on widely, because a portion of the sale goes administration or, worst of all, misusing to the BI Foundation. Therefore, this funds. All of these issues are relevant to paper explores how consumers are the BI. Over the years, press reports have influenced by the fact that they come into highlighted drug use by vendors, they direct contact with homeless people have also raised questions regarding the when buying the BI magazine. Two main effectiveness of selling the magazine as a issues are addressed. First, how does the way of helping people to combat request variable of ‘who’ sells the homelessness. Indeed, it has been magazine influence consumers and, suggested that selling the BI becomes a secondly, how are they influenced by the form of job and that vendors do not use it message variable relating to ‘beneficiary as a stepping stone out of homelessness. portrayal’, that is, how the vendor presents themself in appearance and External stimulation manner. The second aspect of consumer Previous research has examined motivation to help relates to the external request variables such as the size of the stimuli that prompt helping. Unlike request (eg Schibrowsky and Peltier, many other domains of consumer 1995; Fraser et al., 1988) and requests for behaviour, the need to help others, donations of different types (eg Fisher through giving to charity or otherwise, is and Ackerman, 1998; Broadbridge and rarely recognised by consumers in the Horne, 1994; Allen and Butler, 1993; absence of external stimuli. Research into Allen and Maddox, 1990; Pessemier et al., charitable giving has suggested that, in 1977), but there is little prior research into addition to its brand image and charitable giving that considers the reputation, a charity needs both to pay effects of ‘who’ makes the request. The attention to the message and request typical scenario for charitable giving is variables of its communications that a representative of the charitable (Bendapudi et al., 1996). Message organisation asks consumers for help on variables relate to factors such as behalf of the beneficiaries. Although beneficiary portrayals, explanations of consumers may react differently

162 Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 4, 3, 159–172 Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1472-0817 Social entrepreneurship depending on the nature of the person product or to help the homeless. Where representing the charity, this situational helping motives influence behaviour, the variable has received less attention than authors would expect both an altruistic more general perceptions of the charity, and egoistic dimension to the motivation its reputation and brand image (eg and for consumers to be influenced by Hibbert, 1995). Yet, consumers’ negative some of the factors identified in the reactions to charities’ use of paid helping decision-making models. With employees or agencies for collecting regard to external stimuli prompting donations, as found by Hibbert and purchase of the BI, the direct Horne (1997), suggest that consumer involvement of homeless people in perceptions of the asker may be an selling the magazine was anticipated to important influence on their helping have a positive influence on consumer behaviour. Because of the peculiar responses. There is inadequate existing situation whereby homeless people, ie research, however, to predict how the the beneficiaries themselves, are the portrayal of the beneficiaries, through front-line staff for the BI, the question the appearance and manner of the of ‘who asks’ was expected to have an vendors, will affect consumer motivation influence on consumers’ responses in to buy the magazine. this context. Given that elsewhere consumers have responded negatively RESEARCH METHOD to individuals unassociated with the The objective of this research is to charity, it was anticipated that the investigate consumer motives for direct involvement of the homeless in purchasing the BI and how beneficiary selling the BI magazine would have a portrayal, conveyed through vendors’ positive influence on consumers. manner and appearance, affects The helping behaviour literature consumer responses to individual incorporates a reasonable amount of vendors and the BI in general. While it research on message variables, including could be argued that Scotland is research on fear appeals (eg Bennett, unrepresentative of the UK market for 1998; Boyd, 1995), emotional appeals the BI, it was considered appropriate to (Bagozzi and Moore, 1994), labelling and concentrate on this region for a number dependency (Moore et al., 1985) and of reasons. First, there is a Scottish edition message framing (Smith and Berger, of the BI and therefore the product is 1995; LaTour and Manrai, 1989). There consistent across locations. Secondly, has been little research, however, that has homelessness and its associated considered beneficiary portrayal problems is a common problem in large specifically as a message variable. cities and the available statistics suggest Beneficiary portrayal for the BI, where it that Scottish cities are comparable to is the appearance and manner of the BI most of their English counterparts in vendors that provide the most visible terms of the size of the homeless portraits, makes this a peculiar case. population and the initiatives to tackle it. Normally, charities ensure some Finally, the BIiS is one of the most consistency in their communications successful of the BI initiatives, selling in and, as part of that, the way in which they excess of 65,000 copies per edition. portray their beneficiaries. The This research is inductive in nature individuality of vendors means that, and is not designed to ‘prove’ any where the BI is concerned, consumers are hypotheses regarding BI purchase, exposed to a great diversity of portraits rather it is designed to gain a better and their overall image is a product of understanding of motivations for their stereotyping. purchase. As such the fieldwork was In summary, motives for buying the BI designed to elicit as wide a viewpoint as magazine may relate to the desire for the possible. As no data is available on who

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buys the BI (other than sales statistics) it participants ranged in age from 20 to is not possible to define the population of 60 years. The groups were conducted in purchasers or to design a random hotels in each city, they were sample. Rather it was decided to elicit the tape-recorded and transcribed. In the views of as many individuals, either analysis of the data, common themes purchasers or non-purchasers, as were identified and the data were possible in a one-week period, using compiled around those themes face-to-face, researcher-completed (Creswell, 1994) with attention given to questionnaires in the five Scottish cities similarities and differences in attitudes in which the BIiS is sold: Glasgow, towards particular issues. Edinburgh, Aberdeen, Dundee and Stirling. In each city a central, pedestrian RESULTS shopping venue was selected and The results detailed below start with a individuals approached at random over profile of the sample for the quantitative a three-hour lunchtime period. The main research. The findings on consumer problem with this method is the very motives for buying the BI are then high number of individuals approached presented, focusing on the comparative who declined to stop; however, in total importance of product acquisition versus 645 usable questionnaires were helping as motives for buying the completed across the various locations. magazine. Finally, results pertaining to In keeping with the exploratory nature of beneficiary portrayal and its effects on the research the questionnaire comprised consumer motivation are detailed and mainly open-ended questions asking discussed. individuals for their buying motives and Respondent profile attitudes towards the BIiS and required a The final sample for the quantitative high level of post-coding and stage of the research comprised 645 categorisation by the research team. The adults (aged 16 or over). The Appendix questionnaire was piloted on a student gives an overview of the respondents in group prior to the main survey. terms of sex, age and employment status. Subsequently, focus groups were There is a greater proportion of females conducted in Glasgow and Edinburgh, in the sample (59 per cent) and a bias the main locations for BI sales in towards the younger age groups. In Scotland. Participants were recruited in terms of employment, individuals the street and were asked to attend working full-time were the largest group discussions in the evening. Twelve (44 per cent) and the rest of the sample participants were signed up for groups in was distributed across the other five each location and offered an incentive of employment categories. The proportion £25 for attending. Unfortunately, the of the sample obtained from each of the turnout rate was relatively low and only five Scottish towns and cities was as two focus groups were conducted. A follows: Glasgow 32 per cent, Edinburgh total of 13 consumers attended the two 33 per cent, Aberdeen 18 per cent, groups; five in Edinburgh (two males, Dundee 9 per cent and Stirling 9 per cent, three females) and eight in Glasgow which broadly mirrors the sales of the BI (four males, four females). While there in the various locations. The breakdown are no hard and fast rules as to the of the sample in terms of socioeconomic optimum number of participants for groups was: AB 16 per cent, C1 focus groups, the Edinburgh group of 30 per cent, C2 16 per cent and DE only five participants could be regarded 38 per cent. as too small; however, the nature of the discussion suggests that the participants Purchase behaviour were interested in the subject and had a Half the respondents were current contribution to make to the research. The purchasers of the BIiS, 23 per cent said

164 Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 4, 3, 159–172 Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1472-0817 Social entrepreneurship that they had bought it in the past but no interpretation is that consumers are longer bought it and 27 per cent had satisfied that the purchase of one edition never bought it. Cross-tabulations and fulfils their responsibility to help the chi-square tests were conducted in order homeless. Guy and Patton (1989) suggest to examine the relationships between the that an individual’s perception of their characteristics of the sample and their responsibility to help influences helping purchasing of the BI. Sex (p ¼ 0.000) and behaviour. By selling a bi-monthly age (p ¼ 0.003) were found to have a magazine, the BI may be helping significant relationship with purchase consumers to establish the extent of their behaviour; males and those in the two responsibility to help. highest age groups (56–65 and over 65 Individuals’ motives were more years) were more likely than expected to directly examined via an open question have never bought the BI. The effect of on reasons for buying the BI magazine. employment status on purchasing of the This question was addressed to BI was also significant (p ¼ 0.003). respondents who were current buyers of Consumers in full and part-time the magazine and those who had bought employment and students were more it in the past. Responses to this question likely to be current buyers of the BI, were post-coded and the most common whereas retired people and those who responses—those cited by at least were unemployed or not working were 5 per cent of the sample—are detailed in more likely to have never bought the Table 1. magazine. Thus, it appears that Two main themes were evident: the employed females, aged under 55 years, desire to help the homeless and the utility is the core consumer segment for the BIiS, of the product. Almost three-quarters of which confirms the impression of the respondents buy the magazine to help organisation. the homeless. The second and third most commonly cited motives relate to the Consumer motives for buying product itself, however: ‘I enjoy the the BI magazine contents/articles’ (15 per cent) and ‘it’s a To gain some insight into the magazine’s good read’ (14 per cent). A further utility as a buying motive, respondents 5 per cent simply said ‘I like the who currently buy the magazine magazine’. These motives clearly (n ¼ 323) were asked whether they buy emphasise that, for some individuals, more than one copy of the same edition purchasing the BI magazine is an act of and who reads the magazine. Most exchanging goods for money. buyers stated that they did not buy more The primary emotional influence on than one copy of each edition respondents was guilt, although a (92 per cent). Some (7 per cent) reported number of respondents expressed their buying multiple copies ‘sometimes’ and sympathy for the vendors. Some a minority (1 per cent) said that they respondents claimed that their guilty ‘always’ buy more than one copy of the same edition. The fact that most Table 1 Common motives for buying the BI consumers only buy one copy of the magazine magazine implies that there is a Motives % sample utilitarian value associated with the Want to help the homeless 73 purchase. There is further support for Enjoy the contents/articles 15 It’s a good read 14 this interpretation of the data in It’s a good cause 14 respondents’ answers to the question of Like the vendor 6 Find it difficult to walk past 5 how many people read their copy of the The vendors make you feel guilty 5 BI, where the majority (62 per cent) if you don’t reported that it was read by at least one I like the magazine 5 other person. An alternative Base ¼ 474 respondents.

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feelings were actively evoked by the ‘People who buy it are going to buy it as an vendors: ‘the vendors make you feel act, the transaction is the thing and as you said it is a bonus if you get something that guilty if you don’t’ (5 per cent); while you like to read about and if you are others were less direct in identifying the looking to increase the readership, then source ‘I find it difficult to walk past’ you have got to find something that people (1 per cent). Both of these statements are going to think, well, I wouldn’t imply that some consumers buy the normally buy this, but if it has that in it ...’ magazine with the express purpose of (Edinburgh F). reducing their own discomfort. In Further discussion in the groups comparison, a small number of indicated that few people saw the respondents referred to sympathy as a purchase purely as a commercial motive for buying the magazine, saying exchange. There were a number of ‘I feel sorry for them’ (1 per cent), ‘help statements made to the effect that if the someone get on their feet/out of the magazine was sold in a newsagent’s shop poverty trap’ (1 per cent of the sample) or a chain store consumers would not and ‘it’s a good idea/I agree with the buy it and many other comments philosophy’ (1 per cent). These referred directly to the dominant role of statements also reflect the feeling that the the altruistic aspect of the exchange. purchase/donation will make a difference To identify whether consumers are (Hibbert and Horne, 1997; Guy and aware of how the BI seeks to help the Patton, 1989), ie they reflect a belief that homeless, an open question was posed in the way in which the BI operates is the questionnaire asking respondents: effective in improving the condition of ‘What do you see as the role of the Big the homeless. Issue in Scotland?’. Responses to this When this question was asked in focus question are detailed in Table 2. The most groups, some of the participants, in common response—‘to help the accordance with the BI’s goals, homeless to help themselves’—clearly recognised that they were giving money acknowledges the goal of the BIiS to for a quality magazine, although rarely empower the homeless rather than were they able to ignore the idea that simply to give them handouts. A number there was a charitable dimension to this of the answers relate to particular aspects purchase. The first quote below is from a of the empowerment process. The participant who valued the magazine for second most popular answer—‘to its own sake, which again suggests that provide an income for the homeless’ the purchase is seen as an exchange of (30 per cent)—highlights the recognition money for goods. This represents the that an income is an important factor in ‘best case’ scenario for a social giving people choices in what to do with entrepreneurship initiative such as the Table 2 Consumer perceptions of the role of the BI. The second and third quotes indicate BIiS that consumers appreciate the product, Answers given by at least % sample to varying degrees, but highlight 5% of sample awareness of the helping component of To help the homeless help 62 the exchange. themselves To provide an income for 30 the homeless ‘I actually read the Big Issue more than I To make people more aware of 21 read the newspaper because it seems to homeless issues cover a lot of what is going on and it is not To give the homeless a medium 10 for expressing their views biased like some newspapers’ (Glasgow F). To campaign on behalf of 9 the homeless ‘I don’t buy it out of guilt, I buy it because I To fight the homelessness 9 actually enjoy the magazine. I know you issue on a public level Don’t know 13 can just give them money, you don’t have to take the magazine’ (Glasgow F). Base ¼ 645.

166 Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 4, 3, 159–172 Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1472-0817 Social entrepreneurship their lives and enabling them to become which the participants perceived to be active citizens. The four remaining items essential to experiencing feelings of pride in Table 2 refer to the notion of raising the and self-esteem. One participant, who profile of the problem of homelessness, had himself been unemployed, explicitly giving homeless people a voice and the linked employment with confidence and opportunity to participate in political self-esteem and expressed his empathy processes. with the BI vendors: Participants in the focus groups also highlighted that the way in which the ‘It gives them a job, it gives them a role in life, a status, which can help in increasing organisation helps people influences their confidence and self-esteem. I have whether or not consumers support the actually been unemployed through no initiative. Whereas the quantitative choice of my own and when it happens to research identified the general motive you, if you haven’t chosen to give up work, of helping the homeless as the dominant you lose your role in society, you become a big zero’ (Glasgow M). reason for purchasing the BI magazine, in the focus groups much more attention One participant from the Glasgow focus was devoted to the way in which the BI group also highlighted that it is operates and the process by which it rewarding for the buyer to participate in seeks to improve the situation of the process of empowerment associated homeless people. In particular, with the transaction. discussion in the focus groups centred on the empowerment of individuals who ‘I don’t know his name or anything, but we sell the magazine. Participants expressed pass the time of day and it helps their that the active role of the homeless self-confidence and self-respect—there’s more to it than getting 60p’ (Glasgow F). people as vendors was central to why they bought the BI, thus highlighting the The view that selling the BI gives the importance of the request variable of vendors self-esteem was not universally ‘who’ asks them to buy. held, however. For example, a ‘I think that this is showing that something participant in the Edinburgh group is being done for the homeless and that the suggested that selling on the streets was homeless are doing something for no better than begging in terms of themselves’ (Glasgow M). dignity.

The two quotes below also demonstrate ‘It is not a case of giving people dignity, the importance of the nature of the they are selling their wares in the exchange in which the ‘asker’ is inviting marketplace as opposed to just saying consumers to participate. have you any money for a cup of tea’ (Edinburgh F). ‘I think the positive thing is the way in which the vendors are represented—for Both the active involvement of the me the key message is that these are people homeless and the nature of the exchange with pride and self-esteem’ (Glasgow F). appear to influence consumers’ responses to the BI. As was suggested in ‘ ... the thing that I keep reminding myself of is that it is meant to be like a business, it relation to the quantitative results, these is not supposed to be about charity, it is factors relate to consumer perceptions supposed to be about giving people pride, that homeless people selling the BI self-confidence, they shouldn’t have to feel deserve support and that, by buying a that they are begging, they are selling magazine, the consumer can make a something’ (Glasgow M). difference (Guy and Patton, 1989). The apparently commercial transaction Further evidence that purchases of the that characterises the sale of BI BI are motivated by the perception that it magazines is seen as a way of signalling makes a difference emerged when that vendors are part of the workforce, participants from both Glasgow and

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Edinburgh noted the importance of cited by 5 per cent of the respondents. All buying directly from homeless people of these responses suggest that the utility and seeing where the money goes. of the product was inadequate to sustain the repeat patronage of former BI ‘Generally I get the bus into the centre of readers. town and when I get off, I buy one off the An additional issue that was identified first person that I see. I still think that the as a reason for ceasing to buy the BI was personal touch does have something to do with it, which I think is important, because that ‘there are too many vendors’ the person who is given the money makes (5 per cent). It is not clear why this deters them feel that they are actually consumers from buying the BI, although contributing directly to something, rather it may relate to notions that altruism than indirectly buying, say, Oxfam should be a voluntary act (Radley and Christmas cards or whatever, the money is actually going straight to the beneficiary’ Kennedy, 1995) and consumers feel that (Edinburgh F). the voluntary aspect is compromised when asked to buy a magazine very ‘There are so many vendors in the city frequently. centre, the reason that I would like to buy it from the same person, I would then Beneficiary portrayal feel that I was doing something, whereas when you see all these vendors, it is like a In the case of the BI, beneficiary portrayal drop in the ocean, but if you were actually has two aspects, perceptions of buying it from the same person you homelessness and the way in which might feel that you are actually making vendors present themselves when selling some contribution to that individual’ magazines in the street. Uniquely, (Glasgow F). consumers of the BI come face to face In the case of the participant from with the beneficiaries of their altruism. In Glasgow, the motive of directly helping most charitable giving there is a degree of the beneficiary was enhanced by the separation between the giver and the opportunity to repeatedly buy from the ultimate beneficiary, frequently same vendor. Data from the quantitative mediated by an organisational structure research showed that only 26 per cent of that decides on the actual use of the consumers bought from the same vendor money. With the BI the donor gives each time. The majority (70 per cent) directly to the homeless individual, who bought from different vendors. This does in turn has direct control over how the suggest that there is scope for individual money is spent. vendors to nurture relationships with The importance that consumers place consumers as a means of increasing the on how the money is spent is clearly stability of their income. illustrated by the fact that the most commonly cited reason for ceasing to buy Reasons for not buying the BI the BI was that ‘vendors are drug The importance of the product utility addicts/junkies’ (18 per cent). This was versus helping motives was also very much a regional problem, 23 of the explored by asking respondents who had 27 respondents citing this reason were bought the BI magazine in the past recruited in Glasgow, where drug abuse (n ¼ 151) why they no longer bought it. generally has been particularly The response most often obtained was problematic in recent years. It was, simply ‘I don’t know’ (19 per cent of the nevertheless, mentioned in both focus sample). Where consumers were able to groups and the explanation for why this give a reason, a common response for discourages purchase relates to the fact ceasing to buy the BI was ‘I think it is too that consumers do not see themselves as expensive/can’t afford it’ (10 per cent). helping if they buy the BI and the money Also, ‘I don’t like the content/features/ is spent on something with negative articles’ and ‘I did not read it’ were each consequences.

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Table 3 Consumer attitudes to vendors Rating of BI vendors on their ... 1 (%) 2 (%) 3 (%) 4 (%) 5 (%) d.k. Mean Appearance 10 16 34 34 4 1 2.85 How they ask you if you’d like to buy 10 8 29 37 13 2 3.22 a copy of the BI Their general behaviour 8 6 26 43 15 1 3.45

Base ¼ 645.

Vendor manner and appearance were still don’t have a lot of money, but I would explored in the quantitative research by buy from someone who looks more in need’ (Glasgow F). asking respondents to indicate their level of (dis)agreement with attitude ‘ ...trying to encourage people to buy the statements. Respondents were asked to magazine, if they don’t already and you rate the vendor’s appearance, their get comments like some of them are better approach when making a sale and their dressed than me, or they are smoking, and you know, why shouldn’t they, this is their general behaviour. Answers were given earnings and if they have to buy a new using a five-point scale where 1 ¼ very jacket or trainers or if they want to smoke, poor and 5 ¼ very good. The results are they have earned it and it is up to them given in Table 3. what they want to do with it and you Respondents were generally positive shouldn’t be discouraged. At the same about the behaviour of vendors and the time they are getting on their feet, so you would be more likely to go to someone way in which they sell the magazine. who is not maybe as well established and Given that the vendors are homeless buy it from them’ (Glasgow M). people, the relatively low score for appearance is not necessarily a negative Similarly when examining motives for perception for consumers to hold, as is not buying the BI, a number of other evidenced by the findings of the focus reasons given for ceasing to buy related groups. Group participants overall were to the vendors. Six per cent of the more inclined to buy from vendors who respondents who no longer buy the BI look more needy. The first quote below is simply said: ‘I don’t like the vendors’ and from one such participant whereas the a further 4 per cent stopped buying second quote is more paradoxical. It because ‘the vendors are aggressive’. illustrates a participant’s anecdotal These two responses suggest that certain experience of other consumers using consumers have constructed a negative the presentable appearance of vendors stereotype of vendors and it represents a as a reason not to buy the BI. Although type of person with whom they prefer to the participant himself disagrees with avoid contact or simply to whom they do this position, because being able to not want to give their money. When the dress in decent clothes is evidence focus group discussions considered the that homeless people are being manner of vendors it was primarily in empowered by selling the BI, he shows reference to unpleasant situations that similar bias towards buying from participants had experienced themselves those whose appearance suggests that or, more often, had been experienced by they remain in a relatively severe state people they knew, friends of friends, etc. of need. The first quote below indicates that the individual in this case was able to accept ‘I have just spent four years being a student the incident as a one-off, but other and there have been times that I have had respondents indicated that negative literally 80p on a Tuesday to last me experiences made them wary of BI through to the Friday till I get paid and if vendors. In none of the incidences you see a Big Issue seller who has a brand new pair of trainers or something like that reported did the aggression lead to you are not going to buy a Big Issue from physical assault but participants, that person. Even now that I am working I nevertheless, felt threatened by it.

Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 4, 3, 159–172 Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1472-0817 169 Sally A. Hibbert, Gillian Hogg and Theresa Quinn

‘My sister was almost pushed up against a transmitted through the vendor’s choice wall by one and that is why she won’t buy of where to stand when selling the it now, because she felt very threatened. magazines and the fact that this put And my brother-in-law came out of the Concert Hall one night to be asked to buy a people off buying. One participant copy and he said ‘‘no thanks mate’’, quite highlighted that vendors sell in places polite and it was a case of you spend £15 on where it is evident that consumers have a concert ticket but you can’t spare a pound just spent money on themselves to for a magazine. So there are problems but increase the guilt factor, while another you have to remember that not all of them are like that’ (Glasgow M). participant emphasised that it is intimidating when they sell outside ‘We were out and this girl asked us if we banks. wanted the Big Issue, and we already had it, and the insults that were hurled at us, CONCLUSIONS verbally, were unbelievable, and she The results of the research demonstrated followed us down the road, screaming at us’ (Glasgow F). that, although many consumers place some utilitarian value on the BI ‘One of the things that I find extremely magazine, few are able to see the offensive is being called ‘‘dear’’. It doesn’t purchase of the magazine as purely bother me if someone is obviously under commercial. The helping dimension of the influence of drugs, but the thing that really gets to me is being patronised and the purchase is an important feature of being called ‘‘dear’’. My one experience of the exchange and there are particular an aggressive vendor was when I did my features of consumers’ helping usual and I didn’t acknowledge being behaviour in this context. Importantly, called ‘‘dear’’ or something like that and he consumers were motivated by the fact actually did follow me and chase me, he that the BI seeks to help the homeless didn’t attack me, he just kept calling after me’ (Glasgow F). through a process of empowerment, providing employment by selling the The focus of the quotes above is on the magazine rather than simply giving aggressive behaviour of the vendor; handouts. Reference to the emotions that however, the participants’ quotes also motivate giving, particularly sympathy highlight the importance of other aspects and guilt, implied that there was an of the interpersonal communication altruistic and egoistic dimension to between vendor and customer, both giving as has been argued for charitable verbal and non-verbal. This is consistent giving generally. In this case, however, with the findings of research conducted vendors were sometimes seen actively to in other contexts. For example, Radley provoke guilty feelings in potential and Kennedy (1995) and Hibbert and customers, which was resented by Horne (1997) found that the way in which consumers. a request for a donation is made in The research findings pertaining to the charitable contexts is an important beneficiary portrayal in the case of the BI situational factor in determining unveiled some tricky managerial whether or not people make a donation. problems, particularly concerning the Notably, people are disinclined to give if physical appearance of vendors. they feel that the asker is restricting their Consumers, despite recognising the freedom of choice to give by creating a importance of empowerment in the BI situation in which they feel pressurised. initiative, were more prone to buy a Gabbott and Hogg (2000) have magazine from a vendor who looked demonstrated that non-verbal needy than one that appeared to be communication is a key influence on getting on their feet. The implication is consumer perceptions of service that consumers feel more at ease helping encounters. Further reference was made in a traditionally charitable way rather to the non-verbal communication than contributing to later stages of an

170 Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 4, 3, 159–172 Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1472-0817 Social entrepreneurship empowerment process. Guy and Patton service element to the consumer offering, (1989) identified that perceptions of the staff need to be trained to provide urgency of the need influenced service quality (Parasuraman et al., 1985), individuals’ propensity to help and this thus complementing the quality of the seems to extend to this context of social product on offer and not undermining it. enterprise. Also relevant to beneficiary There are a number of limitations to portrayal was the manner of vendors. this study, which should be Although the quantitative data acknowledged as a measure of its demonstrated that the sales approach contribution. First, the conceptual and general behaviour of vendors were framework for this study was limited to widely believed to be good, the focus consumer motives for buying the BI and group discussions demonstrated that responses to beneficiary portrayal. There critical incidents of aggressive behaviour are, however, a wide range of social and or inappropriate sales tactics, be they psychological factors that influence personally or vicariously experienced, consumer buying behaviour and helping were prominent in people’s memories. behaviour and further research that There are managerial implications of explores this range of factors is required both consumer buying motives in this in order to gain a good understanding of context and their response to the how to maximise the success of social beneficiary portrayal where the entrepreneurship initiatives. Secondly, a beneficiaries play a role as front-line staff. large sample was obtained for the First, although it is core to the principles quantitative phase of the research but, of social entrepreneurship that due to a poor response, there was a consumers regard the enterprise as relatively small sample of participants in offering quality goods or a service that is the qualitative research. Although a worth paying for, where the brand is range of experiences was accessed associated with ‘doing good works’ through the focus groups, ‘theoretical consumers cannot be expected to ignore saturation’ may not have been achieved the helping dimension of the exchange. with this size of sample. Moreover, the This suggests two options: first, there are research was restricted to Scotland and opportunities to make the enterprise’s may reflect cultural influences specific to empowerment goals and processes a this part of the world. Finally, the BI is a unique selling point. If this is not prominent case of social desirable, consideration should be given entrepreneurship, but it is of course a to creating a brand that is not associated single example and, as such, the findings with charitable activities. As concerns of this research are not widely beneficiary portrayal, there are generalisable. There are clear managerial implications pertaining to opportunities for further research to codes of practice and training. Where explore consumer response to other social entrepreneurship initiatives have a social entrepreneurship ventures.

APPENDIX RESPONDENT CHARACTERISTICS

Sex (%) Age (%) Employment (%) Male 41 16–25 20 Full-time 44 Female 59 26–35 27 Part-time 15 36–45 18 Caring for home/children 7 46–55 15 Unemployed/not working 11 56–65 10 Student 7 Over 65 10 Retired 15 Not stated — Other 1

Journal of Consumer Behaviour Vol. 4, 3, 159–172 Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1472-0817 171 Sally A. Hibbert, Gillian Hogg and Theresa Quinn

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