CEU eTD Collection Second reader: Professor András Ger Supervisor: Professor Miklos Lojkó In partialfulfillment oftherequirements forthedegree of AND 1900-1920 THE WEST: THE YUGOSLAV IDEA Central EuropeanUniversity History Department Budapest, Hungary Master ofArts Ivo Mihajlovi Submitted to Ę 2008 By ü CEU eTD Collection written permission of theAuthor. copies made inaccordance with such instructions may notbemadewithout the from the librarian. This pagemust form a partofany suchcopies made. Further the Authorand lodged intheCentralEuropean Library. Detailsmay beobtained either in full orpart, may bemade only in accordance withthe instructions given by Copyright inthetext thesis rests with ofthis the Author.Copiesbyanyprocess, COPYRIGHT NOTICE COPYRIGHT 2 CEU eTD Collection period sinceperiod thecreation ofYugoslaviato thepresent day. essays, articles and books, as well asthe literature on the subject published in the ideology, Yugoslavism, beexamined.will sourcesused The arethecontemporary United Kingdom. Theinherent problems oftheYugoslav state, and its uniting promoted theYugoslav andidea, itsreception the Europe, in chieflyWest the willbe onthe evolution of the cooperation between thevarious camps who motivationthe in promotionof the Yugoslav ideatothewestern public. Thefocus giving their own interpretationof the situation ground. onthe States of America. At the same time, the Balkan experts from Britain were active in campaignwiththe winners of the Great War: Britain, France, Russiaand the United golden opportunity fortherealization oftheirdreams, andpursuedavigorous unifiers improved immensely. BothCroat and Serb politicians and leaders saw the suffered by the imperialOttoman andHabsburg states, the prospects of would-be However, withtheonset of IandWorld the consequent withWar land losses seemedfacing an tobe impossible task thein firstyears ofthe twentieth century. The politicalmovements whose goalwas to form an unified southern Slavic state The aim of the present work is toexamine the key players and their ABSTRACT 3 CEU eTD Collection Iordachi fortheir contribution andencouragement. present thesis. Also tobethanked are professors András Ger guidance relating tothestructure, content and theanalyticalsubstance ofthe advice, which rangedfrom writingthe detailed pointers andediting to theoverall The Author wishes to thank professor Miklos Lojkó forhis invaluable input and ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Ę andConstantin 4 CEU eTD Collection BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 84 CONCLUSION...... 76 OETWLIMSTNWTO ...... 47 WILLIAMROBERT SETON-WATSON ...... 40 KINGDOMTHE OF SERBIA ...... 32 SOUTHERNTHE SLAV EMIGRATION ...... 22 YUGOSLAVTHE COMMITTEE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK...... 13 INTRODUCTION...... 6 ...... 5 OFCONTENTS TABLE ...... 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... 3 ABSTRACT ...... 2 COPYRIGHTNOTICE YUGOSLAVTHE IDEA WEST: AND THE 1900-1920...... 1 T W P T W C HE HE ROMOTING THE ROMOTING HAMPIONING THE ORKING FOR THE HO WAS T C REATY OF REATY ORFU W D HO ECLARATION ...... 55 L S ONDON ERBIAN S B OUTHERN RITISH ...... 61 TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE C ...... 72 G AUSE OVERNMENT S LAV ...... 65 C AUSE ...... 70 ...... 50 5 CEU eTD Collection the 20 Habsburg Empirethe in west and theOttoman Empirethe in east. The beginning of lands inwhich thesouthern Slavs lived wereamong divided thetwo empires; the problem that thoseenvisioning such astatehadalways encountered was thatthe wouldbe united, hasbeen around inone form or anotherfor centuries. The time. TheideaofYugoslavia, that is, thecountry whichin allofthesouthern Slavs For anew to catchidea onandbecome popular ittakesa lot ofwork andalong specialists in foreign policy. an obscureconcept whose existence was familiar onlytothe informed few or tothe west was cautious, warm, butmost if importantly, theYugoslav idea was nolonger virtues ofthesouthernSlavs totheEuropean public ingeneral.The receptionthe in they couldobtain. At the same time toextol they wenttogreatlengths the cultural new state intheBalkans to all thepoliticians and influential menwhose attention them Paris, London,to Rome and Washington. Theypromoted thefeasibility ofa promoting theYugoslav ideain all themajorEuropean capitals. Theiractivities took United Kingdom. promoted theYugoslav andidea, itsreception the Europe, in chieflyWest the willbe onthe evolution of the cooperation between thevarious camps who motivationthe in promotionof the Yugoslav ideato thewestern public. Thefocus a reality. enthusiasts saw an opening, an opportunity to act and to make theirdream become The Yugoslav enthusiasts embarked ona campaignof lobbying for and The aim of the present work is toexamine the key players and their th centurysaw the weakening ofthese two empires,and the Yugoslav INTRODUCTION 6 CEU eTD Collection occurred in aspan oftwo decades or more, thechronologicalorder ofthe events expounded uponseparately. Given thattheywere shapedbyvariouseventswhich and history. chronological orderwould havebeendisturbed bytheexplanation of theirorigins idea isnotasimpleentity appearing out airat agivenof thin moment, the since each oneofthefourmain contributors to thedevelopment oftheYugoslav participating couldhave beenintroduced astheyappeared onthescene. However, events couldhave beennarratedchronological in order, andthevarious players The structure of thepresent work couldhave taken severaldifferent forms. Thekey this point. Seton-Watson, whose writings andactivities case studyare takenasa toillustrate western Europeand, indeed, the world. Chief among them was Robert William enthusiasm contributed significantlythe to acceptance ofthe concept Britain,in Yugoslavia. These British experts were byno means disinterested observers. Their strategy that would beacceptableto the majority ofthe populationof the future factions, trying to helpthem to come to aunified planof action anda coherent focused on the westwardof expansion the new state. hailing from the newly independent and militarily successfulKingdom of Serbia,was multinational Habsburg Empire, advocated the federalist idea. Theother side, just how should thenew state might work. One faction, originating from the hearingof it,was notasimpleconcept. Nor did alltheparties promoting itagree on I haveopted for theformat which in thekey playersare introduced and It felltotheBritish experts ontheregion totryarbitrate between thetwo The ideaofYugoslavunity, appealing as andlogical as appearedit tothose 7 CEU eTD Collection available tome byitscustodians at the School ofSlavonic and EastEuropean mentioned earlier,Seton-Watson’s publications andprivate papers –kindlymade that onthethree other entities put together, awrong conclusionwouldbe drawn. As rather, itstitle. Indeed, given thatthechapter onSeton-Watson isalmost as long as chapter is not to be taken asan indication ofthe importance of its subject matter, or which hewrote copiously. Serb coalition, for which Seton-Watson had thegreatestadmiration andabout situation Hungaryin priorto the outbreak of war narratesthe evolution ofthe Croat- own strugglingwith thesetwo concepts, and the detailed description ofthepolitical on theCroatandSerbidentity,be seen, itwill are closely related toSeton-Watson’s between theeventsdescribedwith those theirin immediatevicinity. Thereflections to kindly indulge mywandering through time andspace tryto seethe link politicalsituation Hungary in prior totheonset oftheWorld I.Iask thereader War and Croatian languages and identity, aswell asthe detailed description of the musings anddetailed linguistic explanations on theorigins ofthestandard Serbian the commentary oftheevent. Similarly, the Seton-Watson chapter contains some Watson. Thereason forthiswas isthatit his writings thatwas takenasthebasisfor different chapter, the onedealing with the Britishexpert Robert William Seton- signed it.Asthings turned out,theevent was anentirely expounded uponin the government ofSerbia,for was it therepresentatives ofthese two bodiesthat been apartof the chapter aboutthe Yugoslav Committeethe onedealing and with a chapter of more thanoneentity. For example, theCorfu Pactcouldequally have described isdefinitely disturbed. Moreover, various eventscouldhave appeared in Finally, asmay beconcludedfrom the above,lengthofeach individual 8 CEU eTD Collection state. treatment ofCroatsin theKingdom of Serbia,and inthefuture southern Slavic Croatia, Croatian politicians thoughtthat theywould setthe stageforsimilar Vienna, and atthesame time guaranteeing theequality toSerbianpopulation in and culturaltraditions. Bymaintaining the politicaldistance from Budapest and Serbs were asingle people,coequals with two names, butwith differing political joinedthe Yugoslav Committee, promulgated the idea thatthe Croats and the outcome ofunification ever materialize. even keel withthealready independent Kingdom Serbia, shouldof thedesired gain in stature asa political unitautonomous and independent enough tobe on an Habsburg Empire. Inthelongrun,thatdegree ofautonomywould allow Croatia to generate the greatest possible degree of autonomy withinthe already weakened thein form of Croat-Serbian Coalitionthe in Croatian Parliament. and themselves person in had alreadycollaborated onthe Croatian political scene, the Serbian population from the same area.Thepolitical parties they represented Empire. Most ofthem were ofCroatdescent, but several keymembers belongedto lobbying organization manned bypoliticians and prominent men the Habsburg from In thefirst chapter of thepresent thesis Iwill focusontheYugoslav Committee, a their location the chapterin bearing his nameseem natural. only Studies in London – were thebasis ofmuch of what Iwrite thein present work, and The members oftheCroat-SerbCoalition, mostprominent ofwhom later The immediate political goal oftheCroat-Serbian Coalition hadbeen to 9 CEU eTD Collection the formation ofthenew state. Chief among them was Robert William Seton- The fourth chapter of my thesiswillstudy the activities ofthe British advocates of Yugoslavia. Serbia”, less hegemonic “bigger Greater Serbia” ormultinationalfederal drives for its expansion; wouldthe new state bethehegemonic “smaller Greater I. War of World seen amajor expansionterritories, ofits which nearly tripled just priortotheonset government. Inafew short decadesofitsexistence theKingdom of Serbiahad The third chapter will bedevoted tothe Kingdom of Serbiaandtheactivities ofits Croats or Serbs. the Kingdom of Serbia,and that irregardless ofwhether they themselves were identified with the Yugoslav Committee morereadily than with thegovernment of Australia andSouth Africa. Given their origin, thatoftheHabsburg lands,they large concentrations ofSouthern Slavs in both the Americas, New Zealand, under the Habsburg rule, andtheirmajority were Croats.Such great resulted in between 1890and1910.Virtuallyof the all emigrants came from the Slavlands financially, tothe activities of the Yugoslav Committee. organizations they founded inthe new contributed,world both politically and creationof asingle Southern Slavcountry. The emigrants andtheassociations and and NorthAmerica and their participation inthepromotion ofthedrive forthe The Second chapter will dealwith theCroatian andSerbian emigration South in The internalsituation Serbiawillin bebriefly reviewed,as different aswell The greatest wave of the emigration from the Southern Slav landsoccurred 10 CEU eTD Collection population. His view was thatanyloss of territoryBanat would in bewell gains the Banat,in spite in of the fact that they included pockets withSerbian acceptable toSeton-Watson, who suggested toSerbs accept the Romanian Hungary into Serbianterritories. not approve of the plans which included the Nagykanizsa andPécs districts of showed him mapthe forthewestward expansion ofSerbia, Seton-Watson could dismiss theidea asexcessive. Inthesame whenPrince Alexander vein, ofSerbia Villach and Klagenfurt, whose majority population was German, hewas quickto Monarchy. On the other hand, when Yugoslavs made claims onAustrian towns resistance among theCroats, whomay thenendupsiding with theHabsburg Slavic character, and that the plans tohave it cededto Italy would causegreat published alongletter in and allegiances of the localpopulation. For example,April on 23,1915 he boundaries of the future Yugoslav state was anappealto the nationalsentiments state which would block the Germanic the British government,whose in interest was toform a strong, stable and populous geopolitical interests ofhisgovernment. TheYugoslavideawas attractive also to the same time, subject, asaBritish Seton-Watson always consideredthe formation ofYugoslavia tobethe bestoption forSlovenes, Croats andSerbs. At within the Habsburg Empire, butby1914 he changed his mindand considered the nationalities thein Habsburg Empire. Watson, aScotsman who himself dedicated tofinding ajust solution forthe However, abit of bargaining, oramore practical approach was also The main principlethatSeton-Watson wished toapplyindefining the At firstSeton-Watson believed thatthe future oftheSouthern Slavs could be The Times , whichin he argued that Dalmatia clearly had Drang nachOsten . 11 CEU eTD Collection the foreign policy ofBritainto a greatextent. and Offices.War Inthe end, the activities of a single dedicated person influenced of Propaganda in Enemy Countries, Seton-Watson influenced the British Foreign Cabinet. Department ofPropaganda in Enemy Countries,which reported directly to the War was inFebruary 1918 transferred toCrewe House,otherwise known asthe 1916 he worked for the Intelligence Bureau of the Department ofInformation, and member oftheSerbian Relief Fund and the Serbian Society ofGreat Britain. From Europe correspondence. From 1915 onhealso published aweekly journal, maintained contact with them throughout the years, accumulating avast body of 1909, he was introduced to key Croatian andSerbian politicalfigures. He finer details inorder tofindpractical workable solutions. nationalities ofthe Habsburg Empire –did notshy from overlooking some ofthe that Seton-Watson –while chief his motivation wasto findajust tothe solution compensated intheunion with theSerbsof the Habsburg Monarchy. This indicates Carrying his program from the pages of During Seton-Watson’s travels inthe south Slav region, which started in , onwhose pages he promoted the Slav cause. Hewas alsoafounding The New Europe to theDepartment The New 12 CEU eTD Collection which, attimes, However, poses a challenge. oftheinterpreter’s the sifting attitudes researcher iscertainly required topreserve his or herproperjudgment andintegrity, communist regime. Yugoslavias: theinter-war constitutionalmonarchy andthe post-World II War interpretation, however, offered equally negative andscathing interpretation ofboth onto the1910’sand 20’s was notentirely positive either. TheCroatian historians hadmore complaints about the post-World IIWar period, their outlook the conflicts which resulted inthe dissolution of Yugoslavia. SerbianWhile Yugoslav project –was ushered in in the 1980’s and fully blossomed atthe onset of committedfinal II.The World period–thatofdisillusionment during War withthe Yugoslavia, some ofwhich wereechoed in the ethnic clashes and atrocities ideological and pragmatic motivations of those twomajor players in the formation of particular approach wasthe rootedin desire not todraw attentionto thecontrasting Committee andtheGovernment oftheKingdom of Serbiahadanabundance. That superficially, entirely de-emphasizing the differences ofwhich theYugoslav communist-sponsored historiography touched onthe formation periodonly achieved. The secondperiodcame afterWorld II,duringWar which theofficial whowere euphoric thatthesought-for goal ofthesouthern Slav union had been was formed, ofmost andtheleaning oftheYugoslavhistorians was thatofvictors they might havehad.Thefirst suchperiod came immediately after thenew state previous epochs, and filter outthe biases or preferred ways of viewingthe events to studythevarious interpretations ofthe historians whowrote onthetopicin In revisitingthe events leadingto and relating tothe creationof Yugoslavia onehas While wadingWhile through suchemotionally and politically charged material, the THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 13 CEU eTD Collection the studied events, perhaps the time hascome foranew look, afourth disguised asa historicalfact. not beataboofor ahistorian, provided, however, thatsuchanopinion isnot as acommentator. Putsimply, theairing ofpersonalopinion or interpretation should established that a historian is nota judge, and now I wish toreturn tohis orher role primary andsecondarysources, let usturn backtothehistorian’s role. Earlier itwas Having reviewed thedifficulties thataresearcher may encounterindealing withthe purpose andaudience inmind.” “documents arealways written from pointsomebody’s of view, with aspecific oftheobjectivity ofdocuments.J. Evansraisesthe issue thatthe Heproposes the menwho “make” thehistory may alsofall preyto the lure ofdata tempering. R. notonlyIndeed, it is thehistoriansmay who fall shortontheobjectivity scale, but recorded, or the document which contained them does nolonger exist. missing, or maymisrepresented. be Some important details may neverhave been desired result; some ofthefacts recorded in theoriginal documents may be Norton and Company, 2000. p. 80. 2000. andCompany, Norton 2 1 reconstruction.” work, absenceof inthe especially easilyrules formalized ofhistorical accuracy, which becomevirtues essential andguarantees of serious scholarly even ifheorshetries tobe truthful, faithful tothetwo oftruth: virtues sincerity and attemptingwhile to interpret history. In István Rév’s words, “the historian mightfail, from the secondarysources merelyis afraction of thedifficulties oneencounters R. J. Evans, “Historians and Their Facts”, in R. J. Evans R.J. in andTheirFacts”, “Historians Evans, J. R. Istvan Rev, Indeed, given thatthere hadbeenthree major periodsintheinterpretationof Then there is thequestion oftheobjectivity ofthedocuments themselves. Aftertought, The only thing the historian can offer historian only thingthe The Aftertought, 1 Furthermore, sheerobjectivitynot will necessarily leadto the 2 In Defence of History of In Defence , (draft, March, 2007). March, , (draft, , New York: , W. W. 14 CEU eTD Collection the southern Slavs was themost popularpolitical agenda both in the Kingdom of treated with respect. After all, thedesire for unification ofallthe lands inhabited by and politicians over aperiod ofnearly two centuries, and as such deserves to be hand. It has stirred the imagination of some ofthe most prominent Croatian artists But theYugoslav idea –theIllyrian idea, if you will– shouldnot bedismissed off idea, and since that idea was bad,they were simply duped, inebriated, intoxicated. Krleža and his likescompromised themselves byhavingaligned with theYugoslav Croat historians arenowkeento?Thereasoning simplistic; asobvious as is it and artists. How dare we dismiss them as mere dupesofsome Serbianplot, asthe sincerely wrong. Among them werethere someof theforemost Croatpoets,writers members oftheYugoslav Committee asmerely dupedmen whowere sincere,but Yugoslav Committee? Itshouldnot. It is entirely disrespectfulto dismiss the that negatethe merit oftheidea itself, thevalue ofthevision ofthemembers ofthe the course it took all seemed tocontribute to and lead to its finaldemise. Butdoes problems verycreation. Thepolitical from its decisions eventsand which influenced on itsownmerits, from today’s perspective. Serbian side ofthe lateeighties, buta calm reassessment oftheideaYugoslavia hysterical unleashing ofemotionally charged accusations between theCroat and interpretation which would notallow for dissent or difference of opinion, nor yet the the rest” attitude ofthe post-World I period,War northeselective communist willnot bewithout commentary. Itwillnot be the simplistic “wewon, andtohell with interpretation. And evenifthis author succeeds making in thatnew objective,look it Yugoslavia as a country seemed tohave been plagued with internal 15 CEU eTD Collection Paši Indeed, theveryname Yugoslavia was opposedbytheRadical Partytowhich Mr. who inthose lived areas were tobesubordinated tothe leading roleof Serbia. The “bigger solution” included all CroatandSlovenian lands.The othersouth Slavs Slavoniawith Serbia. This included also union with MontenegroandMacedonia. with Bosnia-Herzegovina, partofDalmatia, theVojvodina, Srijem and apartof government hadtwosolutions mind.in “littlesolution” The wouldinclude theunion territorialgains resulted inthe unification of all Serbs. In fact, the Serbian that itwould beamere continuation ofthepre-war Serbian kingdom whose Press, 1993. p. 132. p. Press,1993. Politics. History, Origins, inYugoslavia: Question National to haveYugoslavia drown inher.” of theruling SerbRadical Party:“Serbia does not want todrown inYugoslavia, but 5 4 1918-1992 a Idea, Failed of Histories 3 Serbian identity. This ideawas succinctly expressed byNikola Paši Yugoslav identity, but the absorption ofthat identity theinto already existing sought toachieve thehomogeneity ofthe population; notthecreation ofanew prevailing side certainly went hand in hand withthose forces in Yugoslavia who claims thatnationalism imposes homogeneity, model, theSerbs an extension of the already existing Serbian state. Elie Kedourie models own hadits backingparty; themajority oftheCroats supported thefederal how the models ofunification were implemented and negotiated. Each of the two In discussing the Yugoslav ideaand the process of unification Iaim to understand of theCroat-Serb Coalition for adecadestarting in1905. and theHabsburgSerbia Slavlandsofthe in Empire, the asmanifested in success Nikola Paši Nikola Kedourie, Elie Denis Rustinow, “The Yugoslav Idea Before Yugoslavia”, in Dejan Djokic, ed. Djokic, Dejan in Yugoslavia”, Before Idea Yugoslav “The Rustinow, Denis ü belonged. The so called Vidovdan Constitution, drafted by the Radicals and ü to Jovan Jovanovic Pizhon in London, October 5, 1918, quoted in Ivo Banac, Ivo in 1918, quoted 5, October London, in Pizhon Jovanovic toJovan Nationalism , London, 1960. London, , , London: Hurst and Company, 2002. p. 23.p. 2002. Company, Hurst and London: , 5 Paši ü ’s vision for the new south Slav state was 4 andthe model introduced by the Ithaca and London: Cornell University Cornell andLondon: Ithaca 3 ü , thepresident Yugoslavism: The 16 CEU eTD Collection grow with time. Serbs required a federalstructure, and that the Yugoslav identity would gradually that thedifferences in thenationalconsciousnesses oftheSlovenes, Croatsand identities. formed asaresultofgradualmolding ofstill strong separate southSlav national identity andpolitical autonomy. Theirbelief was thattheYugoslav nation was to be organization ofYugoslavia, inwhicheach nation should preserve itsnational politicians tried toconfine theSerbiandomination by arguing for a federalist Serbian side was takingaleadingrole indefining thenew state. Most oftheCroat was federalinnature. accept thepolitical ruleof theSerbian dukes just aslongtheinternalmakeup 19 Vol. 3,No.4: Vol. all theyhave Croats been…” words: all Croatsofold;Serbs, “…thatloves Bosniaks, Herzegovinians brethren… views ontheidentityofSlavic nations adjoining theCroatterritories inthese confined tothe Serbian sidealone. As early as1834aCroat poetexpressed his And sothenew state was christened theKingdom of Serbs,CroatsandSlovenes. seen bythe Radicals asaCroat ploy whose aimwas toweaken Serbian identity. 10 pp.74-75. 2003. ad Company, London: Hurst Djokic, Dejan ed. 7 6 introduced onthe28 9 p.417. 1955), (Jun., No.2. 8 Vjekoslav Babuki Vjekoslav pp. 168-169 Banac, Tihomir Cipek, “The Croats and Yugoslavism”, in andYugoslavism”, “The Croats Cipek, Tihomir in YugoslaviaP, in “Federalism Frankel, Joseph Dragovan Sepi Dragovan th century,theeminent Croat Bishop Strossmayer expressedhis readiness to The political reality intheperiod oftheclosing of was I World thatthe War The ideaofthesupremacy ofonenationabove theother,however, was not 9 Though imbued withthe idea of South Slav unity, theirs was the view 1918-19: From WartoPeace From 1918-19: ü 10 , “The Question of Yugoslav Union in 1918,” in Journal of Contemporary History, Contemporary of Journal in in 1918,” Union Yugoslav of Question “The , ü , published in published , ButYugoslav identity assuch never took root, 8 th ofJune1921, deliberately avoided thename Yugoslavia, Danica Hrvatska 7 Ontheother hand, speaking In the last decade ofthe . (Oct. 1968), p. 40. , October 1834. , October The American Political Science Review Science Political The American Yugoslavism: Histories of Failed Idea 1918-1992 Failed of Histories Yugoslavism: 11 as predicted by , Vol. 49, Vol. , 17 6 , CEU eTD Collection London: Hurst ad Company, 2003. p.5. Hurst adCompany, London: 15 14 13 1918-1992 of a Idea, Failed Histories Yugoslavism: 12 Hrvatska Politika u XX stolje platform which would encompass them without infringing onany of them. nationhoods andaccepted them as such,seeking toprovide amulti-national federal 11 existed.” Slovenes) orsuperseded anydifferences between them whichmight have recognized nodifferencesbetween Yugoslav ‘tribes’ (at thattime Serbs,Croatsand time thenew state was formed. Oneof these was “’integral Yugoslavism’, which a common political forasuccessful language union. expression, perhaps againstodds, alland that in itself prevented them from defining expression.” either fail, or,more commonly, willrefrain from even tryingtofind political projects tosucceed. Ernest Gellner makes asimple calculation to seewhat the odds are for national of thesetwo movements was the reasonfor thefailure ofthe Yugoslav project. absorb eachother, theirin own peculiarway.Now,the verystrengthofeach evolve. recognizingWhile theproximity tooneanother,theymerely soughtto conscience developed to a high degree before anyYugoslav idea had a chance to project isthatboththeCroatsandSerbs had theirown nationalidentity and insatiable hold-all concept,” the Croatianopposition leader IvoFrank, who dismissed as“nebulous, it mystical, Dejan Djokic, Introduction, in Introduction, Djokic, Dejan Op.cit. p. 47. 1983. Blackwell, Oxford: andNationalism, Nations Gellner, Ernest ed. Djokic, Dejan in Yugoslavia”, of Unification the and War World “The First Pavlowitch, St. Kosta Ljubomir Anti Ljubomir In fact, two different strands of Yugoslavism were already present by the Indeed, it appears that one of the reasons Yugoslaviawas not a successful 15 Theother version ofYugoslavism recognized thealready existing 14 ü However, boththe Croats and theSerbs found theirpolitical , “Nacionalne ideologije Jugoslavenstva kod Hrvata u dvadesetom stolje udvadesetom kodHrvata Jugoslavenstva ideologije “Nacionalne , 13 The result shows that “most potential nationalismsmust ü u , Zagreb, Matica Hrvatska, 2006. p. 55. 2006. Hrvatska, Matica Zagreb, , Yugoslavism: Histories of Failed Idea 1918-1992 ofFailed Histories Yugoslavism: 12 , London: Hurst and Company, 2002. p. 27. p. 2002. Hurst andCompany, London: , , ed. Dejan Djokic, Dejan ed. , ü u”, in u”, 18 CEU eTD Collection where therelatively new identity ofa Briton supersedes butdoes notannul thepre- and proudQuebecois identity. TheUnited Kingdom provides another example, problem identifyingin itself asCanadianwhile atthesamea strong time retaining same canbe said ofthefrancophone population of Quebec, most ofwhich hasno identities which are not conflictingwiththeir American identity inanyway. The do preserve a perfectly viable New England, Alabama orPennsylvanisch Deutsch the American citizens with strongbelief inadherence to theUnited States may and nationalist identity canbefound alsofederations in or similarlyin organizedstates: being aGerman nationalist. Interestingly, the other similar examplesmulti-level of regional senseofbelonging. Thusonemay afineNordheinisch retain identity while Germansaffix could their identity, without losing thealready existing localor as afederation,the new state provided a ‘higher’ level platform on which the that ofGermany. Formed from countless dukedoms andcity-statesorganized however, neednothave been thecase. and Serbian– eventually prevailed against the unifyingYugoslav identity. This, Serbian andtheYugoslav identity. Aswe haveseen,thesmaller units –bothCroat applied, and in thegivencasechoicemade hasto be between theCroator comesto thestateallegiance, neither ofthetwo extremes ofthiscontinuum can be Ragusean, aDalmatian, aCroat, a Yugoslav oraEuropean. However, when it feeling ofallegiance to a town, aregion, astate oracontinent; heor she may bea continentaleven or global identities ontheother.Thusaperson may haveastrong being defined on narrowly local parameters ontheone end of the spectrum to large selection ofthe‘core’ population foranygroup identity –varies inthescale from One example oftheunifying identitysurvive thatmanaged totakerootand is The basis forthedifferentiation between‘us’ and‘them’ forthe –thebasis 19 CEU eTD Collection citizens under anew identity umbrella. Conversely, themore centralized, totalitarian organization thebetter the expectations of success for a federal state tounify its thein identity ofthe Tibetans even after five decades. Romaniancharacter. China’s invasionand strict ruleof Tibet didnotyield achange to disbandthe pre-existing localHungarian identity thatwas slow to acceptthe Ceau Transylvania, inwhich therelatively largeHungarian population vigorouslyresisted borders. Another exampleof failed imposition ofstate identity may befoundin Russian cultural influence ortotheRussian population settled within itsown be usedas a prime example,showed verylittletolerance towards the lingering disappeared a moment,in andtheemerging nationalstates, of which Lithuaniamay became apparentoncethe SovietUnion was dissolved. The Soviet identity large ethnic Russian population was moved totheoutlying Soviet Republics – extent ofthe Russian culturaland indeed physicalcolonization – under which the recipient nations asthecontinuation oftheformer colonization. RussianCzarist The was thename donein acloser offorging Soviet identity,but was seenbythe imposed ontotheTurkmenic languages, which hadtheretoused Arabicscript. This within the USSR’s borders. TheRussian Cyrillic alphabet, for example, was Russian, imposed itself and its culture onto the numerous peoples who founditself similar tothe above examples, was a totalitarian state in which one ethnic group, The former SovietUnion, whileorganized asafederationand therefore theoryin wasfirst aBriton ofall,and onlythen a Welshman. existing Scottish,English of identity.Welsh Indeed,Prime Minister Lloyd George ú escu’s policy offorced resettlement, which was seenasaconcentrated effort From the examples aboveitmay beconcluded that the looser the state On theotherendofspectrum are thestateswhich donotallow diversity. 20 CEU eTD Collection identity. Croat andSerb identities, which then to led the longterm failure oftheYugoslav centralized state organization contributed to the polarization between theSlovenian, formula tothecaseofYugoslavia, aconclusion may bedrawn thatthestrong citizensthe state or oppressive arelesslikelytoidentify Inapplying with thisis its it. 21 CEU eTD Collection connectingwhat Czechand Slovak lands with Slovenia andCroatia. stop theenthusiast Pan-Slavs from envisioning anorth-south Slavcorridor geographical fragmentation ofthe lands occupied bythe Slavs, for example,did not impracticalities of the implementation of such anidea, stemmingfrom the become theKingdom of Serbia,andcertainly not the Bulgarians orRussians. The Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, but not those Serbs living inwhat would shortly Slavs whowere atthattime undertheAustrian rule. Thatobviously included Congress, held inPrague in1848, Palacky propagated the idea oftheunity ofall promulgated byFrantišek Palacky, were a close match. Inthefirst Pan-Slav had beenpromoted sincethemidnineteenth century. The Pan-Slavic principles, as Committee subscribed, at least partially, to a variation ofthe Pan-Slavic ideas that representatives and missions variousEuropeanin capitals. the Yugoslav Committeemoved itsseattoLondon, and established its at theParisplenary session, wasdr.Ante Trumbi Yugoslav CommitteewasIvan Meštrovi thesculptor intolands GreaterHungary. Oneofthe key organizers andinitiatorsthe of thein London Agreement –andtoHungarian driveto incorporate partsof Croatian meant theactiveparticipation intheresistance totheItalian irredentism – embodied Empire and their unification withthe Kingdom of Serbiaand Montenegro. This also was theliberation ofCroatian andSlovenian landsfrom the Austro-Hungarian Serbian andSlovenian political emigration from the HabsburgEmpire. Itsmain goal The Yugoslav Committeewas foundedonApril 30,1915inParis, byCroatian, By promoting theideaofunity oftheSouthernSlavs theYugoslav THE YUGOSLAV COMMITTEE ü . Immediately after its foundation ü , anditsfirst president, elected 22 CEU eTD Collection River inthe north. Politically, the Yugoslav Committee alsohad a clear goal. The the west andthe Danube in theeast, between theAdriatic inthe south and Drava situation. Territorially, itmeant theinclusionof theSlavs livingbetween theAlps in withthe SecondBalkan in1913madeWar thatoption unfeasible. but the history of conflicts they had had with the Serbs starting in 1885 and ending Bulgarians were included among theconstituent nations of the southern Slavstate, oppressed byforeignempires. At onepoint, andonly the theoretical in models, the and Serbs–who couldeasilyunderstand each other,peopleswere who long contiguous swathes ofland, populated bythree Slavic peoples–Slovenes, Croats called Pan-Slavism at all.The ideawas practical because soughtit to include the subscribed was onlylimited tothesouthern Slavs, andthushardly deserves tobe feared theexportation ofthe revolution into its parts. promote asingle nation above the other, and external, since all ofEurope now The reasonsforthatwere internal, forthe internationalist Sovietsdidnot seekto 1917 brought anysupport fortheRussian typeofPan-Slavism to anabruptend. Orthodox undertones, held noappealwhatsoever. The triumph oftheBolsheviks in long-sought imperial toward expansion south,which, accompanied bystrong Slavism was popularamong theSerbs. The Croats, however, saw it asRussia’s between theSerbs and Austria worsened, this type of Russian-sponsored Pan- dominatedby Russia. Inthe years leading to World I,when War therelationship Ottoman domination, and to then found a Slavic federationwhich would be held thatitwas Russia’s mission toliberate theSlavsfrom both Austrian and The YugoslavThe Committee, therefore, adopted the Pan-Slavic idea toitslocal The type ofPan-Slavism to which themembers ofthe Yugoslav Committee A different species of Pan-Slavism was promoted byRussian Fadeyev, who 23 CEU eTD Collection declarations issued bythe Southern Slavrepresentatives intheAustria-Hungary, as such an affair was indeedan extraordinary endorsement. Furthermore, various own.Congress Thatthe attended by563 delegates shouldvote unanimously on months earlier, and which hadadopted the Yugoslav Committee’s program as their Congress of the Yugoslavs ofNorth America, which hadbeenheld Chicagoin only Southern Slavs theYugoslav Committee callsonsuchendorsements aswasthe Committee. Infurtherbuilding of its caseas the bonafidevoice oftheoppressed Pittsburghheld in Novemberin 1916gavesimilar authority totheYugoslav assembly the provided financial means totheCommittee. congress The that was empowered theCommittee torepresent them at theAlliedcourts. The same Chile in January 1913 the delegates of the Yugoslav colonies of South America Committeespeak to theirin name. Atthecongress that was held inAntofagasta, further endorsement. body of deputies sent more ofitsown members tojoin the Committee, giving it thus Southern Slavs oftheHabsburg Empire inAlliedcountries, andin1915 the same Committee, received aformalmandate from the national deputies to represent the Already 1914in FranoSupilo andDr.AnteTrumbi politicians now sought to apply ittoCroatia’s position thein projected Slavic State. remaining its part.Thefederalist idea, however, survived,andtheCroatian solution within theEmpire, butlatersaw that Croatia hadnothingto expect from Habsburg Empire. Atfirst the Croatian politicians were interested in the federal federalist idea. proposed unity of the three peoples would be based on democratic principles and Various federal ideashadbeenproposed earlier inorderto savetheailing Similarly, theCroatian émigré circles deputized the ü , thefoundingmembers ofthe 24 CEU eTD Collection the School of Slavonic and East European Studies, UCL, under: SSEES, SEW5/1/4. SSEES, UCL,under: Studies, European andEast Slavonic of School the of archives the at Papers, theSeton-Watson held among is declaration suchprinted One London. 16 empire notonlyasthe alliesofBritain, but alsoastherightful claimants forthe lines ofthedeclaration, establishing thustheSouthern Slavs oftheHabsburg TripleEntente. “The principle ofNationality” was alsomentioned inthe opening joined theSerbian andMontenegrin armies, thus declaring them the allies ofthe that many ofthe Southern Slavs from the Habsburg lands have defected and have brothers from the Kingdom of Serbia.The Committee out pointed in thedeclaration Southern Slavs, compelling them to fightin theHabsburgarmy againsttheir Committee accuses Germany andAustria offorcing a fratricidalwar onto the addressed totheBritish nation andParliament question, straddling, asthey were, theperipheral areas of both empires. Europe only theinitiated fewwereof thedemographics aware ofthe lands in had thereto been parts of theHabsburg and Ottoman and empires, inthewestern the public awareness of the very existence of theircause. The Southern Slav lands reach orderin toachieve its ultimateof goal the Southern Slav unity was toraise more than80yearsearlier, the in Illyrianmovement ofthe1830’s. unified was notnew 1915. Infact, in it hadbeenintroduced totheCroatianpublic depending onone’s viewpoint, onepeople withthreecultural variants –should be were Slovenes,CroatsandSerbs. Theidea thatthesethreepeoples –or, Southern Slavs into asingle state. TheSouthern Slav nations they sought to unify Committee. as manifestationswell ofthepublic opinion gavefurther endorsements tothe To the British Nation and Parliament, issued by the Yugoslav Committee on May 12, 1915, 12, onMay Committee Yugoslav by the issued andParliament, Nation British the To Thus one ofthe first officialstatements of the Yugoslav Committee was One of the mainand immediate goals which the Yugoslav Committee hadto The declared goal oftheYugoslav Committee wasthe unification ofall the 16 . Inthestatement theYugoslav 25 CEU eTD Collection 17 Hungarianand AustrianParliament, Southern Slav academics intheUnited States the reader. Itcontained (mainly former) members oftheCroatian, Bosnian, lightweights but of seasoned politicians who werenotoutof their depth. abundantly clear to any reader that the Yugoslav Committee was not made up of British trade–were also stressed upon. Thiscomposed well declarationmade it the interests of the British Empire –stability intheBalkans, and openports forthe natural rights and laws were invoked to support the Southern Slav aspirations, and point would bereiterated numerous time throughoutthe duration ofthe war. virtue ofbeing governedby the Habsburg crown,were facttheBritish in allies. This whom represented,it though formally theenemiesBritish ofthe Empire by the that ofa governmentexile. in Italso made anattempt toshow that thepeoples itself astherepresentativeof theoppressed SouthernSlavs, its own position akinto Czechs, andnot theleast, the leading world trading nation, theBritain. only for the Slavs, but also for thehinterland of thenew state, the Magyars and the draw on thestrengths of it sea-faring population, making itsportsopen for trade not state would be an element oforder and of peace in the volatile Balkans. It would as the“flagrant violation of our ethnographical, geographical andeconomic unity.” not expounded upon. The further partition ofthe Southern Slavlands was described to doso.Besides, “the unanswerable laws ofgeography” were also evoked, though achieved independence, aswas thecasewith Serbia andMontenegro, or were yet governance of the lands they inhabited, regardless of whether those lands already SSEES, SEW4/2/3. Indeed, the list ofsignatories ofthedeclaration was alsodesigned to impress In thesingle declaration, therefore, the Yugoslav Committee established The Committee assuredtheBritish public and politicians thatthe new unified 17 The 26 CEU eTD Collection Supilo, described as “one of the ablest political brains, not merely of his own nation, the front page of every number subsequent of the London have been doing all along, andplaced asmallmap ofYugoslav lands on number ofthe its severalsubsequent numbers, butrealizing that its singlepublication first inthe incorporated into theunified state.The easy forthereaders toidentifysomany varioussmall that provinces were tobe identical. Thecover pages contained amap of Yugoslav lands, orderin tomake it content of the first numbers, andofall the consequent releases, was nearly The first numberswere releasedon October 1,1915 in bothcities. Most ofthe 18 the The Among thefirstsetoftasks the Committee embarked uponwas thepublication of the situation allvarious the Southern Slav regions found themselves in: record straight rather thanexpectingthe British public tounderstand and relateto wished tounite, was also published. It was probably more amatter ofsetting the celebrities suchastherenown sculptor IvanMeštrovi of America, presidents of various Southern Slav émigré associations, and Ibid. p. 2. One of the most prominent members ofthe Yugoslav Committee was Frano Jugoslav zone ofHungary proper. ofIstria, Trieste, Gorizia-Gradisca, Carinthia and Styria; and finally the Bosnia-Herzegovina and Carnolia; considerable portions of the province Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatiaof (with Fiume and district); the provinces of countries: the Kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro; the Triune Kingdom The Jugoslavs (Serbs, Croats and Slovenes) inhabit the following Another lengthy list, this time oftheSouthernSlav Committeelands the Southern Slav Bulletin Bulletin wouldnot suffice, the editors did what theircolleagues in inLondon, and ofthe 18 Bulletin Yougoslave Bulletin ü . Bulletin Yougoslave thereafter. did notprint themap in inParis. 27 CEU eTD Collection Germanic Drang these Southern Slavsstand asthechief natural obstacle acrossthe pathof Grey, theBritish Foreign Minister, Supilo stated: “Aglance atthe map shows that enabled him write to in apersuasive way. Inamemorandum written toSir Edward such apitch asenabled him for hisspeechesto useit thein Budapest Chamber.” but byitsendSupilo had“foundthetimemaster tounaided theMagyar language to months. TheCoalition hadbeen in theHungarian Parliamentmerely for oneyear, Supilo leadforty Croat delegates obstructingin theParliament’s work fornearlytwo learning.After theCroat-Serb Coalition lost the Hungarianits ally in Parliament, in thenatural abilities, thechief among whichwas theproclivity forlanguage subsequent barring from the Austro-Hungarianall schools, wascompensated well of formal education, which was theresult ofa youthful political prank and Parliament andaleading politicianof the Croat-SerbianCoalition of1906. His lack editor of Croatia,Supilo had been involved inthe politics from his youth. He had been the 21 20 19 but ofwarring Europe asawhole.” areas which were predominantly Italian. To the contrary, she would gainan ally, Italy wouldnot lose of its won were sheto restrict herdesired acquisitions tothe was committed toItaly’sclaims through a secret agreement, Supilo points out that addressed bySupilo inthesamememorandum. Knowing well full that theBritain thence towards Baghdad, the Persian Gulf andIndian Ocean.” Berlin with ViennaandBudapest, crosses the BalkanstoAsia Minorand extends SSEES, SEW5/1/10. Ibid. The NewEurope The Supilo’s eloquence andclear insight intocomplicated politicalmatters Specific questions relating to Italy’s claim on the Dalmatian coast were also Novi List , vol. IV. No. 51, October 4, 1917. 51, October No. IV. , vol. nach , ajournalpublished in Fiume [Rijeka], amember oftheCroatian Osten , the great politicalconcept that links Hamburg and 19 BorninCavtat,nearDubrovnik southern in 21 20 28 CEU eTD Collection Committee wishedthe Allies todeclare that Governments RegardingJugoslavia,” released inOctober 1918,theYugoslav Suggestions bythe Jugoslav Committee foraDeclaration bythe Entente the Yugoslavs were their ally throughout the war. Ina document entitled “Draft seemed secured,theYugoslav Committee put anemphasis again onthefact that keep one’senemy, German states,from expanding eastward. telling another that it isinthe interest of the strong to helpoutthe weak, inorder to declarations designed forgeneralconsumption. Hereoneseasoned politician is geographicaland economic unity” inthis letter, aswasthecasewith the There isnotalkof“unanswerable lawsofgeography” orof“ethnographical, eastward penetrating German extension oftheItalian culture which would effectin beacounterbalance tothe 23 22 spirit and inclined toopen allour gatesto theItalian language” since the SouthernSlavs oftheAdriatic coast were “predisposed toward theItalian Ibid. Ibid. integral part ofthe Serbian army. Aconsiderable number of Jugoslav 1916-1917 and foughtin the Dobrudja and onthe Roumanian front asan composed of two Jugoslav volunteer divisions was formed in Russia in volunteers have enrolled themselves in the Allied Armies. An army corps Hungary fought inthe Serb and Montenegrin armies. Numerous Jugoslav present war broke out, thousands ofJugoslav volunteers from Austria- means in its power. Even in the Balkan Wars and also as soon as the Slovenes of Austria-Hungary), has resisted the common enemy by every Since the beginning of the war the Jugoslav people (Serbs, Croats and As the end of the war approached and the victory of the Allied forces well being “ by ensuring the redemption ofour people, would ensure our and her own the great and reciprocal interest ofus Southern Slavs and England who, into an organized, well-coordinated and independent state… Herein lies national unity and freedom, andto form the 12,700,000 Southern Slavs “It istherefore aquestionhelping of usto build on solid foundation our 23 Kultur . Supilo proceeded tostate that: 22 forming thusan 29 CEU eTD Collection 26 25 24 alliance with theEntente powers verylikely borethegreater partofthe credibility of formingof the Allied policy towards the lands of the Southern Slavs. Serbia’s plane andescaped to Italy where hewas imprisoned forseveral weeks. rebellion stood no chance Sesan, a navy aviator by training, commandeered a Socialist opinion, toenforce themovement ofrevolt.” existed among thetroopsonseaandland by reasonoffood,bad treatment, and emancipation oftheoppressed Slavpeople. used We thegeneral discontent which political-national character against theexistence ofAustria-Hungary, toachieve the leaders of the uprising stated that “the whole rebellion was fundamentally of political factors. The truthwas somewhere between, in forSesan, oneofthe Yugoslav Committee castthebelligerence motivatedas almost exclusively by the quality offood and the treatment the crew received from the officers, the Although the reasons for the rebellion ranged from the immediate complaints about with theobjectthemselves offreeing from Austria andachieving independence.” latent, smouldering under the ashes. All the Slavs made common national cause, After therebellion was putdown the “discontent didnot disappear, but remained Dalmatian coastandislands,from ofQuarneroandshoresthe islands ofIstria. Germans andHungarians, but the vast majority ofthe crew came from the Boche diCattaro (BokaKotorska). The fleet’s officer corewas comprised of account oftherebellion intheAustro-Hungarian fleet’s basesofPola (Pula) and Similarly, areport bythe Ragusan prisoner ofwar, oneAntonioSesan, gives the Ibid. SSEES, SEW5/1/6. SSEES, SEW4/2/3. It ishardtodetermine how effective were suchrepresentations forthe as also on the Murman coast, in Russia and in Siberia. volunteers are fighting atthis moment in the Serbian army in Macedonia, 26 24 Upon realizing that the 30 25 CEU eTD Collection Slav cause to that ofthe Allies. failed nottoemphasize suchinstances anin efforttoapproximate theSouthern contributed but a little.Yet the propaganda apparatus of the Yugoslav Committee volunteers in foreign corpsandthe rebellions intheAustro-Hungarian armed forces the Southern Slav’sclaim of beingabelligerent ally, while theSouthern Slav 31 CEU eTD Collection regime supported directly thewinegrowers ofTrentino. Inthesimilar vein,the for the Dalmatians tocontinue with the production of wine, since the Austrian tariff incorporation intothe Habsburg Empire the custom schemesmade unprofitable it shipping industry was oneofthe strongest intheMediterranean. Afterthe annexed bythe Austria, Dalmatia hadbeen a major exporter of wine, while its protectionist policies adopted byAustria-Hungary. For example,prior tobeing However, the geographic disadvantages wereminor when compared to required inattemptingto sell itsproducts to theother parts of theempires. regions intheirrespective empires. This meantgreater effort andexpense was Ottoman’s express disinterest intheregion due toitspoverty. through acombination of its warlike traditions,mountainous remoteness andthe the Balkans, theKingdom of Montenegro, which avoidedthe Ottoman conquest as Macedonia. Nestled between Bosnia, Serbia andAlbania laid thepoorest area in gain it massive thatwould lands first bereferred toastheSouthern Serbiaand later decades earlier, andwas abouttoembark onasouthward expansion which would the east, Kingdom of Serbia had obtained freedom from the Ottomans only was undertheprovisional rule ofAustria, but was aboutto get annexed. Further to governance. Bosnia, recently “liberated” after four centuries ofthe Ottoman rule physically separated from the Austrian halfof Austria-Hungary fell under theVienna themselves underthe Hungarian rule, while Dalmatia, further tothe east and incorporated into Austrian part of Austria-Hungary. Croatia and Slavonia found peripheralparts of twomajor empires forcenturies. TheSlovenian provinces were By thebeginning ofthe 20 Dismembered astheywere, theSouthern Slav areaswere also theremotest THE SOUTHERN SLAV EMIGRATION th century the lands ofthe Southern Slavs had been 32 CEU eTD Collection 4, 431-436.4, 28 115-125, Zagreb, 1991. 27 letter written byone Dalmatianactivist to British historian Seton-Watson: their homeland and make aninvestment with theirhard earned money. Consider a between severalmonths toseveralyears, at the endofwhich theywouldreturn to World. Theirsojourn across theocean wasmerely afundraising trip, ranging intime this period, since there was almost noneof it comingfrom the Kingdom of Serbia. Habsburg lands, andthey accounted forvirtually thewhole ofSerbianemigration in Empire. than halfmillion a persons emigrated from the Croatian landsofthe Habsburg unskilled labor. experiencing theeconomic boom and seemed tohaveinsatiable appetite forcheap Dalmatia byitsclimate, andPittsburgh and Cleveland, which atthat timewere States the preferred destinations were California, whose northern shores resembled the British Empire, such as Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. In the United the United States ofAmerica, the Latin American countries andthe remote areasof Slavic lands,which increased dramatically after 1890.Themaindestinations were resulted intheunderdevelopment ofSlavonia, forexample. which was necessary forthe foreign trade conducted byHungary. This eventually anywhere tothe east or west ofthe established Budapest-Zagreb-Rijeka axis, Budapest government was notinterested extendingin the railroad system ý Ani izmi ü , J. ü 90% are farmers… Our farmers goabroad in search ofwork, always Dalmatia gives the largest proportion of Austrian emigrants. theseOf A largeproportion oftheemigrants was notintendingon staying theNew in theseAll factors contributed toasignificant emigration from the Southern , I.(1996): 28 Vanjske migracije inaturalizacija iz migranata Hrvatske Among them were notonly theCroats butalso theSerbs who lived in the 27 Emigrationemigrants and from Croatia between 1880 and 1980 In the periodbetween Inthe 1890andtheonset of more I World War (ratnaperspektiva), Migracijske 2: teme, 7, , GeoJournal, vol. 38, br. 38, vol. , GeoJournal, 33 CEU eTD Collection Right along their side werethe representatives of the Government ofthe Kingdom abroad. Theyworked inParis, London, St. Petersburg, Rome andWashington. and themembers oftheYugoslav Committee hadtocarryouttheiractivities Montenegrine kingdoms. Such anideawas not tolerated in theHabsburg Empire, the formation oftheSouthern Slavic state which wouldinclude theSerbianand activists who emigrated from the HabsburgEmpire. Thegoal oftheCommittee was late 1915.Its memberswere predominantly theSouthern Slav politicians and Southern Slavs. One oftheresults was theformation oftheYugoslav Committee in perhaps achieve thegeneration-long dream of forminga singlestate for the continent-widein conflict gavehopetothe Yugoslav enthusiasts thattheycan promoted andsupported by theemigration. Habsburg Empire intheyears leading to I, wasWorld War it quickly picked up, Consequently, whentheYugoslav ideareemerged theCroatian in lands ofthe thein OldCountry, and generally adjusted theiractivities accordingly. large had a regional tone to their activities, but were notunaware ofthe happenings 30 SSEES,17/15/2. SEW under: London, College, University the of Studies East European and ofSlavonic School the of archives atthe collection Watson 29 societies are recorded on a list compiled in 1914. languages. No less than 15 Croatian andSerbiannewspapers, as well5 as one another and establishing associations and newspapers in their native cases they maintained contactwith otheremigrants from the samearea, helping The majority ofthe emigrants, however, didstay in their new locations. In most SSEES, SEW5/2/4. Ivo Lupis-Vuki Ivo The underlying tensions Europeanin relationship which eventually exploded Emigrants, earn and send yearly large sums of money… intentioned, when debts paid and savings made, tocome back… ü to Robert William Seton-Watson, February 1914. The letter is kept in the Seton- the in iskept letter The 1914. February Seton-Watson, RobertWilliam to 30 Theseorganizations by and 29 34 CEU eTD Collection émigrés from places very remote from one another: 1916, gives aclear picture of the unanimity ofthe response by the Croat and Serb endorsements totheCommittee. the Austria-Hungary, aswell as manifestations ofthe public opinion gavefurther Furthermore,various declarations issuedby the SouthernSlav representatives in November 1916gavethesimilar authority totheYugoslav Committee. financialmeans tothe Committee. The congress that was held inPittsburgh in Committee torepresent them at theAllied courts. The same assembly provide the 1913 the delegates of the Yugoslav colonies ofSouth America empowered the various countries. the public opinionand, importantly, through lobbying with plenipotentiaries in others worked onthe furtherance oftheSouthern Slavic causewith themedia, in others worked on organizing the volunteers who were tojointhe Allied Forces, and cooperation they received wasmanifold; some contributedwith financial means, Yugoslav Committee turnfor help to various émigré organizations. The help and from their homeland and in need of support, that made the members ofthe into a singlestate. that theygenerally worked forthesame goal,theunification oftheSouthern Slavs from time totime resulting openin conflict betweenmembers, their itcanbestated of Serbia.the politicalWhile agenda ofthese twovaried certain groups in aspects, course the delicacy of our relations with Washington made it difficult for something to do, have been made to obtain recruits among them, but of are being thoroughly organized. Several attempts, with which I had Meanwhile the Croat and Serb colonies in the United States ofAmerica A passage from Seton-Watson’s letter toHerbert Fisher, dated 9October For example,at thecongress thatwas held inAntofagasta, Chile inJanuary Perhaps itwas thesituation inwhichtheyfound themselves, thatis,away 35 CEU eTD Collection 33 32 31 meeting was held onNovember 29 American public opinion and of many influential Anglo-American papers.” “succeeded inarousing for our cause the sympathies andthesupport of the activities of thevarious Yugoslav organizations intheUnited States have already to organize the “Second Monster Congress of Jugoslavs inAmerica” notingthat the cause, andtheirrelated publishing activities. The the public demonstrations and appeals topoliticians tosupport the SouthernSlavic The military contribution ofthe emigration was perhaps notassignificant aswere than 150,000organized Yugoslavs in theUnited States.” area, ofthe cooperation of their various organizations who “represent in all more yoke.” “propaganda favorin ofthe idea ofJugoslav emancipation from the Austrian membership claimsof 35,000,asdeclaring that itwished toparticipate inthe (Croatian People’s Community), anassociation from Ohio,Cleveland, with Paris, anddated October 15, 1915, reports ofthe “Hrvatska Narodna Zajednica” Serbian Prime Paši Minister between theYugoslav Congress and the Serbian Prince Regent Alexander, SSEES, SEW17/7/3. The Southern Slav Bulletin Slav Southern The Bulettin Yougoslave Bulettin 32 In July I met a Croat in the uniform of the Cape Town Highlanders. Zealand contingent of ourarmy. Some are now here inLondon wounded. months there have been over two hundred Croats fighting in the New Austrian consulate during the first weeks war of and for the last eighteen emigrants from Dalmatia, the Austrian flag was publicly burnt before the and Valpariso. and unanimous, and large subscriptions have been senttom Antofagasta were too great. In South America the Croats are even more enthusiastic our government toact, and without its help the difficulties transportof etc The Thesame article describes otheractivities oftheCroatsand Serbsin the Southern Slav Bulletin In Auckland, New Zealand where there are numerous Croat , Nr. 2, October 15, 1915, Paris. 15, Nr. 2,October , , Nr. 22, October 16, 1916, London. 16, Nr. 22,October , ü and the delegation sentby the London based ofLondon reports in October of1916 ofthe plans th , andthereports ofthecorrespondence Bulletin Yougoslave 31 , published in , published 33 The 36 CEU eTD Collection 36 35 article we shallnever know, though we may safelyspeculate that this particular Wilson was hardpressed tounderstand the meaningof this obviously friendly 34 addressed to.Consider thearticle thatappeared in champion oftherights of all Yugoslavs.” and thedevotion ofour colony topeopleof Great Britain, that illustrious friendand “…expressing theirjoy overthefortunate rescue ofthemembers oftheExpedition the banquet they failed notto put in agoodword forthe Yugoslav cause: honor oftherescued explorer, and inthepress release regarding therescueand sight of the Strait andofthe Tierra delFuego. TheCroats held abanquet thein at thetime hadthelargestCroatian community outside ofCroatia, laywithin the Magellan andhadtobe rescued. The southern Chileancity ofPuntaArenas, which Polar explorerErnest Sir Shackleton hadrun into some the trouble in Straitof Croatia,Yugoslavia nor, indeed, theongoingwith, World To thefamedWar. British in latching theirpropaganda goals toanevent thathadnothing incommonwith from South America. between allthevariousCroat andSerbian organizations from the UnitedStatesand Yugoslav Committee shows ahigh level oforganizationand ofcooperation history andto you,thegreattrust youhaveplaced inthem.” their liberator. As such theygreet you. Their fondest hope to is justity totheworld, mayyou ofJugoslavia… know observethe people yourarrival thecoming as of Rijeka,in Croatiastruggled with thefine points oftheEnglish language: “Sir, That boldly addressed the U.S.President Wilson. AFrench language weekly published L’Echo del’Adriatique L’Echo The Southern Slav Bulletin Slav Southern The The Southern Slav Bulletin Slav Southern The Not all printedpropaganda attracted the attention of those to whom wasit The SouthAmerican Croatorganizations from showed Chile some ingenuity , Nr. 2, December 14, 1918, Rijeka. 14,1918, 2, December Nr. , 34 , Nr. 25, December 1916, London. 1, December Nr. 25, , , Nr. 26, December 1916,London. 16, December Nr. 26, , 35 L’Echo del’Adriatique 36 Whether President , which 37 CEU eTD Collection 39 38 37 have beenasourceofencouragement.” expresses warm his foryourgratitude friendly and agreeable assurances which President greatly appreciates the noble words ofyourdispatch. Likewise, he United States that was sentbyhis press secretary J.P. Tunulty read: “The Yugoslavs. His replyto the letter of assurance and loyalty bythe Yugoslavs of the Wilson did onoccasion read andrespond to thepetitionssenthim the by regular readershipof the paperthan wasit totheAmerican President. However, publication nevercame tohisattention. Indeed,itwas addressedmore tothe Out ofnotlessthan eighty Southern Slavic newspapers 35were publishedinthe entire respectable Jugoslav Press anenthusiasticis preacher ofJugoslav unity.” Bulletin meeting, andbythepresident of theassembly Rev.Maxim Relich. nation in astate, etc.” have beenthemain tonational hindrance unity arenotreal hindrance for aim of a should stay abroad” of their new state, that “the confessional differences which that “the Southern Slavs were anation ofthe blood…not one foot of their land Christian denominations, Orthodox and Catholic, impressed upon the President, theirheld meeting Chicago inAugust1915, in theassembledclergymen oftwo Wilson. In aformalResolution issued bythe Southern SlavClergy of America, who significant publicrelationship successfor the struggling Yugoslav cause. nonetheless achieved a brief recognition by thePresident or his office anda formalbriefthat didnot require anyspecific response, this correspondence SSEES, SEW5/1/10. The Southern Slav Bulletin Slav Southern The Bulletin Yougoslave Bulletin In aneditorial published inJanuary 16,1917of edition A different Southern Slav organization addressed itself to the President R.Gjorgjevictakesabrief atthe look Yugoslav press. Heasserts that “the , Nr. 1, October 1, 1915, Paris. 1,1915, 1, Nr. October , 38 TheResolution was signed by 28 clergymen present at the , Nr. 27, January 16, 1917, London. 16, Nr. 27,January , 37 Obviously arun-of-the-millresponse toa The SouthernSlav 38 39 CEU eTD Collection individualsbasing outof the United States, is yettoberesearched andestablished. emigration, and its full impact, particularlyof the Southern Slav associations and activities attests to the oflevel commitment maintained bytheSouthern Slav Southern Slav cause. in thedissemination of thepropaganda whose aimwas thefurtherance ofthe the Southern Slav politicalorganizations, the Yugoslav Committee, and participated The organizations formed bytheémigrés provided thesupport tothemost activeof ancestors,of their aswellkeen as interest in thepoliticaldevelopments affecting it. remainedthe in newworld, maintained the traditions and the language ofthe land many ofthemreturnedbackhome aftermaking fortunes. their Others, who old country the émigrés did not burn theirbridges behind them. Tothecontrary, The versatile activities oftheSouthern Slavemigration show that uponleavingthe Sofia and Odessa. Southin America, one in New Zealand, and one each thein unexpected Bucharest, abroad 12 were based in the United States, various9 in west European capitals, 3 weeklies and monthlies. Out of therest ofthe 28newspapers that were published number ofpublications was Trstprinted in and Gorica regions, totaling in17various towns thateventually became the integralpart of Yugoslavia. An amazingly high The multiplicity oforganizations andpublications resulting from such 39 CEU eTD Collection a largeSlavic state on the Balkan peninsula. awaking thepublic opinion ofthe Western countries tothe need for the existence of Congress of Berlin, theKingdom of Serbia now actively lobbied andworked on ambitionwas notalways proclaimed such in simple terms. centralized state to include the Slavic lands furthertothewest, althoughthis the level, Serbian government simply to extend desired itsalready existent hoped forafederal stateinwhich theequality ofthe constituent stateswould beon Serbs, Croats and Slovenians weresimilar. However, whileCroats and Slovenians extent thattheyall wantedto form a unifiedstateforSouthern Slavs,thegoals of approaches to the Alps were inhabitedalmost exclusively by the Slovenians. To the of Serbiawere also inhabited bythe Croats. Slovenian lands ontheeastern Empire underone state and under oneSerbian monarch. the Kingdom of Serbiafocused onincluding itskith andkinfrom the Habsburg active in resisting the homogenizing policies of Budapest and Vienna. At thispoint Habsburg lands. TheHabsburg Serbswere organized inpoliticalpartiesvery and hoped. wouldnot gain the port ofSaloniki,nor the access to the Aegean Sea, as it had Balkan of1913.However,War the same in juncture it became that obvious Serbia Ottoman Empire. The greatest territorial gains were achievedfollowing the Second campaignsto slowly expand itsterritory, chiefly at thecost ofthe retreating The Kingdom Serbia gainedof independence in1882.Itused various military Already having gainedthe internationaldiplomatic recognition at the Most ofthelandsinhabited bytheSerbs and falling outside oftheKingdom To thenorthandwest, large Serbian populations werebe found to in the THE KINGDOM OF SERBIA OF THE KINGDOM 40 CEU eTD Collection been formed on1914 early in andlastingthrough toJune 1917. ownthat oneoftheir ranksshouldfill thepost. -Thecoalition government having out thediplomatic duties,much tothechagrin oftheOpposition, who demanded refusal toname aForeignMinister and insistence thatheshould betheone tocarry enhance hisown a home. standing Mindful oftheprecariouspolitical balance in strife. One of the occasions when such tensions were evident related toPaši tenacity inholding onto thereigns, hiscabinets were oftentroubled by internal as thePrimeMinister oftheKingdom fornearlyof Serbia 20years.Because ofhis Paši The most important single person in theSerbian politics atthetimewas Nikola to theYugoslav concept wouldbe a worthwhile politicalmaneuver. and toforsake their plans for Greater Serbia sawwith time thatpayinga lip service Serbian circles. At the same time, eventhosewho refusedtoaccept the Yugoslav at with suspicion andwas rejected, with timeitcame tobemore accepted the in duringthe war. Whereas atthebeginning ofthewar theYugoslav idea was looked whichis notwhat thepreferred arrangement. Committee,Serbian the government would havetodealwith itaswithan equal, Slavs intheHabsburg Empire. Haditaccorded therecognition to theYugoslav give recognition totheYugoslav Committee asthe representative ofthe Southern Yugoslav Committee was not verygood. The Serbian governmentnot wish did to state to its western neighbors, the relationship oftheSerbiangovernment withthe ü . Aveteran politicianand the leader of People’s Radical Party, Paši As a skillful politician,As askillful Paši The gradual abandonment oftheSerbian original plans was taking place Given itsgoalof theextension oftheauthority ofthealreadyexisting Serbian ü was abletousehisstatevisits toBritain ü served ü 41 's CEU eTD Collection Jugoslav unity and independence which had hitherto taken place inside Austria.” Congress] was perhaps the most strikingof allthedemonstrations infavour of compiling thestrictly confidential document commented that“inreality it [theSlav government oftheKingdom of Serbiatolead the new state. However, theanalysts Yugoslav Committee andtheAllied powers, whowould ostensibly then turnto the manoeuvre.” Thispiece ofpropaganda was designedto cause arift between the to the effect that the recent Slav Congress at Leibach was an Austrophil andTrialist document that“Allegations arebeingputabout from Serbian governmental circles safe choice for theAllies toput their trust in. The British analysts wrote inthe same the wind andtoadapt hispolicy, evenifonly inname. for theSouthern Slavs, Paši in spite of his hostility towards the policy for the creation of a heterogeneous state the reluctance which accompanied anycooperation withthe Committee. However, Committeeat thistime, theleaking of the disinformationsuch as the above shows the newSouthern Slav state, Paši the Entente. added –thathisgovernment andhisperson were sureandsteadyally theonly of years in office enabled him to boldly claim – withsome plausibility, hasit to be 40 him mightsuch as enablehim to repeatthesame tactics.” that “it istherefore important that there should benoofficialaction taken towards Serbia, British analysts noted asecretin document priortoPaši issued 41 Ibid. The Policy of Mr Pashitch and the Jugoslav Problem Jugoslav and the ofMr Pashitch Policy The Whereas Paši On adifferent level, thatofthepossible enlarged Serbia orthecreationof ü had already entered into negotiations with theYugoslav ü was realistic enoughto recognize whento bend with ü was also active propagatingin himself asthe , SSEES, SEW4/2/3. 40 However, Paši ü next visit ü many 41 42 CEU eTD Collection 42 Paši espoused by it. Consider the officialtelegram sent tothe Yugoslav Committee by Memorandum on SerbianInternal Politics policy. having beenthechief proponent ofthepurely Orthodox “smaller GreaterSerbia” protector under whose wings Serbia hoped to find shelter. –The RussianOrthodoxy result ofwhich Russiawithdrew from the international sceneandwas nolongerthe therefore had reasonsless to be called “Serbia.” Serbia,” which wouldalso include purely CroatandSlovenian lands,andwhich some Serbpopulation, would bepreferable tothe creation of “bigger Greater “smaller Greater Serbia,” includingonly those Croatian landsin which therewas reflected elsewhere Serbian in politics, notably among thosewho thoughtthat the The attitude ofsome ofthe military leadership summed abovewas ofcourse withthe following passage: In it Seton-Watson pointed out the policy ofthose opposed to the Yugoslav union a two decadesworth of review of political movements andmilitary cliché in Serbia. SSEES, SEW4/1/3. ü ontheoccasion ofhisvisit toLondon in June of1916. Dr Biankini, Chicago. Not sowithmore some ofthe nationalist elements inSerbia. ASpecial Meanwhile, Paši This conceptwas abandonedafterthe events intheOctober1917, asthe democratic and healthier influences would swamp them. a small Serbia, and not in a big Southern Slav State where new the leaders of that caste realizing that their aims could only be realized in military caste tomaintain anabsolute control of theinternal situation – My informant summed up the situation asthe struggle of a narrow ü continued courting theYugoslav Committee andtheideas 42 was compiled Junein 1917. It provided 43 CEU eTD Collection 44 43 doubt their sincerity. of Serbs,Croats and Slovenes, and later thein post-1929 Yugoslavia, thatwemay with thehindsightwith and theknowledgeof the policies introduced intheKingdom were addressedto.Adose ofsincerity definitely is present them, onlyin and itis It would beunfairto say thatsuch declarations were allmeant tomislead those they assembled PrinceAlexander stated thathe the Jugoslav Congress Pittsburgh,in held inNovember 1915.Inatelegram to the eventual leadership inthenew state. considered tobe merely theappeasement ofthecompetition intheracefor showing signsofmoderating his views. At the same time, hiswordsmay be endorsing the Yugoslav Committeewiththe western governments. Andyet,Paši Slav Bulletin Committee. Ofcourse,thepublication ofonesuch endorsement in the earlier policyofwishing tominimize theinfluence accorded totheYugoslav Croats andSlovenes Yugoslav Committee theUnited States, in as therepresentative of In this telegram Paši The Southern Slav Bulletin Slav Southern The The Southern Slav Bulletin Slav Southern The America may be gathered together. all our brothers, all Croats, all the Slovenes, and all the Serbs from all a profound echo with you over yonder; I wish that beneath that standard Fervently wish[ed] that the joyful and sincere cry ourof soldiers may find A similar rhetoric was usedby the Prince Regent Alexander in his address to Croats and Slovenes in free America, my hearty greetings. the Jugoslav Committee inAmerica, and through youto all Serbians, mighty and to us so friendly British nation, I send you, as the president of Availing myself ofthe opportunity of my stay here inthe capital of the , which is which is read byall, Yugoslav the enthusiasts, is not thesame as ü recognized Biankini, a Dubrovnik Croat and amember ofthe in free America! Thisappears tobe aradical departure from , No. 26, December 16, 1916, London. 16,1916, No. 26,December , , Nos. 13 & 14, June 6, 1916, London. Nos. 13&14,June6,1916, , 44 43 The Southern all Serbians, ü 44 is CEU eTD Collection called theSerbianminister a person with “honorable name, golden honesty and Yugoslav Office and the president of the Croatian Union. In thisit Catholic priest from aspeechwas byDonNikoGrškovi Washington, held LjubomirMihajlovi Office, notby the Minister himself, butbyhis deputy, Lord Crewe. Grey. After some the delays Yugoslav delegation was received bythe Foreign meeting thattheYugoslav Committeewas tohavewith theBritish Foreign Minister Serbs coming from the HabsburgMonarchy resulted inhis obstructions to the Boškovi the Serbian Ambassador inParis was hastily summoned totakeplace ofMinister widerYugoslav identity, refused to be categorized as a Serb. The resultwas that Meštrovi would notattendtheopening oftheexhibition astheVictoria andAlbert Museum. and insisted thatMeštrovi Serbian Minister London,in Mateja Boškovi the event and thepublicity were theBritish enthusiasts ofthe Yugoslav idea. further broadcast the ideaoftheSouthern Slavstate, the maindriving force behind government ofSerbiacontributed tothe event andused the publicity wave to Meštrovi One suchevent, forexample, was the exhibition oftheCroat sculptor Ivan between theYugoslav Committee andthegovernment oftheKingdom of Serbia. Boškovi An entirely different story may betoldas regards another Serbian diplomat, However, eventhis particular event did not go without some friction. The Be thatas it may, adegreeofcooperation invarious joint projects existed ü ü ü atthegrandopening. , who hadno problem putting hisCroat identity under theumbrella ofthe held London in in1915. both theYugoslavWhile Committee and the ü ’s narrowly Serbian views andsuspicions of even the Orthodox ü , the Serbian Ambassador tothe United States. Upon his recall ü should beintroduced asaSerborelsehe,Boškovi ü , was suspicious of all things Yugoslav ü , thedirector ofthe 45 ü , CEU eTD Collection of handling anything.” SSEES, SEW 17/3/2. SSEES, SEW anything.” handling of 45 members ofYugoslav Committee norbySeton-Watson relationship between thetwo men obvious. is enlightened mind.” 46 and its themselves, but also reflected the changing attitudes of the Serbian government received abundantpraise. This doubt had in something todowith theindividuals In a letter to Ronald M. Burrows of September 8, 1915, Seton-Watson called Boškovi called 1915, Seton-Watson 8, September of Burrows M. Ronald to Inaletter Jugoslovenski Svijet Jugoslovenski While BoškoviWhile corps diplomatique , August 29, 1918, Washington. August 29, , 45 Theoratory flourish notwithstanding, the friendly and cordial ü ofLondonwas notheldinhigh regardbyneither the . 46 , Mihajlovi ü ofWashington ü “incapable 46 CEU eTD Collection 47 SSEES, SEW17/27/9. under: UCL, Studies, European andEast ofSlavonic of School the the Archives at collection Papers Seton-Watson among kept is letter The original Agram [Zagreb].” and… your Croatia … north great ofyour Capital “the spoke of and Seton-Watson wrote to he enthusiastically 1917, of January in Edinburgh to visit Upon Supilo’s example. for Supilo, andFrano Seton-Watson between 48 p. 42. 1957), (Mar., 1. No. withnations small theirin struggle for independence. Scottish identity, inheritedfrom parents,both ofhis that himinclined to sympathy were eventually putto useby the government oftheUnited Kingdom. that hewas alsothemost involved andthemost active. Histalents andknowledge ofsouth-centralon theaffairs Europe just I.” priortoWorld War J. May, Seton-Watson was “nodoubt the most knowledgeableBritish private citizen many men British of influence who hadapart thisin process. Inthe words ofArthur researcher tomeet allthesignificant Serb and Croatpolitical leaders, as well as Seton-Watson offers ablueprint, ashortcut perhaps, which, followed,if leads the involving many individuals andevents.However,and thelife work ofRobertWilliam sentiment towards theSouthernSlavsmust necessitybeacomplex of undertaking Any attempt todescribetheevolution ofthe British foreignpolicy and thepublic smaller nationsofAustria-Hungary alsohad basistheir intheBritish system of the comparison of that state tothe United Kingdom. Thesolutions he promoted for his views andcommentary onthe situation in theHabsburg Empire was based on allegiance and maintaining their distinctive nationalcultures and heritage. Infact, a state whichin amultiplicity of nations could live peaceably, sharinga common believer the Unionofin 1707,and heldthe view that Britainwas agoodexampleof Arthur J. May, “Seton-Watson and the Treaty of London.” of Treaty andthe “Seton-Watson May, J. Arthur Indeed, the similarities between Scotland and Croatia must have been discussed atlength beendiscussed have must Croatia and Scotland between similarities the Indeed, Robert William Seton-Watson was born in August 1879. Perhaps wasit his ROBERT WILLIAM SETON-WATSON ROBERT WILLIAM The Journal of Modern History Modern of Journal The 48 However, hewas alsoafirm 47 Itmay be added , Vol. 29, Vol. , 47 CEU eTD Collection Transylvania, Vojvodina, Croatiaand the Upper Hungary (Slovakia) –all partsof and contempt. lived ontheterritory ofHungary,and treated anyinquiry onthesubject with distain whom methe completely ignored and avoided the question ofminority peoples who immediately realized thatthe Hungarian journalists, politicians andintellectuals with Hungarian political elite. Seton-Watson arrived to Budapest Mayin of 1906 and 60 years later, the strict approach that Kossuth had adopted was still favored by the eventually gotquenched bytheinvolvement oftheRussianarmy. However, nearly the focushavingbeen placed onto theromanticized struggle forfreedom that unbending policy towards the minorities of Hungary had not been emphasized, all reverberating thein early twentieth century England. Kossuth’s harsh and press inBritain atthetime oftherevolution, andthe positive echoes were still Hungarians, since Kossuth and the Hungarian revolution had obtained afavorable gave Seton-Watson aninclination tobe favorably disposed towards the extension thatofCentral andSouthEast Europe. developed an interest the historyin andpolitics oftheHabsburg Empire, andby Europe and Turkey. He arrived Viennain in 1905 and thein same yearhe mastered French,German andItalian, and had traveled extensively throughout to earnthe living.By the time hecame into his fortune, 1903,in hehadalready his interest in European history and politics without theconstraint ofhavingto work balance ofpower, the aswas British in interests. governance. However, the overall goalof his undertaking was the retention ofthe In thecourse ofhis travels inthefollowing two yearsSeton-Watson visited The knowledge ofthe 1848-49 Hungarian strugglefor theindependence Having inheritedhis latefather’s fortune, Seton-Watson was freetopursue 48 CEU eTD Collection University Press of America, 2000. p.21. 2000. America, Press of University 49 understand Hungarian. over three-quarters of Hungary’s non-Magyar population did not speak or 1910, ethnic Magyars accounted foramere 49%ofthegeneralpopulation, andthat predilection towards theHungarians vanished. killed. Just as abruptly, any hesitation that Seton-Watson had abandoningin his they were leaving. The Slovak representatives andseveralof their supporters were – theHungarian authorities had the gendarmes fireatthevictorious Slovaks as remove thecordon which separated them and their supporters from the votingurns When the Slovaks carrieda victory –partly because of Seton-Watson’s request to possible measures toensure thatthe Slovak representatives wouldnot getvoted in. The localelections were stifled by the Hungarian authorities, who had taken all the opinion regarding theMagyars was theevent he witnessed in the Upper Hungary. The single most dramatic instance that lead him to suchadrastic changeofthe his attitude totheHungarian government’s policy towards theminority population. the oldKingdom of Hungary.Duringthis time heexperienced about-face as regards electoral lawsthatVienna wanted tointroduce. IntheAustrian part of theHabsburg schools, the name-changing campaigns, etc. Magyarization, which consisted of the banning ofthe use of minority languages in sought from the 1880’storectify this situation by imposing aharsh regime of of theKingdom of Hungary was closer to 43-45%. The Hungarian government had Hungarians” ofUpperHungary, while thereal proportion of Hungarians inthewhole consensus, butwas tweaked infact andinflatedtoincludethe“Slovak speaking T. D. Kramer, It isworth noting atthis pointthat, asbecameevident from the censusof Hand inhandwith Magyarization wentthe resistance tothereform in the From Emancipation to Catastrophe: The Rise and Holocaust of Hungarian Jewry, of and Holocaust Rise The Catastrophe: to Emancipation From 49 Furthermore, 49%was thenumber shown intheofficial 49 CEU eTD Collection Medakovi Peasant Party; IvanLorkovi as well, the most prominentamong whom were Stjepan Radi During his visit toZagreb in May 1908Seton-Watson met otherCroatian politicians Croatian-Serbian Coalition who held theabsolute majority at the editor of metat thehouseofHenry Wickham Steed, theViennacorrespondent andfuture was duringthistime thathefirstmade theacquaintance ofFrano Supilo, whom he The South Slavquestionwas first taken up by Seton-Watson in February 1908. It Championing the Southern Slav Cause or Romanians and Serbs. experienced at the hands of Magyars, and some referenceswere made tothefate describing thesituation inwhichSlovaksfound themselves andtheoppressionthey full lengthstudyentitled Hungarianstate. and autonomy bytheminorities, which could finally result inthedissolution ofthe own representatives. All thiscould eventually lead todemands formore freedom the controlof the Parliament, sincetheminorities were very likely tovotefor their Budapest feared that giving them the voting rightswould totheirlead total of loss men from its ownterritory,since the majority of them tobelonged various minorities. the Hungarian half, however, thepolitical elitedidnotwishto empower unlanded Empire thenearly universal suffragewas introducedwith adoseofenthusiasm. In Upon his return to Vienna from Upper Hungary Seton-Watson wrote his first ü The Times , chairman oftheSerbianIndependent Party, which alsobelonged tothe . Supilo was at that time one of the political leaders of the Racial Problems in Hungary ü , amember Party;and oftheProgressive Dr. . Thebookfocusedon Sabor ü , leader of the in Zagreb. 50 CEU eTD Collection Dalmatia, andsigned byall Serbparties from Croatian lands.The ZadarResolution composed bySvetozarPribi partieson October 4, 1905. Following in its steps was the Zadar Resolution, the anti-Habsburg Hungarian parties. The Rijeka Resolution was signed byall Croat 1905 byFrano Supilo, who hopedthattheCroat-Serb alliance would bejoined by order tobeable tofightVienna anditspolicies. TheRijekaResolution was drawn in whereCroat the and Serb politicians from the Croat lands were starting tounite in Ministry of Finance, which, as a joint ministry, did not answer directly to either of the governments. 50 sidestepping yet remaining separate from its sister Slav lands through administrational prospect ofyetanother Southern Slavlandbecoming apartofAustria-Hungaryand Vienna governance. Furthermore, theannexation ofBosniawas underway, andthe proposed, was theunificationwith Dalmatia, which atthattime was stillunder the was authority. limited byBudapestinits Theimmediate goal,someCroats Furthermore, Croatiaand Slavonia hada working Parliamentary system, althoughit removed from the SouthernSlav lands, which would impede effectiveness. everyone Croatiain thought itaworkablesolution, since the Czech lands were far was oneofthebrewingpoliticalquestions. As appealingasthis ideawas, not the equal rights would becomprised of the Slav subjects to the Habsburg crown, of thedual Austro-Hungarian state into atri-part state, in which the third entity with Slav landswere inanupheaval. increased The frequency of thecalls forthereform the members oftheSerbian political elite. Coalition. After this Seton-Watson visited Belgrade, but was unabletomeet anyof Bosnia and Herzegovina were to be administered jointly by Budapest and Vienna through the through Vienna and byBudapest jointly administered be were to and Herzegovina Bosnia Another momentous changewas happening thein Croatian politicalscene, The timing ofthe visit in 1908 was very important, because the Southern 50 was bewildering tothe Croatian public. þ evi ü , theleader Serbpoliticalof thebiggest party in 51 CEU eTD Collection the millennia-long imperialtradition of maintaining theadministrative divisionbetween theSouthern Slavs, thus continuing restrict thevoting rightsof subjectsits Dalmatia, in certainly was it anaccomplice in by Budapest.However,Vienna while neither pursued the Germanization nor triedto Hungarianbrutality intheUpper Hungary andinthemanifest Magyarization favored Vienna. The reason forthis viewmayhavewell laid in hisown witnessing ofthe oppressor ofthenations oftheHabsburg Monarch was Budapest ratherthan of thesetwo Resolutions dominatedCroatian politicalscene. struggle against Vienna and Budapest. The Croat-Serb Coalition that was theresult called for thecooperation with allthesignatories of theRijeka Resolution intheir expressed inthefollowing excerpt published in Hungarian Independence party, but ofHungarian policyoverall, were succinctly policies ofoppression that predecessorsits had applied. principles ofnational equality ithad thereto advocated and reverted backtothe Independence Party gained majority inthe Budapest Parliament itabandonedthe and Independence Party. Hewas right this in assessment, soon foras asthe and Serb leaders were wrong expectingin true cooperation from the Hungarian48 espoused by the Rijeka andZadar Resolutions, hewas oftheopinion that the Croat allowing Budapest to takethe brunt of the blame forit. By this time had Seton-Watson alreadyformed theview that thetrue and idealism the younger generation possessed. The Hungarian a newstage inSouth Slav development, supported bywhatever culture the coalition between the two races was no mere political manoeuvre, but astonishment that the Magyars discovered during the crisis of 1907 that mutual bickerings ofCroat and Serb; and it was with alarm and For a whole generation Magyar control of Croatia had rested on the Seton-Watson’s views, notonly ofthedaily political maneuvering ofthe Seton-WatsonWhile sympathized with theSerb-Croat solidarity, as divide etimpera The Morning Post , and,most cunningly, : 52 CEU eTD Collection never materialized. However, the notoriety that his name enjoyed already inthe other authorities from Austria-Hungary, asalready seenabove. Yet, the prosecution peoples ofAustria-Hungary. This was not met with enthusiasm by theCroatian or Activities suchasthese identified Seton-Watson asthechampionof theoppressed Slavs asaEuropean Factor footnote after Seton-Watson’s article entitled Seton-Watson with prosecution. In In addition tothepublic denunciations, theHungarianauthorities also threatened 52 published inHungarian daily Hungarian press.This evidenced is bythe following excerptfrom the article also known byhis pen name ofScotusViator – a degree ofnotoriety inthe 53 rovására.” nemzet a magyar Magyarország, rágalmaz, és hazudik galádul megint hogy éspersze Magyárországban jár itt megint a fejét: felütötte megint az ember hogy ez ujságolni, róla lehet azt Legfeljebb olvasóközönségnek. a magyar bemutatni 51 Racial Problems in Hungary The combined effect of the wires such as the above and the publications such as The Morning Post Morning The Post Morning The Független Magyarország Független in Kroatien in proceedings against him thefor publication ofapamphlet, “ Vienna, announces that the Public Prosecutor in Croatia is contemplating moment when a telegram from Agram to the Mr. Seton-Watson’s letter may be regarded as of especial interest at a Hungarian nation. shamelessly lying and slandering, tothe detriment ofHungary and of head: he isback again here in Hungary and, naturally, he is again most that needs to be said about him is that he has again raised his Scotus Viator does not need anintroduction to Hungarian readers. The restore discord at all costs. must in the end prove fatal to the Magyar hegemony, determined to Government, clearly realizing that the reconciliation of Serb and Croat ,” which appeared in Vienna last summer. , November 1909. November 26, , 1909. 17, , June 52 , June 12, 1910. The original text: „Scotus Viatort nem szükséges nem Viatort „Scotus text: original The 1910. June 12, , , the following was published: andlater Független Magyarország 51 The Morning Post Absolutism in Croatia Repression in Croatia: TheSouthern Neue Freie Presse . ofNovember 26,1909, in a 53 gained Seton-Watson – Absolutismus , of , 53 CEU eTD Collection Dr. Nikoli Tomaši circumstances be allowed towin. Hewas running against the Ban of Croatia, Dr. Watson wished totakenocredit forthe events thattook place in Ogulin on that as Seton-Watson points out,he defeated theBan himself. constituents.with his AndyetNikoli 55 54 came from Zagreb thattheOpposition representative Dr.Nikoli The background of the story was thaton the daybefore the elections the orders Allgemeine Zeitung abuses thein process. The event was reported in theViennese newspaper Scotus Viator’s presumed reason for avisit was toreport to the British media any during theelections were theusualfareof dayinCroatia during thattime, and the town ofOgulin northernin Croatia.Vote rigging and the police interventions announced that none other than Scotus Viator wouldbe present at the elections in someCroats during theelections ofDecember 1911: The Opposition newspaper Austria-Hungary by 1912 was notto beunderestimated. Itwas creatively usedby R. W. Seton-Watson, R. W. Allgemeine Zeitung Allgemeine part of the full-blooded Englishmanwith such effect. Leitgebel from Agram, who understands no English and yet played the Viator was not Scotus Viator at all, but abogey, the garage proprietor English-looking gentleman. And now comes the point. The Ogulin Scotus party nor the other had the courage to swindle under the eyes ofthe fighting election inOgulin passedin off the best order, and neither one address the distinguished foreigner. Under Scotus Viator’s control the silence, for as no one in Ogulin understands English noone ventured to kept silence, and the people of Ogulin also saw and respectfully kept and thirdly he looked genuinely English …Scotus Viator came, saw and secondly he spokeCroat no matter – asa of fact he did notspeak at all– convinced could only be Scotus Viator. For firstly, hecame in a car, puffing motor-car a gentleman whom the people Ogulinof were at once In actual fact there did appear in Ogulin … on the day theof election in a ü , whowas upfortheelections thein same The district. police promptly put ü undersurveillance andmade nigh impossible it forhim to communicate , January 13, 1912. 13, January , as follows: Absolutism in Croatia Absolutism ü won, wasmore which allthe significant since, , London: 1912. p. 36. p. , London:1912. 54 55 ItisobviousthatSeton- ü should under no 54 CEU eTD Collection 56 and Serbs, nor in those of Austria and of Europe asawhole.” outside those boundaries wouldbe desirable neither inthe interest of theCroats only realized within theboundsof Habsburg Monarchy, andthat its realization Vuki the reform of theexisting structure that hepropagated. Inhis lettertoIvo Lupis- the SouthernSlavs was tobefoundwithin theHabsburg Monarchy.It was therefore and heavy-handedness ingovernance, atthis time hebelievedthatthesolution for and Budapest governments’ doorsfor their mishandling of the minority population Leitgebel and his accomplices. creditfor it, itwas theSeton-Watson’s renomé thatwas sodeftlyusedby eventfulelection day Decemberin just 1911.Itis asobviousthathedeserves some one anotherinorderto weaken them. with thepoliticalsuccesses whichHowever, Croats andthe Serbs living the Habsburgin Empire andtousetheiropposition to The policy ofBudapest, and ofVienna, was toexploit thedifferences between the Who was Who trialism a reality. Seton-Watson suggested thatall possible means shouldbeusedinordertomake state wouldnot beonthe levelsufficient to maintain true independence. Instead, politically andculturally. Finally, the economicsituation ofsuchan independent that time theAustria-Hungary in would ineffecttake astep backwards, both achieved through ageneralEuropean war. Second, thatthe areaswhich wereat would notbeeasily attainableor desirable. First, that sucha unity could only be three main reasons why theSouthern Slav unity outside oftheHabsburg Monarchy SSEES, SEW15/5/2. ü hemade abundantly this clear by stating that“Croato-Servian unity …can be In spiteofthecriticism that Seton-Watson continuously laidatthe Vienna 56 He went on to list 55 CEU eTD Collection Dubrova “Srpska in was printed itself pamphlet program the incidentally, for, Dubrovnik, presencein Serb the deny this does not However, character. in Serbian as hadbeendescribed could any time which at Gradska Muzika – Dubrovnik City Band”and“Gunduli City Dubrovnik – Muzika Gradska 59 58 57 overstatement. that made him recount these events withdose a of enthusiasm and excitement andthewish tosee thecooperation andreconciliation goastepfurther for some time bytheSeton-Watson arrived toDubrovnik, but wasit perhapsthe reconciliation betweenthe SerbandCroatpolitical was indeed underway inCroatia performed upontheirdeparture from Dubrovnik’s portofGravosa. The Hej Slovani them was theSerbhymn, orthe anthem. –Unless, of course, he was referring to bands. Outofnine tunesperformed two indeedwereSerbian, though neither of papers. The program of theconcert Seton-Watson wrote aboutis located among his embarrassed Seton-Watson wrote ofthe occasion: Seton-Watson received uponhisvisit toDubrovnik inFebruary of1912. Somewhat absolutism they were experiencing. This was best exemplified bythe reception Empire had learned thatcooperation was bestweapon their against the imperial followed theRijeka andZadar Resolutions the Southern Slavsofthe Habsburg The three bands that played were “Hrvatska Op were“Hrvatska played bandsthat three The SSEES, SEW5/1/4. 17/25/8. SEW SSEES, programme does not recognize the existence of the Serbs. band in Belfast were to play Nationalist airs, for the Party of Right’s and played first the Croat, then the Serb hymn – a little asifan Orange and members of the Party of Pure Right –massed together atthe end a week before. Most wonderful ofall, the three bands –Croats, Serbs together to abanquet organized by men whom they had cut in the street This is the first time inhistory that all the parties Ragusaof have came þ 58 ka Štamparija – The Serbian Printshop of Dubrovnik.“ of Printshop – The Serbian ka Štamparija There indeed were threebands who played, but they were all Croatian , theSlavhymn, whichdoes not appearonthe program but was 59 Inanyevent, there no is record ofCroats and Serbscutting each ü a Glazba – Croatian General Band,” Dubrova Band,” General a –Croatian Glazba ü eva Glazba – Gundulic’s Band,” none of none Band,” –Gundulic’s eva Glazba 57 þ 56 ka CEU eTD Collection 61 60 distinction, hewas happy to report, that was rapidly fading: Finally, hespoke of the distinction between the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The the same publicationcasts doubt whether Seton-Watson really thoughtthat. same thepeoplesshould also beconsidered thesame. Thefollowingquote from This excerpt perhaps indicates thatbythevirtue ofthelanguage being oneandthe musings ontheSerbandCroatian languages: closely related, peoples. But this was not quite assimple amatter. Consider his have had a formed idea ofwhether they are asingle people ortwo different, albeit defined opinion as to who were the Serbs and who were theCroats. In particular, to numerous booksontheregion, onewould expect Seton-Watson tohave hadawell Indeed, havingtraveled agreat deal intheHabsburg empire, and having published promotion oftheircauses didnot automatically mean thathehad aclear picture. sympathy fortheSouthern Slavs andhis wholehearted engagement inthe the expression heusedcould only be takenas ametaphorpolitical for quarrels. other down in the streets in Dubrovnik atany time priorto Seton-Watson’s visit, and Ibid. R. W. Seton-Watson, R. W. of Austria-Hungary,of and for the realization ofNational Unity. but also for the liberation of her kinsmen, the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes Europe. Serbia isnotmerely fighting for her independence and existence, this war has got to solve as a whole, unless we are to have fresh wars in Question, which canonly be treated and understood asawhole, and which that Serbia isonly a fragment of abiggerfar question, the Southern Slav So I far have spoken mainly ofthe Serbs. But I want to emphasize the fact reformed Cyrilline alphabet, the latter in Latin characters. same language, the sole difference being that the former is written in a Serb and Croat, it must be remembered, are two names for one and the Or perhaps Seton-Watson was notalways clear astowho was who?His The Spirit of the Serb ofthe Spirit The , London:1916. 60 61 57 CEU eTD Collection century. He used the Cyrillic script for the writing, and the German model of Karadži someexplanation totheabovequestion. TheSerbian linguistVukStefanovi the “Orthodox Croats” andthe Serbs called theCroats the “Catholic Serbs.” religion, this was overcome simplythe bytheinclusivists: Croatscalled the Serbs Štokavian then they must bereally Croats. As regards the differences within the used the Štokavianexclusively. Some Croatsretorted that since theSerbs spoke Croatian region, then its residents were really Serbs, since the Serbian language Štokavian [shtokavian] variant of the Croatian language was spokenby a given Slavic stock. providing thatthe word this racein caseindicated one’s belonging tothe wider perhaps the only one that all theconstituents of the debate would have agreed on, 63 62 nations, joined by“theunity ofrace.” merelydivided byreligion andcurrent geopolitical situation, orsmaller related clearly defined ideaofwho thesouthern Slavs were; whether theywere onepeople These excerpts mayserve asanindication thatSeton-Watson did nothavea 1976. p. 180. p. 1976. Ibid. R. W. Seton-Watson and the Yugoslavs, Correspondence 1906-1941 Correspondence Yugoslavs, andthe R. W.Seton-Watson The origins ofthe standardization of the Serb andCroat languages provide As far asthelanguage was concerned,the Serbsclaimed thatifthe remarkable, but itis thoroughly typical. that in future all would be Southern Slavs. This incident is in no way between Catholic, Orthodox, and Moslem, were part ofan evil past, and their assertion thatthe olddistinctions between Croat, Serb, and Slovene, Catholic student from Agram [Zagreb]; all three were equally emphatic in Slovene Catholic priest, an Orthodox Serb from Bosnia, and aCroat fortnight before the fatal crimeSarajevo. of My three friends were a quote my own last meeting with Southern Slavs on Austrian soil, barely a Orthodox Serb and Catholic Croat has been well-nigh effaced … I may What is most remarkable of all, the old dividing-line ofreligion between ü standardized theSerbian language the in second decade ofthe 19 63 This last element, theunityofrace, is 62 , Vol I. London-Zagreb: I. Vol , 58 th ü CEU eTD Collection standard usage ofthesound him. Asthingsworked out,theSerbsof Serbia refused Karadži the center of theSerbian language, which would have beentoo boldastep evenfor Dubrovnikto layclaim to itstradition, andyet notdoing so outright, nor setting it as Herzegovina astheepicenter ofthe Serbian language hewas close enough to Catholic population ofCroatiaas Catholic Serbs. By choosingthe southern Dubrovnik literary tradition as Serbian tradition, thein same way hedescribed the literary volumes. used byDubrovnik writers andpoetsfor centuries, andestablished inavast body of standardized Serbiansound nearly identical totheCroatian languagethat hadbeen similarities between DubrovnikandHerzegovina dialects made Karadži to southernHerzegovina, expressed intensofkilometers, andthelinguistic and therich literary tradition it possessed. The geographical proximity ofDubrovnik inclusive category ofthe Catholic Serbs included ofcourse thecity of Dubrovnik Herzegovina as the basisfor hisstandardization of the Serbian language. The all Catholic population speaking theSlav language astheCatholic Serbs. was, putthereligioninsecond place ofimportance, simply designating the differences. Thereligion was notthesame,but Karadži encountered was verymuch oneandthesame, albeitwith some regional Bosnia and Dalmatiaand all thewaywest toIstria.The language of the peoplehe the Serbian lands and gathering folk songs and traditions. He also traveled through for language-specific sounds. Karadži adhering tothestrict phonemic principles, creating several new Cyrillic characters Now, thequestion has to be asked whether Karadži Most importantly, Karadži j [y] and opted for its omission from most linguistic ü chose the language spoken southernin ü spent considerable time travelingthrough ü , asthelinguist thathe ü sought to claim the ü ’s proposed ü 59 ’s CEU eTD Collection sought the unificationof all theSouthern Slavs inone state, originally wishing to leaders ofthe Illyrian Movement ofthe1830’s forsome years.The Movement political advantageofthe proximity toSerbian.Towit, Gajhadbeenoneofthe Croatian. Thisinitselfwas alogical linguistic choice, butGaj sawthe additionalin it Serbian. Gaj had noproblems identifyingDubrovnik asthecradle ofthe literary place thestandardized Croatian asclose possible tothe already standardized thein 1830’sthe linguist andpolitician leading thedrive, Ljudevit Gaj, soughtto [kaykavian] and the word: Serbs andCroats. The Croats, however, had, andstill have,two otherversions of after theSlavic word between thetwo. mentioned Thealready Štokavian [shtokavian] dialect –named so the onlyfeature oftheCroatian andSerbian that provides amajor differentiation policies of theNikši inclusivist linguistic approach bears some resemblanceto thelatter expansionist the perfect, if somewhat archaic, Croatian, not Serbian. It cannot bemissed thathis expansion westwards? Histranslationof the NewTestament, forexample, readsas point about theCatholic Serbs,and provide the linguistic basis forSerbia’s the Serbian language? heto tweak tryingWas thelanguage inordertoprove his [eeyeh], population ofCroatia, Dalmatia andBosnia alternated between thesounds Serbian lands eastoftheriver Drina. Ontheotherhand, Croat andSerb forms, aswas thenorm in what wouldsoon become theSerbian mainland, the Why didKaradžiWhy The dichotomy surrounding the usage of je [yeh]and kaj [ka’y] and û akavian [chakavian]. the CroatlanguageWhen was standardized ü government oftheKingdom of Serbia. e [eh]. što ü chosethe obviously non-Serbianvariant asastandard for ü [shto], meaning a [cha], resulting intwo additionaldialects, Kakjavian what ije – was, and still is, used– was, is, byboth andstill [eeyeh], je [yeh] and e [eh] not is 60 ije CEU eTD Collection wrote thefollowing: Italian irredentists bent onusing anymeans todiscredit political opponents, he Austrophil. Inareply totheaccusations laid against him by aMr. Piccoli,oneofthe criticism of the state policy.exist, Seton-Watson hadfallen outoffavor withits authorities for expressing his Yet later, quite absurdly,As we haveseen, in spite ofhis view thatthe Austria-Hungary should continue to he was accusedThe Treaty ofLondon of being an having struggled with thesedefinitions from time totime. being resolved eventoday. For this reasonSeton-Watson may beforgivenfor important the religious affiliation indetermining one’s ethnic belonging are far from identity forthewider, inclusiveand almost neutral Illyrian andYugoslav identity. all, theoriginators of bothdrives, andwere willing toabandon their own Croatian Yugoslav idea, while the Croatsshowed some enthusiasm. TheCroatswere, after chance.winning The Serbsin particular did notidentify with eitherIllyrian or the Croat and Serb identities, the Illyrian-Yugoslav identity didnot stand much of a approach andthe Yugoslav ideaof the early twentieth centuryare quite obvious. Serb identities. The similarities between the Illyrian Movement tentative andits Serbs, without the need of either of them to renounce their already existing Croat or Movement, was chosen as a neutral namewhich would includeboth Croats and to include Bosniaand Serbian lands further east. The name itself, the unite only theCroatianlandsunder theHabsburg rule,butsoonexpanding itsgoals policy of Vienna, and, above all, Budapest, dispelled one illusion after I plead guilty to having long remained an Austrophil, until the oppressive The ageoldquestions ofwho is who, who speakswhich languageand how By thevirtueofbeing alateentrant intothealready ongoing contest between Illyrian 61 CEU eTD Collection 66 65 64 works, Seton-Watson wrote a memorandum occupying large tracts ofSlavcountry …then Iplead guilty tothecharge.” Italian. Inalettertofriendhe wrote that “if it isanti-Italian toobject toItaly Southern Slavs, Seton-Watson was during thisperiod often accused of being anti- same andfor vein thesame reasons,which his is defense ofthe cause of the enraged atSeton-Watson’s attacks onthe Treaty ofLondon ofApril 26,1915. Inthe It hasto remembered thattheAustrophil accusation originated from the Italian side, was of the Slavic stock, Italywas should nothe Slavicstock, lay of Finally, claim Seton-Watson to it. British policy thein present conflict. Given that 96%ofthepopulationof Dalmatia repeatedly declared that theprincipleof nationality is oneofthefoundations of as Herbert Asquith, SirEdward Grey, Lloyd George and Churchill,Winston had the government ofSerbia. He also pointed out that various British statesmen, such hadconductedsince it been insecrecy andwithout consultation with aBritish ally, that suchadeal wouldnotbe inaccordance with thedeclared abstract principles, on theside of the Entente Powers. coast andvirtually allofitsislands. Inreturn for theprizeItalywould enter thewar became known tothepublic, would have given Italy a large portion of Dalmatian the ramifications of such a deal. The agreement the itself, contents of which later SSEES, SEW 17/17/11. SEW SSEES, The Secret Agreement with Italy Agreement with Secret The Gazette Mall Pall The Upon first getting awindthatsecret agreementwith might Italy the bein can only plead that I was a month ahead ofmost people. war was inevitable. IfMr. Piccoli blames me for not realizing sooner, I introduce the necessary reforms. From the day ofSarajevo I knew that as thelate Archduke was alive I hoped against hope that he might problems of nationality, least of allthe Southern Slav question. So long another and drove me to despair of Austria ever tackling in earnest her Seton-Watson criticized thisidea from two different angles. Hefirst exposed , December 15,1916. December , , SSEES, SEW5/1/6. 66 in which he gave a lucid analysis of 64 65 62 CEU eTD Collection 67 the inevitable changes any peace settlementwould entail: confirmed concertfor thewiderstability and security ofEurope the aftermathin of political disputes relating to the small Balkannations was accompanied byhis raised. whether contribution Italy’s tothewar effortwas that valuable really was also that sucha dealwould have on the American public opinion. Finally, the question Romania andRussia were also sounded upon bySeton-Watson, as was the effect the Entente, and in the process destabilize the eastern Balkans. Points relating to questionthe Serbo-Bulgarian agreement thatwas concludedunder the auspices of then most certainly look southwardsSalonika to again, and by doing sobring into Additionally, if Serbiawere robbedoftheprospect ofexpandingwestwards itwould wouldalso side with Austria-Hungary orderin to resist the Italian occupation. wouldbe forced to enter into armistice with them, andthe Croatian population would tothetriumph lead ofAustro-Hungarian policysince theSerbian government Italy concerns the concrete that carried.it The implementationof theagreement much, oraslittle, right to Dalmatiaas England has toBordeaux.” Belgium. Asheputit rather eloquently onanother occasion: “In aword, Italy hasas moralgrounds to give anykind of opposition to Germany’s desire toconquer concluded, Britainif were indeedto Italylet occupyDalmatia,it would loseall the 68 181. p. 1976. Ibid. p. 219. Ibid. R. W. Seton-Watson and the Yugoslavs, Correspondence 1906-1941 Correspondence Yugoslavs, andthe R. W.Seton-Watson German expansion inthe Balkans and the we give this up, we renounce the creation of a really effective barrier to Without Dalmatia there can be no Serbo-Croat Unity, no Jugoslavia; and if Seton-Watson’s principled and enthusiastic motivation for participating inthe The other approach in his analysis of the ramifications of the secret deal with Drang nach Osten . , Vol I. London-Zagreb: I. Vol , 68 67 63 CEU eTD Collection 73 72 sea.” access tothe andsecure free “accorded should be Serbia that 71 70 69 the expediency ofthe creation ofaSouthern Slav statewhich wouldputabrake on only basedon his belief self-determinationin for theSouthern Slavs, noryetupon on inatotal 30 of dailies and weeklies. possible, andsucceeded inhaving itprinted in whole, inpartor at least commented used all hisinfluence tohave the declaration published in asmany newspapers as goals ofthestrugglecurrently waged inthelands ofSouthern Slavs.Seton-Watson and liberation were putforthasthe basis fortheCommittee’s activities and the and Parliament.” frantically andalready by May 12issuedadeclaration entitled “TotheBritish Nation been able tovisit Greywith him on May 4.Nonetheless,the Committee worked Seton-Watson held itagainst Trumbi Fourteen Points. particular lineofthoughtwas expressed later inU.S.President Woodrow Wilson’s Seton-Watson that Serbiawould have a“wide access …totheAdriatic.” any reward thein event she cooperated with theGreatPowers. Grey assured adjoining Serbterritories butalso that it would bemost unreasonableto deny Italy The Foreign Secretary stated that Serbia wouldbe able tomerge withall the Sir Edward Grey’ssent amatter offacttoreply Seton-Watson’s impassioned letter. referred to Serbia’s “desperate need of an economic outlet to the sea.” echoed Seton-Watson’s ownwords from a lettertotheForeignOffice, inwhich he 1976. p. 223. p. 1976. SSEES, SEW5/1/4. Point11 in stated Wilson President 1918, 8, onJanuary USCongress the to aspeechdelivered In p. 180. Ibid. p. 221. Ibid. R. W. Seton-Watson and the Yugoslavs, Correspondence 1906-1941 Correspondence Yugoslavs, andthe R. W.Seton-Watson The vehemence with whichSeton-Watson fought against theTreaty was not The members ofthe Yugoslav Committee arrived Londonin on May 9, 1915. 71 72 Initthe principles ofself-determination, democracy, self-defense ü 73 for notarriving earlier, and for nothaving , Vol I. London-Zagreb: I. Vol , 69 In this he Inthis 70 This 64 CEU eTD Collection involved in the Balkans, and never trust your luggage to the Royal Navy.” totheRoyal luggage your trust andnever Balkans, in the involved 75 74 situation on the front deteriorated, the Serbs had to retreat through the Albanian Serbia, butthepositive inclination was notbeing transferred intospecific aid.Asthe retreating further andfurthersouth.Public inBritain opinion atthistime backed of theSerbian army, thecourse of war changedandtheSerbs found themselves Soon thereafter most ofEurope was engulfed inconflict. After some initial victories mediation efforts, Austria-Hungary declared the war ontheKingdom of Serbia. and thefailure ofthesubsequent protracted series ofnegotiations, ultimatums and After the assassination of the Archduke Ferdinand in Sarajevo onJune 28, 1914 Promoting the Serbian Cause proverbially the feasibilitydestabilize thewhole region andbring into question thefuture peace intheAdriatic, borders may causetolocal tradeandpolitics. More importantly, such bordersof would the statewith theareaandtherefore understands the ramifications thatarbitrarily drawn of SouthernThe abovecomment expresses thefrustration ofthepersonwhoacquainted iswell Slavs and the stability of the Entente negotiators who were the alreadydraftingmanifested. Inhisletter to William Miller, datedJune 12,1915,hecriticized common sensethatsome oftheaspects the Treatyand those participating in its the Germany’s eastward expansion, butalso on theutter lackof consistency and The British military witticism coined at this period went: “Never march on Moscow, never get never on Moscow, march “Never went: period atthis coined witticism military British The 17/17/11. SEW SSEES, and control the trade of Spalato at every turn. and that it would be inItaly’s power under such circumstances to bottle (Piccolo Venezia) is the future port of Spalato not the existing harbour, satisfactory way for Serbia, quite failing torecognize thatVranjica …so ignorant that they thought they were saving Spalato ina thoroughly 75 volatile Balkans. 74 65 CEU eTD Collection 78 77 1941 76 Italy toregain ‘ in which“nobody caresastraw, theyareallhappyattheGrand Hotel waitingfor withthe uselessness of the British legation and the generalstate of disorganization, based outofCattaro. taking the shipment ontoDurazzo inAlbania were sunkbythe Austrians whowere that hadbeensentbythe French Government forSerbia; two outofthreevessels him of thedifficulties theyhad thein shipping ofthe large consignment offlour one oftheFund’srepresentatives insouthern wrote Italy toSeton-Watson informing of relief tothestranded Serbian army. Božo Banac,aDalmatianship-owner and necessitous Serbian students Switzerland.”in by Seton-Watson and his colleagues was thesetting upof a Fund“in aidof of anumber ofSerbian refugee boys. Asimilar matter which wasalso attended to refugees and prisoners ofwar. was Later it alsoinvolved intheeducation inBritain the war progressed the Serbian Relief Fund expanded itsoperations to aid Serbian on theground and operated fieldhospitals insouthern Serbiaand lateronCorfu. As extensively with theScottish forWomens' Foreign Hospitals Service, which worked while its first chairman was Bertram Christian. TheSerbian Relief Fundcooperated honorary secretary of the Fund and his wife May was oneof the leading organizers, the provision of everykind ofhelp totheSerbian Army. Seton-Watson was Corfu. mountains towards theIonianSea, where they foundrefuge onthe Greek island of Božo Banac’s to Seton-Watson, December 9, 1915. Ibid. p. 255. p. Ibid. 9,1915. December toSeton-Watson, Banac’s Božo p.252. 1915. Ibid. 26, November toSeton-Watson, Banac’s Božo Cviji Jovan to Seton-Watson , Vol I. London-Zagreb: 1976. p. 259. p. 1976. London-Zagreb: Vol I. , The SerbianRelief Fund’s men onthegroundhelped forwardingin anytype The Serbian Relief Fundwas setupinSeptember 1914,itsmission being il marenostro 77 Banacgrew frustrated withthe inefficiency oftheoperation, ü , .’” R. W. Seton-Watson and the Yugoslavs, Correspondence 1906- Correspondence Yugoslavs, andthe R.W. Seton-Watson 78 76 66 CEU eTD Collection magazine thatwould deal with the European political questions. In 1916 he was politics made him a romantic larger and thanlife character. origins, earlyrecognition andsuccess inartandadmirable engagement inthe SSEES, SEW17/9/1. encouraging evenadose ofpersonality cultaround Meštrovi preceding theexhibition Seton-Watson ranan extremely effective press campaign, 80 79 exhibition, asapresentation oftheSouthern stone.” Slavidea in Cycle, andSeton-Watson was enthusiastic about“organizing theMeštrovi commemorating theBattleofKosovo, and butrelateda smaller Prince Marko Knightsbridge. Meštrovi during the war: VelimiroviNikola on agreater scale. Consider the letter hereceived onSeptember 22,1915from ground, Seton-Watson’s most significant contributions totheSerbian causewere Meštrovi that year Seton-Watson organized the exhibition of Croatian sculptor Ivan event. Thecommemoration oftheBattle Kosovo of1389was another.Earlier to havebeen Seton-Watson’s special talent. The Serbian Flag Daywas one such Indeed, organization ofgreatscale events whichgarnered alotofpublicity seems Seton-Watson’s to Mabel Gruji toMabel Seton-Watson’s Velimirovi Nikolaj For yearsSeton-Watson hadbeen trying to publish an independent our poor people in Serbia. you. Mr Seton Watson, thank you in myown name andin the name of that there is a nation with the name “Serbs”. achange!What … Thank the breast. Ahundred years ago nobody in this great town did know even everybody in London, in the Centre of the World, with a Serbian flag on The Serbian Flag Day was splendid… It was a real joy for me to look While not shying away from the practical questions and minutiae onthe ü , which was heldattheVictoria and Albert Museum near London’s ü ü ’s to Seton-Watson, Ibid. pp. 243,244. Ibid. ’s to Seton-Watson, , Bishop ofOhrid andan active Serbianpropagandist inBritain ü hadproduced wholea seriesofsculptures ü (the American wife of a Serbian diplomat), March 15, 1915. 15, March diplomat), a Serbian wife of American (the 79 ü , whose lowlypeasant 80 Immediately 67 ü CEU eTD Collection Alliance. The policyreferred towas, ofcourse, the principle ofnationality orself- various Treaties to have theirnew versions adapted tothedeclared policy ofthe take theopportunity that presented itself intheRussian proposal fortherevision of sameletter Seton-Watson andhis cosignatories requested thePrime Minister to Watson and the Yugoslavs, Correspondence 1906-1941 Correspondence andtheYugoslavs, Watson 83 82 81 succouring theSerbian Army and,as far aspossible, theSerbian people.” that theBritish Government shouldtakein handwithout delay thework of letter toDavid Lloyd George he urgedthat “Honour and interest alike …demand memorandums totheForeign Office and even tothePrime Minister himself. In a autocrat.” catchphrases and cheap oratory, or driven mortalinto strife by the word ofan upon with thehopethat “inthe future … menwillnot be led tobattle with slogans, The dissemination ofreliable informationdeclared as its firstgoalwas embarked cofounders: goals were parallel tothatofthe journal, and were thusexpressed byoneofits many articlesfor it.Closely related to the journalwas theNew Europe Society. Its for postwar reconstruction. Seton-Watson was editorof this journalwas toraisepublicawareness of European politics andthe possibilities successfulfinally in launching thepublication entitled Letter of the Serbian Society of Great Britain to David Lloyd George, June 25, 1917. 25, June George, David Lloyd to Britain ofGreat Society Serbian ofthe Letter Ibid. SSEES, SEW2/2/2. Most importantly, however, Seton-Watson continuously sentletters and the aims theof New Europe Society is to spread such message. nations, and to know where injustice usurps the seat of justice. One of community is suffering, to understand the desires and policies of other necessary to recognize and diagnose the ills from which the European of Europe to apply the remedy called “prevention”, then it is obviously Ifthe coming peace, however, is to afford an opportunity to the peoples 82 , Vol I. London-Zagreb: 1976. p. 299. 1976. p. London-Zagreb: Vol I. , The NewEurope The NewEurope 81 . The aim of R. W. Seton- and wrote 83 Inthe 68 CEU eTD Collection 84 specific suggestions ofwhat be is todonein regardto theSouthern Slavs. politicians ofhisdaywas usedtoconveythemhispenetrating analysesand Seton-Watson. And finally, the limitedaccess he had to theleadingBritish as such. would today What be termedmedia a campaign was staged masterfully by public opinion andawareness oftheexistence oftheSerbian orSouthSlav cause setting upofafundforSerbian students in Switzerland. Anotherfront was British with othervolunteer organizations, such asthe Scottish Women’s Hospitalsandthe for the purchase of food for the Serbian armyand populace, as well as cooperation Britain. One was theoffer of practical help,manifested in the collection of donations approach topropagating andfurthering the SerbianandSouth Slav cause in dismalconditions under which thepopulation ofSerbiawas suffering. concludes with specific suggestions which, if applied, would greatly improve the followed bya recapitulation ofprevious attempts toofferassistance. The letter addressed to the Prime Minister. The conditions Serbiain were first reviewed, The subject matter ofthisletter ismuchmore onthepractical levelthan the one Relief Fund sent aletter to Lord Robert Cecil, Under Secretary for Foreign Affairs. unredeemed regions inhabited bymajorities of(her) own race.” are also advocated the letter,asherrightin to“recoverfrom Austria-Hungary not characterized hereasananti-Italian move.contrary, Tothe theinterests ofItaly the borders. Importantly, thereversalof the treaties, notably theonewithItaly, is determination, declared bythe Allies to bethe guidingprinciple inany redrawing of Ibid. It isevident thatSeton-Watson andhis colleagues usedathree-pronged In what appears like awriting campaign,only fourdays later theSerbian 84 69 CEU eTD Collection document that Seton-Watson prepared. In it he made astrongcase for not entering Memorandum on theQuestionofSeparate Peace with Austria reports on specific subjects that might berequired by the Government. Aspecial composeweekly political intelligence reports for the Cabinet,War andsimilar other Bureau oftheDepartment ofInformation. function The oftheBureau was to intercession byfriends. After only a month hewas appointedtothe Intelligence the RoyalArmy MedicalCorps,but managed to avoid active service through 87 86 85 Watson’s memorandum.” Secretary of State hasany leisure, Iwould strongly recommend aperusalofMr Foreign Office: “I venture to subscribe to all MrSeton-Watson’s conclusions… If the thus endorsed by Sir Arthur Nicholson, the Permanent Under-Secretary at the addressed totheForeignOffice. Once such letter, dated October 1,1914, Office. This is documented numerous in detailed memorandums andletters Henry Wickham Steed was toestablish able a workingrelationship withthe Foreign and forthedurationof the way. Hewas refusedinitially, butthrough his old friend the specialist on CentralEurope and the Balkans tothe Foreign office, without pay Habsburg Empire. Attheoutbreak oftheFirst heoffered World hisservicesWar as studies. time With hebecame anauthority on thequestionof nationalities ofthe Due tothe wealth he inherited hewas ableto freely traveland devote himself tohis situation general,in were based on his own interests in history andcurrent affairs. minority peoples, andlatertheKingdom SerbiaandtheEuropeanof political As seen earlier,Seton-Watson’s activities relating toAustria-Hungary and its Working for the British Government SSEES, SEW4/1/3. p. 402. Ibid. pp. 180-186. Ibid. In May 1917Seton-Watson was conscripted and mobilized as a private in 86 87 was onesuch 85 was 70 CEU eTD Collection SSEES, SEW4/1/3. 88 Among othermatters hereported thefollowing: Austro-Hungarian section. Histaskthere wastocreatethepropaganda policy. Department ofPropaganda Enemyin Countrieswhere hebecame co-director ofthe departmental wrangling andSeton-Watson moved toapostinthenewly created determination single nationality inEurope (whether asyet autonomous ornot) was, ownwords, inhis theproclamation of“ourdetermination tosecure toevery alternative to the temptingly simpleand apparently fair “noannexations” policy. It Habsburg Empire, should notbe subscribed to.Seton-Watson offers a clear and therefore noaccommodation ofthedemands ofminority nationalities in the the warwithout annexations, which inherently means noredrawing oftheborders dispute regarding the future of Dalmatia. Additionally, theRussian proposal toend as hisstriving toremainunbiased the in ongoingSouthern SlavItalian – diplomatic timementioned bySeton-Watson inthisdocument. Thiscanbeseen,in particular, relating totheItalian andRomanian minorities inAustria-Hungary, was forthefirst freedom to theSlavand Latin nationalities within her borders. The Latin element, Dual Monarch wouldagree tochange its own internalstructure soastogrant full would notcontinue being subservient politically toGerman ambitions, and(b) the negotiationsinto leading tothatendunless it wascertain that(a)Austria-Hungary Report on the work of the Department of Propaganda in Enemy Countries. November 1918. November Countries. Enemy in Propaganda of Department the of work the on Report II Aeroplane Propaganda In March 1918 the Intelligence Bureau became thesubject ofinter- most suitable parts at which itcould be dropped.” (in Serbo-Croat), prepared in Switzerland: and they could intimate the arranged, they already have literature admirably suited for the purpose literature byaeroplane inDalmatia, Bosnia and Istria. Ifthis could be prompt steps should be taken thefor distribution oftheir own particular .” . The Jugoslavs are also very anxious that 88 the right toself- 71 CEU eTD Collection situation, which was attime coming toaboiling point. chief foreignsponsors, the Russians, were shifting their focus onto their internal other reason for the abandoning of the “smaller Greater Serbia” policy was that its the Bulgarians, whichhad bythat time reached anenviable level ofpopularity. The was inthestrength of the appeal for the union ofall theSouthern Slavs, excepting signing oftheCorfu Declaration putanendto this particular plan.Part ofthereason Serbian population,thus creating predominantly Orthodox Greater Serbia. The Slavic landsintotheir Kingdom, only thatis, those whichlands hadat leastsome politicians entertained the of havingidea only partial integration oftheSouthern Committeemuch too legitimacy. Secondly, all theway tothispointSerbian Yugoslav Committeeor itsrepresentatives, because itdid notwantto give the Government hadthereto been keen onavoiding direct or officialcontact with the statelet ofMontenegro. been apartofthe Habsburg Empire, the Kingdom Serbia andof themountainous unification of theSouthern Slavs, that is, the Southern Slavs which hadthereto Ionian Sea onJuly20, 1917. The Declaration, orPact, laidthefoundation forthe Government oftheKingdom of Serbiaexile in on the Greek island ofCorfu inthe The PactofCorfu was signedbetween theYugoslav Committee andthe The Corfu Declaration propaganda has hadtheeffect of angering the enemy.” complaints. Seton-Watson concluded that“we haveatleastthisproofthatour Ljubljana andZagreb, to which theAustro-German pressresponded with bitter Earlier inthe year severalsuch propaganda air raids hadbeen conducted over This was anew manydevelopment in aspects.First of all,Serbian the 72 CEU eTD Collection 89 the following: new unified state.Seton-Watson wrote the in Memorandum to Intelligence Bureau Committee was notable to overcome was thequestion of federal makeup of the of theTreaty of London, for example. international level,where itcouldface upforthe challenges and the counter-claims welcomed theDeclaration, for it brought the question of the unification onthe Istria, etc.” disavowed byanypartyorindividualpolitical inthe life ofCroatia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, not one voice was raised against them, norhave they ever been “repudiated or previous declarations, for in both instances when suchdeclarations were published Committee hadagoodtrackrecord with the CroatandSlovene public with its assembly previously authorized tomake binding decisions. The Yugoslav it reached. The Yugoslav Committee sentsix representatives, whom the general government among ranks, its giving thusa degreecontinuity toanyof the decisions Serbian government hadrepresentatives of both theoutgoing andthe incoming spite being inthemidst ofthescandaland a changethe in ruling coalition, the Slavs are oneaccordin theirin expresseddesire to form state.a single to the victorious outcome ofthewar, that the two chiefconstituents of the Southern to theAllies, whowere already making preparations for thepeacetreaties pursuant Correspondence 1906-1941 Correspondence Special Memorandum on the Pact of Corfu of 2oth,July PactofCorfu on the Memorandum Special The onegraveshortcomingof theCorfu Declarationthat the Yugoslav The Yugoslav Committee, bynow and its formermember chief Supilo, The legitimacy ofthe representatives of both sides was well established. In Most significantly, the joint declaration ofthese two entities was aclearsign 89 , Vol I. London-Zagreb: 1976. pp 306-308. 1976. London-Zagreb: Vol I. , R. W. Seton-Watson and theYugoslavs, Seton-Watson R. W. 73 CEU eTD Collection 92 309 –311. pp. 1976. 1918. 91 90 statement. The result wasthat neither of the Italians nor the Southern Slavs welcomed this arguments theCroats had used when fighting against the Treaty and its principles. element, which, underthe banner ofself-determination was oneof the chief the Treaty, and byItalians as the emphasis being shifted tothe “race andtongue” tongue.” Italians [hadthe legitimate claim] for union with thoseoftheirown raceand British Prime Minister David Lloyd George stirred controversy bystating that“the its wholehearted embrace by the Allies. In his speech of January 5, 1918, the majority ofthecrew in Austro-Hungarian naval force–didnotautomatically mean suppliers of manpower fortheenemy navy–theCroats, who represented the Kingdom of Serbia–andthe representatives ofthe peoplewho were thechief But a single Declaration bythe members ofthegovernment ofaminorAlly –the Ibid. As quoted in a letter by The Serbian Society of Great Britain to David Lloyd George, January 25, January George, Lloyd David to Britain ofGreat Society Serbian byThe aletter in Asquoted Ibid. R. W. Seton-Watson and the Yugoslavs, Correspondence 1906-1941 Correspondence Yugoslavs, and the Seton-Watson W. R. unmindful of their interests…” Hungary that the powerful democratic States ofthe areWest not former is an assurance to all the friendly subject peoples ofAustria- than the negative form of refusing to dismember an enemy State. The principle ‘self determination’ theof peoples and races concerned, rather should take the positive form ofdemanding the loyal application ofthe …all public declarations of the war aims theof Allies in Central Europe The Serbian Society wrote tothe Prime Ministersuggesting that: forcing her will upon other. settlement by amicable agreement and Serbia repudiated any idea of they would be prepared to accept this. In other word there was to be a Croatia or other sections ofthe Jugo-Slavs insisted on afederal solution federalism, but were quite explicit in the assurance that if forinstance They [the Serbian Government] depreciated any extreme form of 91 Thiswasturn in interpreted bythe Southern Slavs as strict adherence to 90 92 , Vol I. London-Zagreb: I. Vol , 74 CEU eTD Collection during andduring immediately afterthe war. effect left asignificant and lasting impact onthe course ofthepolitical negotiations cannot beassessed individually. Itcanbe said, however, thattheir cumulative taken bySeton-Watson and the various organizations hewas involved likewise Prime Minister is simply impossible. The effectiveness of all theother various steps Judging how effective a letter like this may havebeen swayingin the opinion of the 75 CEU eTD Collection Therefore, the preferred and expedient manner inhandling thatquestionwas to jeopardized andfurther armed conflictswould havebeen notan unlikely outcome. stability and peace that was just starting to slowly take root would have been they would have met with stiffresistance from the localSlav population. The and award large tracts of Dalmatia, Croatiaand Herzegovina toItaly aspromised, was adhere over–tostrictly tothe dealsigned with the Treaty Italy in ofLondon Kvarner. Hadthe Allies decided–oncethe hostilities haveceased and I World War not yetbeencontrolin of their lands,withthe exception ofIstriaand the islands of adherence totheprinciple ofself-determination. In 1918,theSouthern Slavs had with thedecision tocreatethenew state inthewestern Balkansasdid the of oppressors. rather the rewarding ofthenationalities which hadtheretosuffered under the boot the oldborders wouldnot be perceived asthe punishment ofthevanquished, but victorious Allies would looklessvindictive ifthe mainreason forthe redrawingof determination, after all, demanded thecreation ofsuch astate. Moreover, the western Balkans would betheright thing to do.The proclaimed policyofself- the United States governments decided that the creation ofthenew state inthe of theSouthern Slavs andtheir plight, andthe political elitesoftheEntente andof the Yugoslav idea in thewest borefruit; thepublic hadbeen aware oftheexistence aftermathnew creation ofastateinthe I.Theirefforts ofWorldWar in propagating various British associations whosemembers included Seton-Watson was the Slav emigration organizations, the government ofthe Kingdom of Serbiaand of the The outcome ofthecombined activities ofthe Yugoslav Committee, theSouthern However, theexpediency, bothgeopolitical andlocal,had asmuch todo CONCLUSION 76 CEU eTD Collection less success as it becamemore andmore dependenton Berlin –was nolonger in nach Osten have beenpopulous andpowerfulenough to be anobstacleto the German did notcontain Croatian and Dalmatian coast norwestern Herzegovina –wouldnot Furthermore, thenew Southern Slav country – the “smaller Greater Serbia” which aftermath I,theywould of War havebeenWorld divided between ItalyandSerbia. ItheirWar landswere governed byAustria-Hungary andTurkey; now,the in accepted the partition oftheir lands between two newforeignstates; before World peace indeed. Inparticular, the Slavs,especially theCroats, would never have bring semblanceorder of toit, wouldhaveit been aprecarious orderand avolatile managed toquell the initially rebellious Slavs, take the full control ofthe region and have beenrendered unstable overaprotracted period oftime. Even iftheItalians on thebasis oftheTreatyLondon been assigned toItaly, theentire region would was reachedthatkept both sides partially satisfied. the Italian claims resultedinthese areasbeing assigned toItaly, andcompromise situated onthe bordertoItaly –andtheneed togive at least some concessionto combination of thegeographical position of the lands questionsin –theywere still lessforcentral Istriaand itseastern coast andtheislands ofKvarner. Yetthe Italian population, the same couldnotbe said for the countryside surrounding them; islands of Kvarner; while thetowns onthe western coastof Istria hadmajority represented the majority population. Theexception was theIstriapeninsula and the of largeareasclaimed byItalyonthebasisofTreaty to theSlavs, who determination asthesupreme principle ofarbitration. This thenresulted inawarding renege thetermsthe setforth Treaty in of Londonandproclaim the self- More hadthewhole importantly, oftheeastern Adriaticareaclaimed byItaly . The Austria-Hungary which hadthereto played that role–with lessand Drang 77 CEU eTD Collection would beconsidered should thepopulation wish forthem to beimplemented. That Serbian government was avaguetentative statement thatthefederalist principles very resolute thethis issue. The bestthat less AnteTrumbi Frano Supilo, oneofitfounders, deciding tocease beingitsmember becauseof new state. Compromises the Committee, suchasthesehad resultedinarift in with Kingdom of Serbiatothefederalist principles as thebasisfor theorganization ofthe importantly, theCommittee toobtain failed an unequivocal commitment from the integral parts of Croatia– for the inclusion inthenew Southern Slavstate. More succeed securingin Istria andKvarner – be saidthatthey enjoyed amixed success. TheYugoslav Committee not did As regardsthe internal players who contributed tothecreationofYugoslavia, mayit have beenquite different. are just ascrucial ingredient asany other, andwithout them the outcomemight importance ofthesmallest ofcontributions cannot beoverestimated, becausethey than that.And yet, as everyin complicated and interdependent relationship, the to buildtheir case for thecreation ofthenew state on,but it was notmuchmore enthusiasts was necessary orderin to provide the victorious Allies with something or allowed tobecreated. Thepropaganda efforts byvarious émigrés andBritish contribute to that end. created the area,in andawarding largetracts ofSlav toItaly lands wouldnot expediency mandated thatareasonably stable andsizeable state should be existence, andanotherentity hadtoassume historical its mantle. Therefore, the Those were theessentialreasons why theSouthernSlav state was created, ü could obtain could from the 78 CEU eTD Collection By thetime theYugoslavgovernment 1939 in gave intothe demands formore regicide, retributions and general upheaval that brought thestate toagrinding halt. Southern Serbs –who calledthemselves Macedonians –resulting inunrest, state, asthey saw it. proclaiming federalist principles asthe basis forthe organization of the any legal limitation, for Corfu Declaration was asvague as it was weak in Nikši retained theleading position, theSerbian political parties likewise,particularly included thein extended state was notagreat grievance. The Serbianmonarchy Second Balkan wereWar preserved.The fact thatIstria andKvarner were not of theKingdom whichin theSerbs lived were annexed, while the gains from the the Kingdom of Serbia,thatachieved enviable results.Thetracts of land tothewest circumstances. of the above. Indeed, they reached the best possible outcome underthe efforts ofthe Yugoslav Committee was largely positive and successful, regardless becoming aprofessor ofthe University ofNotre Dame. Still, the outcome ofthe similar way, IvanMeštrovi mademany too concessions toItaly andstopped thereform in Croatia.Inthe 1938.he died in His grievances related tothe factthat theYugoslav government the factthatAnte Trumbi Yugoslavia was already onthe brink ofdissolution. was commitment areluctant thatwasenacted until not 1939,by which point ü ’s Radicals. Theirprofessedcentralist unitary policy couldbepursuedwithout Such policyeventuallya ofresistancelot stirred from the Croats andthe It was theYugoslav Committee’s partner and competitor, thegovernment of The epilogue of theYugoslav Committee’s activities may besummed upin ü ü hadopenly regretted theendofAustria-Hungary before withdrew from anddedicatedpolitics his time tohisart, enlarged 79 CEU eTD Collection been achieved, butsaw the centralist government asoppressive policies of the affairs the 1920’s.in Onthe one hand hewas satisfiedthat the independence had would bethedesiredsolution. He hadmixed feelings asregarded theYugoslav became ofthe opinion that outright independence and formation ofthenew state achieved within theAustro-Hungarianstate, butoncethe started I World he War that theyshouldbe given greater autonomy. Originally hethoughtthat this couldbe campaigning fortheSouthern Slavs, Seton-Watson hadalways beenoftheopinion state and contact with itspoliticalcircles until heretired in 1949. Throughout his of thenew state. been reached, andconsequentlythey rapidly lost any interest thein internal affairs European countries andthe United States content that a semblance ofstability had policy, it alsogaveabasis forthestateorganization, which the western left on June28,1921. Constitution the While reiterated the victory ofthecentralist creationand operation ofstate institutions, theVidovdan Constitution was declared showed asatisfactory degree ofstability. After theinitial difficulties relating tothe they were alltooeager to leave thenew state toitsown devices, just as as long it Ma federalists, who 1939 in allbutachieved that undergoal the leadershipof Vladko sustainingin ofthecentralist position eventually turned thetables infavorofthe Committeeand thegovernment the ofSerbia latter prevailed, butthat thedifficulties said that in the initialfederalist vs. centralist struggle between the Yugoslav promulgated bytheYugoslav Committee, was it Thus alreadytoolate. it couldbe autonomy, positioning itspolicycloser tothefederalist idea thathadbee þ ek. Not sowith Seton-Watson, who hadmaintained akeen interest in the new As regardsthewestern governments Peace signatories ofParis Treaties, 80 CEU eTD Collection The Collected Works Laszloof Peter Works Collected The Peter, Laszlo in Power", of Balance European and the Monarchy 93 the twentieth centurythe proponents of the Yugoslavism claimed thatSerbs,Croats Serbs were discovering anddeveloping their own national idea.By the beginning of development ofonly slightly wider Yugoslav identity. During the same period the administratively, andtheawakening oftheCroat identity wenthandinwith the Croatian landsintheearly nineteenth century were separatedpolitically and initially anintegralpart oftheprocess ofthe building ofthe Croatian identity. The The idea ofYugoslav unity –a concept developed in Croatia 1830’sin –was stability inBalkans the have beenpreserved. determination principlehad been satisfied and theBritish interests maintainingin notwithstanding some ofits internaltroubles. Indeed, in onefell swoop theself- be contentthat thenew state ofthe Southern Slavs hadbeen created, With suchpoliticaland ideologicalviews indeedhadeveryreasonto Seton-Watson and attitude towards the Southern Slavs are best expressed byLászlo Péter: centralist Belgrade policy also hurtgreat many Serbs. standpoint was not Croatian butsimply Yugoslav, for heheld theview that the Croats. This earnedhim the “pro-Croatian” label inBelgrade. However, his Lászlo Péter, "R. W. Seton-Watson's Changing Views on the National Question of the Habsburg the of Question National on the Views Changing Seton-Watson's "R. W. Péter, Lászlo are subordinated. view ofinternational relations to which the aspirations ofsmall nations attitude to small nation nationalism is always part of awider speculative however, does not really believe in national self-determination. His national harmony, and improve stability. … A West European liberal, intolerance; and he will offer plans toreform the institutions, bring about discovers agap between a liberal façade and the underlying reality of rather than an oppressive government; he will be dismayed when he constitutional conflict; he is likely to be on the side of anational minority shallWe find him on theside ofparliament rather than the crown in a Seton-Watson’s politicalcredo European ofa West communitarian liberal 93 , Miklos Lojkó ed, Aldershot: Ashgate, work in progress. workin Ashgate, ed,Aldershot: Lojkó Miklos , Historians and Their Vocabularies, and Their Historians 81 CEU eTD Collection Yugoslav Croat, who spoke in theNational Parliament in1933: all-inclusive Yugoslav identity. Consider the words ofŽelimirMažurani wouldhave toforsakeone’s Slovene, Croat or Serbidentity inorder todononthe credible. such a degree of dedication and faith, andwas thusbecoming less and less the same apparent contradiction as the spiritual Holy Trinity, could never command However, theYugoslav idea,belongingto the temporalrealm and yetcontaining believers do,that theinfinite God’struth cannot becontained man’sin finitemind. the matter, stillit is leftto the believers to takeas a matterit offaith, knowing, as Father, Son and Holy Ghost, in spite ofmany atheological treatise written to clarify Do theycontainthree separate entities oriseachsingle a unit? itcomesWhen to about each of the tri-part units (the choice of wordscontaining itself an oxymoron): theologicalconcept of the Holy Trinity. Indeed, the same questioncould be asked supposed to containall three, was anunitary concept as hard to grasp as the identities had by this time also beenwell formed, theYugoslavism, which was 95 p. 2003. 141. ad Company, London:Hurst Djokic, Dejan ed. the three-named nation). Belgrade, 1933, p. 50. Cited in Citedp. in Djoki 50. 1933, Belgrade, 94 and Slovenes were tribes ofone Dejan Djoki Dejan Stenografske beleške Senata Kraljevine Jugoslavije (saziv zagodinu) (saziv 1932.i1933. Jugoslavije Kraljevine beleške Senata Stenografske nation, not a tribe. tribe, then I feel resistance to it and Ithen insist that itis a name for a that Croat are not and have never been a nation, that they are just a tribe, I have nothing against it because it is true […] But ifthey tell me tribe… omeoneWhen tells me today that the Croats Yugoslavare a force me to admit that Croatdom does not imply anation, butjust a when someone tries to prove tome that that I am not,or when they try to The feeling of being aCroat grows stronger and becomes more resolute Indeed, thein 1920’slate itwas becomingincreasingly apparent thatone ü , “(Dis)Integrating Yugoslavia,” in Yugoslavia,” “(Dis)Integrating , 95 94 Giventhatseparate Serb,Croat and Slovene national ü , op. cit. p.152. op. cit. , ethnic nation with threenames ( Yugoslavism: Histories of Failed Idea 1918-1992 Failed of Histories Yugoslavism: troimeni narod ü , apro- , vol. 3, vol. , 82 – , CEU eTD Collection Aleksandra ministrima] na ve ministrima] Aleksandra predestined for defeatalreadythe severalin first yearsof existence.its centripetal ideologicalforce to keepit together, Yugoslavia –thestate –appeared dictatorship. But Yugoslavism – theideology –was nottheonly victim; lacking the centralism bythepromulgated successive Belgrade governments androyal concept ofthe Yugoslavism was rejected because ofitsperceived similarities with as it was tobeginwith. After the initialsuccess andwide acceptance, the unitary in thefirst decade of existenceits polluted the Yugoslav idea,as precarious an idea assassination. increasinglydictatorial policies heintroduced, andultimately resultedhis in “unyielding will” theKing spokeofwas manifested the in vigorousresistance tothe 96 blooded [Yugoslav] nation,” characteristics [andtoshow] thestrengthofunityand unyielding willofthesame- matters. Designed to“fosterhigher synthesis ofournational expressions and their own Croatidentity. Yugoslav identity, theCroats feared thatthey wouldbe Serbianized iftheyforsook and ultimately rejected by many Croats.Having no longer faith in the all-inclusive unitary asitwas, was with associated thecentralism, andthereforelargely resisted not always) andthefederalists mainly Croats (again,not always) theYugoslav idea, centralists and federalist currents. Since the centralists were mainly Serbs (though Yugoslav wasidea inevitably affected by the politicalstruggle between the Cast among thepoliticaland administrative prevarications of the 1920’s, the Arhiv Jugoslavije Thus the political questions relating to the organization ofthecommon state The introduction of dictatorship in 1929 by King Alexander didnot help the (Archives of Yugoslavia, Belgrade) The Royal Court Papaers: ‘Govor [Kralja ‘Govor Papaers: Court TheRoyal Belgrade) Yugoslavia, of (Archives þ eri [na Dvoru] 31. dec[embar] 1929. g.’ Cited in Djoki in Cited g.’ 1929. dec[embar] 31. Dvoru] eri [na 96 it ultimately it had theoppositeeffect. Indeed, the ü , op. cit. p. 148. p. , op.cit. 83 CEU eTD Collection Kramer, T.D., Kedourie, Elie, Gellner, Ernest, Evans, R.J., Djokic, Dejan, ed. Banac, Ivo, Babuki Anti Ani Stenografske beleške Senata Kraljevine Jugoslavije (saziv za1932.1933. i Robert William Seton-Watson’s private papers, Archivesofthe SchoolofSlavonic Rév, István, Péter, Lászlo, "R. Seton-Watson'sW. Changing ViewsontheNationalQuestion of Arhiv Jugoslavije (ArchivesofYugoslavia, Belgrade) The RoyalCourt Papaers: ü ü , J.Vanjske migracije inaturalizacijamigranata Hrvatskeiz (ratna perspektiva), , Ljubomir, “Nacionalne ideologije Jugoslavenstva kod Hrvata u dvadesetom Hungarian Jewry Hurst andCompany, 2002. and London: Cornell University Press, 1993. stolje Migracijske teme godinu), vol. 3,Belgrade, 1933. SEW. SSEES, and EastEuropean Studies of theUniversity College, London,under: Peter, Miklos Lojkó ed,Aldershot:Ashgate, workprogress. in Péter, Historians andTheir Vocabularies, The Collected ofLaszloWorks the Habsburg Monarchy and the European Balance ofPower", Lászloin 1929. g.’ ‘Govor [Kralja Aleksandra ministrima] nave ü , Vjekoslav, The National Question in Yugoslavia: Origins, History, Politics ü Aftertought u”, in In Defence ofHistory FromEmancipation toCatastrophe: The Rise andHolocaust of Nationalism Nations andNationalism Yugoslavism: Histories ofaFailed Idea Hrvatska Politika uXX stolje Danica Hrvatska , Theonly thing the historian canoffer, (draft,March, 2007). , 7,2:115-125, Zagreb, 1991. , University Pressof America, 2000. , London,1960. Unpublished Sources BIBLIOGRAPHY , NewYork: Norton andCompany,W. W. 2000. , October 1834. Books , Oxford: Blackwell, 1983. ü u , Zagreb,Matica Hrvatska, 2006. þ eri [naeri Dvoru] 31.dec[embar] , 1918-1992, London: . Ithaca 84 CEU eTD Collection The Southern SlavBulletin The PallMall Gazette The NewEurope The Morning Post L’Echo del’Adriatique Jugoslovenski Svijet Független Magyarország Bulettin Yougoslave Allgemeine Zeitung Sepi May, ArthurJ.,“Seton-Watson andtheTreaty of London.” Frankel, Joseph, “Federalism Yugoslavia”,in in ý Seton-Watson, R. W., Seton-Watson, R. W., Seton-Watson, Hough and Christopher, eds., izmi ü ü , Dragovan, “TheQuestion ofYugoslav Union in1918,” in 1968). Contemporary History History Review GeoJournal,vol.38, br.4. , I.(1996): Emigration andemigrants from Croatia between 1880 and1980, Yugoslavs , Vol.29,No. 1. (Mar., 1957). , Vol.49,No.2. (Jun., 1955). , London. , Correspondence 1906-1941, VolI. London-Zagreb: 1976. , London. , Vienna. , Paris. , , Washington. , London. , Rijeka. The Spirit oftheSerb Absolutism in Croatia , Budapest. , London. , Vol. 3,No. 4:1918-19: From toPeace.(Oct. War Newspapers Articles , London:1912. , London:1916. R. W. Seton-WatsonR. W. and the The American Political Science The Journal of Modern Journal of 85