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General of the - VI General

Titles in the series

Volume I Autochthonous Societies

Volume II New Societies: The Caribbean in the Long Sixteenth Century

Volume III Slave Societies of the Caribbean

Volume IV The Long Nineteenth Century: Nineteenth-Century Transformations

Volume V The Caribbean in the Twentieth Century

Volume VI Methodology and of the Caribbean General History of the Caribbean

Volume VI Methodology and Historiography of the Caribbean

Editor: B. W Higman

~ palg~?cYt~ .sll(~~ t~

UNESCO Publishing The authors are responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this book and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization.

The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of * UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

© Copyright text UNESCO 2003 © Copyright illustrations UNESCO 2003 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2003978-1-4039-7594-2 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles or reviews.

First published in 2003 Published jointly by UNESCO Publishing, Paris, France, and Macmillan Publishers Ltd, London and Oxford This edition published in 2007 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN ™ 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 and Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, RG21 6XS Companies and representatives throughout the world.

PALGRA VE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St Martin's Press, LLC and of Pal grave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries.

ISBN 978-1-349-73778-9 ISBN 978-1-349-73776-5 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-73776-5

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available from the Library of Congress.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 Transferred to Digital Printing 2011 CONTENTS

Preface Federico Mayor, Director-General of UNESCO vii

Description of the Project Professor Sir Roy Augier .x

List of Contributors . xiii

Abbreviations . xvii

Introduction B. W Higman 1

1 The development of historical disciplines in the Caribbean B. WHigman. 3

2 Linguistics and the oral tradition Mervyn C. Alleyne . 19 3 Documentary evidence David Buisseret . 46 4 Economic interpretations of Caribbean history Hilary McD. Beckles . 63

5 Gender in Caribbean history Jean Stubbs . 95 6 Ideology in Caribbean history Laennec Hurbon . 136

7 Nationalism and imperialism in Caribbean history James Millette . 162

8 Race, ethnicity and class in Caribbean history Franklin W. Knight . 200

9 Slavery and emancipation in Caribbean history Francisco A. Scarano. 233

10 Labour movements in Caribbean history Kusha Haraksingb . 283

11 Regional Bridget Brereton . . 308 12 Historiography of Fe Iglesias Garcia . 343 13 Historiography of the Dominican Roberto Cassii . 388

v Contents

14 Historiography of Fernando Pic6 . 417 15 Historiography of Michel-Rolph Trauillot . 451 16 Historiography of Howard Johnson . 478

17 Historiography of the Leeward and the Margaret D. Rouse-jones . 531 18 Historiography of , the , and , and Woodville Marshall and Bridget Brereton . . 544 19 Historiography of and the Gert Oostindie and Rosemarijn Hoefle . 604 20 Historiography of the French Antilles and French Guyana Anne Peratin-Dumon and Serge Mam-Lam-Fouck . 631

21 Historiography of , , and Michael Craton . . 665 22 Modes of dissemination B. W.Higman 687 Bibliography 709 Index. 926

vi PREFACE

FEDERICO MAYOR Director-General 0/ UNESCO

ow should the Caribbean be defined? It is here understood as encompassing H not only the islands but also the coastal part of , from to the and the riverine zones of Central America, insofar as these parts of the mainland were the homes of people engaged from time to time in activities which linked their lives with those of people in the islands. Despite the varieties of languages and customs resulting from the convergence there - by choice or constraint - of peoples of diverse cultures, the Caribbean has many cultural com• monalities deriving from the shared history and experience of its inhabitants. In this region, endowed with exceptionally beautiful landscapes and still undiscovered ocean resources, there grew up from the sixteenth century onwards a completely new society, which has in our own time distinguished itself by producing a relatively large number of internationally recognized personalities in many fields - poets, novelists, painters, dancers, designers, musicians, sportsmen, jurists, historians, politicians. In seeking to promote the preservation of cultural identities and greater under• standing among peoples through the exchange of cultural information, UNESCO has found it important to facilitate the writing of a new history of this region. I call this history 'new' because until quite recently Caribbean histories were more about exploits of European nation states in the Caribbean - histories of war and trade in the islands and the mainland. Such histories of the individual islands as were published before this time tended to be written from the standpoint of resident Europeans. It was the movement for political autonomy, and the broadening of historiography in the European and American universities in the first half of the century, that led initially to changes of emphasis in the study of the history of single islands, and later to histories of topics which linked the islands, notably the industry, slavery, slave laws and Asian immigration. In the established universities of and Puerto Rico and in new ones such as the University of the , departments of Caribbean studies were opened with the aim of undertaking teaching and research on , history, culture and society, the better to understand forces that had shaped the region and to identify the many elements which constitute Caribbean culture. The main findings of the scholars since then are reflected in the six volumes of this

vii Preface history, thereby presenting a more regional account than before of the Caribbean past and of the people who have constituted Caribbean society. This history traces the development of the region starting with the autochtho• nous peoples of the Caribbean. This includes the hunters and the gatherers as well as the incipient cultivators associated with the beginnings of village life. Situated as they were at what had become the gateway to the , these populations were the first to be enslaved. The inhabitants of the were decimated by acts of excessive inhumanity and disease. The Caribs survived longer through their well• honed fighting skills, but their numbers dwindled nevertheless and in the eighteenth century those who still resisted were transported to the coast of Belize where they established communities that exist to this day and fromJwhere they now return to teach their native language - 'Garifuna' - to the few Caribs who remain in and in St Vincent. The story of these early societies is told in the first two volumes. Volume III of this history (The Slave Societies) will constitute a central point of reference. In examining the creation of new societies, full account is taken of slavery, the terrible toll of human life and suffering it exacted and its pervasive impact on the psyche of the , both white and black. Resistance to slavery took many forms, of which marronnage in Haiti, Jamaica and Suriname, where the numbers were large, has received the most attention. Revolts and rebellions persisted throughout the region from the seventeenth century, although the best known is understandably that which led to Haiti's independence at the beginning of the nine• teenth century. The abolition of the British slave trade left slavery itself intact, until it gradually succumbed in the decades of the nineteenth century, first to the creed of the French Revolution, then to the combination of slave rebellions in the islands and the determined protestations of humanitarians and free traders in . By the middle of the nineteenth century the disputes between estate owners and the emancipated field labourers, referred to in Volumes I and IV, opened the way for the influx of people from Asia, predominantly from , thus adding a new element to the Creole societies which had gradually been formed since the sixteenth century. To avoid this supply of new labour for sugar estates becoming the restora• tion of slavery in a new guise, the recruitment of the labourers and their condition of work in the islands were regulated by law. Nevertheless, the constraints of indenture and the indignities attendant on being estate labourers affected the way in which Creole societies developed in the twentieth century. Undoubtedly, slavery and inden• ture have influenced the social and economic relations of societies in the circum• Caribbean in ways productive of ethnic and class conflict. Yet they have not only been the sources of cruelty and injustice, of acts remembered and resented. By per• sistent resistance to these oppressive regimes, these societies have also endowed themselves with the dignity and self-confidence of free men. During the latter part of the nineteenth century, the impulse towards autonomy which was felt by some of the propertied and educated elites was frustrated by inter• national, political and economic circumstances outside their control. The production of sugar from cane continued to dominate the Caribbean , with oil, miner• als and tourism becoming important items in the twentieth century. The influx of

viii Preface

American capital and the gradual diminution of European interests in the Caribbean led to the expansion of American influence in the region from the turn of the century onwards, notably in Cuba, Haiti and . This was the context in which the movements for self-determination worked, complicated everywhere by racial prejudice and disparities in the ownership of property. In the years following the Second World War, examined in Volume V, the islands and their immediate mainland neighbours have sought a variety of solutions to the problems which arise from societies asserting political autonomy while possessing economies dependent on overseas markets where their goods are pro• tected from competition. Puerto Rico became the 'Estado Libre', a Commonwealth; the French-speaking islands became departments of France; the Dutch-speaking islands, prior to the independence of Suriname, all became part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands; the English islands first flirted with a Federation, then became independent states separately; other states, following periods of dictatorship, have pursued the path of socialist revolution. Currently, both in the islands and on the continent, there is a growing tendency for policy to be guided by regionalism, by the impulse towards association and co-operation, towards the formation of trading blocs, initially prompted by geographical propinquity. These subregions have recently begun concerted efforts towards recognizing and confirming that their mutual interests will be served by closer association. It is therefore appropriate that the two UNESCO projects of the General History of the Caribbean and the General History of are being undertaken simultane• ously. The two histories should be read together as distinct parts of a unified whole, as an element in UNESCO's contribution to regional development through mutual understanding and cultural integration. Every effort will be made for both histories to reach as wide a public as possible in the major languages of the region, through the universities, through the schools by means of specially adapted versions (textbooks and children's books), and eventually through radio and television, plays and films. I wish, in conclusion, to extend my sincere thanks to the Chairman, Rapporteur and members of the International Scientific Committee and to the editors and authors of the various volumes who have come together to participate in this significant enterprise. My thanks also go to the governments and universities which have supported the project and to the Association of Caribbean Historians, so many of whose members have contributed generously to the creation of this work.

ix DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

Professor Sir Roy Augier Chairman of the Drafting Committee for the General History of the Caribbean

he decision to commission a UNESCO General History of the Caribbean, taken Tby the twenty-first session of the General Conference of UNESCO (1980), was an instance of the change in cultural policy which resulted in a shift in empha• sis from the 'common heritage of all mankind' to acknowledging the 'diversity of cul• tures' and commissioning the histories of Africa, Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, as well as a revision of the History ofMankind. In all these cases, the brief of the Director-General was for a history observed from inside the region not from the outside, as if from the ports and capitals of European colonizers. Cultural identity, unity in diversity, and therefore the cultural heritages of the regions, were to inform the themes chosen for the history, giving prominence to those groups, persons and cultures hitherto either excluded from historical narratives, or treated more as objects than as actors in the description of events. By December 1981, when the Working Group for the Preparation of a General History of the Caribbean met in Paris, the ideas and aims expressed by the UNESCO General Conferences of 1978 and 1980 were widely shared by the twenty scholars, Caribbean and European, whom the Director-General had invited in their personal capacity to break ground for the project. The aspirations of the ground-breakers embraced geography, anthropology, archaeology, ethnography, demography, society, religion, politics, ethnicity, culture, rituals, customs, socio-linguistics, music, dance, festivals, oral tradition, historiography and cartography. One is tempted to conclude etcetera, and rightly so, because their successors noticed that, in 1981, the Working Group had overlooked gender and the environment. The inclusiveness of their vision of the history of the Caribbean was, no doubt, due to the desire of the twenty schol• ars that the history of its people and their habitat should be written as if observed from inside the region. How was this vision to be made concrete in a few volumes, limited to twenty chapters each? How, within that general framework, to deal adequately with the wide diversity of size, ancestry, religion, language, custom, polities? How to set the chrono• logical limits to volumes without cutting off themes artificially? How to integrate the material into a Caribbean narrative and avoid writing history as merely summary accounts of the larger islands? The task was given to the Drafting Committee which first met in Kingston in April 1983. Of its nineteen members, twelve were from the Caribbean and seven from Africa, India, Europe and the . At first, the Committee used the text of the

x Description of the Project

Report of the Working Group (1981) to elicit the themes significant for Caribbean history. But in the discussion which followed, the form of organization proposed by the Working Group was abandoned and replaced by five themes which would make for a coherent history of the Caribbean region while being consonant with the UNESCO guidelines. These were Autochthonous Societies, New Societies: The Long Sixteenth Century, Slave Societies, The Long Nineteenth Century, The Caribbean in the Twentieth Century, and they became, with slight elaboration, the titles for the first five volumes of the history. The Drafting Committee also promised to consider adding an annexe containing maps and statistics, and this in time became the sixth volume, Methodology and Historiography of the Caribbean.

Volume I-Autochthonous Societies This volume relates the history of the origins of the earliest Caribbean peoples, and analyses their various political, social, cultural and economic organizations over time, in and around the Caribbean region.

Volume II - New Societies: The Caribbean in the Long Sixteenth Century The subject of this volume is the evolution of Caribbean society through the intrusion of Europeans, and it examines the dramatic changes in politics, society and culture which occurred until 1680. These changes are studied in conjunction with the rapidly dwindling presence of the Amerindians and the increasing numbers of Spanish English, French and Dutch settlers.

Volume IJI- Slave Societies of the Caribbean The slave societies were more than societies with enslaved Africans, so this volume examines the demographic and economic as well as social and cultural aspects of all those communities which resulted from the establishment of the Caribbean slave systems. Volume IV-The Long Nineteenth Century: Nineteenth-Century Tranifonnations Emphasizing themes rather than chronology, this volume covers the period from the end of slavery (although this varies in time from territory to territory) to the twentieth century. Its major themes are dependent labour groups, especially emigrants from Asia, the development and diversification of local economies, and the emergence throughout the region of varying degrees of national consciousness as well as forms of government. Volume V-The Caribbean in the Twentieth Century The prevalence and persistence of the plantation, the ubiquity of underemployment, the vulnerability of dependent Caribbean economies, popular and labour protests, and neo- are all considered in this volume. It also explores the effects of migration, mass communications and modernization on the cultures of local societies. Volume VI - Methodology and HistOriography of the Caribbean This volume has three sections. The first examines sources of historical evidence and the techniques used to study them for the purpose of writing Caribbean history. In

xi Description of tbe Project the second, tQe historiography of the region is treated thematically, tracing the changes in the interpretation of the past. The third is devoted to the historiography of particular territories and history-writing in all its branches

At its first meeting, the Drafting Committee also made three decisions which should be noticed here: it appointed editors for the five volumes and the proposed annexe; it decided that since it had provided in some detail the contents of Volumes II and III, the editors could complete work on the contents of their volumes and name the authors by the end of 1983; it acknowledged that the contents of Volume I needed detailed elaboration and agreed that the editor should have the help of a workshop of specialists to provide the details. Nevertheless, the Committee proposed that Volumes I, II and III should be published first and together and set July 1986 as the date for the final submission of manuscripts to UNESCO. Provisional calendars for producing histories in several volumes and with chapters from scores of authors are not dates that are likely to be met. As has been the case with other multi-volume histories, inviting the most competent historians to be editors and authors has also meant taking the risk that the publication of the work will be long-delayed, since such persons normally have many other commitments. The estimates made in April of 1983 were soon wildly out. The first meeting of the Bureau of the Drafting Committee scheduled for September 1984 was held in May 1985. The new date proposed for the submission of manuscripts of Volumes I, II and III was December 1987. Volume III, which was published in 1997, was submitted in 1992. When the General History of the Caribbean was first proposed, there were just enough historians who had researched their topics across the barriers of language. Since then the existence of the Association of Caribbean Historians has made possible a substantial increase of our comparative knowledge of the region's past. At its meetings, papers on similar topics and related themes pertaining to different territo• ries, are presented in the languages of the Caribbean, thus giving historians access to the results of research done across the barriers of language. To that extent these six volumes can be said to be a work in progress, a marker towards a fully integrated Caribbean history.

xii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

MEJl.VYN C. AllEYNE () is Professor Emeritus of Socio• Linguistics at the University of the West Indies, Mona campus, Jamaica. His publications include Comparative Afro-American (1980), Studies in Saramaccan Language Structure (1987), Roots ofJamaican Culture (1988) and Syntaxe historique creole (1997). lIILAIly McD. BECKLES (Barbados) is Professor of History and Pro-Vice• Chancellor for Undergraduate Studies at the University of the West Indies, Mona campus, Jamaica. In 1994 he received the Vice-Chancellor's inaugural Award for Excellence in Research. He has published several books, including Natural Rebels (1989)' White Seroitude and Black Slavery in Barbados, 1627-1713 (1989), A (1990) and The Development of West Indies Cricket (1998).

BRIDGET BRERETON (Trinidad and Tobago), is Professor of History at the University of the West Indies, St Augustine campus, Trinidad and Tobago and Deputy Principal of the St Augustine campus of the University of the West Indies. She won the Vice-Chancellor's Award for Excellence in Teaching, Research and Administration in 1996, and served as President of the Association of Caribbean Historians 1994-7. Among her publications are Race Relations in Colonial Trinidad, 1870-1900 (1979), A History ofModern Trinidad, 1783-1962 (1981) and Law, Justice and Empire (1997).

DAVID BmssERET (USA) was formerly Professor of History at the University of the West Indies, Mona campus, Jamaica and is now Jenkins and Virginia Garrett Professor of History at the University of Texas, Arlington. His publica• tions on the Caribbean include Historic jamaica from the Air (1969, with Jack Tyndale-Biscoe), , Jamaica 0975, with Michael Pawson) and Historic Architecture of the Caribbean (1980).

ROBERTO CASSA () is Professor of History at the Universidad Aut6noma de Sant0 Domingo and a member of the Academia Dominicana de la Historia. His books include Los tainos de La Espanola (974), Historia social y economica de la Republica Dominicana (1977-80), Capitalismo y dictadura (1982), Los doce anos (1966), Movimiento obrero y lucha socialista en la Republica Dominicana (1990), Los indios de las Antillas (1992) and La Republica Dominicana (1997).

xiii List of Contributors

MICHAEL CRATON (Canada) is Professor Emeritus of History at the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. Among his publications are A (1963), A jamaican Plantation (1970, with James Walvin), Sinews of Empire (1974), Searchingfor the Invisible Man (1978), Testing the Chains (1982) and Islanders in the Stream (1992-8), with Gail Saunders. He is currently writing the official history of the Cayman Islands and Islanders.

KUSHA IlARAKsINGH (Trinidad and Tobago) teaches in the Department of History, University of the West Indies, St Augustine campus, Trinidad and Tobago, is a former Head of that Department, and a Barrister of Lincoln's Inn. He has published on the Indian diaspora, plantation labour systems, and law and social change.

B. W. HIGMAN () was formerly Professor of History at the University of the West Indies, Mona campus, Jamaica and is now William Keith Hancock Professor of History at the Australian National University. His books include Slave Population and in jamaica, 1807-1834 (1976), Slave Populations of the British Caribbean, 1807-1834 (1984), jamaica Surveyed (1988), Montpelier, jamaica (1998) and Writing West Indian Histories (1999).

ROSEMARIJN HOEFTE (The Netherlands) is Deputy Head of the Department of Caribbean Studies, Royal Institute of Linguistics and Anthropology, Leiden, and Associate Editor of New West Indian Guide. Her publications include papers on aspects of the history of Suriname and the , and a book In Place of Slavery (1998) on the social history of British Indian and Javanese labourers in Suriname.

LAENNEC HURBON (Haiti) is Director of Research, Sociology Section, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris. He has worked intensively on the sociology of religion in the Caribbean, publishing Dieu dans Ie vaudou haitien (1972), Cultures et pouvoirs dans la Caraibe (1975), Culture et dictature en Haiti (1979), Comprendre Haiti (1987), Ie barbare imaginaire, sorciers, zombies et cannibales (1988) and Ie phenomene religieux dans la Caribe francophone (1989).

FE IGLESIAS GARCIA (Cuba) is a research scholar at the Institute of Social Sciences of the Academy of Sciences, Havana, Cuba. She holds degrees in sociology as well as history, and has published widely on the social and economic history of nineteenth-century Cuba, particularly the history of sugar.

HOWARD JOHNSON (Jamaica) taught at the University of the West Indies, Mona campus, Jamaica, and the College of the Bahamas before taking up his current position of Professor of Black American Studies and History at the University of Delaware, Newark, USA. Among his publications are

xiv List of Contributors

The Bahamasfrom Slavery to Servitude (996) and The White Minority in the Caribbean 0998, co-edited with Karl Watson).

FRANKLIN w. KNIGHT 0amaica) is Leonard and Helen R. Stulman Professor of History at The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA, and President of the Latin American Studies Association. His numerous publica• tions include Slave Society in Cuba during the Nineteenth Century (1970), The African Dimension of Latin American Societies (974), The Caribbean 0978, 1990) and The Modern Caribbean 0989, co-edited with Colin A. Palmer). He edited Volume III of the UNESCO General History of the Caribbecm.

SERGE MAM-LAM-FoucK (French Guyana) is Maitre de conferences a l'Universite des Antilles et de la Guyane, in French Guyana. His principal publications are Histoire de la societe guyanaise (987), Histoire de la Guyane contempor• aine, 1940-1982 (992), Histoire genera Ie de la Guyane franfaise (996), D'Chimbo, du criminel au heros (1997) and L'esclavage en Guyanefrancaise (998)

WOODVILLE MARSHALL (Barbados) is Pro-Vice-Chancellor and, since 1977, Professor of History, at the University of the West Indies, Cave Hill campus, Barbados. He was the Founding President of the Association of Caribbean Historians in 1974 and Editor of the journal of Caribbean History from 1981-90. He has published widely on the post-emancipation period and produced an edition of The Colthurstjournal (977).

JAMES MILLETTE (Trinidad and Tobago) taught for many years at the University of the West Indies, St Augustine campus, Trinidad and Tobago, and is now a member of the African American Studies Department at Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio, USA. His first book, The Genesis of Crown Colony Government was published in 1970, and he edited Freedom Road (980). He has spoken and written in a variety of contexts, dealing particularly with Caribbean constitutional history, labour history, and the development of nationalist, anti-colonial and anti-imperial movements.

GERT OOSTINDIE (The Netherlands) directs the Department of Caribbean Studies at the Royal Institute of Linguistics and Anthropology in Leiden, holds a chair as Professor of Caribbean Studies at Utrecht University, and is Managing Editor of the New West Indian Guide. Among his more recent books are Etnicidad como estrategia en America Latina y el Caribe 0996, with Michiel Baud et aI.), Het Paradijs overzee (1997), Ki sarto di Reino? What kind of Kingdom? (1998, with Peter Verton), Dromen en littekens van de Curafaose revolte, 30 mei 1969 (1999) and Curafao mei 1969 (1999).

ANNE PtROTIN-DuMON (France) holds a Ph.D. in History from the University of Paris, Sorbonne, France. Following a career at the French Ministry of Culture as curator of archives, she taught at Kent State University and the University of

xv List of Contributors

Virginia (USA). At present, she is Professor of History at the Catholic University of Chile, Santiago, and a contributing editor of the Handbook of Latin American Studies (History of the Caribbean and the Guyanas). Her many publications include Etre patriote sous les tropiques: La , la colonisa• tion et la revolution 1789-1794 (985), La ville aux iles, la ville dans L'ile: Basseterre et Pointe-a-Pitre, Guadeloupe 1650-1820 (1999).

FERNANDO PIco (Puerto Rico) is Professor of History at the University of Puerto Rico in Rio Piedras, and served as President of the Association of Caribbean Historians 1990-4. His books include Libertad y servidumbre en el Puerto Rico del siglo 19 (979), Los gaUos peleados (983), Historia general de Puerto Rico (986), 1898: La guerra despues de la guerra (1987), El dia menos pensado (994), and Historia general del Occidente Europeo, siglos 5 al 15 (1998). He is a Jesuit priest.

MARGARET D. ROUSE-JONES (Trinidad and Tobago) is Campus Librarian at the University of the West Indies, St Augustine campus, Trinidad and Tobago, and holds a ph.D. in History from The Johns Hopkins University. She has published indexes to the conference papers of the Association of Caribbean Historians and to the Journal of Caribbean History, and organized several archival collections including the papers of Eric Williams.

FRANCISO A. SCARANO (Puerto Rico) taught at universities in Puerto Rico before becoming Professor of History and Director, Latin American and Iberian Studies Program, in the University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA. He has pub• lished Inmigraci6n y clases sociales en el Puerto Rico del siglo XIX (1981), Sugar and Slavery in Puerto Rico (1984), Puerto Rico: cinco siglos de historia (1993) and many articles.

JEAN STUBBS (UK) is Professor of Caribbean Studies at the University of North London, and served as Chair of the Society for Caribbean Studies (UK) 1993-5. Her books include on the Periphery (985), Cuba: The Test of Time (989), AFROCUBA 0993, co-edited with Pedro Perez Sarduy) and Cuba: An Annotated Bibliography (996).

MICHEL-ROLPH TKOUILLOT (Haiti) is Professor of Anthropology at the University of Chicago, USA. He writes on social theory, Caribbean slave societies and the emergence of peasantries. Among his books are Ti dif boule sou ]stoua Ayiti (977), a history of the St Domingue/Haiti slave revolution and the first non-fiction book in Haitian creole, Peasants and Capital (1988), Haiti: State Against Nation (990) and Silencing the Past (1995).

TRANSLATORS Drafts of Chapters 6 and 20 were translated from the French by NIHERST School of Languages (Trinidad), Language Training Centre (Jamaica), Patricia Loguidice and Cynthia Moulton Cumberbatch, and drafts of Chapters 12, 13 and 14 from the Spanish by NIHERST School of Languages (Trinidad), Annette Insanally and Andrew Hurley.

xvi ABBREVIATIONS

ACI] African-Caribbean Institute of Jamaica AGI Archivo General de API Agency for Public Information BGCSE Bahamas General Certificate of Secondary Education BISRA Belizean Institute for Social and Research Activities CEREP Centro de Estudios de la Realidad Puertorriquena CGHIA Centre de Genealogie et d'Histoire des Isles d'Amerique CXC Caribbean Examinations Council DAWN Development Alternatives for Women in a New Era EPICA Ecumenical Program for Interamerican Communication and Action GCE General Certificate of Education GHC Genealogie et Histoire de la Cara'ibe ICTA Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture INSTRAW Institute for Training and Research for the Advancement of Women ISER Institute of Social and Economic Research JIS Jamaican Information Service JLP Jamaica Labour Party KITLV Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde PLP Progressive Liberal Party PNM Peoples' National Movement PNP Peoples' National Party PPP Peoples' Progressive Party PUP Peoples' United Party SEAP Sociedad Econ6mica de Amigos del Pais SPEAR Society for the Promotion of Education and Research TUC Trades Union Congress UCWI University College of the West Indies UWI University of the West Indies WAND Women and Development Studies WLL Workers' Liberation League

xvii PLATES

Plate 1 Tebini, Saramaka historian of First-Time, Suriname (born c.1898) Plate 2 Adina Henry, performance storyteller, Kingston, Jamaica (c.1980) Plate 3 Woodcut from the Columbus letter (Florence, 1493) Plate 4 German woodcut of about 1500, showing Portuguese vessels and Amerindians Plate 5 Map of the North Atlantic from the Miller Atlas, c.1519 Plate 6 Woodcut from Oviedo's Natural History (1547), showing Amerindian cultivation plate 7 Map from the atlas of Guillaume Le Testu, 1556 Plate 8 Amerindians making a canoe, from Theodor de Bry, Americae (Frankfort, 1590-1634) Plate 9 How Indians made marriage alliances, from the Drake Manuscript Plate 10 Plan of coffee works from P.]. Laborie, The Coffee Planter of Saint Domingo (London, 1798) Plate 11 Jamaican village scene, photograph by Adolpe Duperly, c.1900 Plate 12 Jacques Adela"ide-Merlande Plate 13 Alex Beaubrun Ardouin Plate 14 Roy Augier Plate 15 Pedro Francisco Bono Plate 16 Juan Bosch Plate 17 Kamau Brathwaite Plate 18 Salvador Brau Plate 19 Title page from Brau's La Colonizaci6n de Puerto Rico (first pub lished 1907) Plate 20 Bridget Brereton Plate 21 Carl Campbell Plate 22 Michael Craton Plate 23 Isaac Dookhan Plate 24 Frontispiece and title page from Jean Baptiste Du Tertre's Histoire genera Ie (1667) Plate 25 Bryan Edwards Plate 26 Pieter C. Emmer Plate 27 Roger Gaillard Plate 28 Jose Gabriel Garcia Plate 29 Corne lis Ch. Goslinga

xviii Plates

Plate 30 Elsa V. Goveia plate 31 Jacket of Goveia's Slave Society (1965) Plate 32 Douglas Hall Plate 33 Neville Hall Plate 34 Johannes Hartog Plate 35 Albert Helman (Lou Lichtveld) Plate 36 Harry Hoetink Plate 37 Eugenio Maria de Hostos Plate 38 Laennec Hurbon Plate 39 C. 1. R. James plate 40 Juan Isidro Jimenes Grullon Plate 41 Franklin W. Knight Plate 42 Anton de Kom Plate 43 Title page of de Kom's Wi} slaven en Suriname (1934) Plate 44 Bartolome de Las Casas Plate 45 Keith Laurence Plate 46 Rudolf A. J. van Lier Plate 47 Edward Long plate 48 Americo Lugo Plate 49 Gregorio Luperon Plate 50 Thomas Madiou Plate 51 Woodville Marshall Plate 52 Peter Martyr plate 53 Lucille Mathurin Mair Plate 54 Mary Noel Menezes RSM Plate 55 Sidney W. Mintz Plate 56 Patricia Mohammed Plate 57 Antonio del Monte y Tejada Plate 58 Fernando Ortiz Plate 59 Title page of Ortiz's Contrapunteo cubano (1940) Plate 60 Richard Pares Plate 61 Manuel Arturo Pena Batlle Plate 62 Frontispiece and title page of Charles de Rochefort's Histoire naturelle et morale (1658) Plate 63 Abbe Guillaume T. Raynal Plate 64 Rhoda E. Reddock Plate 65 Plate 66 Emilio Rodriguez Demorizi Plate 67 James Rodway Plate 68 Jose Antonio Saco plate 69 Verene A. Shepherd Plate 70 Richard B. Sheridan

xix Plates

Plate 71 Blanca Silvestrini Plate 72 Title page of Silvestrini's Violencia y crtminalidad (1980) Plate 73 Henock Trouillot Plate 74 Fray Cipriano de Utrera Plate 75 Eric Williams Plate 76 Title page of Williams' Capitalism and Slavery (1944) plate 77 David McLean and his street art, Kingston, Jamaica (c. 1970) Plate 78 Cover of Collazo's Petroglifos (1992) Plate 79 Page from Sir Arthur Lewis, writer Guy Ellis, artist Lisa Bhajan (1990) Plate 80 St Martin Museum/Musee, Marigot, St Martin Plate 81 SIMARTN Museum, Philipsburg, St Maarten plate 82 'Lavi Donmnik', Old Mill Museum, Canefield, Dominica Plate 83 Estate Whim Plantation Museum, St Croix Plate 84 Hamilton Heritage Centre, Plate 85 Maximo G6mez monument, Havana, Cuba Plate 86 Le marron de Sf Domingue (The Unknown Maroon'), Port au Prince, Haiti Plate 87 1763 monument, Georgetown, Guyana

xx ACKNOWLEDG EMENTS

The authors and publishers wish to acknowledge, with thanks, the following photographic sources: Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Plate 5 Roberto Cassa, Plates 15, 28, 40, 48, 49, 57, 61 and 74 The Consortium, UWI, Plate 39 Department of History, UWI, Mona, Plates 22 and 33 Mrs Isaac Dookhan, Plate 23 Enciclopedia Dominicana, Sanjuan, Plates 16, 37 and 66 Herzog August Bibliothek, Wolfenbuttel, Plate 4 B.W. Higman, Plates 80 and 81 Instituto Cubana del Libro, Plate 58 KITLV, Plates 29, 34, 35, 36, 42 and 46 Library of Congress, Plate 8 Library of The UWI, Mona, Plates 13, 18, 19, 24, 43, 44, 50, 53, 59, 62, 63, 67,68 and 76 Ms Janice Mayers, Plate 12 Mrs Jacqueline Mintz, Plate 55 National Library of Jamaica, Plates 10, 11, 30, 47 and 52 Organization of American States, Plate 84 Oxford University Press, Plate 60 Pierpont Morgan Library!Art Resource, New York, Plate 9 The Press, UWI, Plate 70 Richard Price and The Johns Hopkins University Press, Plate 1 Service Historique de l'Armee de Terre, Vincennes, Plate 7 Laura Tanna, Plates 2 and 77 Michel-Rolph TrouilIot, Plates 27 and 73 World Literature Today, University of Oklahoma, Plate 17 Yale University Press, Plate 31 The publishers have made every effort to trace the copyright holders, but if they have inadvertently overlooked any, they will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity. Plate 1 is taken from Richard Price, First-Time: The Historical Vision of an AfrO-American People, p. 37; Plate 23 from Marilyn F. Krigger, Isaac Dookhan: A Scholar's Life and Works (St Thomas, USVI: University of the Virgin Islands), 1992; Plate 54 from M.N.Menezes, RSM, Scenes from the History of the Portuguese in Guyana. xxi 80·W 170·W 60·W 50·W

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