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CULTURE and DECOLONIZATION in the BRITISH WEST INDIES LITERATURE and POLITICS, 1930-1980 by SHARON CATHERINE SEWELL Bachelor Of

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CULTURE and DECOLONIZATION in the BRITISH WEST INDIES LITERATURE and POLITICS, 1930-1980 by SHARON CATHERINE SEWELL Bachelor Of CULTURE AND DECOLONIZATION IN THE BRITISH WEST INDIES LITERATURE AND POLITICS, 1930-1980 By SHARON CATHERINE SEWELL Bachelor of Arts Bridgewater State College Bridgewater, Massachusetts 1978 Master of Arts Oklahoma State University Stillwater, Oklahoma 1997 Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY December, 2007 CULTURE AND DECOLONIZATION IN THE BRITISH WEST INDIES LITERATURE AND POLITICS, 1930-1980 Dissertation Approved: Dr. Elizabeth Williams __________________________________________ Dissertation Adviser Dr. Joseph Byrnes __________________________________________ Dr. Ronald Petrin __________________________________________ Dr. Donald Brown __________________________________________ Dr. A. Gordon Emslie __________________________________________ Dean of the Graduate College ii PREFACE In 1949 Vic Reid’s novel New Day became the first to be labeled West Indian Literature. Many more books and authors would follow. The novels were about the islands of he British Caribbean: Trinidad and Tobago; Jamaica; the Leeward Islands of Dominica, Montserrat, St. Kitts/Nevis, Antigua and Barbuda, and Anguilla; and the Windward Islands of Barbados, Grenada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and St. Lucia. Although each country maintains a unique identity, their populations also define themselves regionally as West Indians and today acknowledge some similarities, especially in history and culture. This study is about the novelists and the impact they had on the West Indies between 1950, the date associated with the advent of West Indian literature, and 1980, the date by which literary works began to focus on the problems of specific islands and moved away from a West Indian perspective. This work contributes to the fields of British colonial history and West Indian history in that it seeks to present the novels in relation to social and political developments in the British West Indies in the last years of colonial rule and the first years of independence. By looking at the events that shaped the British West Indies and individual islands, it will be possible to view the novels as post-colonialists do to provide a more complete picture of the region in the twentieth century. I wish to express my sincere gratitude to all those who aided me in this endeavor. In particular, I am indebted to my major adviser, Dr. Elizabeth Williams, for her guidance iii and patience. I appreciate the advice of my other committee members, Dr. Joseph Byrnes, Dr. Ronald Petrin, and Dr. Donald Brown. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION………………..……………………………..……………….. 1 Methodology…………………...……………………………………………........ 7 British Literature from the West Indies…..…………………………………...... 14 Conclusion……………..……………………………………………………….. 26 II. THE POLITICAL BEGINNINGS OF WEST INDIAN NATIONALISM……. 29 Historical Setting……………………………………………………………….. 30 World War I…………………………………………………………………….. 34 Political Developments or the 1920s-30s……………………………………..... 42 World War II …………………………………………………………………… 55 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………… 65 III. WEST INDIANS BEGIN TO WRITE ABOUT THEIR SOCIETY……………67 Trinidad………………………………………………………………………….68 Jamaica…………………………………………………………………………. 94 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….…... 99 IV. WEST INDIES FEDERATION, 1947-1962…………………………………..101 West Indies Federation…………………………………………………………102 Jamaica…………………………………………………………………………112 Trinidad………………………………………………………………………...118 Barbados………………………………………………………………………. 128 Economic Growth Stalled……………………………………………………... 132 Federation……………………………………………………………………... 134 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………. 136 v Chapter Page V. WEST INDIAN LITERATURE, 1947-1962…………………………………..137 Historical Inspiration……………………………………………………….…..141 Barrack-Yard and Slum Stories……………………………………………...... 154 East Indians in Trinidad…………………………………………………….…. 165 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….…..180 VI. EXILE AND POLITICS IN WEST INDIAN LITERATURE, 1949-1962…....184 The Artist in England and At Home…………………………………………... 184 Political and Social Leaders at Home…………………………………………. 200 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….. 212 VII. WEST INDIAN INDEPENDENCE, 1962-1980……………………………... 214 Jamaica………………………………………………………………………… 215 Trinidad……………………………………………………………………..…. 232 Barbados……………………………………………………………………… 242 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….…. 246 VIII. WEST INDIANS AT HOME AND ABROAD, 1960-1978………………..… 248 West Indians in London…………………………………………………….…. 250 West Indians Come Home…………………………………………………….. 255 Historical Perspectives……………………………………………………….... 278 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….. 285 IX. PLANTATION, VILLAGE, AND SLUM LIFE, 1961-1978………………… 288 Historic Plantations……………………………………………………………. 289 Modern Day Rural Estates…………………………………………………….. 293 Life in Rural Villages………………………………………………………….. 302 City Streets, Barrack-Yards, and Urban Slums……………………………….. 312 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….. 325 vi Chapter Page X. CONCLUSION………………………….…………………………………….. 329 West Indian Identity...…………………………………………………………. 329 Shaping the Culture of the Region ..…………………………………………... 332 West Indian Novels and History………………………………………………. 334 BIBLIOGRAPHY…………….……………………………………………………… 337 APPENDICES………………….…………………………………………………….. 357 APPENDIX A………….……………………………………………………... 358 APPENDIX B………….……………………………………………………… 359 vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION “Art is the mirror through which a society perceives itself,” 1 according to Michael Manley, long time prime minister of Jamaica. This study is about the society of the British Caribbean and one of the chief art forms – novels – produced by that society. It considers the way West Indian novelists portrayed their society. The study focuses on the period between 1930, the date associated with the advent of West Indian literature, and 1980, the date by which literary works began to focus on the problems of specific islands and to move away from a West Indian perspective. The British Caribbean they write about in this time frame includes the islands of Trinidad and Tobago; Jamaica; and Barbados. 2 Although each country maintains a unique identity, their populations also define themselves regionally as West Indians and today acknowledge some similarities, especially in history and culture. The thesis of this work is threefold. First, West Indians began to define themselves as such to distance them from their British colonial rulers and establish an identity of their own. Second, although their novels were written mainly for a European or American audience, they did reach an audience on the islands and had an impact there 1Michael Manley, The Politics of Change: A Jamaican’s Testament (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1975), 173. 2The British West Indies also includes the Leeward Islands of Dominica, Monsterrat, St. Kitts/Nevis, Antigua and Barbuda, and Anguilla; and the Windward Islands of Grenada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and St. Lucia. Because West Indian novelists wrote about the three largest islands, the smaller ones will not be included in this study. See Appendix A for a breakdown of the area and population of the islands. 1 in defining the culture of the region. Third, even though these authors did not intend their novels to be used to provide a history of the West Indies, they presented a realistic view of the black and East Indian segments of West Indian society between 1950 and 1980, so they can be used them to supplement historical works in order to provide a more comprehensive view of the islands. What led these novelists to define themselves as West Indians was their experience in England after 1945. Residents of the British Caribbean colonies always considered themselves British. When they arrived in England in great numbers to find work or pursue careers after World War II, they discovered that the British viewed them as foreigners. At the same time they found that no matter what island they came from they shared certain things in common. They used the English language brought to them by the British, although the accents varied. They had a common history, also brought to them by the British, although some of the details of life on individual islands varied. The inhabitants of the islands shared common life-styles with similar racial and class differences. Their experiences caused them to ask what exactly made them West Indian. The answer was particularly important to the inhabitants of these islands where there was no indigenous population to provide a culture. The novelists who explored these issues were the descendants of slaves, like George Lamming, or indentured servants brought to the islands as laborers, like Sam Selvon. Their search for an identity constitutes a main focus of their work. Although these authors wrote for British or American audiences, this study will argue that they had an impact at home. Evidence will show that the novels were not read by most of the population. In fact, in the 1950s there were only a few small local 2 publishers in the West Indies and no significant reading public. A majority of the population was illiterate or semi-literate. There is clear evidence, though, that the political elites were familiar with the ideas and themes presented in the novels. Norman Manley, the founder of the People’s National Party, one of the first political organizations in Jamaica, reflected on the importance of authors like Roger Mais, a personal friend of Manley’s, to the nationalist movement of the 1950s. In 1962 V.S. Naipaul wrote The Middle
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