Missionary activities as a cause of the Boxer Rebellion

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Authors Sherman, James Charles, 1941-

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Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/347546 MISSIONARY ACTIVITIES AS A CAUSE

OF THE BOXER REBELLION

by

James C. Sherman

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the DEPARTMENT OF ORIENTAL STUDIES In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

19 6 6 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfill­ ment of requirements for an advanced degree at The Univer­ sity of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under the rules of the Library. ■ Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable with­ out special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quo­ tation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Bean of the graduate College when in his judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of seholar- ship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.

APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:

(A ($, }fC(o DR. EARL H. PRITCHARD Date™ Chairman of the Department of Oriental Studies- Ae KHOVLBBaNBirr s

A grateful aelmowledgment is expressed to tlae follow^ iiag persons and institutions for their assistance in the preparation of this thesis. Recognition is given to the wri= ter1s thesis advisor Dr, lari H, Pritchard, Chairman of the Department of Oriental Studies, who, with his suggestions and guidance, greatly assisted the investigator. Gratitude is expressed to the Inter-Library Loan de­ partment at the University of Arizona Library. Without the assistance of Miss Sue Green, Miss Margaret Sparks, and Miss Cynthea Hall, many of the sources employed in this thesis would not have been made available. Acknowledgment is also expressed to the following in­ stitutions who graciously permitted the investigator access to their facilities: the University of California at Berke­ ley, the University of California at Los Angeles, and Stanford University. I am also indebted to the many institutions who have permitted the investigator access to their Inter-Library Loan departments.

iii 15 15 vii 2 25 21 39 . 1 ......

...... 1858 ...... 31 of Christianity . . . . 16

iv 1865 Failure Failure TABLE OF OOHTSHTS and Success Success between 18A2 and, Protect Christiius . . Bopestie Affairs 39 The Fran e L s c an s, s, ea. 1292-X328an c s L e The Fran The Jesuits, ea, 1583-1773 ...... 3 The Protestants, 18#7-19#0 f The Sestorians, ea» 635-1368 The Creek Orthodox, ea. 1729-1900 . , . , The. . . 1 8 Problems Belating to Building Concessions . . . 27 Privileges Sbtkined by Treaty Aiowsii .oiiiisss missraisHT Aiowsii .oiiiisss Problems of Access to the Interior Problems of Land Ownership Western Abuse of the Sight to Missionary InvolvementChinese in' ’ POBEISH FBlLimS THE OHIHESE’ AMOIfC- ■ The • Reman Catholic s. oa. lf.0®-»19©Q oa. lf.0®-»19©Q s. Reman Catholic • The ■ ^ 6 LIST OF' ILLEST1ATI01S LIST OF' . . . ♦ I. I. OIBISTIASITT IH GHI1S BlFOai hapter _ Page II. II. T1SATT OF PBI'FILEEES 1ISSI0EASI1S.THAT *' O' XII. XII. ACTIVITIES iilSSIOlABT WHICH CA1SS0 A1TI-. V TABLl OF COHTEMTS--Continued

Chapter Page Hissioiaary Pretectiem ®f Chinese Converts from the Chinese Government and the

Hative Chinese

Pretentions Claims of the Missionary as a Privileged Social Class ».«»», «o„ » . *5 Missionary Activities . as a Member'of

His Christian Charoh . 59

The Spread "'of Christian Literature in China . . 59 Chtirch Activities Regarding- the Selection ox Converts ■ » « e * a » » » o » » # o » o » . 6h IT, CB1SBSE 1MCT10H TO 3IISSZ9HART ACTITZT1SS , , . . 72 "Chinese "■Reaction to the Privileged Christian Chnrch , . 72 Chinese Confusion Concerning the

: Christian Religion » 73 Opposition to Missionary Activities by

Chinese other than the Literati . 79 Opposition to Missionary Activities by

the Literati » » , o » #. * , , , » , a o , , 82 ■ .

Chinese Attacks aposa Missionaries , . » .. , * .. 99 Chinese Acceptance of Christianity ...... 102

T. MISSIONARY ACTIVITIES AS A GAUSS OF THE BOXER MOVEMENT , ...... 11© vx

TABLE OF C01TBBTS— Opatinaed

Chapter , , Page

Miss3.OB9.ry AetiTities daws lag Hostility . * , . 110

, OataseS' BehlaS the G-rowth of the

' 'i.' Boxer MoTemeat . » »•. . » » . « * . , . . , 115 Conflicts Between the Boxers, and Christians . * 125 • ’ 1 i VI. SUMMARY ilfl C.GSOLMSIOMS OF 1TI11IC1 P11S1ETEB . . 133 Smssjary » » . * * ...... * . 133 ' Implications for Further Study ...... 138 LIST Of B1F1RBS01S CITBB ...... » , » 1-4-1 LIST Of ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1, Stations of the Ohlma Inland Mission, iSSf , . . , 2% , . . , ■ '■ 1 ■. • 2 , An Attempt to Bestroy the Worship of Jesas ■ and to Kill the Foreigners...... , 91- 3, The Lack of Christian Morality as Reflected in Ticioms.Relationships Among Its Members * . 4 92

The Christian Atrocity Towards Chinese, S-omgipg Ont the lyes of Non-Christians »»»,««,, , 93 5« The Christian Atrocity Towards Chinese, Removing the Ch-born Fetus of a Child , * , ♦ , . 9%

6 ,. The Repayment of Saffering by the Chinese , , , . 95 7, The Number of 'Protestant Societies in China, 1 (i j5 0 ”i-S^ 0 0 o 6 6 * O , W Q » e 6 6 « O ti 6 e O 6 . 10% 8 , The Humber of Catholic and Protestant Foreign Missionaries, in China, 1850-1900 . , . i , . , . 1©5 9« • The Number of Catholic Christians in China, 18 5 0 — 1^00 « e ti o e e , et , » o e , e 4 o o e « 106

10, Christian Mission Stations in Northeast China, , 107 ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to determine what part missionary activities within Ohina from 1842-1900 played in causing the Boxer Rebellion. Also, to illustrate how par­ ticular activities contributed to the growth of anti-Chris­ tian and anti-foreign feelings which culminated in the Boxer Rebellion.

Using the techniques of historical research, data was compiled and examined from English and French language sources. Recognized scholarly books and periodicals were consulted, as were government documents, missionary reports, book reviews, maps, and, illustrations. The evidence reveals that many missionary activities within China caused anti-Christian feelings. These activi­ ties include: the methods of obtaining entrance to China, presumptuous and arrogant attitudes, ignorance of Chinese culture and language, involvement in Chinese domestic af­ fairs, their dependence upon the intervention of foreign gov­ ernments to protect them and their converts from Chinese au­ thority, and their acquisition of property rights in the interior of China. The missionaries, however, were not the only cause of anti-foreignism. The aggressive political, economic, and military acts of the foreign governments, as well as literati activities, excited the general populace.

viii Chinese misunderstanding of Christianity, their fear of for­ eign dominance and the threat of Christianity to traditional values are studied as factors causing the Boxer Rebellion. Conclusions reached find that anti-Christian feeling aroused by activities of the missionaries was an important cause of the Boxer Rebellion. CHAPTER I CHRISTIANITY IN CHINA BEfORE 1858 The Nestorians, ca. 632=1168

Other than a legendary visit by St. Thomas, the Apos­ tle, which modern scholars have discounted, the honor of be­ ing the first Christian missionary in China belongs to A1open, a seventh century Nestorian from Syria,^ The earli­ est evidences of Nestorian Christianity are found on a monu­ ment erected in 7 8 I at Hsianfu, in Shensi province. On it are recorded, “the diffusion through the Middle Kingdom of the Brilliant (or Luminous) Teaching of Ta-chin", the Chinese term used to describe the Near East, and a summary of the doc­ trines and practices of the missionaries who followed Alopen,^ Nestorianism was introduced by Alopen in 635s> during the reign of T*ai Tsung, who granted him permission to build a monastery at the capital. The Nestorians were apparently active here until the Wu Tsung emperor issued an edict in 8kS which proscribed both the Buddhist and Nestorian faiths. Be­ cause of this edict, Nestorianism suffered greatly, declined

1. Columbia Gary-Elwes, China and the Cross (New York P. J, Kenedy and Sons, 195^), pp. 9-13....

2. E. R. Hughes, The Invasion of China by the Western World (New York: The Macmillan Co., I93BT, pp. 55-557“” 3. Kenneth S. Latourette, A History of Christian Mis­ sions in China (New Yorks The Macmillan Co., 1929") , p. 53. 2 in importances and traces of Hestorianism are almost all but erased after the fall of the T ang= Many Mestorians became either Buddhists, Mohammedans, or Mamicheans. During the thirteenth century the Mongols came into contact with Hester- ian Christianity among the Uighurs, Kitans, Keraits, and Kirghia tribes. The end of Nestorianism in China is attri­ buted, by Cary-Blwes, iio the conquests of Tamerlane, and to the fall of the Mongol dynasty in 1368„ The na^iye Ming dy­ nasty which followed was unfriendly to every fqreign religion,^

The franciscans, ca, 1292-1328

The Mongol threat to Christian Europe in the thir­ teenth century brought ambassadors from Europe to the Mongol Court. John of Plan di Carpina and William of Rubruclc were the first of many. A Franciscan, John of Montecorvino, ar­ rived at Cambaluc in 12$k and was allowed by the Kublai Shan to build a church near one of the gates of the Imperial pal­ ace, so that "the Emperor could hear the chanting of the choir," By 1305 John had baptised approximately six thousand persons, and in 1308 three fellow clergy members arrived to assist in his efforts. John of Montecorvino died in 1328 and his replacement arrived in 13^2, However, this replacement departed in 1 3 W or 13^7* much to the distress of the Emperor and his court. The mission appointed to replace them never

4. Ibid., pp. 53-55.

5. Oary-Elwes, ogu cit., p. 37= arrived at the capital. As far as is known* no other bishop reached Oambaluc (Peking) for nearly three hundred years. The Pranciscans differed from the Sfestorians in that they attempted to convert native Chinese, 7 In spite of this * most of their success came from persons who had been in con­ tact with lestorianism. By the sixteenth century the work of the early Franciscans had largely disappeared. An early Jes­ uit* Pr, Alvarez de Semedo* wrote that no trace could be found 8 of earlier Christianity, Limited evidence was later uncov­ ered by the Jesuits of a possible Christian influence. How- q ever* this evidence is vague and inconclusive.

The Jesuits, oa, 1583-1773 The third introduction of Christianity into China be­ gins with the mission of St. Francis Xavier, He was sent un­ der the sponsorship of the Society of Jesus to begin the conversion of India, After spending some time in India, the East Indies, and Japan, he died. His successor, Matteo Ricci, was more successful. Ricci was granted an Imperial audience in 1601, after a great striking clock was presented as a gift to the Emperor. Because of the possession of knowledge which

6. Ibid., pp. 57‘=58. 7. Hughes, eg, cit., p. 56, 8. Cary-Elwes, og. eft., p. 7 1 »

. 9c Matthew Ricci, China in the Sixteenth Century; the Journals of Matthew Ricci: l^BS-TBTeT^ransT""Louis J. tiallagef, S.J. (Hew York; Random House, 1953)» pp. 110-111. tk© Chinese desired$> the Jesuits were permitted to remain in

China? they also were the only persons who knew how to repair the clock. The Jesuits were granted a house and a pension i 10 by the Emperor, Through the guidance of Ricci and aided by their liberal, accommodating and* humanistic philosophy* the 11 Jesuits made themselves generally acceptable to the Chinese, At Peking there were some important conversions from the Lit­ erati class* and by 1605 the Peking mission numbered more than two hundred converts* mainly of the Literati class. By

1663 there were 109$900 Christians in the Chinese Empire,

Religious problems now began for the Jesuits, A crit­ ical report was sent by a Dominican missionary from Tukien to Pope Urban Til concerning Jesuit toleration of the Chinese

Christians8 semi-religious ceremonies in honor of their an­ cestors and of Confucius, He also objected to the use of the word f 8len or Heaven as an equivalent for Cod, This contro­ versy lasted from about 1628 until the final papal decision in 1742, The most important events of this conflict was the decree of 1704, issued by Clement XX, This decree authorized only the use of the term T 81en-eha {Lord of Heaven) for God, and also prohibited all ritual acts in honor of Confucius,

10, Cary-Blwes* 8p. cit,,J pp, 78-93 = 11, Arnold Rowbothan* Missionary and Mandarin (Berke­ leys University of California Press* 1942), p, 2 9 2 ,

12, Latourette* op, cit,, pp. 103-107= ■ 5 1 ^ the ancestors or their tablets» by all Christians. *' In 1706 K'ang Hsi presented all missionaries with an Imperial decree specifying that5 {1) all missionaries remain­ ing in China must come to Peking, (2) the missionaries must subscribe to the rules and practices of Pr. Ricci on the Chi­ nese rites question, (3 ) if they did this they could benefit from the edict of 1692 (an edict of toleration towards Chris- At tianity), and (^) all of those who did not abide by the rules of this decree must leave China. 15

The rites controversy continued with decrees of 1707,

1 7 1 7 » and others, which led to the destruction of churches and 1 A the decline of Christianity in China. On Beeember 17, 1720, an Imperial decree from K ’ang Hsi forced all missionaries, if they wished, to remain in China, to reply thus to the repre­ sentative of the Popes “In spreading1 our Religion we all fol­

low the practices of Li-Ma-tou [~ S‘r. Hatter Ricci,S. J„3, as his Majesty was thoroughly informed many years ago.11

13. Cary-Elwes, o£. oit., pp. 152-153.' 1%. This decree was the crowning success of the Jes­ uit mission in that it gave freedom to the missionaries to spread Christianity and to found churches. B, L. Allen, "Mis­ sions and Theology in the Eighteenth Century,11 The Hibbert Jomvial, LfT (January, 1958), 116. ■ 15. Oary-Blwes, 0£. oit., p. 154.

1 6 . Ibid., pp. 156-1 5 8 .

17* Antonio Rosso, Apostolic Legations to China of the Eighteenth Century (South'''Pasadenas '"I1. "B. and "lone Perkins „ . .; The son of 1C * ang Hsi, Yung Cheng, was even more severe

in his persecution of Christians= While he continued to em­ ploy Jesuits in the Imperial service, his edicts of 1723=1724 forbade Chinese to practice Christianity and outlawed all mis- 18 sionaries except for those in Imperial service at Peking*

•The - Roman Catholics, ca* 1700-1900 The Pope, Benedict XIV, countered the Chinese rejec­ tion of Christianity by issuing the Bull Bx Quo Singular! in 1742, This proclamation demanded obedience of all Christians . ) in China* Thus a pattern of non-tolerance by the Catholic Church was begun, which rendered it unadaptable to the Chinese

scene. The Roman Catholic church was to be ,a foreign institu­ tion, one which would not conform in any manner to the Chi- nese.: 19 In spite of persecutions and the declining influence of the Catholic mission at Peking, the Church managed to sur­ vive, and a native priesthood continued. The Chinese who were converted did so for many reasons (one man is reported to have become a Christian so as to have a toothache attended,),^® The number of Chinese Christians is reported by Latourette as 202,000 in 1800, and 215,000 in 1850, This increase in

18

19, Latourette, A History, pp, 150—180,

20, Ibid,, p, 194, numbers took place despite the Imperial edicts proscribing the 21 faith and an occasional martyrdom* The nineteenth century witnessed a revival of the So-" man Catholic missions to China* This was greatly aided by

the treaties of 18#2«?1844 with China* With the opening of five new ports to foreign residence, the establishment of

extra-territoriality, and the Imperial edicts of 18W-18^6, the erection of churches was permitted in the open ports and Christianity was once again tolerated. The fourth attempt at the conversion of China began. 22

The Protestants, 1807-1900 The first Protestant missionary was Robert Morrison, who reached China in 1807» He became a translator for the Bast-India Company, and for the British Amherst embassy* His contribution lies mainly in his translation of the Old and Hew Testament, a prayer book, and in the preparation of a Chi- nese-Bnglish dictionary* Before the treaties of 1842-18^% ihe majority of the Protestant missionaries came from either Eng­ land or the United States and include such well known names

as. Karl Q-utzlaff, Issacher Roberts, Sammuel W. Williams, Peter 23 Parker® and others* We shall see much more of this zealous movement later, but the Protestant success {a success of

21* Ibid*, p. 182*

22* Kenneth S. Latourette, Christianity in a Reyolh- tionary Age (H.ew York;, Harper and Brothers "Publishers',*" i'^S'lT,

23* Latourette, A History, pp. .212-217 = 8 Pk converts from 1807~1853) was limited, by their inability to work inland,, Work in the interior of China became possible only after the legalization of inland travel and residence to missionaries by the treaties of 1858-= i860„ This was followed 25 by a tremendous period of expansion«, Most of the Protestant work in China was carried on from permanent residence centers called missions* The mission was usually composed of a church building, school, dispensary,

26 ' and residence areas. Early efforts were made to prepare Chinese for leadership in the Church as this was deemed a nec~ essary part of the missionary effort, Chinese leadership caused the Chinese officials less difficulty and reduced pos- gy sible persecutions.

The Greek Orthodox, ca, 1729~19Q0 While looking at this division of Christianity there are two factors which are helpful to keep in mind, first, is the fact that the Greek Orthodox Church was in China princi” pally to assist Russian government officials, and second, the Greek Orthodox Church never made any serious attempt at the

2^, Cary-llwes, op, cit,, p., 213, 2j>, John K» Fair bank and Ssu-yu Teng, China * s Re«= spouse to the West (Cambridges Harvard University Press, 1954), p7l35. 26. Latourette, tit., pp. 417-418.

2 7 . Ibid., pp. 425-467. conversion of the Ghinese. It existed for the benefit of 28 the Hussians almost exclusively» The first Russians to reach Peking did so during the latter part of the sixteenth century. These persons repre­ sented both the Greek Orthodox Church and the Russian Govern- ment, 29 v Because of the growing relations between the two nations a treaty was signed at Eiakhta in•172? which per­ mitted trade t, and made provisions for the residency in Peking of four priests and six students, who were to learn the Ghi- 30 nese language. Here in Peking the Russian clerics aided their government as interpreters, translators9 supplied their country with information about China, opened a diplomatic mis­ sion in 1861, purchased land in Manchuria, and served as chap­ lains to the Russian legation. The main reason for the lack of effort in the area of conversion was in the tight control by the Russian government over the Greek Orthodox Church, it being little more than an extension of the Russian govern­ ment. Other causes given by the Greek Orthodox priests in­ clude the competition of the Jesuits and other Catholic missionaries, a shallowness of theological thinking, and

28. Albert Parry, "Russian (Greek Orthodox).Mission­ aries in China, 1689-1917: Their Gulturial, Political, and Economic Role," The Pacific Historical Review, IX (December 2%, 1940),'*01. *™ ' w " ' ' 1 29. The Russian priests received salaries from their government, which expected its employees to work for it rath­ er than for the salvation of Ghinese souls or for literary or scientific pleasure. Ibid.

9 0 . Latourette, op. pit.„ pp. 1 9 9 -2 0 0 . Peking* s bad, climate (wbieb they say drove them te melancholy and drink)„^ After the arrival of a regular diplomatic mis­

sion in 1S61, - the priests went back to being "gentlemen of . the. cloth,' pasters; of their charges „ theologians8, who were concerned: with the spiritual and not the political» The Chi­ nese, however, continued to look upon them as agents of the 32 Russian government. The few Chinese converts to the Greek Orthodox faith

settled in the vicinity ■. of Peking, The only , other Christians in the interior of China were Catholics living in scattered pockets, a down—trodden people who were estimated by Cary-'

llwes 330,000 to be in number in 1 8 5 0 ,^^

Ihe Success and failure of Christianity In considering successes or failures of Christianity in China, certain factors must be kept in mind. Many of the problems faced by a foreign, religion trying to enter China are common only to that country, China As credited, by many writers as possessing a toleration towards foreign beliefs, especially if they contain elements useful to the Chinese, Chester Tan agrees with this.concept.of religious toleration. The general, attitude was one of' "respect but avoid8 contact,^ • - 31» Parry, ©g,- ©it,, p, 421, 32, Ibid., p. 408. 33, Cary-Blwes, op. clt., p. 213, 34, Chester Tan, The Boxer Catastrophe (Hew York: Columbia.Gaiversity Press,'ISSSTT^P- 3, 11

This, belief’ aboat Cfhiaese teleramee is met shared by d, J» de Cxroot „ wlien he refers to ntke erroneous motiom. that Gliina is

a eoHm.try of religious toleration*•, * Baal Oehen motes a cultural category irt whieh the Chinese place deviant beliefs. This category is called "contrary to the Way of the Sages;* the implication being that■the■ Shines© weald tolerate a for­ eign belief until the time it becomes a threat to the estab­ lished Oomfuciam order. At this point it would mo longer be tolerated and persecution would begin.

The failure of Christian conversion of Chinese is one of the principle causes in the rapid decline of the Francis-, cams. This should also be considered in the-failure of the lestorians, although neither of these, efforts had the strong 37 political backing which later complicated missionary efforts.

It appeared, in the seventeenth century that China would be able. to. assimilate Christianity as had. happened with

Buddhism and Mohammedanism* However» after the papal decision in the Rites Controversy, K1amg Hsi (r» 1662=1722) was con­ vinced that the Christian religion would not allow itself to be assimilated. This was the reason for-his demand that the. Christians be obedient to his authority. Politics became

35° 1. H. de Sroot, Sectarlamism and Religious Fersecution in China (Amsterdam: " Johannes luller,"Tglh) II, p7~5S37mmmmmm 3 6 . Paul Cohen, "The Anti-Christian. Tradition in China," The Journal of Asian Studies, . XX- (February, 1961), 170o ■ , _

37. Hughes, op. oit., pp. 56 =5 7 . 12

involved with the Christian religion. The Chinese eompared it to a seeret society because of its membership procedures,

mysterious rites, priestly leadership, and motives which were ■ / " ' - oiS ini opposition to the existing government. As would be ex­ pected, the Chinese attempted to repulse this sect (Christi~ anity) which violated the established customs, kept aloSf from local obligations, held secret meetings, and carried on many mysterious activities-not understood by the common people or the literatio*^

The central problems of misunderstanding and non-= cooperation remained basically the same. The Ghinese misun­ derstood the rites of the Shurch, its doctrines, and involvement in Chinese affairs. The Ohrlstians were not al­ lowed by the Church to give reverence to Confucius or to

their ancestors, which caused the Christians to be kept out of the important, social positions. The Christian church also suffered because of a small native clergy, inadequate proce­ dures used in the selection of converts,and the discordant relationship existing between the Catholic and Protestant {

38. George-lye Steiger, China and the Occident (lew Havens Yale University Press, iggffj "pV- 13. ,

39® Alexander Miehie, China and Ohristianity (Boston: Knight and Millet, 1900), pp. ffiZf'f*

40. Arthur H. Smith, China in Convulsion (lew Yorks Tleming H. Revel! Co., 1901), 1, pp."S3—47. lil churches« Some of the early missionaries saw the central problem to be the exclusion policy of the Manehu dynasty. In retrospect, the most successful program in China (from the Chinese and Western points of view) was that of the Jesuits, The Jesuits entered China through the use of their scholarship, their desire to learn about the Chinese, and their interpretation of Christian beliefs as being largely in h.3 agreement with the existing Chinese convictions, The Jes­ uits did not force their converts to alienate themselves from their fellow Chinese, as did the Beminleans, Franciscans, and the nineteenth century Christians, They employed humanism to encourage education and appeal to man’s intellect. The mem­ bers of the Society showed themselves to be highly tolerant jhj of new ideas and systems of thought.

There was a minimum of missionary activity within China prior to 18^2, but it had been of sufficient size to make small gains for Christianity. After I858 much of the missionary work was limited to a few coastal cities, reaching only a small percentage of the gentry scholar-official class. The majority of the literati strongly resented the increas­ ing prestige of the missionary and felt that the foreigners

41, Cary-Elwes, eg, cit., p. 204, 42, Paul Yarg, Missionaries, Chinese, and Diplomats (Princeton; Princeton diversity Press, 1958), p. 4, 43, Latourette, eg, cit., p. 1 8 5 ,

44, Rowbotham, op. cit., pp. 292-293, Ik

threatened their own positions as the teachers and upholders Ik 5 of the Chinese traditions* Persecutions were sporadic ae=* cording to the whims of a local official in most cases, hut the spirit of persecution was growing* This is shown by per- secutions of 180%, 1811, 181%, 1818-1820, 1827, and l336-lS%5o jkg This was only to be the beginning. An Imperial decree of 28 May, 1805, forecasts the future; If such things are not stopped in time by severe measures, but are allowed to be freely spread ahd dis­ seminated, and if the tales thus promulgated assume a still more seditious and Irrational character than those now under construction, it will then be impos­ sible to abstain from punishment and prosecution on the largest scale, fyy

%5, Fairbanle and Teng, op, cit,, p„ 135°

%6, Oary-Blwes, op, cit,, pp, 181-183, %7° de ©root, op« cit,, pp, 393-39%, CHAPTER XT

TREATY PHIVILSG-ES ,g3T MISSIOBABIES THAT AROUSES CHINESE RESENTMENT

Privileges Obtaimed. by Treaty between 1842 and 1865

Because of the controversy over the Chinese rites and the ensuing edicts issued by the K 8 ang Hsi and Yung Cheng emperors, the Christian movement became illegal* Beginning with Yung Cheng around 1723 and continuing thereafter, the official policy towards Christians became one of non»tolera­ tion, except for a few missionaries in the service of the Chinese government* the Catholic Church slowly lost ground, both in numbers and morale* Protestantism was no better off* In a little more than three decades after the coming in 1S07 of the first Protestant missionary, Robert Morrison, only about one hundred Chinese were baptized as Protestants, these being Chinese who had extensive contact with the Westerners** By 18&0 the problems of foreign trade had become so great that the Opium War broke out* This war was to alter the conditions of foreign relations, residence, and the oppor­ tunities for the expansion of Christianity* China8 s loss of this war and of ensuing conflicts, left her prostrate before the nations of the West* The period from i860 to 1895 also

1* Latourette, oj*. cit* , pp„ 226-227* 2, Ibid. 'b . saw China lose much wealth, become burdened with an unfavor­ able balance of trade, and more important, "it saw her ancient cultures criticized and challenged in all her provinces by a foreign faith which when mob passions were aroused and riots ensued, meant more concessions and indemnities,"3 After the disaster of the C2pium War, the Treaty of

Hanking was negotiated in 1842, This treaty provided for the opening of five ports to residence and trade, the cession of the island of Hongkong, the equality of English-and -Chinese officials, the establishment of a tariff on imports and ex­ ports, and other concessions, A supplemental treaty followed in 1843 which established further regulations for British and Chinese trade; more important, most-favored-nation treatment - and provisions for extraterritoriality were provided in this treaty. In 1844 the United States and Trance also signed treaties with China which in general gave them privileges similar to those described above. Other provisions granted by the treaties from 1844-1S46 permitted foreigners to learn the Chinese language, and to travel into the interior if the trip took no more than one day to complete. Also, in accord­ ance with the American and Trench treaties of 1844, religious places of worship were to be allowed in the treaty ports,^

3, James L, Stewart, Chinese Culture and Christian­ ity (Hew York: Fleming H. Revell Company, I926j7”p, 291,

4, Latourette, op. olt,, pp. 229-230, IT In 1 8 W an Imperial Edict granted toleration t® the

Religion of the Lord -Keavemg Reman Catholicismo This con­ cession was given at the request of the French Ambassador* Theodose de Lagrene, and was granted to all foreigners, not only the French, In regard to the 11 French and other foreign nations, who practice the religion, let them only be permitted to build Churches at the five ports opened for commercial in­ tercourse, M Foreigners, moreover, were not to enter the coun­ try to propagate their religion,^ A decree in 1845 extended £ the provisions of the 1844 edict to Protestants, In March of 1846 another Imperial Decree stated thats all the ancient houses throughout the provinces, which were built in the reign of Kanghi, and have been preserved to the present time, and which, on personal examination by the proper authorities, and clearly found to be their bona fide possessions, be restored to the professors of this religion in their respective places, excepting only those churches which have been converted into temples and dwelling houses 'for the people;, ' ■ Included within this decree was a clarifying statement which said that "foreigners of every nation are, in accordance with existing regulations, prohibited from going into the country to propagate religion, The treaties of .1842-1844 and the other concessions given by the Chinese was little more than a forecast of what

5, Hosea B# Morse, The Internatlonal Relations of the Chinese Empire (London? Longmans, Green, and Co,, 1910)» p,EgT0

6, Latcurette, The Chinese, p, 347, 7, Morse, cit,, p* 6 9 2 0 1 8 was to comeo From the Chinese point of view too many oon= cessions had been given, bat from the foreign view there had not been eneagh, Friction over this ealminated in the Arrow incident» which began the war of l8j>6«*l8 j>8 o The Chinese again lost to the concerted, but restrained, efforts of England and France, This war was concluded with the Treaties of Tientsin in 18580 8 • Then, because' of the French and English insistence on going to Peking through Tientsin to exchange ratifications of the treaties instead of by an overland route proposed by the Chinese, the war was renewed. In i860 this short con­ flict ended with a Chinese defeat and the Conventions of o Peking, The Treaties of Tientsin and the Conventions of Pe­ king in i8 6 0 , revolutionised the status of the missionaries and Chinese Christians, and made possible the large expansion of the Church that occurred in the next fifty years, lew ports were opened for trade, China was forced to allow min­ isters or ambassadors of foreign nations to reside at Peking and to be received as representatives of independent nations and on a basis of equality. Important to the missionary ef­ fort were the concessions that allowed foreigners, when pos­ sessing the proper passports, permission to travel anywhere in the interior. Also, both alien and native Christians were

8, Latourette, A History, p, -230,

So Latourette, The Chinese, pp. 3S9=353.« given the privilege ef propagating their religion and were guaranteed toleration of their faith» As interpreted by West” ern officials this in many cases removed Chinese Christians 10 from the jurisdiction of Chinese officials* The mission­ ary also found it possible to'obtain residence and to acquire property in the treaty ports and other cities and towns* The religious provisions of these treaties possessed various fac- tors which were much resented by the Chinese* A provision which caused a great deal of hard feelings and further missionary exploitation of China centered around Article VI of the Trench Convention of Peking. In" this Ar­ ticle a clause was inserted in the Chinese text by the Trench translator, a missionary, which was probably a deliberate 12 act* The following is a comparison of the Trench and Chi­ nese versions:of Article VI:

THE TREHCH TEXT In conformity with the Imperial Edict issued the 28th March ISAS, by the August Emperor Taok- wang, the religious and charitable establishments which were confiscated from the Christians during the persecution of which they were the victims, shall be restored to their proprietors by the in­ strumentality of his Excellency the Minister of Trance in China, to whom the Imperial Government will cause them to be delivered, with the ceme­ teries and other edifices appertaining to them.

1 0 * Latourette, ag* eit* , pp. 3j»l-3j52*

11* T. C* Hayliar, “The Chinese View of Mission­ aries, ” The Nineteenth Century, XXXVIlT (November, 1895), 770. • ~ ~ — 1 2 * Bertram Wolferstan. The Catholic Church in China from i860 to 1907 (London: Sands and CompanyT 190977 P° 150* 2 0

TUB OHIHESB TEXT Every Chinese of what soever condition, is free to embrace the Catholic religion and to propagate it0 It is permitted to Christians to meet in as­ sembly and to build churches for offering up prayers, Anyone daring unjustly to pursue Christians and to take them shall undergo the punishment he merits, 'Catholic temples, colleges, cemeteries, houses, fields, and all other possessions formerly confis­ cated during the persecution, shall be restored to the Trench Ambassador residing in Peking, who will make restitution of them to the proper persons, French missionaries shall have liberty to rent land in all the provinces of the empire, to buy and to construct houses as they find good, ^ The French text of the treaty was of course the au­ thoritative one, and hence the Chinese text did not really apply, but the Chinese did not fully discover this untilaf­ ter many advantages had already been obtained by Western missionaries. This Chinese text was such a source of irri­ tation, that it was finally acted upon by the Berthemy Con­ vention of I8 6 5 , By this convention the Chinese text of the treaty was interpreted as not intending to facilitate a real estate-grab for profit by-the missionary, but rather to pro­ vide the land needed for missionary purposes. The Berthemy

Convention provided that properties in question were not to be held in the name of individual missionaries or converts, but as a part of the collective property of the Catholic mis­ sion of the area. It was also stipulated that in the case of such property transfer, a local investigation had to precede the transfer to see whether the local Chinese approved. This

13, Ibid,, pp. 149-150- 2 1

tended to hamper the Catholic missionaries considerably^ The provisions of the Berthemy Convention were formally grant" ed to the Protestants in 1903s however, they had in practice been conceded to Protestants long before. 15

Problems of Access to the Interior In 1842 the Treaty of Nanking provided for the open­ ing of five ports to the residence and trade of British sub­ jects, however, the foreigners were not to go beyond the limits of the treaty ports. Even the Imperial Decree of 1846, which restored Gharch property, stipulated that foreigners were not to go into the country to propagate their religion. In 1846 the French envoy to China, Theodose de Lagrene, began to carry on negotiations with the Chinese to further legalize 16 the practice of Christianity, The first opportunity to legalize missionary activ­ ities within the interior of China came in I8 5 S with the Treaty of Tientsin, According to the provisions of the Brit­ ish and Russian treaties, missionaries were granted the priv­ ilege of traveling in the interior for as long as they had in their possession the proper passport and arrangements had been made with their respective consulates. $.7" This passport

14, Paul Cohen, China and Christianity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,^19^3),'p, 147,

1 5 , Latourette, op, eit,, p, 3 5 2 , 16, Ibid,, pp, 346-352, 1 7 , Chao-Ewang Wu» The International Aspect of the Missionary Movement in China"^Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins'**' Tress, 1930), ~PP, 26-28, 2 2 was also to be signed by the appropriate Qhinese authority.

The missionary, however, was at liberty to travel without a passport in the neighborhood of the open ports, for a dis­ tance not to exceed 100 JLi, and for a period not to exceed 13 five days. Chester Tan attributes to this Treaty of Tientsin, which T fang says ended the “first Missionary and second Opium War,11 the beginning of popular Chinese hostility to- ward the Chinese converts and Christians in general.20

Protestant missionaries in general based a claim to reside within China on the British treaty of 1858 which stat­ ed that churches or other buildings could be built ”whether at the ports or at other places.11 That the clause extended this right to the interior was denied by those in official positions, both Chinese and Western, but this interpretation was insisted upon by the missionary.^ The Trench version of the Berthemy convention mentions the fact that Roman

18. Ibid., pp. 26-27. 19. T'ang Leang-Li, China in Revolt (London; Noel Douglas, 1927), p. 57. 20. Chester C. Tan, The Boxer Catastrophe (New York: Columbia University Press, 19537, p.- 35V 2 1 . Hosea B. Morse and Harley MacNair, Tar Eastern International Relations (New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.,. 1 9 3 1 7 7 % 2 7 4 , ...... 23 22 Oath©lie Biissieiaar.ies were already in the iaterier ©f China* “

la I865 the China Inland Missien* mader James Hadson Taylor, was founded. This mission worked on an inland basis, was undenominational, and was eoncermed only with the rapid spread, of the Se'speT, B y the time of Taylor Vs death in 19© 5. the China Inland Mission had grown to over one thousand mis­ sionaries and had brought the Christian movement to inland China,. 23 < For a better understanding of the diversity and. location of China'Inland Mission stations in 1899, Figure

He. 1 is made available to the reader. The Chinese position towards missionary activities in the. interior ■' is expressed fey Prince Sung, in a statement dated 1869s “Take away your opium and your missionaries and yen will be welcome.w A somewhat similar statement is found im the Morth China Herald dated 1/25/1872; Bo away;with your, extraterritoriality clause, and _merchant and missionary may settle anywhere’and everywhere1 but retain it, and we must do our best ^ to confine you and our trouble to the treaty ports. During the relatively quiet years between i860 and

1897,' both Protestant, and Soman .Catholic missionaries pene­ trated China,. They were seem dispersed more widely than were

2.2, :Henri Cordier, His.te.lre general© .Be La Chime, et ©s ses relations avee 1 es:’"pays^^ran^^ is: Mbrarie Paul Eeuthmer, T921), p. 11%.' -

23* Latdurette, Christianity'in a"Revolutionary 1 1 1 , p p , - ■ ■■ ■ ■ .

2%. Morse, eg. ©it., p, 2 2 0 < 25. J. Hudson Taylor, China* s Millions (London: Morgan and Scott, 1890), no page number given, located in­ side of front cover. 24

Yv-'- ^ 7

— /*— ‘ * *x-svr%. • • -

VX1 »

$ M : .

‘-HIX.1 lUn/U' Aieoi.'

F^'/f rciu?M»£» TKTTrT- y m m m i •"»

IW.V^ %0':/rwq3: / ! /' V' ' c ' 4,> V y i-X.ijN.lianJHAi-VyT . ;ENGLAND t e a - L - Smnr S«%ij

Knuigr^ au - Siatumj of the ChurcK MiAnonary Society are shewn thus * - 1 ♦ENGLAND S f C." Soc. Prop (roep P. — « IVtjhrtertnix - - Sn^LJrisK^CP L . m London. M ia * i Soc fhin a Tn Inxsl B . -Bnqliah Baptist A £.• American hpiocoped* W- -UTe'jUy A . • Amerixan. (otherst f.mForeign. Pf-oteatant

Figure 1. Stations of the China Inland Mission, 1889 25 any ether representatives of Western emitare in Shina. 'Hie missionary did, assist to a considerable extent the transfor­ mation by bringing Ohima in eoataet with some of the highest spiritmal and''moral forces of the West,. ' aAs we have said be­ fore-—and it- eanmet fee repeated too often— bat for the mis­ sionary the Chinese weald have seen in the main only the materialistic and selfish side of Barope and America,

- Problems of Land Ownership -One of the first provisions allowing foreign owner­

ship of land or property in China is. in the Imperial Edict of iBIMf', By ■ this edict the french, and other foreigners, were permitted to build churches in the treaty ports. In 18W, another edict. was secured, from the Xae Kuaag - emperor . This edict permitted the restoration of Christian property that . had been confiscated during the K ’ang Hsl reign and the per-

s©cations of the past century or more, ' This provision for the restoration of confiscated buildings ,and lands, was to . prove to fee a source of extreme irritation,, ill-will, and at times hostile action. The property in question had often passed into the hands of innocent purchasers or had long been in public use. Even though there were provisions with­ in the edict for■property that was mot to be confiscated by

26, "Latemrette, A Hi story, p, 30%, 27, Ibid, 2 6 tJae Christians, the foreigners abused this clause of the Im~ perial Decree,2^ The Treaty @f Tientsin provided any foreigner the op­ portunity of renting property and residing within the treaty ports, missionaries included. The Chinese text of the Treaty of Peking made reference to the privilege of ownership of property by the missionary. By this treaty Chinese were per­ mitted to become Christians, churches could be built, French missionaries were allowed to rent land in all of the Chinese Smpire and to buy and construct houses on this land,2^

The Chinese reaction to the missionaries claiming lands by virtue of the Chinese text of the Treaty of Peking is shown in this Tsungli Yamen memorials

During the last few years the restoration of Chapels in every province has been insisted upon without any regard for the feeling of the masses', the missionaries obstinately persisting their claims. They have also pointed out fine handsome houses (belonging to the gentry or others), as buildings once used as churches, and these they have compelled the people to give up,,,they have forced from them select buildings for the bene­ fit of the Church in lieu of other lands or build­ ings,,, Their conduct excites the indignation of the people whenever they come in contact with each other, and it becomes impossible for them to live quietly together, 30

Because of the confusion existing over the sixth ar­ ticle of the Treaty of Peking, and other missionary activities.

28, Latourette, oj>, ©it,, p, 2 8 1 , 29, Latourette., The Chinese, pp» 351’*352.

30, Wu, ojn cit., pp. 1 3 7 -1 3 8 , 27

the Berthemy Gonveration was signed, in This made the

missionaries place all property rented, purchased* or claimed, under title of the Catholic Church in that area— providing that the local Chinese residents agreed to the missionary pur­ chase,, In I872 the French Minister in China issued a note to the effect that no more claims of the missionary concern­ ing the possession of certain lands would be received in such a favorable light. Soon after this, "further complaints ' : . 31 '' ceased,"

Problems Relating to Building Concessions In December of 1 8 W an Imperial Rescript was signed by the Tao Kuang emperor which allowed the French and other foreigners to build Catholic churches in the five treaty ports. In 18W a decree was given that allowed confiscated property, from the K 8ang Ssi period to 1846, to be returned to the Cath­ olics providing it was not used as a temple or a dwelling, and local permission had been given. The Chinese text of the i860

French and Chinese Treaty of Peking allowed French missionaries the privilege of renting and. purchasing land in all the prov­ inces, and the erecting of buildings thereon. This was qual­ ified to some extent by the Berthemy Convention of 1 8 6 5 , the land had to be registered in the name of the Catholic Church and the purchase had to be approved by local Chinese

31= T* ang, oj>, oit,» p, 39» 2 8 residents. Similar privileges were granted to th.e Protestants in 1903o32 One of the most common causes of hostility regarding the erection of buildings centered around the Chinese super-* stition of feng~shui, or geemantie influences upon man’s re- lationships with nature,-' Peng-shui is a pseudo-science developed along with the belief in Yin and Yang; it is con­ cerned princ.l'paily with ancestor worship or reverence,-: es­ pecially concerning the disposal of the dead. Concern with this superstition is important to this study because of its influence on the selection of sites suitable for the erection of buildings. The missionary often did not consult feng-shui specialists, thus causing considerable hostility among the

Chinese, Some examples of this, neglect of the feng-shui fore­ casters may be cited. The feng-shui belief was that the house of a foreigner, or non-believer in feng-shui, should hot be erected next to, or on the- right side of an existing Chinese house; also, all of the huildings in an area should be of equal height, so as not to disturb the oh*i (life giving principle). There were other common beliefs, but the one mentioned above was the one most frequently violated by the missionaries, .

32, Latourette, oj>. clt,, pp, 3^6-352, 33, Edwin Harvey, The Mind of China (Mew Haven: Yale University Press, 1933), P= 85, 3-i’o To R. Burkhardt, Chinese Creeds and Customs (Hong Kong: South China Morning P o s t T ™ L t d l 195^), pp, 129-130, An example is described, by A» Ho Smith when he remarks that the Roman Catholics "make a practice of erecting imgh. cathe­ drals (in Gothic style)» dominating the Chinese cities like fortresses (and built to withstand a seige)11 „ All of this was done without any regard to the Chinese prejudices or pro- vious consultation.,' 35 Local Chinese authorities on several occasions in­ sisted that the objection of even a single person would bar the local authorities from determining the site of a build- ingi This was the stipulation found within the Berthemy Con­ vention of I8 6 5 . Because of missionary misunderstanding of the situation, there were many demands for building privi­ leges which violated popular -feeling. Considerable hostility arose as a result of this» An earlier agreement, the American and Chinese treaty of 185 8 , Article XII, had attempted to cor­ rect the American missionaries regarding this problem., This treaty of 1858 stated that if;

The parties interested can fix rent by mutual and equitable agreement; the proprietors shall not demand an exhorbitant price, nor shall the local authorities interfere, unless there be some objec­ tion on the part of the inhabitants respecting the place, 00 The Citizens of the United States shall not unreasonably insist on particular spots, but each party conduct itself with justice and modera­ tion, 36

35° Victor Purcellj The Boxer Uprising (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press-, 15^35 ^ P° 30 Many missionaries attempted to purchase land or prop­ erty in the interior of China for personal use, in the name of the Christian church. This was done mainly for personal gain. In 1888 the practice was challenged by the Chinese Gov­ ernment; ,,,[If] they Cthe missionaries^, desire to purchase land for the purpose of building chapels there-on, the title should only state the land is sold to be­ come public property of the local Catholic church. If foreigners, in violation of the treaty,Q Berthemy Convention 3attempt to purchase property in the in­ terior for private ownership, this shall continue to be prohibited as heretofore, 37 The missionaries also found it quite difficult to ob­ tain houses for residence or to serve as chapels. The Chinese would not rent to missionaries because of the social pressure of the community against it. An examples at Chefoo in April of 1868 a Chinese rented his house with the understanding that the missionary was to open a shop therein, When the mission­ ary made preparations for opening the chapel, the Chinese own­ er insisted on cancelling the agreement. The missionary refused. The owner of the house then boarded up the door and 38 pulled down the roof so as to keep the missionary out. Offensive looking buildings, the sites of which were usually acquired by some type of political pressure, were thus erected and became a permanent reminder of China's political disgrace. 39

3 7 . Vu, og. cit ., pp. W - M . 38.' Morse, op. cit., p. 226. 39. T'ang, pp. cit., p. 6 1 . Western Abuse of the Bight to Protect Christians

It is universally that aliens, once admit- ted to a state, are entitled to equal protection by the laws of the host state, in the same manner as; the citizens or sub­ jects of the state of residence. One.'other right of an alien is that if his rights as an aliOn are infringed upon improper­ ly in the host state, he can appeal’to the diplomatic protec­ tion of his own government..Canerally speaking, only when it ■ = , Afvtr rights are violated withoht1-propier redress is appeal to dip­ lomatic protection justified'. ' Before resorting to diplomatic interposition the alien should, therefore, initially consult with the local or territorial officials of the state in which .... > he is located. These normal rights of an alien are important in considering the missionary in Ghina, because of the devia­ tion of his rights in Ghina from the above generally accepted rules of International Law. China’s rights as a sovereign na­ tion had actually been nullified in many areas by the treaties with the Western powers; one of these areas of nullification was in the protection of aliens within her own borders,

The main source of missionary privileges in China was to be found in the treaties negotiated between her and the Western powers between 18*2 and 1865. China began to loose the responsibility of protecting aliens within her borders with Article Kill of the so-called "General Resolutions" 32 issued in advance of the Treaty of Nanking. By this Article, any British subject with a complaint could go immediately to the British consulate. If the consulate could not remedy the situation, then, and only then, would there be a consultation with the Chinese officials.. Also by the Treaty of the Bogue kl in 18*1-3 the right of extraterritoriality was extracted from the Chinese. Due to these provisions forced upon China, she no longer enjoyed the privilege of internal regulation and control of aliens within her borders,^ "China has giv­ en to the foreign powers by her treaties at least the sem­ blance of the legal right to call her to account if she fails to protect Christian missionaries,11 By doing this she gave the foreign powers a constant pretext for challenging her about her dealings with foreigners in China. Ho position could have been more hazardous for China, as many of her of­ ficials soon came to know.^ Article VII of the Trench Treaty of Tientsin, besides asserting that the Christian religion was one of virtue, states

4l. This is where foreigners are to be tried under their own nations law and authorities for crimes committed in China, they were not to fall under Chinese law. Latourette, op. cit.* p. 347.

4%. ojo. cit.,, p. 7 . 43. L. Tung, China and Borne Phases of International Law (Londons Oxford, University ;Pres^,*iSWT, p ow^ ^ " r:,llvll,:iul'11''1

44. Michie, op. cit., pp. 114-115. thats "Persons teaching it or professing it shall be entitled to the protection of the Chinese authorities»" This privilege of Chinese protection was never fully allowed by the foreign 45 powers. This promise of effective protection was also found in Article XIII of the same treaty. Here, also, China was not allowed the full responsibility of protecting aliens within her borders,^ Protection was also promised to Christians by the Trench Treaty of Peking in i860. However» the Chinese were of the opinion that this protection was to be extended only to ky foreigners, and not to native Chinese converts. The Chinese finally consented to allow the foreign powers to protect Chi­ nese subjects from their own government. Because of this show of foreign power in Chinese domestic affairs much resentment and fear on the part of the Chinese was aroused. This, how­ ever, did give the Chinese convert a certain needed assurance of protection and stimulated the numerical growth of the Church, The provision had, however, the unfortunate drawback of iso- . ' < ' " ... - lating the Christian communities, religiously and physicallyo from the affairs of the Chinese nation. Many Chinese, seeing the advantage offered by this powerful protection, joined the

" Hay liar, og, cit,, p, 770, 46, Cary-Slwes, op, cit,, pp, 198-1 9 9 , 4 7 , Wolferstan, eg, cit., p, 242. 3 ^ kg Church for other than religious reasons. This created a serious problem for the Chinese Government as well as for the missionaryo These treaties had the effect of making the Church' a partner in Western imperialism.^ Certain Western nations took it upon themselves to of== fer protection to missionaries in China. The material advan­ tages of this protection could be quite considerable if exploited correctly. Prance was more than willing-to.assume this political-religious relationship. After entering into formal tpeaty relations with China in l8*Mt-9 Prance became the non-legal protector of the Catholics in China.'*® This Prenohm assumed protectorate caused considerable suspicion among the Chinese about the design of the Trench in China. The Church ei was looked up to as their tool of conquest. French inter­ est in the establishment of a protectorate in China was founded mainly on the desire for economic gain. In view of the insignificant Trench commercial interests in China, in comparison with those of England, France was almost exclu­ sively concerned with questions arising out of the French

48. "The Roman Catholic Church is believed to be a refuge of bad men who can thus evade the laws of China, and, under the shelter of a foreign protection, behave substanti­ ally as they please...". Smith, op. pit., p. 52. • 49° Varga op. oit., p. 1 2 . 5 0 . Ifu, oj>. pit., pp. 83-84.

51. Paul H. Clyde, “Frederick P. Lew and the Tientsin Massacre,11 The Pacific Historical Review, II (1933), 104-105° protectorate over Catholic missions. For it was to be by the use of this protectorate, that France was to gain economic concessions which would have been lost to her because of her lack of commercial interests. 52 This economic attachment to a spiritual invader is examined even further by Paul S. Heinsoh when he questions the value of the missionary to the Europeannations in eco­ nomic terms. He noted that France and Germany had made spec­ ial use of missions and missionaries to exhort damage and to demand replacement of Ohimese officials. ^Never before per­ haps has so much material value been attached to ministers of the Gospel in foreign lands,,„“.^ An example is seen in the French Gonsul at Chunking demanding mining rights in six dis­ tricts of Szechuan, plus an indemnity of 1,222,000 taels for

damages to French missions. Also, included in the repara­ tions was the right to build a railroad from Pakhoi to Nan­ ning, plus a memorial Chapel--all of this for the murder of .Fere. Berthollet in.: #ay of 1 8 9 8 Thus, “the blood of the martyrs has been the seed of foreign colonial empire, of whose aggramdiz'e&bnt - China has had to pay the cost.11

52. Steiger, eg. cit., p. 36.

5 3 . Wolferstan, ®j>. cit., p. 1 6 8 . 5^. Ibid.. p. 169. 55. MicMe* .o£i cit., p. 9 1 . 36

Motiiag Zrench. success threugli the influence of a pro™ tectorate over Christianss the Berman Government also endeav­ ored to establish a separate protectorate over German missionaries in China. This aim was made known by the German ambassador to China in 1882. Soon thereafter, arrangements were made with the French so that China would not vise pass­ ports of German subjects unless it was also approved by a Ger­ man representative. In 18#0 the Germans were allowed to protect their own missionaries in China by France.^ Germany was not in a position to put their newly found power to prac­ tical use. They knew what they wanted and all they needed was the excuse to seize it. Germany, after much previous study and deliberation, desired the Bay of Kinochow in Shan­ tung province in which to establish a naval base; this would give her a more favorable military and diplomatic position in Asia. Her excuse to seize this Bay came in November, 1897, with the murder of two German Catholic missionaries. Fathers Franz Biles and Richard Henle, by members of the "Great Sword Society.Germany lost no time in making arrangements with the Russians for the seizure (the bay had previously been • ' 5 6 . R. A. Horem, German Catholic Missions in Shan- • tung, citing The Chinese Social and Political Science Review, XiX, 1 (April, ... _

57o This murder is also attributed to members of the »Ta Tao Hui11 sect, which later 'merged with the I Ho Ch* uan ■(Boxers).. Ibid., 59-62. 37 promised to the Raesiaas by the Chinese)» and,by lovember 1%, thirteen days after the murder, a German naval squadron steam­ ed, into the harbor of Tsingtae, By March 6, 1898, a conven­

tion signed in Peking between German and Chinese officials

gave a provisional 99 year lease of the Bay of Kiaeehow to Germany, including Tsingtae and all the surrounding islands

and water areas of the Bay,'*® The following examples will illustrate the prostrate position of China at this time. Ho sooner had, the Bermans seised the Bay of Kiaeehow than did the Russians, under Ad­ miral Inbassoff, enter Port Arthur. • On April $, 189.8, a 2$ year lease of Port Arthur and the./JLlaetung peninsula, was giv- \ em to the Russians. Immediately thereafter the .French seized the ©ay of ICwanchow, where they were granted a 99 year lease of the bay as a naval station. Great Britain then occupied

Weihaiwei, "for so long a period as Port Arthur shall remain

in the occupation of Russia,11 England was also granted a 99 year lease of the Kowloon Peninsula,*^

The duty of protecting Protestant missionaries in China fell not to France,' but to the missionaries1 respective govern­ ments. Usually this protection was guaranteed by either Eng­ land, Germany, or the United States.^® This protection

58. .'Wa, ©£. .cit,, pp.. 160-1613-.

59» 'Ibid., pp. 164-165, 60. Ibid., pp. '81-82. 33 offered to the missionary by the Western powers was given,to 6 X him whether he wanted it or not. In the long run, this imposed protection did more damage and created more ill-will for the missionary than it helped him. This fact was realized early by only a few missionaries. 62 The following quotations summarize the main points of this chapter: Cary-Elwess. The political life of .Ohina and its international relations are for the religious historian not alien matters, but closely linked with the fate of the mis­ sionary efforts. This fact has been abundantly proved throughout the history of Christianity in China... 63 Paul Reinsch: The Western governments...look upon civilization and religion as a commercial asset, and give the mis­ sionaries that ostentatious political protection which has aroused the opposition of the masses in China. 6k

61. Pierce Beaver, “nationalism and Missions,11 Church XXVI fMarch,.1357)» 22-24. , : 6 2 . Smith, eg>. oit., pp. 53-56. 6 3 . Cary-Slwes, pp.- oit., p. 221.

64. Paul Reinsch, "Gulturial factors in the Chinese Crisis,“ Annals of the American Academy of Political and So- cial Science, XVI, 3 (Wovember, 1980), 43?. ' ”

r e m p T B a i n MISSIONABT ACTIVITIES WHICH CAUSED ANTX-FOBEIO-B FBBLI1US AHONO- THE CHINESE Missionary Inyolvement in Chinese Domestic Affairs

CChristianity3 has the misfortune in every alien land of running counter to almost all the cherished local institutions. It offends everyone$ it antag­ onizes every creeds it mingles with none, because its fundamental tenets deny the coexistence of any other faith or standard of morality. ^

The Christian missionary was active in many phases of Chinese life; in most of these phases he was there without the proper permission. Because of special privileges granted by the treaties of 1 8 42-1 8 6 5 , the missionary gained many le­ gal privileges. The missionary could travel in the interior, preach Christianity,- build, churches and mission centers, make converts, and offer protection to these converts by his nat­ ional government. However, the missionary extended his priv­ ileges beyond the limits of the heretofore mentioned treaties. By their unwise actions in the religious and non-religious

spheres, the missionaries created resentment among the lit­ erati and peasants. As a result of these actions much of the hostility which manifest itself in the Boxer rebellion was inspired. These activities were not the only cause of the

1. Paul Clements, The Boxer Rebellion, a Political and Diplomatic Review (Hew York‘~T™Co"lumbia University Press, 19l57rpt^7%.

39 Boxer uprising, but they d,id constitute a major source of Ghi- nese hostility towards Christians and all foreigners«2

Missionary Protection of Chinese Converts from the"Chinese Government and'the" Eative Chinese

Because of the sincere desire of the missionary to pro= tect his convert from persecution by the native Chinese, he was often found in the law courts of China pleading on behalf of a convert. Many missionaries offered protection to con­ verts, not knowing of their guilt or innocence, simply because they were Christian converts, who seemed at the moment zto be the victim of discrimination. These activities were greatly 3 resented by the native Chinese for various reasons. The mis­ sionary would often bring in the power of his home government to force a desired decision. The mere gesture of a missionary by a visit or the showing of his papers, towards the defense of a convert was often sufficient to obtain a decision in his

favor. The Chinese official did not want to become entangled with the foreigners, who, through their consuls and ministers, could make trouble for him with his superiors.^ i In many Western publications this problem was discussed The following descriptive excerpt is taken as an example, from

2 0 Kenneth S, Latourette, A History of the Expansion of Christianity (lew York; Harper Brother's Pub, 19$$ /, "'VI, pp. 2Wo^2SW%

3o Targ, oj>. Git,, p, 33. h, Latourette, A History, pp„ 309-310. the Manchester Euardian of December 2 1 , 1891s

A missionary receives a report from one of his Ohtirch members that his heathen neighbor is perse­ cuting him. He applies to the mandarin, who re­ fuses to see him. Then he goes to his Oonsul. His Consul refers it to the higher Chinese authorities.. They send down a wen shu ordering the local mandarin to stop persecution. The native convert has never appealed on his own account to the mandarin. On examination it may or may not turn out to be a bogus concern altogether....The Christian has been taught, to lean upon a protection he is not entitled to; the heathen feels that he is being tyrannized over by the hated foreigner, who, according to his notions has no business in the country. The mandarin has been snubbed for no fault of his own; the higher officials feel that in admitting the missionary they pulled down a house over their heads, and the Consul wishes ^ the missionary and his peddling concerns far enough... This illegal missionary interference in the law courts

of China was done in the .spirit expressed by a missionary in 1 8 3 8 , when he stated that "we never paid any attention to any law in China that X recollect," This interference, was still in evidence in 1 8 6 9 , when missionaries were yet assisting con- verts.* 6 The Chinese Christians, besides having the advantage of a legal guardian in the courts, was able to benefit finan­ cially by an exemption from the payment of taxes or levies for "the support of religious customs and practices contrary to their faith." This privilege was,granted^first as a voluntary favor by the Chinese Government,^ then was formally granted

5= Mi chi e, oj>. pit., P. 8 5 .

6. Wolferstan, op. eft., p. 180. kz 8 in 19036 By tlais action, Chinese Christians could not be forced to contribute to community festivals which contained

activities which could be interpreted as being contrary to the Christian belief. This refusal to conform to the customs was regarded by the majority of the Chinese villagers as an unpardonable offense. This privilege was also resented be­ cause of its offense to the ancestors of the families and to the Gods of the villages, and because it increased the tax load on the remaining villagers for the festivities. This ac­ tion also tended to isolate the Chinese converts from the com- Q munity, thus adding to the lack of communication. The legal status of the.Chinese convert was another source of Irritation between the missionary and mandarin. A circular dated 187S reflected the official Chinese view. This circular was from the Tsungli Yamen to Chinese repre­ sentatives abroads

Among the Chinese converts there are some who look upon their being a Christian as protecting them f from the consequences of breaking the laws of their own country, and refuse to observe the rules which are binding on their neighbors. This state of things China cannot tolerate or submit to. ..as regards Chi- nese subjects on Chinese soil, it is only the Chinese authorities who can deal with them, and Chinese sub­ jects, whether Christians or not, to be accounted for good subjects, must render an exact obedience to the laws of China. '

8 . This was granted by the treaty of 1903 between the United States arid China, Article 1^. T'ang, op. cit., p. 6 2 .

9. Tan, oj>. cit. „ p. 3 6 . 4 3 Again in 1891 an Imperial edict stated that, 11 though

people become converts., they still remain Shines© subjects, and continue to be amenable to the jurisdiction of the local authorities."^^ This power which the missionaries commanded through their respective national governments is illustrated in an incident recounted by the Jesuits of ICiangnan. A blacksmith in the vicinity of Soochow, finding that his trade was not bringing in sufficient ©ash, decided to supplement his income by traveling about the area falsely claimihg:'tliat he:..was a

Christian. He then threatened several families with possible

repercussions from the Catholic Church, of which he claimed c to be a member, if they did not pay him a certain sum of mon­ ey, It was not until he had collected from 300,00-0 to 400000 cash (taels'V;)' that he was finally exposed. • Further resentment towards the Chinese convert and the missionary, was caused by the fact that;the foreign missionary

trained his followers to look to him for protection, rather ; XB than to the constituted Chinese authorities. This feeling is evident at the time of the 1900 uprising, when, in an open letter to Mr, John Bull, Robert Speer states?

10- 53-54. 11. Cohen, eg. cit., pp.•134-135.

12. Michie, op. cit., pp. 83-84. But they the missionaries have always been hated by the mandarins and their underlings..»»for bring­ ing to the people of Ghina not only religion, but also enlightenment and civilization, thus rendering them less amenable to the arbitrary and oppressive policies of their superiors, and the more difficult to be squeezed and fleeced by their corrupt rulers...

The feeling of dependence of the convert upon the missionary and his church is also tied in with the literati8s fear that the Christian Church was an agent of foreign nation­ alism and imperialism. This idea was brought out by Latour- ette, but was denied by Beaver in his “Nationalism and Missions,1* This foreign nationalism is borne out by an entry

in the diary of a missionary, Br» Porter, in September of 1899® Here the Christians upon fleeing from their houses into the fields, “unfurled the American flag, gathered a strong

f o r c e . ,.and prepared for any emergency that might come up- on us, ,,14 Because of the difference in the Protestant and Roman

Catholic approaches to missionary activities, 15 there was yet

13. Robert Speer, Missions and Modern History (New York's Fleming H. Revell Co., T g W I l f pp,'573^37$T^ 1*. Beaver, op. cit., p. 22. 15= Soman Catholicism was tending to become less of a group faith. It did not lose this characteristic but was tending to become a faith for the minority, characterized by small groups or individuals. Protestantism, also stressed the importance of the individual, but had more political and nationalistic ties. Kenneth S. Latourette, A History of the Expansion of Christianity (New York: Harper & Bros., 1937- 1945)7 IV,3pT32^3: another serious problem. This was the actual physical isola­ tion of* the Chinese Christians from the other elements of Chinese society. The Catholics strove to convert families or even villages as small units, rather than isolated individuals

(as the Protestants would do,) This was because they felt that the group pressure placed upon an individual would often cause him to renounce his new found faith. 16 This physical isolation would also make it easier for the convert to conform to the new Christian way of life expected of him. This phys­ ical isolation also made communication and understanding more difficult and thus fomented distrust and suspicion, which opened the door to hatred and hostility. 17

Pretentious Claims' of the Missionary as"ir*Privi 1 eged"Social Class

Another cause of hostility is .found in the mission­ aries 8 assumption"of superiority and in their arrogant attitudes.

The missionaries'were #tainted with the materialistic civili­ zation of the Vest, and bound by their own prejudices, tastes, %and] modes of thought,11 They were seldom willing to adapt themselves to the environment in which they labored, especial- ' „ . ■ - iR ly to the peasant of lower class levels. The missionary brought with him the attitude of moral superiority and a

16, Targ, op, cit,, p. 33, 1 7 , Ibid, 19 belief in his exclusive righteousness. This missionary attitude extended from contempt for

Chinese culture to the actual practice of a self-made mission­ ary class system, with the missionary placing himself well above the majority of his Chinese converts. This claim to an elevated class level was without sanction and reason. As one Catholic, Father Bipa, reported: If our European missionaries in China would conduct . themselves with less ostentation and accommodate their manners to persons of all ranks and conditions, the number of converts - would be Increased,.. But they have adopted the lofty and pompous manner known in China by the appellation of "Ti-men1*. Their garments are made of the richest materials; they go nowhere on foot, but always in sedans, on horseback, or in boats, and with numerous attendants following them. With honourable exceptions,( all the missionaries live in the same previously described manner. 20 These actions are further substantiated by Dr. A. H.

Smith Tan American missionary in Shantung province in 1871) when he reported that Roman Catholic bishops adopted a rank equivalent to a Chinese governor, wore emblems indicating that

fact, and traveled with the pompous manner accorded that rank. "All CofJ this, and much else, is a part of the settled^pol­ icy of the church, and not an accident of this place or that."*5

19* K* ■ A. Ballhatchet, "Asian nationalism and Chris­ tian Missions." The International Review of Missions, XLVI ' (April, 1957), 2027 ...... 20. Bichie, ofc. cit., p. 83. 4 7 Ch.ao»kwang ¥u notes these pompous activities in the words of a French MLshops Besides the red parasals consisting of three tiers of shades, the cavaliades and the carrmonades, there was added before my palanquin an escort of three little children dressed in red and green, and carrying crowns composed of precious stones. Here, again, I signalized my arrival by setting free sev­ eral persons who were convicted for offences against our religion. 22 This French Sishop was quite possibly Bishop JTaurie, who, in 1864, is mentioned as visiting a family who had been perse­ cuted by native Chinese (the persecutors in turn became Chris­ tian to avoid paying the bill of damage). All along Faurie’s route he was received with great fanfare, cannons were fired, music was played, and flags were flown. "It was the sort of reception usually reserved for governors-general and gover­ nors. ..The only touch needed to complete the picture was for Faurie to remit the punishments of those who had been cast 2 <3 into prison..."

These unwarranted missionary activities justly antag­ onized the Chinese. This is illustrated in the following ex­ cerpts from a note of the Tsungli Tamen, dated 1 8 7 1 , which gave eight articles which the Chinese authorities considered necessary for the improvement :of Chinese-missionary relations. Two of these articles dealt with the arrogant missionary atti­ tude. Article III asked that the missionaries living in China conform to the laws and customs of China, and not to place

22. Ibid.

2 3 . Cohen, oja. eit., p. 139. be tixemselTes in a "kind of exceptional independenee, »e 11 It al­ so asked that the missionaries show themselves to be submis­ sive to the authority of the §hines© government and mot to attribute to themselves “powers which do not belong to them.1:1 these actions were made in the desire of reducing suspicion, resentment, and the indignation of the people. Article ¥11 of the 1871 note asked the missionaries to observe Chinese customs, not to make use of seals (which were to be reserved for the functionaries only), to use the proper respect and ceremony when visiting a literati, and to follow the Chinese ceremonies of respect when visiting any government official of rank. The Imperial Government in March of 1899 agreed be­ cause of usage, foreign pressure, and as a token of concilia­ tion for previous anti-Christian hostilities, to give official 9 < status to Reman Catholic 'missionaries.*' This decree of

March 15, IS99, applied only to Roman Catholics, and not to Protestants; and no immediate attempt was made by the Protest- ants to secure these privileges. ’ This decree legalised what had been practiced by the missionaries and was considered as a drastic concession given by the Chinese in hopes that it would arouse the'Chinese against the unlimited ambitions of

2%. Wu, oj>„ clt., pp. 7 6 -7 8 .

25. Tan, oj>, clt.» p. 5 8 . 26. ' Wu, op. cit„, pp. 205-206. the West,This decree of 1899» Artiole I» reads as fol­

lows! I» Im the different degrees of ecclesiastical heirarehy» Bishops being in rank and dignity the equals of Viceroys and Governors, it is agreed to ,atithori2e them to demand to see Viceroys and Gov­ ernors,, .Viears-General and Archdeacons will be authorized to demand to see Provincial Treasurers and Judges, and Tao tais„ Other priest will be authorized to demand to see prefects of the 1 st and 2nd class, independent prefects, sub-prefects, and other functionaries. Articles II, III, and IV merely give detailed regulations to govern the interrelations between the Chinese officials and

• ■ Og the missionaries. The effects of this decree were, then, mainly to le­ galize the missionary practices which could not be controlled by the Chinese Government, the national authorities. It also reduced a source of friction by a Chinese concession and once again attempted to define in writing the missionary privi­ leges in.China,The implications of this decree are.re­

flected by Sir Thomas Sutherland in :19Q0,. Sfe mentions that he was certain that the decree of 1899 "had been a most ruinous and false step" for the Chinese to have granted the mission­ aries, This decree was only a continuation of the serious causes of offense "to the just prejudices of the Chinese

2 7 , Varg, op,-cit,, p^ k 5,

28, Steiger, ojj, cit., pp. 95’a96,

2 9 , Wu, oj>. cit. , pp. 201-2 0 2 . 5 0 people. A similar opinion is also expressed by Paul Varg when he considers these actions not to be contributions to good missionary-convert relations.''

Missionary Activities as a Member of His Christian Church

Missionary work in China may be classified as to three types? (1) clerical, (2) medical, and (3) educational. Cler­ ical work is that performed by the ordained preacher and con­ sists of street and chapel preaching, itineration, and conversion. Clerical.work is the most common form of mission­ ary activity, and statistics show this method to gain the least converts for Christianity. The medical missionaries are often treated in a more considerate manner by the Chinese, and .they are able to obtain many concessions not given to the clergyman. The educational missionaries normally were in­ volved in the clerical work, and are respected by the Chinese, 32 generally, for their knowledge and not their clerical work.

The missionary, as a whole, has had problems in China in their attempts at recruiting a native clergy, Christianity considers it very important to have, a native clergy and the problem of recruitment as viewed by the Roman Catholics is

30. Stanley Smith, China From Within (London; Mar­ shall Brothers, 1901), p. 169.

31. Varg, op. cit., p; 3.5.

32. Robert Coltman, The Chinese, Their Present and Future (London: P. A. Davis, Publisher, l89l]HT""pp. 172-173. 51 one where “the Catholie Faith would, have no certain future,11 in a non-Oatholic country "as long as there were no native Olergy and Heirarchy." 'However, complications arose because of discrimination against the Chinese Christians, causing re­ sentment and a lack of motivation by the Chinese, as a result few Chinese were to be found in the ranks of the Church heirarchy* A second problem, one which concerned the Protestant members of the clergy, becomes extremely acute from 1890-1980*

This concerns the revival of religious zeal, giving to the missionary the popular idea of the China venture being a "Crusade for Christ." This desire to save the heathen from damnation was not new to the Protestants or Roman Catholics, This religious fervour is illustrated by J, Hudson Taylor in 189% when he said, "The Gospel must be preached to these peo­ ple in a very short time, for they are passing away,,.There is a great Hiagara of souls passing into the dark in China,», ■ ( qk ■ A million a month in China are dying without GodI" This revival of Christianity showed itself primarily in Protestant­ ism, Yet Roman Catholicism also displayed renewed life and

spread more widely than ever before. The Russian Orthodox Church also was influenced, although did not exhibit as much

33, B ’Sllia, op, cit,, pp« 68-6 9 ,

3^-, Paul Varg, "Motives in ProtestantMissions, 1890= 1917,“ Church History, XXIII (March, 195^), 68-71, 52 vitality. This individualism was also expressed in the cour­ ageous initiative of the missionaries in their venturing to new areas. In this atmosphere of abounding optimism and achievements, it was natural for the Christians to plan for

^the evangelization of the world in this generation,,, "55

This idea of eternal damnation and a rapidly approaching judg­ ment day began to lose its effect around the beginning of the twentieth century, A study of the motives and aims of the missionary movement makes it clear that these motives were

closely related to the forces of nationalism and humanitar- ianism existing at that time. The leaders of the missionary movement9 Rev, James S, Bennis,'Robert S» Speer, John R,Mott, and.others, were advocates of a new program by which the "con­ version of the heathen was gradually becoming a means to an end, namely an improved society,11^

Many missionaries, showing the humanitarianism of the times, worked in the area of medical assistance to the Chinese, Hospitals, orphanages, and schools were established, all with the hope of improving Chinese society. Some of this work created hostility, especially the orphanages, but these en­ deavors did not create the resentment found in the clerical field,

35« K, S, Latourette, A History of the Expansion of Christianity, IV, pp, 4-18,

36, Ibid,, pp, 73-77, 53 Hospitals were found, to help the conversion efforts

of the missionaries for many reasons« Generally speaking, the hospitals were appreciated and, respected by the Chinese, 37 and were often crowded with the sick and injured. In the hospitals there was also "preaching to dispensary patients, and especially faithful work among regular occupants of the hospital.11 Here was to be found some of the most satisfac­ tory and "immediately rewarding missionary work in China. One missionary, related that the hospital ward afforded unex­ celled opportunities for preaching, for it was here that the "thoughts of the hereafter naturally arise." Dr. J. Preston Maxwell of the Yungchen hospital cited some suggested rules which he felt should be followed in a Christian hospital. The walls of the rooms should be decorated with texts from the Bible, tracts and hymn books should be distributed, while morning and afternoon religious services for patients well enough to attend should be held, and a special evangelistic

service on Sunday afternoon. The Sunday afternoon sermon should be directed towards the conversion of patients. Hot all Chinese wished a hospital to be located in

their vicinity; the literati took a position of polite distain,

37. Alexander Michie, Missionaries in China (London; Edward Stanford, 1891), p. 21. - ......

38. • Arthur Smith, - Hex Christus, An Outline Study of China (Hew York; The Macmillan Co., 1903), pT^TWoT"

39. Varg, oj>. clt., p. 7 5 . ' ■ 5^ The traditional Chinese practitioners of medicine also viewed this entrance of a competitive iastitmtion with, lack of en-

' j 0 - - thmsiasia. " The success of the medical and hospital mission­ ary effort is shown by its rapid, .growth. In 1896 the Protestant missions alone had seventy-one hospitals and a hundred and eleven dispensaries, with more than a million pa— ■ • I11 tient visits reported. The Christian orphanages were potentially one of the most successful of missionary enterprises,'but they also turned out■to be a frequent cause of suspicion- and hostility.

Through the efforts of the literati is propagandising non- existant illicit activities in the orphanages, they frequently became a source of hostility. These orphanages were most of­ ten .connected, with the Roman Catholic movement (the hospitals were principally Protestant activities) and reflected many of the Catholic attitudes toward child care and conversion.

One of the causes for the frequent suspicion and hos­ tility displayed towards the orphanages lies in the missionary efforts at saving deserted or neglected Chinese children.

Many of these children died while under orphanage care. This

W.. Robert Worth, “institution Building in the Peo­ ple 5 s Republic of China? the Rural Health Center, “ 'Bast-West ■ Center Review (Honolulu-: East-West Center Grantees’ AssocTa% tion, February, 1 9 6 5 ) I, #3, p« 22, #1, .Robert Speer, Missionary.Principles and Prac­ tices (New York; Fleming: H» Beveil Co,, I9 0 2 ), p, iy#,

%2, Wolferstan, ojd, oit,, p ,. 333 55 high, death rate among the Chinese children gave rise to sus­ picion as to the cause of their deaths. Most Chinese were unable to understand the Christian motives for benevolence towards the Chinese children, when they had so often seen the other motives of the missionary„^ The Catholic practice of baptizing infants near death also caused considerable confu­ sion over the motives of the ritual involved. Because of propaganda and the deliberate spread of rumors this ritual was often charged with causing the death of children in order to get their hearts or eyes, to be used in the preparation of medicines. To the casual observer, baptism was clearly the t hb cause of the infant s death. Missionaries were not the only Christians to baptize children. This work was also done by lay members of the church, such as elderly female converts who used trickery in baptizing unsuspecting Chinese. ...The agents of this work are usually elderly women, who have experience in the treatment of infantile diseases. Furnished with innocent pills and a bottle of holy water whose virtues they extol, they intro­ duce themselves into the houses where there are sick infants, and discover whether they are in danger of death; in this ease they inform the parents, and tell them that before administering other remedies they must wash their hands with the purifying waters of their bottle. The parents, not suspecting this pieuse £ piousl] ruse, readily consent, and by-these innocent frauds we produce in our mission the bap­ tism of seven or eight thousand infants every year.^

&3o Smith, China in Convulsion, p. 59. •44. Latourettej A History, p. 24-2. 4'5. Sammuel Williams, The Middle Kingdom (Mew York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1904-), II, p. 311. 56

Because 'ef the fladiag of the bodies of between thir­ ty and, forty children, in a cemetery near the orphanage at Tientsin im 1870 a riot and massacre was incited. This riot resulted in the killing of a Trench, consul, several Trenchaen and women including ten sisters and one priest. Burners con­ cerning the use ef childrens1 hearts and eyes in the prepar­ ation of medicine motivated these and other hostile acts. Most of these rumors were spread with the encouragement and h£ assistance of members of the literati class.' This riot at Tientsin was not the only one against orphanages im China. Slots also occurred throughout much of northern China, from orphanages of the China Inland Mission at Tangehow in 1868, to the Roman Catholic missions at Wuhu and other locations along'the Yangtze.River, Most of these riots originated out of misconceptions about the functions and activities ef the orphanages.^ Chinese authorities attempted to regulate this prob­ lem by asking in 1871 that the orphanages not accept the children of non-Christian Chinese. However, the Chinese au­ thorities seemed to recognize the futility of this circular, and in its concluding statement they summarized their desires regarding the entire situation by stating that "it would be a good thing to abolish the foreign orphanages." This

%6. Cerdier , egs, cit., p. 126, Wm, op. cit., pp. l%b and 1 5 6 . 57 statement reflects the general stand, of the literati regard” ' 48 ing foreign orphanages. The Burlingham Treaty of 1866 made provisions for the establishment of schools in China for the instruction of for­ eign children. There were no articles or provisions in this treaty to justify the establishment of schools by missionaries for the education of Chinese children. However, the mission­ aries did establish schools in China for the instruction of Chinese, as well as foreign, children. By I896 the Protes­ tants alone had established 972 primary schools, 114 secondary schools, and 48 colleges and training schools. These had a total enrollment of 21,353 students. These schools were main­ ly for the Chinese Christian and foreign youth in China; they were Western oriented and created little direct hostility. The main concern of the Chinese Government was that these schools taught a belief and culture which was in contradiction to the beliefs and culture of the host nation.

One of the principle causes of confusion over the be­ liefs and religious practice of Christianity was the lack of missionary understanding of the Chinese language and a general lack of communication between the Chinese and missionary.^ This lack of understanding of the Chinese language by the

48. Wu, op. oit., p. 7 6 .

49. Ibid., p. 173. 5 0 .- Arthur Smith, Chinese Characteristics (Hew York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 100. missionary made him the butt of many Chinese jokes and provi­ ded the literati with yet other weapon in his anti-foreign

conflict. Because of the varied choices of the characters used for God, there developed an apparent wide diyision in meanings of the idea of God among the various Christian sects

There were attempts made to correct this language problem among the missionaries, and some of them gained considerable knowledge of the Chinese language, but for most missionaries, the Chinese language remained a weak point * ^ By 1892 the missionaries had not yet agreed upon terms to be used in translation. The term to describe God was still a problem, as it had been since the time of the Rites Controversy. The character for God was not the only term he translated by different Chinese characters or phrases The significance of this problem in the area of religious publications was that almost all versions of the Scriptures and many tracts were published in two versions. One version employing Shang-ti, and the other using either T 8ien-chu (Catholic) or Qhen-;shen (Protestant). Is it, then, any great wonder at the slow rate of Chinese conversions and the ap­ pearance of overall Chinese confusion regarding the Christian faith.?53 -

51. R. S. Gundry, “Missionaries in China,11 fortnight ly Review, IX '(August, 1893), 2h0-2hl. . -

52. Kao Chung Ju, he Movement Intellectual In Chine et son dans la Revolution Chinois'e (Saint Thomas: Aix-en- province, 1957 53. Wolferstan, op. cit., pp. 19-20. 5 9 The Spread, of Christian Literature in China

Large amounts of Christian literature were distribu­ ted in China with little or no consideration of the results of their indiscriminate circulation, Christian literature

was disseminated among a people whose ability to read with tm- <1$, derstanding was not ascertained. Attempts by the Chinese to understand the literature given them was made even more difficult by the fact that the missionaries often took the more difficult portions of the Old Testament for special pub­ lication^ such as the section about Jonah being swallowed by the whale. This was completely uncomprehendable to most Chi­ nese, since most of them had never seen a whale. It is high­ ly -doubtful that Christianity was "much assisted by such rough forms of introduction.»„ Dr. Veils Williams stated that; It is no t 8 perhaps $ the holy things so much as • the needlessly irritating, possible insulting, and really unedifying and unintelligible things some­ times contained in the * Christian1 literature which are most answerable for the filthy abuse which has been lavished on the missionaries and their faith. It is by no means impossible that even the foul­ est of their epithets might be traced to some unhap­ py expressions in the original, or translated compositions by foreign missionaries impatient to try their hand before acquiring sufficient command ^ of that double-edged weapon, the Chinese language,..

5^, Volferstan, og». cit. , p. 5 6 . 55. Michie, China and Christianity, pp. 100-101, 5 6 , Ibid./ Titer e can be me doubt tit at the Indiscriminate circu­ lation of the Bible„ .aided by the individual iaterpretatiems given to it, were capable of producing the most disastrous material resalts. One sack.event was the T $ai P*±mg rebel­ lion ,of 18^8-1865* which cost the Chinese devastated provinces and millions of lives. There can be little wonder, then, that the Chinese were greatly concerned, about the activities of Christians in the distribution of their literature,^ The difficulties connected, with attempts to evan­ gelize China by means of Christian literature was recognised by at least some missionaries at the time of the Shanghai conference of 1890, At this conference the symbolism, ter­ minology, and customs of the Christian literature were des­ cribed, The principle problems centered around misconceptions < resulting from the use of unfamiliar objects, For example, the Chinese had never heard of the Prophets, had no knowledge of Biblical lands, and the frequent allusion to shepherds al­ so puzzled most Chinese, since large sections of the country had never seen sheep. In the areas where-they were found, they were commonly referred to as the lowest of animals, and the persons who cared for them enjoyed only a little better social standing, furthermore, many pf the customs found in the Christian literature were in opposition to those found in China, which led to further misunderstanding, Host difficult

57* Wo If erst an, ■eg. cit, , p, .5 6 ,. 61 of all the obstacles was the fact that the concept of sin, which is at the very heart of the Biblical message, was ut­ terly foreign to the Chinese in the sense employed, For, misunderstanding was not a direct rejection of the Christian

faith, ^ ' Sot one of the least of the problems in this distri­ bution of Christian literature was in the small percentage of

Chinese, outside of the literati, who could read. Br. Martin stated in his book on Chinese Education, Philosophy, Letters, that for the number of “those who can understand literature generally, the proportion of readers is very small.11 He es­ timates the number in all of China to be approximately six million. According to his observations the number of persons who can read are in greater number in the towns than in the rural areas, but at no time does the number ever exceed 1 in 20 males and 1 in 10,000 females. These estimates of numbers are based on Dr, Martin's book of 1 8 9 8 .^ A similar skeptical look at this distribution of literature was expressed by Dr. Wells Williams, but he thought that this literature “could certainly do almost no harm.11 The worst fate suggested for this harmless literature was to be “cut up for wrapping med­ icine and fruit, which the shopman would not do with the poor­ est of his own books,

58. Varg, Missionaries, Chinese, and Diplomats, pp. 23-2%. 59. Wolferstan, pp. - oit, , pp. 89-90, 60. Michie, op. oit., pp. 101-102. lafertimately, mmeh more harm, was 'dene thaa the mis- sieaaries ever imagined.' Zer the . aimless, dissemination of Christian literature, mainly by the Protestants, helped Htmg Hsia’.oh’nan to gain an interest in ' Christianity. His inter­ pretation of, and revisions of,. Christianity were to. be "found as a part of the T*ai-p,iag rebellion. ^ To gain a better idea of the volume of Christian, lit-- er at tare distributed in China the following examples.' are given. Baring a three, month voyage aromnd. the area of Canton and Amoy in 1835$ Hr, If, H, Hedhurst and an American missionary named ' Stevens, distributed about eighteen thousand volumes of Christian literature,^ In i860 an independent missionary, not affiliated, with any .specific Christian sect, accomplished- his missionary work in China by having circulated 11 so many Bibles in every part of China that the inhabitants of that country can show, at the last day, no good reason why they should not toe damned.u Baring the year 1889 alone the three largest Bible societies (the British and S'oreign, national Bible Society of Scotland, and the American Bible Society) between them distributed in China; l,b5b Bibles, 22,b02 Hew Testaments, and 642,131 portions of other religious scrip­ ture, In the same year the Central China Religious Tract

61, Cary-mwes, op. pit., p. 2 1 5 ,

6 2 . "Williams, og. cit,, p»33C. 63 Society issued 1,026,305 publications, and the Chinese Reli­ gious Tract Society handed out 260,922 copies of material. In 1900, while writing on the problem of Christian literature, Alexander Michie mentions casually, that at one time within his experience, "one mission press in Shanghai was pouring out 3 0 ,0 0 0 ,GOO pages annually, an amount which was more than t63 doubled by other mission presses. In 1893 Rev, James Gilmore tells that "every dose of medicine, if it is a powder, is first wrapped up in an inner wrapper containing some Gospel truth,»>,In this way Gospel truth is scattered far and wide over the district, By 1891 some-of the more thoughtful missionary lead­ ers had evidently learned a lesson from this indiscriminate spread of Christian literature. They realized that the "foulest attacks made against Christianity by the Chinese literati are loaded to the muzzle with material from the Bi­ ble." But, by 1891 the damage had been done. Due to the spread of Christian literature in China by indiscriminate means, misunderstanding, confusion, and resentment against 65 Christianity was increased.

6 3 « tfolferstan, op. cit., pp. 56-6 0 . 61;-. Ibid., p. 60. 6 5 . Ibid., p. 1 0 7 . Gtmreh Activities Regarding the Selection of Converts The conversion of Chinese to the Christian church presented many problems for the missionaries, for it was to

be the quality of membership by which many Chinese were to judge the Christian movement0 For many of the Chinese con­ verts the conversion to Christianity was little more than the substituting of ancestoral tablets for Christian symbols, this act requiring a small amount of religious or spiritual faith. All too often the Chinese spirits were only changed for for­

eign saints, with the only difference being that now the Chi­ nese did not know what or why they worshiped what was before them. In many cases, the ceremony also had changed very lit­ tle, Incense was burned and essentially the same ritual was rx . . „ 66 practiced. Owing to the enhanced position of Christians in China as a result of the recent treaties the problem arose of dis­ tinguishing between the genuine convert and the convert inter­ ested only in the material advantages which Christianity offered,, This need of sifting the desirable from the undesir­ able converts was made difficult also by the rapid growth in the number of Christian churches, especially the'Protestants,

66, Williams, op, eit,, p, 316 . 65 It was almost Impossible that there shoiald not be seme anwer- tky men found within the Christian ranks, the problem was) to minimize the nmmber,68

The reasons for joining the Christian ohnroh were not to be fotand in the spiritual reign alone. The following is a partial listing of some of the reasons given by Chinese con­ verts. The poor were often attradted. to Christianity because of the material advantages offered; these advantages could be housing at the mission, relief from the likelihood of starva­ tion, gifts from the missionaries (clothes, rice, a market for products, etc. This was a common method of Catholic conversion and was especially’ effective during the time of famines. An example was during the famine of 1 87© in Worth China. Then many people joined the church for feed which the missionaries brought in, the missionaries also took, in return, mortgages on lands, with loan rates and percentages ' 7$ and other benefits if the ■persons became Catholic. Honey was apparently also offered as enticement by some,mission­ aries . A critical Chinese placard in Hunan province records the following in 1869; 8the poor silly fools, to sell their souls for a little money.

, 68. Smith, China in Convulsion,, pp. 38-W. 69» Purcell, eg, oft., p. 1 2 7 .

7®. Latourette, - A History, p. 286. 71. Oary-Elwes, op. cit. p . 201, 66 Another common motive for conversion is found in the following statement by J„ Cambell Gibson, a missionary from southern China. On the basis of his experience; In nine cases out of ten the real truth is, that the so called convert.,.has presumed on the strength of this alliance with the church to pay off some of his old grudges of to c&rr^ matters with a high hand towards those of whom he has been formerly in fear. The retaliation which he had thus provoked is in no sense an act of religious persecution... ?2 This example given above was a common factor in the decision

of conversion. It is not strange, then, that individuals, families, and even entire clans and villages professed con­ version in the hopes of obtaining protection against some ad­ versary; in many cases the adversary was the local villagers 73 or the Chinese Government. This protection offered by the Christian sects was taken advantage of by clans who were in hostility with some element and found the protection useful to them. Many unscrupulous persons were enabled to practice all kinds of mischief at their neighbors expense, while being secure because of missionary support in the law courts, Oth™

: er advantages included tax exemption in economic matters, and the support of a strong foreign nation against their own gov- ^ lir . ‘ ernment. ' To the Chinese, the cross of Christ had become a $lrallying-plaoe for the dregs of the population,1*for men

7-2. ¥u, op. . cit, , p. 19%.

73. Latourette, A History, pp. 309-310.

7%. Wolferstan, o£, oit., p. 357. who, so far from obeying any religious impulse,11 saw in the foreign religion merely an aegis to cover evil deeds, arid to secure exemption from discharging public obligations, A Catholic Bishop, JTaurie, wrote in 1864 that: the trouble with these [inadequate selective proce­ dures 3 is that we allowed too many persons saddled with lawsuits, resulting in the alienation of the good people,,. Among the worshipers there are many who come to find support in their temporal affairs; some to evade the all too just consequences of some serious accusation, yg

Many converts joined the Church in the hope of find­ ing employment; most of these were discovered and expelled from the churches, but not before some discredit had been 77 cast upon the Christian effort. Also, more than an occasional missionary found it re­ warding to promise the Chinese the support of his government to entice them into the Church, perhaps hoping that either they or their children would become members who would lead worthy Christian lives. Chinese assistants, often without the missionaries' knowledge, also used the desire for foreign assistance to swell the number of converts. 78 It is impos­ sible to say just how widespread this use of political en­ ticement was, but it was used rather extensively, of this there can be little doubt. Mgr. Laurie, Vicar Apostolic in

7 5 - Wolferstan, op. oit., p..3 5 7 - 76. Cohen, op. oit., p. l4l.

77. Coltman, op. oit., p. 179.

7 8 . Latourette, 0|>. oit., pp. 279-2 8 0 . 68 Kweichow* wrote in 1864 that he had, sent a man to prison for

abusing Christians, and then obtained his release on the con­ dition that he would return to his home town and make public and honorable reparations and become a Christian, laurie al­ so added that it is worthy of remark that every one of the individuals who have been punished for reviling our religion have embraced with ardor the true faith on leaving prison. He also tells how the head of the rural national guard was imprisoned for anti-Christian activities, but was released through the good offices of the Vicar Apostolic and "the same evening presented himself in the Chapel to adore the true eod,"79 However* many of the converts were not of as dubious character as the instances cited above. Many Chinese con­ verts, however, were sincere Christians, who were to face se­ vere treatment and punishment from their elans, families, villages, and government. Many of these converts wereZ'to die as martyrs during the uprising of the Boxers, The heroism and devotion of these Chinese Christians must not be forgot­ ten, because it showed that the Christian religion was not totally unadaptable to China, and that the Chinese character 80 was capable of accepting its beliefs. Because of the resentment caused by the "rice Chris­ tians," serious attempts were made by the missionaries to

79, .Latourette, op. pit, , pp, gpg-glo.

80, Speer, op, eit., p. 171. separate the honest and sincere- eonvertg'nfrom those whose on­

ly aim was personal-’ advantage,; The Tsungli Yamen-, in a note of I8 7 1 » regarding ways to improve the status of Christianity in China, requested that “before admitting an individual to the privileges of Cthell religion, he should be examined as to whether he has undergone any sentence or committed any crime." They also requested the missionaries to take note of the date of admittance, so that the Chinese Government could check to see if the convert had ever undergone any sentence or had ev- er changed his name. To help make this note effective, all conversions were to be reported to the officials who were

• 82 then t o .make regular: inspections of the missions. The Chinese attitude is reflected in a circular of iSilB Which states that the first Catholic missionaries were reputable men, but that since i860 the converts have been persons with­ out virtue. The converts have “under the shadow of mission­ ary influence,ff continued to “mislead and oppress the people, hence arouse renewed uneasiness., then quarrels between. Chris­ tians and non-Christians, and, at last,disturbances..."^^ The eb.tirch.es did set up rather strict regulations for the baptism of Chinese. The following describes the Catholic method, as told by" Bishop Reynaud:

■ 81-. Wu, op. olt., p. 7 7 «

82, -Latourette, ojg,. oit»* P» 152. 8 3 .. Michie, 0£. Pit,, - pp. 1 9 1 -1 9 2 . ?0 When possible they Cfck® aspiring converts^ have a period of probation in our settlements, where they are imbedded with the spirit of Christianity, and by good example are trained in the maxiums of the Gos­ pel. The missionaries constantly catechize them, and explain every difficulty... On an average, the instruction and testing of cateehments lasts a year, and after baptism, they are subjected to a rule that prevents their forgetting what they have learned. Every Sunday the Christians assembled in the church and must recite aloud the catechism, so that it is gone through several times in the year. At the an­ nual confession, the missionaries ask each one ques­ tions from the catechism, which obliges the people to recollect what they have been taught... Our Chris­ tians are most attentative to their devotions, and family prayer is a general rule... The Protestant approach to the problem is illustrated in the following statement by Reverend If. 0. Blterieh fa Pres­ byterian minister in Shantung), who outlined the following tests;

The giving up of the idolatry, superstitious practices and vice, the keeping of the Sabbath, attendance at worship and other evidences of a changed life are made the tests for church mem­ bership. Repentance from sin, belief in the .. Trinity, ...and a sincere desire to live a Chris­ tian life, are the conditions for baptism, gj- All denominations became cautious in admitting con­ verts to Church membership, first, the convert was classi­ fied as an inquirer, a stage which lasted until the prospective convert gave evidence of a true Christian faith. The convert was' then given a series of tests and instructions. After a successful completion of the inquirer stage, the prospective

Slf. Speer, o£. ©it., pp. 208-310.

8 5 . Varg, op.: bit. , p. 19. n convert was classified as a probationer or candidate for bap­ tism. About a year later the convert was admitted to commun­ ion and membership if he met the tests required. Thus every effort was made to separate the sincere from the pretender. Tor the insincere believer the church also provided its own trials. Evidence of a minor departure from the Christian rules might be dedlt with gently, but repeated departures from what was considered the Christian life could lead to a trial before the pastor and a committee of church membership. If found guilty, the erring one was suspended or excommuni- cated from the dhurch. 86

8 6 . ¥arg. op. pit., pp. 19-2 0 . CmPTBl If

GH11ESB KlACTlOlf TO MISStOHABT ACTIVITIES Chinese Reactieai to the Privileged Ghristian' ChErch '

The missionaries# with .all.their genuine sym­ pathy and self-sacrificing devetien,/ antagonize them [the ChineseII by opposing their cherished so­ cial easterns and institutions. ^ As was'previously mentioned, the privileged position acquired by Christianity, toy virtue of.the treaty concessions of 18^2 to 1 8 6 5 , aroused,considerable hostility among the Chinese. -Because of the forceful method of entering -China, the lack of tolerance towards other faiths, the seeming moa- adaptability of the Christian religion, and the acts of the missionaries and their converts in their religious and non- religious activities, hostility steadily increased until it burst forth in the Boxer uprising. Writings of the literati were directly responsible for whipping up the anti-foreign, anti-Christian, feeling among the .Chinese populace. Much of the Chinese reaction towards Christianity was formulated, modified, and. guided by the placard writing ac­ tivities of the scholar-gentry. Because.of the numerous un­ popular acts of the missionaries and the apparent unadaptabil­ ity of their religion t o ■the Chinese scene, the task of

1. Paul 'Reinsoh, op. cit.» p. .442* 73 creating anti-foreign and anti-Ohristian resentment was made quite simple. The Chinese reaction to Christianity and its

disciples was one of general distaste and overall rejection.

Chinese Confusion Concerning the Christian Religion Much of the hostility displayed by the Chinese against the missionary and his religion was due to the fact that Chris­

tianity was utterly strange and incomprehensible to the Chi­ nese. This, then, created an opposition based mainly on lack 2 of understanding. One of the primary methods of spreading this misun­ derstanding was in the dissemination of often unintelligible or contradictory Christian tracts. Much of this literature was spread indiscriminately, without apparent reason or goals, J. J. M. de Croot states the following about this indiscrim­ inate spread of Christian literature; "these writings [were] so divergent, senseless, and wild, so strange, so deceitful, and so unclassical that they could only arouse opposition," That the Chinese misunderstood this Christian literature was also realized by many of the missionaries. Dr. Williamson, - of the Scotch United Presbyterian Mission, speaking at a mis­ sionary conference held at Shanghai in 1890, said that the

Chinese heeded preliminary instruction concerning Christian­ ity, a historical and "geographical orientation concerning the

2 , Tfarg, oigi. cit., p. 3 1 . 3. de G-root, op. cit., p. 3 9 2 , ?%:

Bitol,±eal areas» and exjslanatioas of Biblical manners and oms-

•feoms« Bvea more ser iotas was the meed for an if or® and under ■=» standable Chinese language equivalents for the hundreels of h scriptural words» Other complications were brought on by the unskilled us© of the Chinese language by the missionaries, 'Reverend

Roberts'' influence upon Hung Hsiu-eh'uan caused the Chinos© to consider the T'ai P'ing Rebellion as a semi-Christian movement, and they held the missionaries partially respem—. sible for the widespread desolation caused by this rebellion,^ Gary-Elwes agrees with the Chinese interpretation, when he states that the T'ai P'imgs were a "quasi-Christian sect, created by enthusiasts who had read these tracts,tv6 Hot only did the T'ai P'ing rebellion further alarm the gentry class against Christianity, but it is also interesting to note that the Protestant missionaries at the time of the initial up­ rising were elated at the rebellion, because of the "appar­ ent success of their teaching," Until atleast 185 6 , and quite likely slightly afterwards, the Protestant missionaries continued to be partisans of the rebels. However, when the tide of battle turned, many missionaries then only sympathised with "those misguided mem," and once again became loyal to

Volferstan, op, cit,, pp. 75-7®,

5. Steiger, op. cit., p, 3S, 6 , Cary-Elwes, og, cit., p, 2 1 5 . the -Imperial Government. Even after, 'this disastrous and costly rebellion the missionaries eontinued to disseminate their literature among the unprepared Chinese, apparently without misgivings as to the results,'7 \ A further source of Chinese confusion concerning the Western religion lay in its diversity. Christianity, since its introduction to China,has suffered from this diversity. The Franciscans, Jesuits and other Roman Catholics, Russian Orthodox, and Protestants have shown little friendliness, and much suspicion, towards each other. Also, within Protestant­ ism this diversity was even more pronounced; Christianity thus presented itself to the Chinese as a much divided he- lief. The Protestants often acted as if the Catholics had never come to China. They nearly always thought of them­ selves as the sole representatives of the Gospel and spoke of the "opening” of cities and provinces^to the Christian message even when the Roman Catholics had proselyted the areas, previously. The Protestant of that time thought of the Cath­ olic as being anti-Christ. The Roman Catholic, on the other hand, had few kind words to say concerning the Protestant, One Catholic writer later spoke of the Protestants as leading China from "Confucius to confusion."^

7 . MicMe, oj>, ejlt.,. pp. # - 1 0 0 .

8. Latourette, o£, eit., p. 44, An intense scorn was normally found in the feelings of Chinese converts towards their Christian brethren of an­ other sect, while little feeling of love or charity existed between the various Protestant and Homan Catholic sects»10 The Chinese converts often fought amongst themselves, some­ times because of religious differences* but more often be­ cause warring factions or clans professed a certain Christian sect in the hopes of obtaining foreign support for their do­ ll mastic conflicts, ~ Wen Ohing, author of The Chinese Crisis from Within, 1901, writes: There is no need to debate on the absurdity of introducing into China a great number of contending sects, who not only confound the cause of Christian­ ity, but also sow the seed of civil war between the converts, 12 Just as the diversity of Christianity confused the Chinese, so did the names and purposes of the different sects.

The Chinese named these different Protestant sects according to their observable characteristics of the sect. They called the Baptists the '* Co Id-water11 Christians, the Methodists, the "Shake-hands" Christians, and the American Presbyterians; the "Woman-talking" Ohristians. These terms given by the Chinese to the various Protestant sects, as well as the general terms describing the Protestants as being the "worshipers of Jesus" and the Roman Catholics as the worshipers of the "Lord of

10. Purcell, eg. Git., p. 13%. 11. Latourette, op.- 'olt. * p. 3 6 2 , 1 2 . Woiferstan, op. oit., p. 1 8 . 77 Heaven" 6 reflect the difference in interpretation and under­

standing that existed between the missionary and his Chinese convert, This differing terminology also illustrates the difficulty found in attempting to express the name and purpose of the deity whom they worshiped,.."with the result of com­ plete bewilderment to the native understanding, ill able [as it was3 to cope with the subtleties of theological logo-

manchy „ Arthur Smith, China in Convulsion, does not share the belief that this diversity of Protestant sects confused the Chinese. Smith states that "it is important to guard against the widespread fallacy that the Chinese infer from the phenom­ ena which they see that Christianity is full of self-contra-

dictions and that its mutual claims refute one another." The Chinese expressed considerable confusion about and resentment towards Christian religious services, rituals, and ceremonies. The Chinese Imperial Government viewed Chris­ tianity with caution because of its "secret and mysterious rites." Because of these rites, "the foreign religion was always regarded as a potential nucleus for revolutionary or­ ganizations."^^ Considerable suspicion was aroused by the secrecy involved with administration of tihuroh rites, giving more fuel to the fire of rumor and gossip. Suspicion was

13* WoIferstan, op. cit., pp. 14-20. 1#. Smith, op. cit*, p. %2 . 15* Steiger, op. cit., p. 3 6 . 78 ■ aroused eonoerBing extreme uBetion^ ‘because this saeraraent was'usually followed by the death of the recipientand the celebration of the mass» which was normally not open to non- 0hris*ians. Because of the lack of understanding -concerning these ;rites9 rumors' attributing the most inhuman and cruel practices to- -the foreigner, persisted into the twentieth oen-

The Chinese resented the Christian religious service because of men and women attending services together« These services with both men and women in. attendance together, were in direct - violation of established Chinese social .custom'and etiquette. Charges of immorality were often levied against the missionary. The Tstmgli-Yamen noted that in China a good reputation and modesty are important matterss “men and wom­ en are not even allowed to shake hands, still less to live to­ gether, 1:1 and yet there are ..some places “where men and women , are together-not only at. church but in.the interior of the house. The public,,.harbours suspicion, and thinks things contrary to’propriety take place,“ Also important in consid­ ering this problem is the common Protestant practice of send­ ing" female missionaries,- often without escort, or unmarried women traveling with a-male escort, into the interior of China, ■ The..problem here of differing" customs and of

16, Latourette, ojd, eit,, pp, 346-31-7,

17, Williams, .eg, cit",, p., 3 1 3 , 79 misinterpretation by the Chinese led to a rejection of Chris­ tian religious"practices by many of the native Chineses as well as the creation of a hostile feeling toward the mission­ ary and his or her religion, For, according to the Chinese, how could a.religion which permitted such practices as des- 18 cribed above, be a religion of value and virtuef

Opposition to Missionary Activities by Chinese Other Than the Literati There is considerable evidence to confirm the theory that there existed a widely supported popular reaction -against Christianity, This popular rejection of Christianity was not caused by the activities of a few anti-foreign and anti-Chris­ tian groups, Jiichie considers this fact to be of special im­ portance, He states that many missionaries try to explain away the anti-Christian feeling among the Chinese masses as being due to the anti-Christian activities of the literati class, and that supposedly the masses have been led along on this movement by anti-Christian propaganda alone. It would, however, be a darling discrimination for foreigners and strangers to make in any country, that of drawing d line of demarcation between the feelings of the articulate and of the inarticulate sections of the people,,,it would not be safe for outsiders to assume any wide disparity of sentiment— as regards external.matters, , - It must, therefore, we fear, be concluded that hatred of missionaries is practically universal throughout China,,,» What is more, the hostile feeling is obviously increasing in intensity, and spreading with;the spread of,the missionaries them­ selves, '19 ' '

1 8 , ' 'Sundry, oj>. cit,, pp. 2b5-2b6» 19» Michie. Missionaries in China, pp. 6-9. Ab0 tlier indication of tlie popular distrust and distaste of 'Christianity'among the Chinese is found in the ease with which the people could he aroused, against the missionaries» Chinese converts, or most Christian activities im China. 20 This widespread rejection of Ohristlamity is also expressed in a french diplomatic document when referring to instances of brutality-and massacre occurring.against Christians, both

foreign and native." The missionaries of all sects, im all

places-, were the ..objects" of verbal .and physical harassment by the Chimese, who were ready to hamper the missionary ef- - ' 90 forts whenever possible, as were the gentry and officials." The Chinese attitude, gentry and lower class all ice, is typified im a placard first distributed im 1869 im Hunan province, which later spread ever all of the empire.. This stated that Christ was berm only during the time of the Han Bymasty, and then cleverly asked if the world before that time was really without a divine ruler. To the Chinese mind, if the world had a divine ruler, he certainly existed before.the Han Bymasty and hence the Christian claim was ridiculous.. .

Moreover Christianity angered.many Chinese by its deliberate

questioning of the benefits of ancestor worship. The masses found this claim difficult'to accept and most found it easy

■ 2 0 , Targ, ©£. olt,*,p . .3 3 . '' 21. Documents Diplomatiques Traneais (1#71=191%). Serie (18?1-1900) Tome S r ^ l T T c t . .iffl-JOee, 1897) Paris: Impirmeire national, 1953s P* 160. - 81 to follow the suggestion given within the placard that ef­

forts must be made to destroy Christianity before it attain­ ed further growth. This placard also levied ten accusations against Christianity, which reflected a popular attitude to­

ward the foreign religion. Through these accusations an at­ tempt was made to arouse the Chinese natives against the Christian religion.

The Chinese populace at large showed itself to be intensely anti-foreign in many instances, CfohH although the people were not directly threat­ ened by the missionary in the sense that the gentry and official were, they had ample cause to take um­ brage against him. The missionary's attack on such practices as ancestor worship and idolatry offended all Chinese, not merely the elite. Moreover, the Chinese had to pay the bill for the in­ demnities which the missionary demanded after an anti-foreign or anti-Christian incident. The Chinese were also irritated by the unserupulousness that many of his fellow Chinese ex­ hibited once they became converts and were under the protec­

tive custody of the missionary. although it was the -Chinese intellectual who undoubt­ edly furnished most of the inspiration and impetus for Chinese hostility to Christianity after i860, there is ample evidence to indicate that this hos­ tility was not the monopoly of any one class, but the dommon property of all. ^

23. Morse, op, oit,, p. 235,

2%. Cohen, pp. oit,, pp. 268-273, 82

Opposition to Missionary 4®tivlti.es by the Literati Their [the literati classD knowledge is thrust aside as [being] antiquated and worthless, their pride ridiculed as having no reasonable foundation, their influence antagonized and their very means of livelihood threatened. Their fight against the West is a fight, for life and for the integrity of the old China of which they were a part. ^ Because the established Chinese order was under at­ tack by the dynamic forces of the West, here specifically by Christianity, it is only natural that the missionary should come into conflict with the literati class. As John Chambers, a Protestant missionary, remarked: Under the outward show of politeness and refine­ ment imparted to the educated Chinese chiefly by Confucianism, there lies almost nothing but cun­ ning, ignorance, rudeness, vulgarity, obscenity, coupled with superstition, vainglory, arrogant, assumption and inveterate hatred of everything foreign.

In the opinion of Griffith John, the literati were the main resisting medium in China, lot only the gentry-scholar class, but everything Chinese was often treated with disdain and con­ tempt by the missionaries, The Chinese people were regarded as persons who must be treated as children. Because of the conflicting interests and objectives between the missionary and the literati, it is not surprising that hostility and con- flict developed.~

2 5 . Robert Speer, Missions and Modern History (lew York: Fleming H, Revell Co., pT3^1.

26. Cohen, 033. clt., pp. 79”8l. Missionary activities were opposed by the literati whenever possible, because they feared social and cultural

change. They feared the future demiaaace of China by a for­ eign power or powers. The Christian church was seen as a force associated with the imperialistic designs of the differ

emt .European powers, and representing ..European interests. The Christian religion, then, was .rejected not only because of the nature of its religious beliefs, •-but also because of

its'affiliation with foreign powers. Of all the elements of which the invading force is made up, home is.more'formidable'than the relig­ ious element, from which the ultimate danger to the political fabric is most likely to arise. Already the religieia of the foreigners has shown itself fear- 1 os sly'' aggr.es sive, and it possesses faculties of ex­ pansion and intensity which, if allowed free play, may !m mo time cause the religiousvWh tower over all '-'the other foreign interests in therdem&mds which it will make on the Chinese. :. . Robert Speer in his book on Missionary Principles and Practice brings'up -a: further consideration in the literati- Christianity dis.#U,:,'Se states that - 11 the apprehension of loss of influence/'b'y;'-'the whole lettered:and official classes® is a. referred - to in. writing or speech,, but is very important.The literatirwere seem aware that the Christian movement held within it the possibility of a

2 7 , Latourette, op. clt., p. 2 8 . -Speer, ®p. clt., p. 135. social as well as a religious threat. This social threat, in turn, posed the possibility of their loss of position and power. Because of this resentment, few missionaries consid­ ered it worthwhile to make any effort to convert members of the literati class. Thus, the literati class became increas­ ingly isolated and suspicious of the foreign religion. The

literati also knew that the missionaries wished not only to substitute the study of the Bible for the Chinese classics, but that scientific training, critical thought and a Western- oriented education would also follow soon. The status of the Mandarin rested on his being able to uphold the ancient civil service examinations, and other Confucian-oriented activities. All of his claims to supremacy rested on his mastery of the Confucian-oriented examination and its educational implica­ tions. Quite naturally, the missionary was resented, because he considered this system of education to hold little value and was working towards its destruction. The literati also

recognized, as few missionaries did, that to undermine the confidence of the Chinese people in the Oonfucian system was to undermine the basis of the entire Chinese society. When the literati observed the missionaries working with the low­ er classes, who could pose the greatest danger to the Imperial Government during the time.of a domestic rebellion, they be­ came even more convinced that the missionaries were a threat

to their society. This conviction was strengthened by the critical attitude of the missionary toward the existing 8 5 practices. 31 Still fresh in the minds of the literati was the recent and devastating T ‘ai J?’ing rebellion. Because some Protestants initially supported it, many Chinese offic­ ials still considered the rebellion to be the result of Chris- 32 tian activities. The literati became convinced that Christianity could no longer be tolerated and that it: provid- 33 ed the major threat to their established order. Leroy Beaulieu mentions that "at the bottom of all the risings against the missionaries are the mandarins and the literatithe great influehce which these men exercise over the people...is the real cause why no progress has been made in the Chinese Empire. "'J Because of the numerical growth of the Christian ef­ fort , the influence of the missionaries grew. The literati class felt that their prestige as the teachers and upholders of the Chinese tradition was slipping. This, in turn, led them to even further drastic and frantic efforts to suppress the Christian movement .

31. Targ, o£. oit., pp. 31-32. 32. Many of the outward aspects of the T ’ai F 1 ings resembled ChristianityC a Bible, the Ten Commandments, a mod­ ification of the Lords Prayer, a form of baptism, opposition to idols, non-sacrifice to ancestors, and opposition to the use of opium3 hut the inner actions of the T'ai J?1 ings showed a lack of understanding of Christianity. But many Chinese on­ ly saw the outer actions of the T'ai Flings, Latourette, op. Oit., pp.. 296-7 . ; 33. Mi chi e, oj>. cit., pp. 93-95. 3*K Speer, Missionaries and Modern History, p. 5 6 0 . 35. Tairbank and Teng, oj>. cit., p. 135« • 86 The principle verbal attacks against Christianity and its adherants were to be found in the various tracts publish­ ed by the literati„ Hie attacks centered around four alleged practices of the Christians: (1) cruel or savage acts, such

as the extraction of the eyes, heart, or other vital organs to be used for ulterior purposes; (2) immoral licentiousness, demonstrated by the intermingling of males and females in wor­ ship, the private hearing of female confessions, and the as­ sociation of the sacraments with sexual acts; (3) sorcery, associated with the sacraments and aimed at the spirit ori­

ented mind of the peasant; and (#) kidnapping, associated with children in orphanages, hospitals, and schools. The children were allegedly treated in a cruel or savage manner. This use of literature, specifically of posters, plac­ ards, letters, books, newspapers, official publications, or rumor, was the most frequent form of anti-Christian activ­

ities engaged in by the literati. This literature may be ..roughly divided into two. main categories. The first is quite, general in nature and was typically found in the form of man­ ifestos and brief pamphlets. These were designed more for the purpose of generating an anti-Christian atmosphere, than to provoke specific acts of viqlehee. This first type of wri­ ting contained lengthy recitals of the absurdities ofVChrls- tianity and of the practice of its converts, and usphllyi

36. J-. K. i'airbank, “Patterns Behind the'Tientsin Massacre,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, XX (December, ■ 1937), P. .jOoT - " 87. ended with, a general call for all Chinese to protect the home­ land from the Western influence„ The second general category of anti-Christian literature was often very brief and usually appeared in an anonymous form. These placards, notices, hand­ bills, or posters were adapted to fit specific instances or conditions, and were aimed to stimulate action. Many of these latter publications also suggested the most desirable means of violence to be used against the Christians. This class of literature was produced in considerable quantity and distrib­ uted widely in the areas of concern. They created an explo­ sive climate of rumor and suspicion, They activated dormant fears, suspicions, and resentments in the general populace. These two types of anti-Christian literature, then, comple­ mented each other, one giving rise to a general feeling of hostility, the other pinpointing and exploiting specific cas­ es of injustice. By these meqns the literati were able to act upon an existing anti-Christian feeling and use it for their own benefit. 37

Because of the many suspicious and secret activities of the missionary and his church, the literati found it easy and profitable to employ the second category of anti-Christian literature in arousing specific outbursts of hostility. How­ ever, both categories of literature were used by the literati without any second thoughts as to their spreading the vilest

37. Cohen, o&. cit., pp.. 8 S-8 7 .' 88 38 slanders against the missionaries and all foreigners. Chester Holcombe, writer of The Real Chinese Question (1901), states that 11 every absurd story, Cw a s J calculated to arouse popular fear and hatred against the foreigners, Cand 3 has ei­ ther originated with, or has been countenanced by them Cthe literati]," He also adds that the ultimate responsibility for every popular uprising either peaceful or violent, against the foreigners.,,"must be laid upon the shoulders of the lit­ er a ti."^^

This violent anti-Christian literature was widely dis­ tributed by the literati, especially in areas where mission­ ary activity had been extensive and/or where there was a large measure of hostility between the Christians and the populace. The following example of anti-Christian literature is taken from the Pi-hsieh ohi-shih (exact origin in doubt).^

This book is said to have incited many-riots and provided-the impetus for various lesser outbursts. In this book, Chris­ tians are accused of "indulging in incestuous and homosexual relations, fornicating freely with members of the clergy [see Figure 23, of glorifying and attaching special powers to the menstrual flow of women." Black magic is mentioned as being used to accomplish undesirable ends. The following example is cited:

38. Speer, oj>. G i t .., p, 56I. . 39. _ Wolferstan* 1 oja. elt. , p. 22?.

40. Cohen, oj>. olt. , pp. 277,-28l. 89 During, the first three months of life the anuses of allCChristianI] infants--male and female— are plugged up with a small hollow tube, which is taken out at night. They call this ’retention of the vi­ tal essence C liu-yuan □ ...At the juncture of each spring and summer, boys procure the menstrual dis­ charge of women and, smearing it on their faces, go into Christian churches to worship. They call this ’cleansing one’s face before paying one's respects to the holy one’, and regard it as one of the most venerative rituals by which the Lord can be wor­ shipped. . .. ^ The missionaries were also accused of achieving as­ cendency lover the minds of the converts by making them drink a mysterious potion. After consuming this potion, a tiny de­ mon would attach itself to the convert’s heart, whereupon he became insane and was willing to die rather than change his convictions. hz Placards and posters were also often used by the lit­ erati, with generally successful results. Bxamples are many, and a few examples are given here to illustrate their nature.

The first comes from the province of Hunan around 1869, Its captions are summarized as follows, "the adherents of Chris­ tianity do not honour their ancestors nor the spiritual pow­ ers; converts are required in proof of their sincerity, to destroy the sacrificial tablets of their ancestors."^ Lit­ erature of this type increased steadily, until by 1870 (the

■4-1. Paul Cohen, "The Anti-Christian Tradition in China,,l The Journal of Asian Studies, XX (February, 1 9 6 1 ), 176-177,— "" • — 4-2. Cohen, China and Christianity, p. 90,

4-3, Cary-Slwes, ££. cit. , p. 201. 90 year ©f t&e Tiemtslm massacre) it was widespread in the sections of Shin a in which the missionaries were femmd,^ In 1888, at Tangohew, placards were posted which re­ ferred to the Shristians as the tibrigands of the religion of Jesns, n £ see lignre lo» 3II and charged them with "seeeping cat the eyes of the dying £ see Figure opening orphanages to eat the children., catting open pregnant women to make med­ icine of the embryo infants £ see Figtare I©, 5 3 » etc0 t! These kg publications were followed by even more vile accusations.

Examples, are found in the following illustrations £ Figures 2-6 3 . The influence of this literature culminated, in a riot at Tangchow that involved up to ten thousand, persons, and, re­ sulted in the complete destruction of all Christian buildings and property, and much personal injury, A rumor incited this riot, a rumor that was encouraged— if not begun— by members

hr? ' . ■ of the"literati. * The general tone of this. anti-Christian propaganda follows certain patterns. Christianity is said to go against the established and personal customs of the Chinese people, to violate the most sacred family relationships, and ignore

W", Literature found la the. area of the orphanage at Tientsin claimed that the children there were being used in' the' production of drugs and in medical experiments. Smith, op, cit,, pp. 77-79.

*5.- Ibid.„ pp. 77-78. W . Horse, og, cit., pp. 226-227, iV ^7. Ibid. 91

Figure 2. An attempt to destroy the worship of Jesus and to kill the foreigners.

Title: Shooting the Pig [Jesus] and Beheading the Goats [the Foreigners],

Text on right: After we have pierced the pig's [Jesus] body with ten thousand arrows, will this monster again dare to grunt?

Text on left: After we have beheaded the goats [ foreigners ] with one stroke of the sword, will these beasts still en­ tertain thoughts of coming [to China]?

48. The following five figures of examples of anti- Christian posters that circulated in the Yangtze River val­ ley during a series of anti-Christian riots there during 1896-1891, They are taken from the Chin-tsun sheng-yu oi- hsieh ch'uan-t1u (Heresy exposed in respectful obedience to the Sacred Edict: A complete picture gallery); this pamphlet was reproduced in The Cause of the Riots in the Yangtze Valley: A Complete Picture Gallery" (Hankow^ 1IF9 1 ). Cohen, 0£. clt., following p. 140, 92

r ~

V

- I " I

/v•'»«.

r

Figure 3. The lack of Christian morality as reflect­ ed in vicious relationships among its members.

Title: Propagating the Grunt [Religion] in the Hall of the Grunt [ Religious Hall or Church],

Text on right: The stench of [Christianity] has flowed through two thousand years of time. It is utterly intol­ erable. From all quarters people who hardly know each other freely mate and pair, human beings and devils, women and men, sleeping upon the same pillows.

Text on left: This illustrated announcement is for the in­ formation of all the people of the nineteen provinces [ China]. Let all join with their relatives, their neighbors, and the members of their parents' and wives' clans in taking strin­ gent precautions against the entry of the cuckolds--the brothers of the pig of heaven [the Lord of Heaven]--into their homes.

49. Ibid 93

f

Figure 4. The Christian atrocity towards Chinese, gouging out the eyes of non-Christians.

Title: [The Practitioners] of the Grunt of the Pig [the Religion of the Lord] Gouging Out the Eyes.

Text from right: The gods naturally know when they are be­ ing insulted. If you gouge out [the eyes] of others, others will gouge out yours.

Text on left: You dead devils who have just become follow­ ers of the devil's grunt [the foreign religion], [do not forget] that, while those with sight may seek to become blind, only in vain can the blind seek [to recover ] their sight.

50. Ibid. 94

Figure 5. The Christian atrocity towards Chinese, removing the unborn fetus of a child.

Title: [The Practitioners ]of the Grunt of the Pig [the Religion of the Lord] Removing the Fetus.

Text on rJLght: All men are anxious in regard to the three unfilial acts. Therefore they amass good deeds and beseech the gods, that they may be blessed with sons.

Text on left: Everyone hates conscienceless cuckolds. Has­ ten therefore to sweep away heterodoxy and exterminate the foreign] devils; be on your guard lest the grunt of the pig Ethe religion of the Lord] insult heaven.

51. Ibid. 95

' M W i l L L .

Figure 6. The repayment of suffering by the Chinese.

Title: The Terrible Punishment of the Pig Incarnate Jesus],

Text on right: Only after seeing the saws cutting, the pes­ tles pounding, the caldrons boiling, and the grindstones grinding in dark hell’s eighteen levels, will the [foreign] devils of this world know the suffering endured by the [foreign] devils of the world below.

Text on left: You who in this life have committed a thousand times ten thousand malicious acts, who have castrated boys, removed the fetuses from pregnant women, gouged out people s eyes, and cut off women's nipples--do you think that the gods will permit themselves to be taken in by your wickedness?

52. Ibid. 96 er violate the values upheld by the ameesters, Shristiaa mem and, womem are charged with social sims &£ the worst type. The implieatiems derived from this literature are that if prompt action is mot taken to defend China from these unciv­ ilized practices., the nation which has been the home of civ­ ilized persons for several_thousands of years, will become a land of uncultured savages.*'^ Placards were posted cm the walls of many Chinese cit­ ies, especially in Human province. The following is am ac­ count of some of these, and is taken from a dispatch of the

Viceroy of Hupei and Hunan, .

Several thousand copies of a pamphlet called *Kwei- chiao ICai sze* (Beath to the Devil's Religion) have been printed in the capital of' Human,,,they Cthe lo­ cal Chinese officials 3 also believe-that these pamph­ lets and placards are not the work of simple men, but of educated persons holding effl'cial-positions, and that it is absolutely necessary that the guilty par­ ties of all ranks ’ should be ^punished, Amother form of•propaganda employed gave an account of a Chinese' person who supposedly repented, and asked, for. forgiveness. The following is am example from a district Taotai, whose story was taken from the Worth China Bally Hews (July 15, 1 8 9 2 ) and was a translation of the placard. Let all be informed that 1, Taotai of Ham Wang, Tae district, have for years been worshiping the "Beg Ancestor, Jesus”. • Since my promotion to this

53. Cohen, op. G i t ., pp. $9-90.

5&« foreign Relations of the United States. I8 9 2 , pp. 10 5-1 0 6 . 9 7 office each, of the Westers powers, has paid, me a salary of 10,§90 taels per year, and the various consular bodies have ■given, my wife, ■ concubines, and She female members of m y household. 10,000 taels for the expense of .vfheir toilets... .Without the blessings of ther"Sog Ancestor’* hew could we have reached such a prosperous state? I there­ fore hasten to issue this proclamation so"that all may know that, if you wish hereafter to become rich and prosperous, you must take your wives, concubines, and female members of your family to the church every night and worship the 8Hog An­ cestor, 11 „ ..If you do not desire to strive for wealth and prosperity and one not willing to en- > ter-the church there'will be no one to force you to do so, 'low, let no one, hereafter, again imr. 'jure the 'HHog Ancestor’'1, and those disobeying this . mandate shall be mailed' upon-the. cross to die.

%he procedure for repentance for persons who had dis­ covered the undesirability of Shristianity and wished to re­ turn to Chinese Confucianism, is found in a book known as

Death to the Devil’s Religion, circulated around 1891. Therein it was provided that.if any member of any elan should prove to have been-bewitched by the spies of. the goat— devils (a Chinese' convert), he should be compelled, to recant publically at the aneesteral temple. If he were to refuse he was to be driven out of the province and his name would be published nationally so that no other place in the prov­

ince would be open to him. Provision was made whereby a clan protecting a Christian member was to be called the pig-goat devil clan, and was to be boycotted in every way.

55. Ibid., pp. 125-126, 56. Smith, op. cit., p. 8 0 . 98

Hemy Chinese had- serioms doubts as to the validity or truthfulness of this anti-Christian literature. However, nu­ merous ”officials and scholarsCwere 3 credulous enough to be­ lieve many; of the 'slanders which are circulated'about foreign

■ .g m missionaries.M‘ ' A questioning■attitude was shown toward ■ v this literature by T'am Ssu-t’ung;

-Those who slander the foreigners say that they have dome all kinds of inhuman things such as goug­ ing out the eye-pupilS'and hearts Cof Chinese child­ ren 3 but who has. seen itf If it is really true, why have we never heard of such things being done in their own countries? ...Ho intelligent person would believe this rumor. "' Seme of the mysterious and secret Christian rites

were considered as activities, to be 'viewed as sources of fear

and resentment. .Because only Christian converts and aspirants were allowed to witness most Christian religious ceremonies, the imagination of the non-Christian Chinese ran wild. The administration of extreme unction (followed by the almost im­ mediate death'of •the individual), the non-public services of

the church, the differing customs of the cultures involved, and the actions of the converts (rejection of the customary ceremonies to the ancestors, non-payment of taxes, the obtain­

ing of protection from Chinese laws, etc.), opened the door

to rumor and confusion. Missionary activities-within the hos­ pitals , schools, and orphanages also created additional

5 7 * Michie, oj>, cit., p. 2.1*1 .

58, Fairbank and Teng, o p . cit., p. 158. 99 eoafttsion and mfonnded , fear. This ooafesiea,-- fear, and, lack ef understanding was ntiliaed in the propaganda efforts of

the literati. Their publications portray the Christian Church as an institution which violated every eastern and ethical code existing in China. With the existing Chinese distrust of the

foreigner and his religion, hostility and violence were in­ evitable.^ -

Chinese Attacks upon Missionaries The following is a partial listing of the attacks which occurred against the missionaries and their establish­ ments in China. This listing .is to show /an increasing trend of hostility, which was to develop into the. Boxer uprising.

In 1869 thirty-nine eobverts;:and Abbe Higaud -were killed in a riot at Tayanehow in Szechwan. This act was declared to have been the result*: hit'H the connivance of the mandarins and their entourage.” Further riots also occurred at Tsmayfu {Kweichow) with complaints registered by the French to the Imperial .government.. The riots reflected a widespread per­ sonal animosity of the Chinese towards the Christian.In I8 f0 . a riot occurred at Tientsin caused by rumors of the mis­ treatment of Chinese children at the orphanage, there.' This riot resulted in"the death/of the French Consul, ‘and several

5 9 .. Latourette, eg>. cit., pp. 502-5 1 2 .

60. Morse, op, cit., pp. 233-235, 1 0 0

ether mem aiad women, including ten sisters and. one priest. Severe demands were .made on, the Chinese government by the French. Also In that year a .priest was killed in Kiangsi and, tw© in eastern Saechwan. In 1875 rumors of demons who were killing' children and emtting off queues in the Yangtze Talley

again earnsed hostility, which was later to result in a series of riots in 1890-1 8 9 1 • In 1876 agitation led to riots in Kiamgsu ,and Anhui provinces and the destruction of several chapels and residences and the killing of several Christians.^ The S'reneh-Ohinese hostilities over Tongking in 1883-1885 led to open hostility and brought on many problems for the Roman Catholics. In 1885 riots broke out in Szechwan in which both Roman Catholics and Protestants suffered. In I887 there was a riot in Fukien, incited by an official, which resulted in 62 the pillaging of several chapels and churches. In 1891 the book Death to the Devil's Religion ap­ peared and is said to have caused several small riots and a general hatred of Christianity within the areas of distribu­ tion, In I891 there was an attempted riot at an orphanage at Yangehow, serious damage being avoided only by the arrival of soldiers, but no help arrived in time to prevent a riot at

51. Latomrette, op. oil.» p. 353» 62. Ibid., pp. 353-355, 101 go Ifakm, a Yarngtae river port0 • v In the early spring ef 1891 a "maaher of most infamous pictures" were found, in public places at feechow. These were seized. (figures 1 - 5 are some

i J' of these anti-Christian^ placards) Blots, followed at .Chung­ king, Hankow, Chinkiang, and. Yangchow. In May a riot occurred at Wuhu because of the alleged "bewitching [of 3 children by the'use of drugs." So lives were lost at this riot, but the

Roman Catholie..premises were d e s t r o y e 4 « In 1893»- at Sung- pu, two Swedish missionaries were mobbed and killed. In 1895 ten persons were'massacred along with a missionary, Stewart, his wife and family.^ In I897 two Catholic missionaries, franz Biles and Richard Henle,. were murdered, in Shantung prov­ ince., The Germans seized the bay and surrounding land of Sia©chow, and demanded additional concessions as a result of

this incident. In i.898 there were a considerable number of attacks against french, English, and American missionaries in Szechwan, Tukien, Honan, Shansi, and Shantung provinces. An American missionary, Brooks,' was killed in 1899♦ from this time on,, the number of killings increase rapidly as hostility

63. Robert Douglas, Society in China (Londons A.®, Innes and Co., 189%), pp. 282-283, ; 6%, Morse, oj>. cit., p. %09. 6 5 , Douglas, ©£, cit., pp. 282-283.

65, Cary-Elwes, op. cit., pp. 222-223. 3.02

Hi obi e presents the mis si ©.nary side'of this [email protected]~ tion when he says? The missionaries* ...and small blame t@ " them, , . we mid, fain .'explain it away by alleging that the hostility evinced, against them all comes from the literati and official class and that popular ris­ ings are instigated by that, class alone, or, as in the great rising, of 1891, by a long time convenient fiction whereby foreigners who are not missionaries console themselves for the epem-momthed hatred of the educatedvamd rmiimg.classes that the mass of the people are, if not aetmally.friendly, at least, pas­ sively so. It. would, however, be a daring discrim­ ination for foreigners and strangers to make in any country, that of drawing -a line of demarcation be­ tween the feelings of the artiomlate. and of the in­ articulate and of the inarticulate sections of the people, gy

Chinese Acceptance of Christianity

Affer^tbc'treaties.of 1 8 58-1 8 6 0 , a feeling of secur­ ity was attained by those interested in Christianity, and a rapid growth in Christian membership developed. This increase of membership was at first reflected in the rapid growth of the Protestant Church. Ip until 1853 membership of the Prot­ estant sects numbered only 350s but by 1899 the membership had jumped'to 37* 2 8 9 , an increase in 36 years of over 106 times. This growth is also reflected by the increase in the number of Protestant"organizations and missionaries. la 1858 there were 81 Protestant missionaries, representing 20 societies. By I865 China contained 2 b societies and 18.9 missionaries, and by 187^ the number of Protestant missionaries was %36.

6 7 . Richie, Missionaries in. China, pp. 6-7. 193 Mtaelt of tlxis increase was da© to the China Inland Mission, The a amber of Protestant societies 'in 1876 was 29:, with %73 misaiomaries,' By I889 this had increased to %1 societies and,

1,296 missionaries, with a breakdown of 589 men, 391 married women, and. 316 single women, (see Zignres 7 and 8 ) ^

; The Catholic Church daring this period also .grew in nambers of converts'and missionaries, (see Zigares 8 and 9 ) The mambers of converts given varies considerably. S. Wells

Williams gives 215,90© converts in 1 8 2 0 , 3®3,30O in 1 8 3 8 , %00,O00 in 1 8 % and. by 1866, 363,000 (So reason is given for the drop between lS£Mt-l8 6 6 }, In 187© he gives the number as between 3 6 9 ,W l and, 539»^ Cary-Blwes estimates that in 1856 there were 250,606-Homan Catholics and by 1 8 9 0 , 500,009 71 members.- * Figure lo. 10 shows the locations of the various"

Christian mission stations in northeast China, 1899, and shows the areas of concentrated Christian efforts and, converts, The-reasons for this rapid increase are numerous.

Many of these, converts were "rice Christians*1 who had joined the Church for the material benefits which it offered, such

6 8 . The CIM had 18 missionaries, with 60 applications by 1 8 7 6 , and - in the following year ..they had 52 missionaries' and 75 native helpers, By 1895 the CIS had 6^1 missionaries and 1|62 native helpers, batourette, og. cit,, pp. 389-3 9 0 . 69. Ibid.. p. %05. ■

70. " Williams, og. cit., pp. 307-368,

7 1 . Cary-Blwes, op. cit., p, 213. 104

80

70

20

10

1850 i860 1870 1880 1900

Figure 7. The Number of Protestant Societies in China, 1850-1900.

Latourette, 0£. cit.. p. 405, Wolferstan, op. cit., pp. 4-9. 105

P--Protestant C--Cathollo

200 *. 160 . 120 80 . 40 .

i860 1870 1880 1900

Figure 8 . Tlie Number of Catholic and Protestant For­ eign Missionaries in China, I8 5 0 -I9 0 0 .

— Latourette, 0£. clt., pp. 389-405. + Mlchle, o_£. clt., pp. 106-1 0 7 . -— Foreign Relations of the United States, 1888-89, 256-257. L. Richard, Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire and Dependencies.(shanghai: T usewei Press, 1900) p. ^5^. O Taylor, oj^. clt., p. 101, Williams, 0£. cit.. pp. 307-3 0 8 . E. H, Parker, China and Religion (London: John Mur­ ray, 1905)• PP. 203-205. 106 700,000

600,000

500,000

X X

400,000 %

300,ooo

200,000

100,000 80

20

i860 1870 1880 1900

Figure 9. The Number of Catholic Christians in China, 1850-1900.

Latourette, oj). ci t. , p. 329. Williams, oj3, clt,, pp. 307-308. Taylor, op, cit., p. 40. — ■ Parker, 0£. cit., p. 208, • • • • Cary-Blwes, ojo. cit., p. 213. — — Latourette, Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, p. 293 Figure 10. Christian Mission Stations in North­ east China, 1 8 9 9 .

Sources employed in the preparation of this map:

E. H. Edwards, Fire and Sword in Shansi London: Anderson and Ferrier, 1903. No page number given. Taylor, op. cit., located inside front cover * A Map of China London: Newington Green, 1909. No page number given. China, Mongolia and Korea Edinbrough, England: John Barthalomew and Sons Ltd., 1 9 6 2 . No page number given. 107 4- KWEIHWATING + SARRTSI + 5UANHWAIFU 4 “ FfNCCHEN T5UN HWflCW

KUAWUACHEINCI + ■ + YUWGPfN&FU T n r u N ( , F U TUNC. C HOW + PEKING. TSOVUN + T A N C iS H R N

VINCiCHOW HUNYVRM YUING.CHINC,+

TIENTSIN + NINC.WUFU f C x IH P P O T IN G ^ V J

+ + HWAI HIM |r tsaneiCmovu CHICAOVJ H0K1ENFU SIMCHOWSHA

+ • ENGCHOWFU CHEN&TIN&FU SARHTEH F U S H A N SHOW VANCi WWANGSHCK %NGHAICH 0W T A fM U A N + IV Y A N G S iN CHUKlAO^-^-i KICKOWNAN J NTENC. J ^^PANteCHUMl W 0TIN6. YUNC,NING i .+ + L A 1 C M 0 W A 1K U H S IE N ISITU + r + + - Y ^ PlNQTJ \ \ < ^ mn°l Fim v / V ^ ,Ne'w0 HSlE,J + T S O W PINC i HH SHUNTEHFU + CHOWTSUN w e ih s ie n \ \ ^ WEIKSVE K t E H S l U liNtsincJThovj TSINGGHOWFU KMOAl TSING ; + + TSINAN - 3 SICHOW KJAOCH l a * , + + + TANINEi H W O t H O W TZ.ECH0W chi . VTSINGTAO PlN&YlN + TRMINC jFU TAIRNFU + I iucaengh^Ien KtCHOW LUONFU + r +(. + CHUCHOU PINC,Y^NGFU TVNGP1NG ^ +• l u g n a n rtNCHowfu PRoltS-l-flN 1- M issions + K«SHRN KlANfeCHOWU^° VICHENO. + • TZ.UYANG ChiNR InlhniI M issicius + + TSEHtHOw HAMCHENGHSI/^ ^ 4 " c h in in g - + + TSHOCHOWFU TCHOWFU Roman ChI+icLic Mus.aus 4r ■ ^ ■ H O Y R N ^ y ^ J U IH (/ a n y i hH ; S l€ N WA2£S. ^^CHlt'HCAOW HWALKINGFU +. + T5ROCHOW YlHSlEN pREFEcluHAL ANii I e^e / / ■ PUCKOWFU T 4- MtENCHIH • + SIANHSIEN • + CHENGCHOW noiFENG ProvinmL C iIies ■ HONANFU + KWEITEH SCALE: l.~u, = 't7. YUNGNING ■ + HONAN SUCHOWFU wms . 1 @ 8 as security, prestige, medical treatment, tax evasiom, pro— tectiOB from class conflict, or protection from the Chinese government. However, not all of the converts were this in­ sincere. Many joined for sincere religious reasons and rec­ ognition of these converts should not foe overlooked. The reasons for these genuine conversions are also varied. Alex­ ander Michie gives some Chinese ■ impressions of Christianity which he feels might have moved some of the Chinese to become converts. These includes the vitality of the Church system, its progressiveness, its intolerance, its love of power, its explicit assumption of infallibility, its self-governing ten­ dency, and the.morality of its doctrines.One further fac­ tor to consider is found, in the generalisation that Western civilisation was materialistic and Chinese civilization spiritual, With this thought in mind and a consideration of recent Western advancement in China by the use of warfare and diplomacy, it might appear to many that Western civilization was perhaps superior also in the spiritual realm. This could foe another possible reason for joining the Western religion. The fact exists that many. Chinese, whatever the rea­ son, were devout followers of the Christian religion. The

72. . Miefoie, eg, eit, pp. 36-^5. 73= Andre Chih, a book review of L*Occident Chretien vu par les Chlnois vers la fin du XIX siecTZ^TT870-T9O8TTHby" Jessie Lutz. The Journal of Asian StudiesT”XXIX (May, 1 9 6 3 )» 322. follewiag- acoorats of martyrdom illustrates this fact. Aeoomts of aatire martyrdom were collected from each mission station after the retara of the mission­ aries and these were narrated in nameroms books* »»■ writers told of how native Christians■in many eases refased to make the slightest compromise in order to sare their lives. #me had gaily marched oat to meet the Boxers as they'approached his home. A Chinese family, apprehended by the Boxers, had marched to their execution singing the hymn *He Leadeth He.,r Others had refmsed to leave the missionaries even though they might thereby have escaped. Missionaries who for years had been taunted with the charge that their converts were ’rice Christians’' how felt that their work had been vindicated. ^

luring the years' 1850-1869 there were lj» priests kill­ ed, while hundreds of.Chinese Catholics were reported killed, lost, or captured. Between the years 1871-1899* 10 more mis­ sionaries were put to death. Burlag the Boxer outbreak there were 5 Bishops,- 29 European priests, .9 European sisters, 3 Brothers and-between 20,008 and 30,§00 Chinese Catholics mur­ dered.75 Speer, in his Missionary Principles and Practice, sums, up this section of the chapter when he notes that China has ,t Chris ti,an si of the truest type--mem- ready to burn as mar­ tyrs— and- who,- have led ’helpful and honest’ lives,-” It is

” thus/'shown' that the Christian religion is not essentially unadaptable to the Chinese, and the Chinese character is sus­ ceptible to its regenerating power,

7b, ?ars„ og, £it.,:p, 30.-

75- B ’Ellia, The Catholic Missions in China, p. 59.

76.' Speer, Missionary Principles and Practice, p. 171, CmFT.ES V

HXSSXeiABY A0TXYXTXBS AS A " CAUSE ;0y THE BOXES MOVBKSET Mis.sieaarr Activities 'Gaasimg Hostility ,

As was disenssed earlier, many activities were wader- taScen • fey the missioaaries which caused resentment and eventa- al hostility on the part of•the Chinese= By virtue of various treaty concessions•and edicts forced from China the missionary was able to preach his religion, travel into the interior, own land and property, »ake Chinese converts, build, churches and religious centers, claim protection for himself and his con­ verts from his home government (when China did not afford the protection desired),'and to acquire official rank and many of the privileges given only to members of the scholar“gentry class. By,virtue of these concessions, Shfistianity was in­ troduced into China as a religion which, had been granted spec- 1 ' ial privileges and advantages,'. -la 'efforts to protect their converts, the missionaries often found themselves involved in the Chinese legal system. This interference in Chinese domestic affairs was greatly re- 2 seated. The. missionary in attempting to establish his

1. Cohen, jyg, cit., pp. JLatowrette, A History, pp. 229-230; 27?-279. Hichie, China and. Christianity, pp. 11%— H5=. . ” ; ^ 2. farg, “’Motives in Protestant Missions, 189C"1917>11 P. 75.

1 1 0 Ill religion also .femad himself, oat of meeessity, granting spec­ ial concessions to his coaTerts as an enticement. The Chi­ nese convert was able, partly because of the intolerance of Christianity towards any other religious beliefs, to evade many taxes and other economic levies if these monies were to be used in the support of religious customs and practices con­ trary to the Christian faith. This refusal of Christians to conform and contribute to the customs and social activities of the host nation aroused a great deal of resentment among the Chinese masses, for it was they who had to carry the addi- 3 tiesal tax burden. These actions tended to isolate the Chris­ tians into separate communities. The resulting lack of interaction between the convert and his native community helped to foster suspicion and hatred, which was later to be capitalized on by the literati. This isolation was also com­ plete in a physical manner. The Christian units became al­ most self-supporting and, foreign-centrolled, with a great dependency "upon the missionary and'.his station for their phys­ ical,- material, and spiritual livelihood.^ A further source of resentment was the pretentious claim of the missionaries that they were in a class above

3 o- Tan, eg. clt,, p. 'Earold 6. Hinton, and Marius B. Jansen, Major Topics on China and Japan (Cambridge: Harvard University ’in-- stitate of Pacific Relations, 1957)» p. 156. 1X2 tkat of their coBverts, as well as above the majority of the Okiaese popnlaee. Many ritissionaries assumed the outward privileges' of am upper class member, ,as well as adopting am attitude of moral superiority amd a ^belief imCklsZ] exclu­ sive righteousmess. In 1899 the Chinese conceded this pre­ tentious claim, in hopes of regaining control over the

Christian’ units, amd in the process gave toleration to a practice which they could not c o n t r o l -■ A,' study of the motives amd aims of the missionary movement also makes it evident that there was a close rela­ tionship between the feelings of nationalism and the mission­ ary activities which existed at this time. An example of nationalism is found in this .statement by Dr. Porter, des­ cribing- an event of September, 1899* where the .Christians ■while fleeing from the pursuing Boxer, “hid their goods and fled, into the fields. We went at once into camp, unfurled the American flag, gathered a strong force of Christians about as.as guards...and prepared for any other emergency that might suddenly come upon us.H This, and. other, eviden­ ces of nationalism"in the missionary activities did not help to popularize their movement with either the peasants or the ■■■ ' 7 . • gentry class. Important missionary activities also centered p , : • . 5, '.Ballhalchet,' ©g." oit..,’ p. 202.-- - i ;

• 6, ' ifm, ' wERttti op.5.fr. rnwrjrOTOisiwalwoit., * pp.A- * 201-202. "" ’ r -- ?. Steiger, op. oit., pp. 152-153. -■ 113 aromad hospitals, erphaaages, aad schools. Hospitals were

c o b sldered similar to the dhurches tm that they were used as places for eoAverslem' efforts.,.. This was because the ttthomghts of the hereafter' naturally arise* among the patients

trader hospital care* The hospitals, them, were used for much more than the simple healing of the sick; this once again, 8 camsing resentment among the Chinese, The orphanages were smccessfml in their humanistic work, but because of their •ap­ parent secret and, mysterious activities, were a common cause of riots. This was due to the spread of false rumors and stories by the literati converning what went on in the or­ phanages, In the overall picture, these orphanages probably a did-more harm - than good to the Christian effort.

The missionaries'* lack of knowledge concerning the

Chinese language, reflected in his translation of Christian writings, caused considerable confusion and created misunder­ standing among the Chinese, This, mi sunder standing was used to the advantage of later -propagandists who wished to see the ■ ? . • 1.0 missionary and his'religion removed, from China, The indis­ criminate spread of inaccurately translated Christian litera­ ture, with little apparent concern as to where it went or how

8, Yarg, op, oit,, p, 75,

3, "Smith, op.,'- eit,, pp> 59-61, Will jams, op, oit,, p, 311, "10. fxundry, e#* eit., pp. 2W-2%1. it was Bsed was a cause of Ohiaese .reseatMeat---especiallj

after its comaeetiem with the ill-fated T'ai. p'iag rebel-

liOB.11

The diversified and eouflietiag sects of Protestaut- ism also caused eensiderable oomfmsiea and misumderstaadiag among; the Shiiaese, '-aad' divided the Ghristiam effort im Ohima evea'further. This, is well illustrated by the fact that

there were %1 differeat societies, all operating independ- 'X2 emtly and often in competition with each other, by 1 8 8 9 .

Additional suspicion and-"fear was created by the thurch be-, cause it did not allow the general public to witness its re­ ligious ceremonies 'and '•rituals. ■ Charges of immorality and

of the use of magic in church rituals were also levied at the, . 13 Christian movement>

Hostility was aroused.by the failure of the mission­ ary to practice what he preached, and by his apparent- lack of concern over the selection of converts. Because of the en­ hanced position of Christianity after the treaties of 1853-

1865, it became necessary to find a suitable means of dis-,- tiagaishing between persons' attempting to.join the ehurch for religious or material advantages. The resentment and

11. Targ, Missionaries. Chinese, and Boxers, pp. 23-2%. — _ _ — —

12. .Latourette, up. cit., p. %@5. 115 hostility caused by these "rice Christians0 is reflected by the Chimese contempt, of the - native Christian convert0 The Chinese considered the Christian, religion as being a ,;frally­ ing 'place for the dregs ef the population, for men who, so far from obeying any religions impulse, saw in the foreign religion merely an aegis to cover evil deeds, and to secure exemption from discharging public obligations,H Some at­ tempts were made at stopping this inflnx of madesirable per­ sons, bnt many still found, their way into the church, and the undesirable actions of previous converts were not soon for- 15 " gotten.

Causes .Behind the 0-rewth. of the Boxer Movement . ' - The Chinese-^ Imperial #overmmeat regarded the Chris­ tian movement as little mere than another secret sect, for which they had.tittle toleration. There is a record of many and varied conflicts between the different secret societies which have existed In China and the Imperial Governments from at,'least -2eg B,C, onward, Because some of these rebel­ lions. had been Successful in overthrowinrg the existing dynas­ ty '{and: remdtaberiiig the near success' of the .recent T*ai p ? ing - rebellion), there was considerable fear in Imperial Govern­ ment circles of the growth of any secret society, whether it 1 called itself Christian or not,

1#, Wolferstan, ep„ cit,, p, 357»

15• &&tou,r0tte, op, cit,, pp, 152-153* IS, Pur.eiil, op, cit,, pp„; 1 39-lSl, la examialag tJa.« earnses for the growth of the Boxer mevemeat (I- % o ~eh‘'aaa) it is helpfal to examine the beliefs of the X-lS.o.-'Ohf.iaan society, since these played an important part. in .the’ r,'©hellion„ The religions ideas held by the Box­ ers eomtaimed elements of Bwldhism, fTaoism, and Gemfmelamism, Tl7 with Taoist ideas being dominant. The Boxers were a branch of the light Trigrams - -sect, which was a division of the Shite Lotas sect. This Eight Tfigrams sect believed, in the sym­ bolic diagrams foand is . the.I Chimg (Book of Changes), in­ cluding reference to yin and ^ yang. The Bight Trigrams sect divided the tiniverse into eight cardinal points, which they denoted as khhg, This system of belief concluded with an elaborate•set of symbols, their explanations being rather n»ig.«el.y ehi.nese, -This Bight.^ Tr.lgrams. sect flourished prin­ cipally in- the ''region north of the- Hwang Ho, in northeast Ho­ nan, Chihli, and Shantang provinces, This area was the region of the Ihite Lotus rebellion of 177%, a rebellion of the Pa Ku'a '(Bight Trigrams) sect in 1786-1 7 8 8 , another rebellion of the Shite ,Ldt®S sect in:,--iil5»', and it was also to be the e'en- ter pf the 'Boxer rebellion of 18.99-1900, Regarding the origin of the Boxers and their rela­ tionship with the Chinese government, Victor Purcell states that ‘’there can be no doubt that the Boxers originated 11?

speirbameomsly and. independently of the C Imperial J government ■and that they belonged to the secret societies and heterdox ■ emits which had always been looked upon by the government as

centers of reyolmtdenary danger," They were also a branch of IQ the Ihite Lotus or Pa Kna sect, and were potentially dan- gereas t© the Mancha government. 20 Having traced the Boxer

heritage to the 'White Lotas group of secret societies, it should be helpful to look at the southern or triad group of secret' societies. These southern groups developed character­

istics of their own. They had a traditional aim, which"was ' 21 to overthrow the @h lag and to restore the Ming dynasty. Many of "the religious ideas of the I Ho 6htuan are

expressed in certain books and hovels. Examples arei The 'Romance of the Three Kingdoias, .'The Water Margin, Pilgrimage to the West, The Enfeoffment of the. Sods, Prefect P * eng * s

Oases, and Prefect Shih*s Cases, Regarding some of these idealsi ' ' This IT The . Emf oeffmemt of the. G-ods ~1 and other novels aiso f h r m T ^ e ^ S e m with tSe"mames of the gods-, with the sources of magic powers, and sug­ gested. to.them their hierarchy in the celestial iforld# s, 6'i'zteciueBt repetition of propaganda of this

19, The 1 Ho 0h*uah is believed to have been erig- .imally divided into eight groups, according to the Eight Tri- grams, But only the first ’ (Heaven), fourth (Earth), and later the second (Water) group remained* Ibid,, p, 2 3 3 , 20, Ibid, ,;.;pp, '217-2 1 8 ,

21, Ibid,, pp. 165-1 6 6 . kiad weald eertalBly lead the aaorltieal mlad to believe lm the impossible aad the fietitieas» Membership in the I Ho 0htuaa. was eeafined to men on­ ly. An organization for women, which developed much later, was called, the Hang-Seag-tjShae (Bed Lanterns}. The members of both organizations were mainly adolescents from the peasant class, bat some scholars and other persons of .all classes 2'3 were also to be found in their ranks. In the early stages of development, the requirements for initiation into the I Ho Ghluan were very strict. The name of the: candidate was written om a piece of paper and"- burnt, 1 If the name of the person was still recognizable he was accepted, if not, he was rejected. Later on, this test was dispensed, with because it rejected too many candidates. 2k

Strict discipline was imposed on members of the sect, but later some of the rules regarding the taking of food,' water, and gifts.were relaxed. The Boxers were, supposedly, always om a strict diet of plain wheat cakes and water, and they were met'allowed to eat meat or drizzle tea. Hales were strict regarding- comtact between - mem and women; they were always to obey the conventional moral law. In speech, the word meaning

- . "foreign" was to be avoided at all times, ©me of the most

22, Purcell, ojd, elf., p. 22%.

23. Ibid., p. 233.- 119 noticeable beliefs of the Z .Ho Sli’maB, aad the oae whieh. probably seems the most absurd,' to Westerners, was their con­ cept of invulnerability. This notion was probably derived

from the Tarist ideas abomt hsien or immortals, where the ul­ timate goal was to attain immorality. This immortality was of the physical body, not only of the spirit,, This immortal­ ity might be accomplished by the use of drugs', techniques of breath control, physical exercise, not eating the five grains, repenting of one’s sins, practicing virtue, or giving to the

poor. These beliefs held several implications.for the Boxers; once immortality was attained,, guns and weapons could not hurt them and they could burn the churches or houses of the Shris-

tians without danger. To entice the gods to possess them,

the Boxers had recourse to a series of physical acts, which were to give them;their name,^ .In connection with their ' 1 ' wboxiBg# the I-Ho Oh*nan member would learn -a "manifestation" spell, and on an appointed day would recite it three times, whereupon he was to become short of breath, froth at the mouth, and a fellow Boxer should shout "God descends," At this

2 5 , - Purcell, eg, ©it,, pp. 236-2 3 8 . 26. The first appearance of the Baglish name "Box­ ers" was im the North China Herald dated October 2, 1899$ but the.term had been^eapleyed earlier by missionaries. Peking used I Ho Ch’uam in diplomatic correspondence, however, the official name (according to Steiger) was the I Ho T ‘man (Righteous and -Hnited .Band or Militia) . Ibid., p. l82b 120

point if the candidate were a 1 true Boxer1 he woaid become

■possessed, acquire. lBV«l»eraMllty, stipernatural skills, and all of the other qualities which a possessed. Boxer presumably had. The Red. Lantern recruits had a ritual which included efforts to walk on water and to fly; also they had to be pretty.^

The first official mention, of the Boxers occurred in Ifzy in an edict from the Tung Cheng emperor. In this edict a sect was charged with the stirring up n©f the ‘stupid peo­ ple1 under the pretext of practising their boxing cult." The

©diet ordered the local officials to prohibit the cult's ac­ tivities* This sect is mentioned, once again in 1808, when am edict pro.scribed it and several other sects who had been cams'- ing troubles in Honan, In 1818 it was reported that the I Ho (later to be the I Ho Oh"man) sect had spread to Chihli and

Shantung provinces. In Chihli, the execution of many of its leaders, caused it to lead an underground existence until its emergence in 1898 as ,am active anti-Christian, organization,

According to Lao Sai-hsuan, who wrote Studies' of the Origins of the Boxer Sects . (1899) $ " the Boxers' of the early nineteenth century were a band of brigands who conspired with lower officials in local government and rendered them a kind of po­ lice service, amd, trading on this, ran gambling- houses and victimized law-abiding citizens, They had

27, Ibid,, p. 238. 121

almost entirely been cleaned up by 181$, but the superstition of magical boxing kept the tradition of the sect alive in obscurity until it was re­ vived in I8 9 8 . 28 When the Boxers once again emerged, in I8 9 8 * they had added anti-foreign elements- to their teachings. At;least a section of the Boxer, movement was 'also anti-dynastic, as is shown in some of the earlier Boxer posters. The following .contains excerpts, fro# a poster which, was published during

the early months of 1900* for the past five or six generations bad officials have been in office, bureaus have been opened for the sale of offices, and only those who have money to pay for it have been allowed to hold positions in the Government. -The "graduation -.of scholars -has - become useless* -end members of the College of Lit­ erature (Baulin Academy) and scholars of the third degree .remain-"in obscurity, at home. . .The whole - pop­ ulace is sunk"in wretchedness, and all the officials . are the spoilers of their food.,.low in their, anger the heavenly - -power s - are sending down multitudes of spirits to earth to'make inquiry of all...The Em­ peror himSelf* the chief offender, has had' his suc­ cession cut off and is childless, ^ The -same poster has this reference to Christianity; foreign devils Come with their teaching, and con­ verts to Christianity have become numerous. These CohurohesO are without human relations, and being most cunning’ have' attracted all the greedy and cov­ etous as converts* and to - am. unlimited degree they have practiced oppression until every good official has been cerrupted,- and, 'covetous of foreign wealth, has b-Ccome-fheir- .servant..,,,^ -

28. Purcell, .eg. bit.* pp. 161-162, 29. Ibid., pp. 209-210.

30. Ibid.* p. 210. Aeeerdiag to La© Eal-hsmam, the- ideals of the Boxer- movemeat of 1899 declared that their objectives were solely to oppose the foreigae.r aad his rellgiea, and that the Box­ ers weald never.cams© any disturbance among peaceful people or against the government*' T$ms»- it appears that in the re­ gions where there existed missionary and Christian activities, there also existed, a strong I Ho Oh* nan movement and member­ ship* " The' people of these regions were nsnally impressed by the righteons indignation of the Boxers against the common

r ■ - - - ' ' enemy— even the government ©endueted m© further lavestiga- 31 ' tionsinto the matter* ■ • 0a June 6,- 1899» there appeared am Imperial decree, excerpts of which follow. Recently many ©hurehes have been established in the variems provinces* As the converts become num­ erous , there are bad elements mimglimg with the#***. These bandits, under the name of Christians, oppress the common people and domineer in the villages.,» As to the Boxer societies, they were forbidden in the time of Smperor Chia Ch’ing* 'Recently, be­ cause they Csay that they 3 are for self-defense and for - the protection of their rural communities and . have not created any trouble, the local officials are ordered by Imperial decrees to control the sit­ uation in a proper way. They are hot to'care wheth­ er people join the Society or net, but only to consider if they are bandits, The Boxers considered the ©hrlstian. missionaries as the ,sPrimary Devils**,-. The native Christians.,, then, were

31- Ibid* 123 o0Bsl4ered, to Be. the. “Secondary 3evils»11 Both were eqaally deserving of death. The I Ho Sh* nan did net-.censider the Re­ man Satholies and the Protestant faiths to he identical, they

treated them.as two distinct and conflicting religions, One faith was controlled 'by the power of Prance, the other by the power - of England.

Seorge4- p Smyth* in wmwMMiwcThe nnTOimqmmui-i-varciifi.iiiiiiiiiiCrisis in WaqHmM China .niaaia'nyrrta'iwffmnj:: attributes the growth of the Boxer movement to another factor. He states that the Boxers nare a_ patriotic secret -society**, whose ori­

gins are difficult to trace. Before 1§99 they had given mo special trouble to the missionaries or to other foreigners, Smyth attributes their ultimate hostility to events which had

recently occurred is Shamtumg province. He. traces the prob­ lem back to the -murder of the two German missionaries (by the members of the llTa Tao Huin, a secret society later unified with the I. Ho Gh* uan)» the subsequent German seizure of

Eiaochow Bay and the surrounding land in 1898, “This high­ handed act worked an ominous change in the attitude of the people, towards foreigners. A bitter anti-Christian, anti- foreign spirit showed itself throughout the province.,11 Smyth

also mentions that this anti-Christian feeling was intensi­ fied by the 1899 concession giving the.Homan Catholic bishops equality of rank with Chinese 'government officials. The end

33, Purcell, op, eih,p., 125,

- . ' 3%, Horem, German Catholic Missions in Shantung,. P, 63.. ' — — — — — — — 1 2 # result of isetk acts was am imcrease in reseatmeat toward, tlae 3 5 foreigners and- their, religion by the popmlae©. The existing hostility, the growing threat of Boxer violence to the Christians, and a general Chinese resentment, are all reflected in the following Boxer notice of 1908.

Attention; ' all people in markets and villages of all provinces in China-'-now, owing to the fact that Catholics and Protestants have villifled oar gods and sages’, have deceived oar emperors and min­ isters above, and oppressed the Chinese people be­ low, both ear gods and oar people are angry at them, yet" we have kept silent. This forces as to practise the i-ho magic boxing so as to protect oar oomatry, expel the foreign bandits and kill Christian converts, in order to save our people_from miserable suffering. After this notice is issued to instruct you villagers, mo matter which village you are living in, if there are Christian converts, you 'ought to rid of them quickly. .The churches which belong to them should be unreservedly burned down. Everyone who intends to spare someone, or to disobey our order by con­ cealing Christian converts, will be punished accord­ ing to the regulation .when we come to his place, and he will be burned to death, to prevent his impending our.program. We especially do not want to punish anyone by death without warning him first. We can­ not bear to see you suffer innocently. Don’t disobey this special notice! jg

Reaction against the foreigners is also found in Hupeh province, where a handbill states that foreigners may be, in accordance with, the laws of hospitality, boarded for a few days. But, tfany innkeeper, who dares to keep them mere

35- George B, Smyth, and others, The Crisis in China (lew York:and Londoni Harper & Bros. Publishers, ISJOOj* PP.. 5-7- •36. 1‘airhank and Teagy Chin.a 1 s Response to the West, p. 198- 125 tkan a few days will, oh discovery, kave kis kemse razed to the gremad. tmd kis land coaverted to tke ptiblie a so.8 Ikis kaadkill also threatened, death to anyone who sold his land to tke foreigner, and announced that, *lf anyone in his greed for gain permits a foreigner to fomild other koases, tke heads­ man is to inform us „ EZ andZJ we will destroy them and thus pre­ vent farther calamities.

Conflicts Between tke Boxers and Christians Tke causes for-hostility were many and varied, as was tke frequency - of the hostility itself„ Many tactics were em­ ployed to arouse this hostility (rumor, gossip, publication of anti-Christian literature, testimony, etc.). Ike following is a very brief resume of this hostility. Tke actual numbers of hostile actions against the Christians may never be known, but they were considerable in number. The following examples are designed to give but a glimpse into this hostility, and is in mo way a complete listing of tke attacks. While considering these eemflietiems it might help to keep in mind that the anti-foreign policy of the X Ho Ch1uan became the policy of the Chinese Q-evermmemt im September,

I8 9 8 , and continued as its policy towards foreigners until June of 1900. So, in many cases, we are talking about a sec­ tion of China in uprising against the Christians, and not just

3 7 » Foreign Relations of the United States, 189%, p. 15®. ’ ’ 126 a few secret societies and individmals«.38 The doeament to- fellow is taken from the records of the Legation of the Baited’States at Peking, and is dated Jfebraary 8 , 1099, Three American missionaries composed this letter regarding anti-Christian activities against them while

they ■were engaged in their work in Shantung province. The American Minister in China, Mr, S. S. Conger, sent this to the U. 8 . Secretary of State, Mr, John- M. Hay, Bnclosed in a covering note are Mr. Conger's speculations that the ac­ counts in this letter might have been exaggerated because of native reports, and that the missionaries might have been uti- heeessarily frightened. As a result, only general requests were made of the Chinese government to preserve order, pro­ tect lives and property,- and to prevent further trouble. The following are sections taken from this document, and give a

■ ' . i fair feeling of the times. ^

Messrs. ICillie, Tar is, and Chalfant to Consul Bowler, " Chefoe. l-Cheu-'fu, Wovember 2 9 , X8 9 8 . S1AB SIR3 We, the three undersigned citizens of the United States, resident at the city of I-Chou-fu, in the province of Shantung, beg, hereby to report to you the circumstances of a recent experience of ours in the extreme northeast corner of the county of Shu-chou and , 280-11 northeast of I-chou-fuC1-Ohou-fu3 »

3 8 , Stanley P. Smith, China Prom Within; or the Story of the Chinese Crisis (Londont "’Marshall Brothers,. 1901), p. 155-

s On the 8th of November we,..left I-ehon-fm to visit these stations... Ob the way, we met succes­ sively, two committees of Christians from Man Tang Yu, the first‘of which reported that on.*„Hovember 7, our'sehoolhomse at.that place had been robbed. ..The second party.„.reported that om the following day, November 8, a larger force of armed men had. come over from the same place C& village 10 li southeast called Ho Chia Leu 3, robbed several Chris­ tian families and carried off'the schoolteacher as a hostage, [ Contained here is information regard­ ing a feud between the two villages. ] ...As.to the merits of that' case, it is perhaps .sufficient to say' that the Christians were probably not without fault. ..Although'this old grudge serves to - explain the virlulenee of the 'present attack, the real occasion of the attack is found to be in the wild rumors which are in circulation in that whole region to the effect that the foreigners have been driven out of Peking'and that an edict has been issued author­ ising 'the - people to expel the foreigners and their adherents everywhere...there has been for several years general complaint that many of the Catholic Christians use their connection with the foreigners to oppress their neighbors. Whether the accusations be true or false, they are at least generally be­ lieved; and when.the report above described gained currency, people who had real or imaginary griev­ ances against, the Christians of both churches seized the opportunity .to pay off old scores, and were.ea­ gerly seconded"by the mass of the ignorant "and ex­ citable populace, " Iteconscious of the extent of the anti-foreign movement,.,,we pressed oa to Lin Ts * mi. When we .were only 6 or 8 miles from our destination, we learned that our schoolhouse at Han Tang Yu, which had, as stated, been robbed on November 7, had been burned oa the night of-November 10.,.We had hardly reached there when we were told that the people of Ho,Chia Lou had announced their intention of com­ ing over that might to rob the Christians of Lin Ts'um as they had done to those of Man Tang Yu. We called in the village elder and requested him to prepare for the attack as best he could...As the day wore on it became evident that the situa­ tion was serious...The next day passed in alter­ nate alarms and fruitless negotiations Cwith 200 armed:,...weB.. from the village of Ho Chia Lou who were comtestihg- the apparent Christian wrongdoing^. Toward the evening Cof November 15 □we learned that we were threatened from a new quarter. Gangs 128

of rmffians, heavily armed, were coming down from the .somth Ohm Oh* eng to : jo in the main body of the rioters at Chiai T* en, where the German priest had been attacked, and where it was said that the stand­ ard of rebellion was already raised..,At 10 o'clock we were much relieved by the arrival of a lieutenant with 20 soldiers, including 5 cavalry, from Chu Chou ., ..©a the morning of the 1 6 th we learned that a dep­ uty from Ji Chao official had, arrived at a point 20 11 east'of us and had appointed several of the most influential and wealthy men. in that neighborhood to try to'bring the rioters to terms with us.,.That evening they signed a paper promising to restore the goods they had stolen from the Christians and from the schoolhouse, and to rebuild the school- house itself. It was further stipulated that they and the Christians should henceforth not molest each other. ■ In reference to the incident related above we have the following rei&arks to make: 1. It is clearly not an isolated case, but one of several simultaneous occurrences, showing a wide­ spread and violent anti-foreign feeling. 2. The present outbreak is directly connected with the Mcoup d* etat11 at Pekin. ' The people are led to suppose, that the reaction against the reform movement, of which, they.have vaguely heard, involves the expulsion of the foreigners. . 3. Vigorous measures must at once be taken in the tray of stringent instructions to local officials, and plain-spoken proclamations, backed up by the necessary force, if this anti-foreign feeling is to be subdued before worse things.happen» . ' h.» We have mb complaint to make of the civil authorities... ^ 5. We can not say as much for the military au­ thorities of I-chou-fu. .6 ,' If the He Chia Lou people carry out their premise to make full restitution for the damage done by them, we are not disposed ■ to".prosecute them for their flagrant lawlessness:.,; V- ■.I ' ' ■ ' 7. ■ deals with the reasons for the settlement based only on the return efVthe,' 'stolen property and * rebuilding of burned items.. Charles A. Killie ■Wallace S. faris William ‘P. Chalfant „q

39• foreign Relations of the Waited States, 1899, pp.- I5h-157. ' A ...... 129 OtB.er hostility was recorded, by the French in Shan- tahg province. The 'french Minister at Peking sent a .tele­

gram dated 18 November 1899,. to the Preach Minister, of foreign Affairs in Paris.r:,stating that there was rather ex­ tensive t re able in Merhjkera Shantung involving the Roman Cath­

olic missions there. The Psungli-Yamen had assured him of

■ protection, hut as of the-date of this message* the protec-, tiom given by the Chinese was still not effective. There

were numerous reports of pillaging in several locations of the prefecture of Ping Tuan. However, other than reference

to *les baades do mal fait ears” (hands of scoundrels )■ no ref­

erence was made of or about any secret societies, or about the 1-He Oh'uan.^0 - The following is from a letter by a Severend Pere 'Becker, written in the name of the French Consul at Tientsin, to the French Minister at Peking regarding the request for protection of the Father Beckerr s mission at Ho-Kine-fou.

.Sated.January 1 5 , 190Q, this letter reflects the feeling of insecurity among the Christians because of the lack of ade­

quate protection from Chinese authorities. Enclosed is a re­

quest for protection from the ”1 ho .Kl iuen11 (I Ho Ch* mam) * / who, in the province of Shantung* were pillaging and burning 1 French missions, Reverend Becker also expresses his opinion

hO. Documents Biplomatiqmes Prancais, l8 yi-191h , Serie (1871-1900) Tome XT!, pp. 1-3, ' ' 13© - that these activities in China were part of a systematic cam­ paign which was organized, to oust Christianity and its mem­ bers „ According to the Shanghai Daily Sews, the techniques of this anti-Ohristian program were simple: the growth and. extension of forces (allied- with the X Ho Ghfnan) along the coastal regions, thus isolating the interior from contact or assistance from without. This was to be followed by am inland sweep in which all Christians and foreigners were to be des­ troyed, This plan, them, answered a desire to pillage, by giving those actions the honorable pretext of avenging China hi for the evil acts of the foreigners, ' 1 This was the program proclaimed by Severnor Yu -Ssiea in Shantung, according to the ho Shanghai Bally Mews, Baring actual attacks on Christians, Chinese soldiers often did come in and attempted to control matters. They did succeed in stopping some riots and beheaded some X Ho Oh*nan leaders, But, in spite of this the X Ho Ch'uam was not dis­ armed or dissolved. The Boxers only shouted back in defiance that once the soldiers departed, they would begin their plum- h3 dering and killing once again.

41, Documents Blplosmattques franeais, 1871-191&, Serie (1871-1960) Tpme Xfl, p.- 159...... ' 42,- Ibid,, p. 16®, 43, Ibid,-, p.- 159.- Tkere. is considerable evidence t© sk©w that the Box-* •

ers- 'were primarily an anti-f©reign movement, as opposed to am anti-Christian movement, and that their hostility was direct­ ed primarily against the missionaries' and their converts be­ cause they were the foreigners who most•immediately impinged

upon the lives, ideas and practices of the Chinese, A simi­ lar opinion is expressed by Benby when he states that "the missionary was driven out because he was a foreigner, not be- hh cause of his occupation,11 ~ Purcell also reaches the same coBcltasioB im 'his remark that tlie Boxers were tfam amtl-for-

e’ign movement, and, their hostility was directed primarily against' the missionaries and their converts, because they were the foreigners who-most immediately impinged upon their lives,

their liberties and their religion,A further statement by Speer alludes to the fact that the uprising was primarily a patriotic revolt against Western influence, and that the missions and Shristiaprg. suffered as a part of the great move­ ment by 'which .th#. .Irresistibly, projocted itself upon 'China, By September of 1898 the?,anti-foreign program of the

Boxers, with support from the eoiasdrvative elements of the Chinese Government, had been adopted as official 'Chinese

Charles Bemby, . tflia.e future of China and of the Missionaries,.,M Forum, 5CXX '(October, 1900), 1 6 9 . 45, Purcell, op, oit ,, ,p, 18%. 1 3 2 goverament peliey. This.lasted matil Jwae ,of 190®. This pelicy1 is expressed in an imperial edict whieh. was tele­ graphed ever all of China,, it ran thmsi hTo b mast kill the foreigners omtright, if foreigners retreat Cor attempt to es­ cape 3 kill them immediately,The following is taken from the Worth China Herald October' 10, 1900, Thus the Boxer movement! It represents the wrath and hate of sixty years growth.- It is the more violent because of these long years of re­ pression. And'it receives the hearty sympathy of many millions of Chinese who have taken to ac­ tive part in it. For, beyond a doubt, it repre­ sents to them a patriotic effort to .save their - country from foreign aggression.and eventual dis­ memberment , ' '

%?. Smith, e p . cit., p.. 155. %8, Wolferstan,, op. • cit-., p. lf&. CHAPTER VI

S'DIHABT AZB CeZGLlSiQES OF 1IATBRTAL 'PlESllTEB '

Smmmary ■

The causes of the disturbaitces were saany. Prac­ ticably all the factors'that made for surest through the Empire were preseat--*aager at the seizure of ter­ ritory by the •powers'i •i:rese*l.ta*eat against the inter­ ference of missionaries, in' lawsuits; irritation at the acquisition'of .property'in' the interior by the 'mis­ sions, at the .prescription by the missionaries.of many time-honored, Chinese institutions and .customs, and at the Christians who embraced these disorganized teach­ ings; offenses; by. foreigners',, including tactless mis- . sionaries» against Chines'© susceptibilities; the scandal occasioned by misunderstood Chines© customs... and, finally, the reaetiosi led by the Empress Dowager and many of the high.officials. ^

It has been shown that resentment against Christians can be traced back to at least as far as the seventh century in China. This background of anti-Christian feeling provid­ ed a basis for the.intense reaction against Christianity 2 found in the 'late nineteenth-century. The forceful methods used to secure the entry of Christianity into China from 18%2 to 1865 created, considerable suspicion and hostility among the Chinese. The privileges granted by these treaties placed the Christian religion in an advantageous position. These privileges also gave-numerous special advantages to its con­ verts , which in turn, tended to bring many undesirable

1. Latourette, ©j3>. oit., p. ^02.

, " ' 2. Cohen, 8The Anti-Christian Tradition in China,8 I69-I70, ' -

133 134

members iiato the Christian Chmroh. These members' are Bmemi as 'Trice Christians.^ These treaties at- the same time re- qiaired, the - Chinese authorities to protect missionaries ahl

their Chinese converts, and also gave foreign governments the right to interfere in China to protect the missionary and his

converts. The foreign powers seemed only too anxious to im­ pose their will upon the prostrate Chinese Empire. By these actions, the Christian church appeared to fee a nationalistic power existing within China, over which.the Chinese had lit­

tle or no control. The missionary was able to travel almost at will.,, to preach' wherever he (or she) desired, to own prop­ erty and with few exceptions,- build upon, it,.- also to secure unique benefits for his converts. These benefits were most ' % often of the material, not spiritual, type. The Chinese con­

vert, as a representative of the'Christian faith, often did not project the image desired fey the missionaries. The con­

vert might have joined for any of the following reasons; employment, food, medical assistance, protection (from his

family, elan, village, or Government), or to enjoy certain tax benefits. However,.not all of the Chinese converts were of the “rice Christian” type, many were devout Christians.

3. Latouretfe, op. cit., pp. 384-316. 4. Wa, op. cit.'pp. 53-55% Smith, China in Convul­ sion, pp. 52-56$ ' Steiger, op. cit., pp. and Targ, -op, ■

- £15.-'. P P . I f “ 2 © . . 135 This is shoira by the examples of martyrdom suffered, by the 5 converts during their period of persecution. Missionary efforts ia China also had the unfortunate experience of being closely related to the imperialistic forces of -foreign nations acting at that time in China. The political support given to the Christian church, the foreign

imposed 'entrance of Christianity, the establishment of a privileged, social position for the benefit of the missionaries, all .these, things- indicated, the support given missionaries by

foreign nations. This,' in turn,' caused a reaction of Chi­ nese nationalistic' indignation.^ • - * Another aspect of missionary activity to consider in

attempting to explain the anti-Christian, feeling in China is that the missionaries were not only spreading a foreign re­ ligion, but also a whole•new culture— Sestern culture. The missionaries were- the most widely 'distributed advocators of this -foreign culture .and-were the principle Westerners who came.in- contact with the majority of the rural- villagers and

townsmen. Consequently, there were, numerous local demonstra-

tions, and resentment was often directed against them. 7 ■" - ■ A related problem is the attempt to determine whether

or not the Boxer rebellion was primarily anti-foreign or amti- Ohristian in nature.' There are various opinions expressed

"5* Coltman, op. cit., p. 1 7 0 .

6. - Targ, ’’Motives in Protestant Missions, 1830-1917 *H ■ ■ 7. Beaver, op. cit., p. 22. 001*0eraing - this problem- The Tollowiag represent. the ^opin- loas- of various writers oa the subject. Ghao-lCwaiag' Ifm states that the Christian missionaries suffered, 8set because they: are propagating a foreign religion, bat because of the fact that they' are. connected, with the foreign oppressors of China.Charles'Denby mentions that the 8missionary was driven out because he was a foreigner, not because of his oc­ cupation.8^ Chester Holcombe-■ says that the vain attempt to throw out the foreigners, the Boxer uprising, 8was an abor­ tive attempt to .drive;all - foreigners of every class from IS China.„ 8» 'Kenneth Latourette suggests that the 8mission­ aries were in part responsible for. the. unrest which gave rise to the Boxer outbreak.,n H e , also emphasizes that the uprising J XX was "net primarily anti-Christian? it was anti-foreign.*’ .; Reverend f.. Is., Rati, concludes that 11 although the spread, of

Christianity has been frequently attended with anti-Christian riots, the missionaries have been attacked,8 not because of their religious beliefs, but 8ra,fher because they were for- . signers,,.8.. -Arthur Smith records that the 'i:* outbreaks are

8, -Wu, ©p. cit., p. 133. $, Benby, op. cit., 1 6 9 . 10. Holcombe, op. cit., 3^8* '•

11. Latourette, og. cit,, p. $ 0 7 ,

12. Rev. 1.. L. Pott, The Outbreak In China; its Caus­ es (Hew York? James Pott and Co., IfCQ), 110-111. 137 directed, witk cons id @ r a ’o.| e; impa rtiality against whatever for-

signers happen to fee within reach. „ „51 <, v Robert Speer says that wChristianity is objected to primarily not because of

its doctrines or practices, but because it is a foreign roll- 1'%' •giea,. and'that the Boxer uprising “was am anti-foreign movement, and not simply or-principally am anti-missionary 15' movement,"■ -

Two, important factors seem t®>be well established. The first is that the 'Boxer uprising was principally and pri­ marily an anti-foreign movement. However,- since the mission­

ary was more widely dispersed in Berth China than any other foreign group .he probably-, contributed more than others to. .

anti-foreign feeling' in the north. They were a foreign., ele­ ment conveniently located to serve as a target for the expres­ sion of existing resentmentj they had been given am image'-nmch worse than they deserved by the literati who saw in them a

menace to his leadership and his donfuciam culture. The sec­ ond factor is that the missionaries did cause a great deal of resentment against their activities. Much of the hostility

expressed against the foreigners in the Boxer uprising was directed against the religious foreigner, the missionary. AX- " though the uprising was anti-foreign 1m nature, it should not

" Smith, eg, eit ,, p. 87,

1%. Speer, Missionary Principles and Practice, p. 135, 15. Speer, Missions and Modern History, p. 551, 138 be forgotten that' tke silssieaary was as aach a foreigner ia

China as was the merchant, the diplomat, or the soldier. The revolt was against the missionary as well as the other foreigners in China— If not mere so i The resentment express­ ed against the foreigner was very real, and mtteh of it was caused by the activities of missionaries in China. Consid­ erable blame mast he placed on the shoulders of the mission­ ary and. his church for causing the Boxer uprising.

■ Implications for further Study This thesis is far from feeing a comprehensive study of this problems only after considerable research into this problem did X become aware of its enormous scope. Many of the questions raised by this thesis have met yet been clari­ fied; some of the problems have mot been investigated at all.

Also, with my limited background X found it difficult to reach definite conclusions; it seems that even the wexperts8 do sot agrees on many Important points. However, I have found some other areas 'in which I, feel further study is heeded. Further research needs to fee done regarding the var­ ious activities of the literati in. relation to the Christian effort. This, should encompass their activities with anti- Christian literature, and their relationship with the I Ho 'Oh*man. The Imperial relationship with the I 'He Oh1uan still needs to fee clarified. Was the I Ho Oh*man anti-dynastic or anti-foreign in origin and if anti-dynastid, when, and why. ' 139 did it oliaagef Tke degree t© wkiob. mimlmg, railway build lag and Western pressures contributed directly t© the anti-for­ eign ism of the Boxers needs more thorough study. Also* how dees the decline of the Gh'ing .Dynasty with its resulting natural and man-made calamities, affect the increase,in anti- foreigai'SBi and growth of the 1 Ho Gh'uaa? Another area of importance for study is the extent to which the X* at • jp-1 img Rebelliou and its obvious connection with the activity:of: missionaries arouse the literati against ■ • V " Christianity, It "would be interesting to" study the reaction of the literati to Christian literature and missionary activ­ ities before and after the rebellion.

Concerning the I Ho Ch’uaa organisation itself„ fur- ther study as. to its origin and beliefs should prove to be of value, especially its anti-dynastic tendencies, the extent to which'its•ideas grew out of'the popular literature of the day,; and the strength of its affiliate women's organization (the Red Lanterns), Because of the substantial amount of' anti-Christian resentment aroused by the ..non-loyal and materialistic Chinese converts, further study about the Hrice Christians*1 would be of considerable value, A similar study should then be made concerning the devoted and loyal Chinese converts, who gave their property and lives'.for their religious belief s.-

A more careful .-study , of . the conflicting Christian sects within China■would be useful, especially if it centered 140 e$i the eoBfllets within the Protestant faotlens, .It would, also be of value to examine the national hacking of the dif­ ferent -Christian seets, and to attempt t© determine how much the demands of foreign powers for damage aroused the Ohiaese masses.against foreigners. 'It appears to this writer that this thesis has been little more than a faltering step. The writer ends this study by asking for more study of the problem. He can pre­ sent few certain conclusions and most certainly leaves the reader in a state of doubt about how much of the Boxer rebel­ lion was caused by the activities of the missionary. Perhaps all that this thesis can do is to show to the reader, what it has shown to the. writer, that there were many factors causing the Boxer rebellion. The missionaries were a cause, but met the only cause. - . LIST Of RSTSRS10BS 6ITBS

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